Modern Mind: An Intellectual History of the 20th Century

CHAPTER 17: INQUISITION

1. Henry Grosshans, Hitler and the Artists, New York: Holmes & Meier, 1983, page 72. I have relied heavily on this excellent short book.

2. Hildegard Brenner, ‘Art in the Political Power Struggle of 1933 and 1934,’ in Hajo Holborn (editor), Republic to Reich: The Making of the Nazi Revolution, New York: Pantheon, 1972, page 424. Quoted in Grosshans, Op. cit., page 72.

3. Grosshans, Op. cit., page 72.

4. Barron, Degenerate Art, Op. cit., page 396.

5. Carl Carls, Ernst Barlach, New York: Praeger, 1969, page 172, quoted in Grosshans, Op. cit., page 72.

6. Ibid., page 73.

7. Ibid., page 72.

8. Ibid., page 73.

9. Ibid., page 74.

10. Ibid., page 75.

11. Ibid., page 77.

12. Victor H. Miesel (editor), Voices of German Expressionism, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1970, pages 209ff.

13. Barron, Op. cit., page 319.

14. Grosshans, Op. cit., page 79.

15. Ibid., pages 79–80.

16. Ibid., page 81.

17. Berthold Hinz, Art in the Third Reich, New York: Pantheon, 1979, pages 43 ff.

18. White and Gribbin, Einstein, Op. cit., pages 163–164.

19. Albrecht Fölsing, Albert Einstein: A Biography, New York: Viking, 1997, pages 659ff.

20. White and Gribbin, Einstein, Op. cit., page 206.

21. Fölsing, Op. cit., pages 648ff.

22. White and Gribbin, Op. cit., page 200.

23. Fölsing, Op. cit., page 649.

24. Headline quote: Berliner Lokal-Anzeiger, March 1933, quoted in White and Gribbin, Op. cit., page 204; American attempts to bar Einstein: Fölsing, Op. cit., page 661.

25. Jarrell Jackman and Carlo M. Borden, The Muses Flee Hitler: Cultural Transfer and Adaptation, 1930–1945, Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1963, page 170.

26. Ute Deichmann, Biologists under Hitler, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1996, pages 40–47.

27. Ibid., pages 294ff.

28. Stephanie Barron (editor). Exiles and Emigrés: The Flight of European Artists from Europe, Los Angeles: County Museum of Art, and Harry N. Abrams, 1997, page 212.

29. Peter Hahn, ‘Bauhaus and Exile: Bauhaus Architects and Designers between the Old World and the New’, in Barron, Exiles and Emigrés, Op. cit., page 212.

30. Ibid., page 213.

31. Ibid., page 216.

32. Ibid., page 218.

33. Martin Jay, The Dialectical Imagination, Op. cit., page 29.

34. Ibid., page 30.

35. Laura Fermi, Illustrious Immigrants: The Intellectual Migration from Europe: 1930–1941, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971, pages 364–368.

36. Ibid., chapter VI, pages 139ff.

37. Clark, Freud, Op. cit., pages 502–504.

38. Ibid., page 507.

39. Ibid.

40. Ibid., pages 511 and 513–516.

41. See Paul Ferris, Dr Freud, London: SinclairStevenson, 1997, page 380, or a summary.

42. Clark, Op. cit., page 524.

43. Elisabeth Young-Bruehl, Hannah Arendt: For Love of the World, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1982, pages 44ff.

44. Ibid., pages 49ff.

45. Elzbieta Ettinger, Hannah Arendt/Martin Heidegger, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1995, pages 24–25.

46. Rüdiger Safranski, Martin Heidegger: Between Good and Evil, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1998, page 255.

47. Ibid., pages 238ff.

48. Young-Bruehl, Op. cit., pages 102–106.

49. Ibid., pages 138–144.

50. See: Victor Farías, Heidegger and Nazism, Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989, pages 140ff, for Heidegger’s speech on the university in the National Socialist state.

51. Safranski, Op. cit., page 258, says that an acknowledgement was however retained ‘hidden in the footnotes.’

52. Deichmann, Op. cit., page 187.

53. Ibid., page 184.

54. Ibid., pages 188–189.

55. Ibid., page 229.

56. Ibid. See also: Michael H. Kater, Doctors under Hitler, Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1989, page 31 for the effect on doctors’ salaries of the purge of jewish physicians, and page 133 for the excesses of younger doctors (who were not völkisch brutes either); and Robert Proctor, Racial Hygiene: Medicine Under the Nazis, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1988.

57. Deichmann, Op. cit., pages 231ff.

58. Ibid., pages 251 ff.

59. Ibid., page 257.

60. Ibid., page 258.

61. Grosshans, Op. cit., page m.

62. Ibid., page 101.

63. Richard Grunberger, A Social History of the Third Reich, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1971, page 427, quoted in Grosshans, Op. cit., pages 99–100.

64. For Hitler’s speech, Barron, Degenerate Art, Op. cit., pages 17ff (also for photographs of Hitler at the exhibition); for Hitler’s view that art should be ‘founded on peoples’, see: Grosshans, Op. cit., page 103.

65. Grosshans, Op. cit., page 103.

66. Ibid., page 105.

67. Barron, Degenerate Art, Op. cit., pages 20 and 25ff.

68. Grosshans, Op. cit., page 105.

69. Barron, Degenerate Art, pages 36–38; Grosshans, Op. cit., page 107.

70. Miesel, Op. cit., page 209, quoted in Grosshans, Op. cit., page 109.

71. Barron, Degenerate Art, Op. cit., page 19.

72. Grosshans, Op. cit., page 116.

73. Erik Levi, Music in the Third Reich, London: Macmillan, 1994, especially chapters 4 and 7. See also: Boris Schwarz, ‘The Music World in Migration’, in Jackman and Borden (editors), Op. cit., pages 135–150.

74. Mary Bosanquet, The Life and Death of Dietrich Bonhoeffer, London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1968, pages 82ff.

75. Eberhard Bethge, Dietrich Bonhoeffer: Theologian, Christian, Contemporary, London: Collins, 1970. pages 379ff.

76. Bosanquet, Op. cit., page 82.

77. Ibid., pages 121–124; see also Bethge, Op. cit., page 193.

78. Bosanquet, Op. cit., pages 187ff.

79. See his diary entry for 9 July 1939, quoted in Bosanquet, Op. cit., page 218; see also Bethge, Op. cit., pages 557ff.

80. Bosanquet, Op. cit., page 235.

81. Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Letters and Papers from Prison (edited by Eberhard Bethge), London: SCM Press, 1967.

82. Bosanquet, Op. cit., pages 277–278; see also Bethge, Op. cit., pages 827ff.

83. Vitaly Shentalinsky, The KCB’s Literary Archive, London: The Harvill Press, 1995, paperback 1997. Originally published in French as La parole ressuscitée dans les archives littéraires du KGB, Paris: Editions Robert Laffont, 1993.

84. Ibid., pages 136–137.

85. Ibid., pages 287–289.

86. See: Loren R. Graham, Science in the Soviet Union, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993, pages 79ff for the full impact of the revolution on scientists.

87. Nikolai Krementsov, Stalinist Science, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997, pages 20–25. This is the main source for this section.

88. Paul R. Josephson, Physics and Politics in Revolutionary Russia, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991, pages 104ff.

89. Krementsov, Op. cit., pages 24–25.

90. Ibid., pages 29–30.

91. Josephson, Op. cit., pages 152ff.

92. Krementsov, Op. cit., page 35. For Pavlov’s own scepticism toward psychology, and his resistance to Marxism, see Loren R. Graham, Science, Philosophy and Human Behaviour in the Soviet Union, New York: Columbia University Press, 1987, page 161. This book is an updated version of Science and Philosophy in the Soviet Union, London: Allen Lane The Penguin Press, 1973.

93. Josephson, Op. cit., page 204.

94. Krementsov, Op. cit., page 40.

95. Ibid., page 43.

96. Ibid., page 47. See Graham, Op. cit., page 117 for talk about social Darwinian engineering and a marriage to Marxism.

97. See Josephson, Op. cit., pages 225ft for an account of the ‘interference’ between Marxist philosophy and theoretical physics.

98. Krementsov, Op. cit., page 56; Graham, Op. cit., page 241.

99. Krementsov, Op. cit., page 57. See also Graham, Op. cit., chapters 4 and 6 for a discussion of the impact of Leninism on quantum mechanics and on relativity physics (chapters 10 and 11).

100. Krementsov, Op. cit., page 59.

101. Graham, Op. cit., page 108.

102. Krementsov, Op. cit., page 60.

103. See Josephson, Op. cit., page 269, for the fight put up by Russian physicists against the materialists, who were accused of playing ‘hide and seek’ with the evidence. See also Graham, Op. cit., page 121.

104. Krementsov, Op. cit., page 60.

105. Josephson, Op. cit., page 308.

106. Graham, Op. cit., page 315.

107. Krementsov, Op. cit., pages 66–67.

108. Ibid., page 73.

109. Ibid., page 82.

110. Graham, Science in the Soviet Union, Op. cit., pages 129–130, for deuils of Vavilov’s fate.

111. Gleb Struve, Russian Literature under Lenin and Stalin, 1917–1953, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1971, pages 59ff.

112. A. Kemp-Welch, Stalin and the Literary Intelligentsia, 1928–1939, London: Macmillan, 1991, page 233.

113. See: Dan Levy, Stormy Petrel: The Life and Work of Maxim Gorky, London: Frederick Muller, 1967, pages 313–318, for details of his relations with Stalin towards the end.

114. Although RAPP itself was bitterly divided. See: Struve, Op. cit., page 232; Kemp-Welch, Op. cit., page 77.

115. Kemp-Welch, Op. cit., page 77.

116. Ibid., pages 169–170.

117. See Struve, Op. cit., chapter 20, pages 256ff.

118. Edward J. Brown, The Proletarian Episode in Russian Literature 1928–1932, New York: Columbia University Press, 1953, pages 69–70, 96, 120 and 132.

119. Struve, Op. cit., page 261; Kemp-Welsh, Op. cit., page 175.

120. See Brown, Op. cit., page 182 for what the Politburo said of Shostakovich; Kemp-Welsh, Op. cit., page 178.

121. See Nadezhda Mandelstam, Hope Against Hope, London: Collins and Harvill Press, 1971, pages 217–221 for Mandelstam’s relations with Akhmatova.

122. John and Carol Garrard, Inside the Soviet Writers’ Union, London: I. B. Tauris, 1990, pages 58–59.

123. Shentalinsky, Op. cit., page 191.

124. Ibid., page 193.

125. Garrard and Garrard, Op. cit., page 38; see also Shentalinsky, Op. cit., pages 70–71 for Ehrenburg’s attempted defence of Babel.

126. Kemp-Welch, Op. cit., page 223.

127. Ibid., page 224.

128. I. Ehrenburg, Men, Years-Life, London, 1963, volume 4, The Eve of War, page 96, quoted in: Kemp-Welch, Op. cit., page 198.