Britannica Concise 2005

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Pombal ► Pompeius Magnus Pius I 1525

Pombal \p3-'bal\, Sebastiao de Carvalho, marquess de (b.

May 13, 1699, Lisbon, Port.—d. May 8, 1782, Pombal) Portuguese reformer. After serving as ambassador to England and Vienna, he became chief minister to King Joseph and came to dominate Portuguese politics (1750-77). He encouraged industry and commerce and stimulated trade with Brazil. After the 1755 earthquake that devastated Lisbon, he orga¬ nized aid and reconstruction efforts. He restricted the power of the nobil¬ ity, had the Jesuits imprisoned or deported to Rome (1759), reorganized Portugal’s army, and reformed the university educational system. After Joseph’s death (1777), Pombal’s power disappeared; under Queen Maria I, he was accused of abuse of power and banished from Lisbon to his estates.

pomegranate Vpa-ms-.gra-nsA Fruit of Punica granatum, a bush or small tree of Asia, which with a little-known species from the island of Socotra constitutes the family Punicaceae. Native to Iran and long culti¬ vated around the Mediterranean and in India, it also grows in the warmer parts of the New World. The orange-sized and obscurely six-sided fruit has smooth, leathery, brownish yellow to red skin. Several chambers con¬ tain many thin, transparent vesicles of reddish, juicy pulp, each contain¬ ing an angular, elongated seed. The fruit is eaten fresh, and the juice is the source of the grenadine syrup used in flavourings and liqueurs. The plant grows 16-23 ft (5-7 m) tall and has elliptical, bright green leaves and handsome orange-red flowers. Throughout the Orient, the pomegran¬ ate has since earliest times occupied a position of importance alongside the grape and the fig. It is mentioned in the Bible, by the Prophet Muham¬ mad, and in Greek mythology.

Pomerania V.pa-mo-'ra-ne-oX Historical region, northeastern Europe, on the Baltic Sea between the Oder and Vistula rivers. Occupied by Slavs and other peoples, it was ruled by Polish princes in the 10th century. Ger¬ man immigration into western and central Pomerania began in the late 12th century, and Polish dukes ruled this area under the suzerainty of the Holy Roman Empire until the 17th century. Eastern Pomerania was held by the Knights of the Teutonic Order from 1308 until it was reconquered by Poland in 1454. The elector of Brandenburg acquired the duchies in 1637. Prussia united western and central Pomerania in 1815 as the prov¬ ince of Pommern. Most of the area is now in Poland; its westernmost section is in eastern Germany.

Pomeranian X.pa-mo-'ra-ne-onV Breed of toy dog developed from the same sled-dog ancestors as the Kee- shond, Samoyed, and Norwegian elkhound. It is said to have been bred down in size from a 30-lb (14-kg) dog in the duchy of Pomerania in the early 19th century. Spirited but doc¬ ile, it has a foxlike head and small, erect ears. Its long coat, especially full on the neck and chest, is white, black, brown, or reddish brown. It stands about 6-7 in. (14-18 cm) and weighs about 3-7 lbs (1.5-3 kg).

pommel horse or side horse

Gymnastics event for men. It uses a padded rectangular apparatus sup¬ ported by legs and with two pommels (U-shaped handles) on the top. The gymnast performs various swinging and balancing feats, holding himself over the horse by means of the pommels or by grasping the front (neck), centre (saddle), or rear (croup) of the horse. The apparatus stems from a wooden horse used by the Romans to teach mounting and dismounting.

Porno North American Indian people living in northern California, U.S. The name Porno, which may have been derived from the name of a vil¬ lage, was given to seven distinct Hokan-speaking peoples who inhabited the Russian River valley. Fish, waterfowl, deer, and wild plant foods were plentiful in this region. Coastal Porno constructed dwellings of heavy timber and bark; inland Porno used poles, brush, and grass. Porno religion involved secret societies, dances, rituals, and impersonations of spirits. Porno basketry is often considered among the finest in the world. About 3,000 Porno live in some 20 communities within their original territory.

Pomona \p3-'mo-n3\ Ancient Roman goddess of fruit. Vertumnus, god of the seasons, fell in love with her, but she rejected him and all other suitors, preferring to cultivate her orchards. Refusing to give up, Vertum¬ nus came to her in the form of an old woman and pleaded his case so effectively that Pomona changed her mind and agreed to be his.

Pompadour Vpam-po-.dorV Jeanne-Antoinette Poisson, mar¬ chioness de known as Madame de Pompadour (b. Dec. 29,

1721, Paris, France—d. April 15,

1764, Versailles) French mistress of Louis XV. Educated in art and litera¬ ture, she married Charles-Guillaume Le Normant d’Etoiles in 1741 and became admired by Parisian society and by the king, who installed her at Versailles as his mistress in 1745.

She obtained a separation from her husband and was created marchio¬ ness de Pompadour. She, the king, and her brother, appointed director of the king’s buildings, planned and built the Ecole Militaire and the Place de la Concorde in Paris, the Petit Trianon Palace at Versailles, and many other buildings. She and Louis also encouraged painters, sculptors, and craftsmen, making her 20 years in power the height of artis¬ tic taste. Her political influence was less astute; the alliance with Austria against the German Protestant princes that she urged led to the disastrous Seven Years' War.

pompano Vpam-po-.noX Any of several species of deep-bodied, tooth¬ less, silvery fishes in the order Perci- formes (especially in the genus Trachinotus, family Carangidae) inhabiting warm coastal waters worldwide. Some are highly prized as food. Pompanos have small scales, a narrow tail base, and a forked tail.

The Florida, or common, pompano (T. carolinus ), of the U.S. Atlantic and Gulf coasts, is about 18 in. (45 cm) long and weighs about 2 lbs (1 kg). The African pompano, or thread- fish ( Alectis crinitis), of the Atlantic and eastern Pacific, is 35 in. (90 cm) long and has long, threadlike rays extending from the dorsal and anal fins. The Pacific pompano ( Peprilus simillimus ) is in the family Stro- mateidae.

Pompeii \pam-‘pa\ Ancient city, southern Italy, southeast of Naples.

Founded in the 6th century bc (or earlier) by Oscan-speaking descen¬ dants of the Neolithic inhabitants of Campania, Pompeii came under Greek and Etruscan influence and then was occupied by the Samnites, an Italic tribe, in the late 5th century bc. The city was allied with Rome and colonized by 80 bc. It was dam¬ aged by an earthquake in ad 63 and was completely destroyed by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79.

Volcanic debris buried the town and protected the ruins for years.

Archaeological excavations, begun in 1748, have uncovered much of the city, including forums, temples, baths, theatres, and hundreds of pri¬ vate homes. See also Herculaneum.

Pompeius Magnus Pius \pam- , pe-3s- , mag-n3s- , pl-3s\ / Sextus or Pompey the Younger (b. c. 67— d. 35 bc, Miletus) Son of Pompey the Great and an opponent of Pompey’s rivals. After his father was killed

Pomeranian.

SALLY ANNE THOMPSON-EB INC.

Madame de Pompadour, detail of a portrait by Francois Boucher; in the National Gallery of Scotland, Edin¬ burgh.

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL GALLERIES OF SCOTLAND, EDINBURGH

Florida pompano (Trachinotus caroli¬ nus).

ROBERT REDDEN-ANIMALS ANIMALS

I '

Temple of Apollo, Pompeii, Italy, with Mount Vesuvius in the background.

EDWIN SMITH

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1526 I Pompey ► Pontoppidan

fighting Julius Caesar in 48, Pompeius fled to Spain to continue the struggle. Mark Antony gave him a naval command after Caesar’s assas¬ sination (44), but he was outlawed in 43 under a law targeting those com¬ plied in Caesar’s death. He ravaged the coast of Italy, helped Antony against Octavian (later Augustus), and tried in vain to force both to make him governor of Sicily (39). Finally defeated by Octavian’s forces, he fled to Asia Minor but was caught and executed.

Pompey \'pam-pe\ the Great in full Gnaeus Pompeius Mag¬ nus (b. Sept. 29, 106, Rome—d. Sept. 28,48 bc, Pelusium, Egypt) States¬ man and general of the Roman republic. His early military career was illustrious. He fought effectively for Sulla against Marius in the Social War, reconquered Spain (76-71), destroyed utterly the army of Sparta- cus (71), destroyed the pirates of the eastern Mediterranean (from 67), defeated Mithradates (63), and consolidated and extended the eastern provinces and frontier kingdoms. In 61 he formed the First Triumvirate with Julius Caesar and Marcus Licinius Crassus. After Crassus’s death in 53, Pompey and Caesar fell out. By 52, with Rome in a state of anarchy, Pompey was named sole consul. In 49 Caesar defied the Senate and pro¬ voked the civil war by crossing the Rubicon in pursuit of Pompey, who fled east with his navy. Defeated at the Battle of Pharsalus (48), Pompey fled with his fleet to Egypt, not realizing the Egyptians would take Cae¬ sar’s side, and was killed as he prepared to step on land from the boat they had sent to bring him ashore.

Pompidou \'pam-pi-,du\, Georges (-Jean-Raymond) (b. July 5, 1911, Montboudif, France—d. April 2, 1974, Paiis) French premier (1962-68) and president (1969-74).

He taught school before serving in World War II and was an aide to Charles de Gaulle (1944-46). After joining the Rothschild bank in Paris, he rose rapidly to become director general (1959). As de Gaulle’s chief aide (1958—59), he helped draft the constitution of the Fifth Republic. He secretly negotiated a cease-fire in the Algerian War in 1961 and was appointed premier the following year. In 1968 he skillfully negotiated an end to the French student-worker strikes. Elected president of France in 1969, he continued de Gaulle’s policies. The Pompidou Centre is named for him.

Pompidou Vpam-pi-.diA Centre or Beaubourg \bo-'biir\ Centre French national cultural centre, on the rue Beaubourg in the Marais section of Paris. Its full name, the Georges Pompidou National Art and Cultural Centre, recognizes the presi¬ dent of the Republic under whose administration it was commissioned. When formally opened in 1977, the building attracted notoriety for its brightly coloured exterior pipes, ducts, and other exposed architectural elements, and it soon became one of the most visited cultural sites in the world. Though primarily a museum for 20th-century visual arts, it also houses temporary exhibitions, a library, a centre for industrial design, a film museum, and a Centre for Musical and Acoustical Research.

Ponce de Leon V.pan-so-.da-le-'onX, Juan (b. 1460, Tierra de Campos Palencia, Leon—d. 1521, Havana, Cuba) Spanish explorer. He may have accompanied Christopher Columbus’s expedition in 1493 and later fought in the West Indies (1502), becoming governor of eastern Hispaniola. He colonized Puerto Rico (1508-09) and founded a settlement near modem San Juan. Rumours of a fountain of youth in the Bahamas inspired him to lead an expedition in 1513, but he landed instead on the northern coast of Florida near modern St. Augustine. He sailed along Florida’s southern and western coasts, then returned to Spain to secure the title of military governor (1514). He sailed again to colonize Florida in 1521 but was wounded in an Indian attack and died in Cuba.

Pondicherry Union territory (pop., 2001: 974,345), India. It was formed in 1962 from the four former French colonies of Pondicherry, Karikal, and Yanam, on the eastern seaboard, and Mahe, on the western

seaboard. With a total area of 190 sq mi (492 sq km), it is united by little other than its colonial past and focus on tourism. The city of Pondicherry is the administrative capital.

Pondicherry City (pop., 2001: 220,865), seaport, and capital of Pondicherry union territory, southeastern India. Lying on the Coromandel Coast, it originated as a French trade centre in 1674, when it was purchased from a local ruler. The scene of fighting between the French and Dutch, it was occupied by the British several times from 1761 before becoming a French possession (1816-1954). A seaside tourist resort, it contains an international study centre at a Hindu religious retreat, or ashram.

Pondoland Region, Eastern Cape province, southern Republic of South Africa, on the coast of the Indian Ocean. It was settled at the end of the 16th century by the Pondo (Mpondo), a BANTU-speaking people. It was annexed to Cape Colony in 1894. It occupies a narrow strip from the coast to the interior plateaus in the west. The interior is rich cattle country with fertile farmlands.

Pont-Aven \ 1 po n -to- , ven\ school Group of young painters who espoused a style known as Synthetism and united under the tutelage of Paul Gauguin at Pont-Aven, Brittany, France, in the late 1880s and early 1890s. The artists included Emile Bernard, Charles Laval, Maxime Maufra, Paul Serusier, Charles Filiger, Jacob Meyer de Haan, Armand Seguin, and Henri de Chamaillard. Their paintings showed an overall simplification, a highly expressive use of colour, and an intensely spiritual subject matter. When Gauguin left for Tahiti, members of the school became increasingly involved in developing the theories and techniques of Symbolism.

Pontchartrain Vpan-chor-.tranV Lake Lake, southeastern Louisiana, U.S. It is 40 mi (64 km) long and 25 mi (40 km) wide, with an area of 630 sq mi (1,631 sq km). More a tidal lagoon than a lake, it is brackish and teems with game fish. It is connected through Lake Borgne with the Gulf of Mexico and by canal with the Mississippi River. It is spanned by the Pontchartrain Causeway, two parallel road bridges which cross the lake north of New Orleans and, at nearly 24 mi (39 km) in length, are the long¬ est overwater bridges in the world.

Pontecorvo X.pan-to-'kor-vcA, Guido (b. Nov. 29, 1907, Pisa, Italy—d. Sept. 24, 1999, near Zermatt, Switz.) Italian-born British geneti¬ cist. In 1938, influenced by Hermann Joseph Muller, he designed a method for studying genetic differences among species that usually produce ster¬ ile hybrids when interbred. His technique permitted him to study evolu¬ tionary divergence in the fruit fly. His conviction that research in microbial genetics could lead to increased production of penicillin, much needed in World War II, led him to the genetics of fungi, and in 1950 he found that recombination of genes can occur in the fungus Aspergillus nidulans with¬ out sexual reproduction. Nonsexual gene recombination became a useful technique in exploring the nature of gene action.

Pontiac (b. c. 1720, on the Maumee River in present-day Ohio, U.S.—d. April 20, 1769, near the Mississippi River at present-day Cahokia, Ill.) Ottawa Indian chief. At first friendly with whites, Pontiac realized that his people would lose their ancestral lands in the Great Lakes area if white encroachment were not stopped. With a series of actions that came to be known as Pontiac’s War (1763-64), he coordinated the attack on 12 for¬ tified British posts by a confederacy of tribes, winning a great victory. He himself led the attack on the fort at Detroit, in what is now Michigan, U.S. Continuing British action took its toll, however, and in 1766 Pon¬ tiac finally agreed to a peace treaty. His murder in 1769 by an Illinois Indian provoked the vengeance of several northern Algonquian tribes, resulting in the virtual destruction of the Illinois.

Pontifex See Quintus Mucius Scaevola

pontifex Member of a council of priests in ancient Rome. The pontifices were responsible for administration of the jus divinum (laws concerning religious practices). There were 3 pontifices under the monarchy, but by the time of Julius Caesar the number had grown to 16, of which 1 was desig¬ nated chief priest, or pontifex maximus. Also included in the collegium (college) of pontifices were the Vestal Virgins. Among the duties of the pon¬ tifices were regulation of the calendar and of expiatory rituals, consecration of temples and sacred objects, superintendence of marriage and the family, and administration of the laws of adoption and succession.

Pontoppidan \p6n-'top-e-dan\, Henrik (b. July 24, 1857, Fredericia, Den.—d. Aug. 21, 1943, Ordrup, near Copenhagen) Danish realist writer of novels and short stories. He studied engineering and worked as a

Pompidou

DENNIS BRACK-BLACK STAR/EB INC.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Pontormo ► Pope I 1527

teacher before taking up writing. His works, typically written in a cold, aloof, epic style, present a comprehensive picture of his country and his epoch. His earlier works are informed with a desire for social progress; his later ones despair of its realization. His major novels include the semiautobiographical Lucky Peter (1898-1904) and the five-volume cycle The Realm of the Dead (1912-16). He shared the 1917 Nobel Prize for Literature with Karl Gjellerup.

Pontormo Vpon-'tor-moV Jacopo da orig. Jacopo Carrucci (b.

May 24, 1494, Pontormo, Republic of Florence—buried Jan. 2, 1557, Florence) Florentine painter. The son of a painter, he was apprenticed to Leonardo da Vinci and later to Piero di Cosimo and Andrea del Sarto (who exerted the greatest influence on him). The agitated, almost neurotic emo¬ tionalism of his work reflects a departure from the balance and tranquil¬ lity of the High Renaissance. His expressive style is sometimes considered an early manifestation of Mannerism. Primarily a religious painter, he also did sensitive portraits and was employed by the Medici family to decorate their villa at Poggio a Caiano with mythological subjects.

Pontus Ancient district, northeastern Anatolia adjoining the Black Sea. An independent kingdom with its capital at Amasia, it was established in the 4th century bc. It continued expanding its borders until 66 bc, when its last king, Mithradates VI Eupator, was defeated by the Roman general Pompey the Great. It was incorporated into the Roman Empire in 63 bc.

pony Any of several breeds of small horses standing less than 14.2 hands (57 in., 144 cm) high and noted for gentleness and endurance. Among the common pony breeds are the Shetland; the stylish and hardy Welsh; the high-stepping Welsh Cob; the Exmoor and Dartmoor, natives of the English moors that are used to breed polo ponies; and the Highland, a thick, gray saddle animal.

Pony Express (1860-61) U.S. system of mail delivery by horse and rider relays. The 1,800-mi (2,900-km) route between St. Joseph, Mo., and Sacramento, Calif., included 157 stations. Riders changed horses every 10 to 15 miles, and it took about 10 days to complete the route. The sponsoring company of Russell, Majors, Wadell employed riders such as William F. Cody and Pony Bob Haslam. The system provided an important mail link with the West, but it was a financial failure and became obsolete after 18 months with the completion of the transcontinental telegraph system.

poodle German water retriever. Poodles have a long muzzle, hanging ears, and docked tail. The dense, solid-coloured, wiry topcoat covers a woolly undercoat. Poodles’ hair was traditionally clipped to permit them to swim efficiently when retrieving; today they are usually clipped in ornamental patterns. A dog with unclipped hair, which forms ropelike cords, is called a corded poodle. The standard poodle is more than 15 in.

(38 cm) tall and weighs up to 70 lb (32 kg); the miniature stands 10-15 in. (25.5-38 cm); the toy is under 10 in. (25.5 cm) and weighs about 7 lb (3 kg). The poodle is the national dog of France, where it was once trained to scent and dig up truffles. Poodles are regarded as the most intelligent of all domestic dog breeds.

pool or pocket billiards Billiards game played on an oblong table having six pockets with 15 object balls and a white cue ball. At the begin¬ ning of play, the balls are arranged (racked) in a pyramid formation with its apex on a spot near the foot of the table. The first player breaks the formation by driving the cue ball into it; to continue play, he or she must hit a ball into a pocket. In the popular “8-ball” game, the first player (or team) to sink either the seven solid-coloured balls (numbered 1-7) or the seven banded (striped) balls (9-15), finishing with the black 8-ball, wins. In “9-ball,” only the balls numbered 1-9 are used, and they must be sunk sequentially; the player who sinks the 9-ball wins. Pool probably reached its present form in England and France by c. 1800; today it is most popu¬ lar in North America.

Poona See Pune

Poor Law In British history, a body of laws undertaking to provide relief for the poor, developed in 16th-century England and maintained, with vari¬

ous changes, until after World War II. The original laws provided relief, including care for the elderly, sick, and infant poor as well as work for the able-bodied through local parishes. Their scope was curtailed in the 1830s, when poverty among the able-bodied was considered a moral failing. The new law provided no relief for the able-bodied poor except employment in the workhouse, with the object of stimulating workers to seek regular employment rather than charity. In the 1930s and ’40s the Poor Laws were replaced by a comprehensive system of public welfare services.

Pop art Art in which commonplace objects (such as comic strips, soup cans, road signs, and hamburgers) were used as subject matter. The Pop art movement was largely a British and American cultural phenomenon of the late 1950s and ’60s. Works by such Pop artists as the Americans Roy Lichtenstein, Andy Warhol, Claes Oldenburg, Tom Wesselman, James Rosenquist, and Robert Indiana and the Britons David Hockney and Peter Blake, among others, were characterized by their portrayal of any and all aspects of popular culture that had a powerful impact on contemporary life; their iconography—taken from television, comic books, movie maga¬ zines, and all forms of advertising—was presented emphatically and objectively and by means of the precise commercial techniques used by the media from which the iconography itself was borrowed. Some of the more striking forms that Pop art took were Lichtenstein’s stylized repro¬ ductions of comic strips and Warhol’s meticulously literal paintings and silk-screen prints of soup-can labels and Marilyn Monroe. Pop art repre¬ sented an attempt to return to a more objective, universally acceptable form of art after the dominance in both the United States and Europe of the highly personal Abstract Expressionist movement. Its effects— including its decisive destruction of the boundary between “high” and “low” art—have continued to be powerfully felt throughout the visual arts to the present day.

Pope \po-'pa\ (d. 1692, San Juan Pueblo, New Spain) Tewa Pueblo medi¬ cine man. Believing he was guided by tribal ancestral spirits (kachinas), Pope led an Indian revolt in 1680 against the Spanish invaders in what is now the southwestern U.S. The rebellion, known as the Pueblo Revolt, drove the Spanish out of Santa Fe and temporarily restored the old Pueblo way of life. Pope was accorded great honours, but success made him des¬ potic. Although he was eventually deposed, he was reelected Pueblo leader in 1688.

pope Ecclesiastical title of the bishop of Rome, head of the Roman Catho¬ lic church. In the early church, especially in the 3rd-5th century, it was a title of affectionate respect for any bishop. It is still used for the Eastern Orthodox patriarch of Alexandria and for Orthodox priests, but around the 9th century it came to be reserved in the West exclusively for the bishop of Rome. Catholic doctrine regards the pope as the successor of St. Peter the Apostle and accords him supreme jurisdiction over the church in mat¬ ters of faith and morals, as well as in church discipline and government. Papal infallibility in matters of doctrine was asserted by the First Vatican Council in 1870. See also papacy, Roman Catholicism. See tables on fol¬ lowing pages.

Pope, Alexander (b. May 21, 1688, London, Eng.—d. May 30, 1744, Twickenham, near London) English poet and satirist. A precocious boy precluded from formal education by his Roman Catholicism, Pope was mainly self-educated. A deformity of the spine and other health problems limited his growth and physical activities, leading him to devote him¬ self to reading and writing. His first major work was An Essay on Criti¬ cism (1711), a poem on the art of writing that contains several brilliant epigrams (e.g., “To err is human, to forgive, divine”). His witty mock- epic The Rape of the Lock (1712,

1714) ridicules fashionable society.

The great labour of his life was his verse translation of Homer’s Iliad (1720) and Odyssey (1726), whose success made him financially secure.

He became involved in many literary battles, prompting him to write poems such as the scathing mock-

\lexander Pope, portrait by Thomas Hudson; in the National Portrait Gal- ery, London

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Popes and Antipopes 1 (antipopes in italics)

Peter

?-c.64

Sabinian

604-6

Leo VIII 4

963-65

Nicholas III

1277-80

Linus

c.67-76/79

Boniface III

607

Benedict V 4

964-66?

Martin IV 6

1281-85

Anacletus

76-88 or

Boniface IV

608-15

John XIII

965-72

Honorius IV

1285-87

79-91

Deusdedit (also called

Benedict VI

973-74

Nicholas IV

1288-92

Clement 1

88-97 or

Adeodatus 1)

615-18

Boniface VII (1st time)

974

Celestine V

1294

92-101

Boniface V

619-25

Benedict VII

974-83

Boniface VIII

1294-1303

Evaristus

c.97-c.l07

Honorius 1

625-38

John XIV

983-84

Benedict XI

1303-4

Alexander 1

105-115 or

Severinus

640

Boniface VII (2nd time)

984-85

Clement V (at Avignon,

109-119

John IV

640-42

John XV (or XVI) 5

985-96

from 1309)

1305-14

Sixtus 1

c.l 15-C.125

Theodore 1

642-49

Gregory V

996-99

John XXII 5 (at Avignon)

1316-34

Telesphorus

c.125-c.136

Martin 1

649-55

John XVI (or XVIII s

997-98

Nicholas (V) (at Rome)

1328-30

Hyginus

c.l 36-C.140

Eugenius 1

654-57

Sylvester II

999-1003

Benedict XII (at Avignon)

1334-42

Pius 1

c.l 40-55

Vitalian

657-72

John XVII (or XVIII) 5

1003

Clement VI (at Avignon)

1342-52

Anicetus

c.155-c.166

Adeodatus II

672-76

John XVIII (or XIX) 5

1004-9

Innocent VI (at Avignon)

1352-62

Soter

c.166-c.175

Donus

676-78

Sergius IV

1009-12

Urban V (at Avignon)

1362-70

Eleutherius

c.l 75-89

Agatho

678-81

Gregory (VI)

1012

Gregory XI (at Avignon,

Victor 1

c.l 89-99

Leo II

682-83

Benedict VIII

1012-24

then Rome from 1377)

1370-78

Zephyrinus

c.l 99-217

Benedict II

684-85

John XIX (or XX) 5

1024-32

Urban VI

1378-89

Calixtus 1 (Callistus)

217?-22

John V

685-86

Benedict IX (1st time)

1032-44

Clement (VII) (at Avignon)

1378-94

Hippolytus

217, 18-235

Conon

686-87

Sylvester III

1045

Boniface IX

1389-1404

Urban 1

222-30

Sergius 1

687-701

Benedict IX (2nd time)

1045

Benedict (XIII) (at Avignon)

1394-1423

Pontian

230-35

Theodore

687

Gregory VI

1045-46

Innocent VII

1404-6

Anterus

235-36

Paschal

687

Clement II

1046-47

Gregory XII

1406-15

Fabian

236-50

John VI

701-5

Benedict IX (3rd time)

1047-48

Alexander (V) (at Bologna)

1409-10

Cornelius

251-53

John VII

705-7

Damasus II

1048

John (XXIII) (at Bologna)

1410-15

Novation

251

Sisinnius

708

Leo IX

1049-54

Martin V 6

1417-31

Lucius 1

253-54

Constantine

708-15

Victor II

1055-57

Clement (VIII)

1423-29

Stephen 1

254-57

Gregory II

715-31

Stephen IX (or X) 3

1057-58

Eugenius IV

1431-47

Sixtus II

257-58

Gregory III

731-41

Benedict X

1058-59

Felix (V) (also called

Dionysius

259-68

Zacharias (Zachary)

741-52

Nicholas II

1059-61

Amadeus VIII of Savoy)

1439-49

Felix 1

269-74

Stephen (II) 3

752

Alexander II

1061-73

Nicholas V

1447-55

Eutychian

275-83

Stephen II (or III) 3

752-57

Honorius (II)

1061-72

Calixtus III (Callistus)

1455-58

Gaius

283-96

Paul 1

757-67

Gregory VII

1073-85

Pius II

1458-64

Marcellinus

291/96-304

Constantine (II)

767-68

Clement (III)

1080-1100

Paul II

1464-71

Marcellus 1

308-9

Philip

768

Victor III

1086-87

Sixtus IV

1471-84

Eusebius

309/10

Stephen III (or IV) 3

768-72

Urban II

1088-99

Innocent VIII

1484-92

Miltiades (Melchiades)

311-14

Adrian 1

772-95

Paschal II

1099-1118

Alexander VI

1492-1503

Sylvester 1

314-35

Leo III

795-816

Theodoric

1100-2

Pius III

1503

Mark

336

Stephen IV (or V) 3

816-17

Albert (Aleric)

1102

Julius II

1503-13

Julius 1

337-52

Paschal 1

817-24

Sylvester (IV)

1105-11

Leo X

1513-21

Liberius

352-66

Eugenius II

824-27

Gelasius II

1118-19

Adrian VI

1522-23

Felix (II)

355-58

Valentine

827

Gregory (VIII)

1118-21

Clement VII

1523-34

Damasus 1

366-84

Gregory IV

827-44

Calixtus II (Callistus)

1119-24

Paul III

1534-49

Ursinus

366-67

John

844

Honorius II

1124-30

Julius III

1550-55

Siricius

384-99

Sergius II

844-47

Celestine (II)

1124

Marcellus II

1555

Anastasius 1

399-401

Leo IV

847-55

Innocent II

1130-43

Paul IV

1555-59

Innocent 1

401-17

Benedict III

855-58

Anacletus (II)

1130-38

Pius IV

1559-65

Zosimus

417-18

Anastasius (the Librarian)

855

Victor (IV)

1138

Pius V

1566-72

Boniface 1

418-22

Nicholas 1

858-67

Celestine II

1143-44

Gregory XIII

1572-85

Eulalius

418-19

Adrian II

867-72

Lucius II

1144-45

Sixtus V

1585-90

Celestine 1

422-32

John VIII

872-82

Eugenius III

1145-53

Urban VII

1590

Sixtus III

432-40

Marinus 1

882-84

Anastasius IV

1153-54

Gregory XIV

1590-91

Leo 1

440-61

Adrian III

884-85

Adrian IV

1154-59

Innocent IX

1591

Hilary

461-68

Stephen V (or VI) 3

885-91

Alexander III

1159-81

Clement VIII

1592-1605

Simplicius

468-83

Formosus

891-96

Victor (IV)

1159-64

Leo XI

1605

Felix III (or II) 2

483-92

Boniface VI

896

Paschal (III)

1164-68

Paul V

1605-21

Gelasius 1

492-96

Stephen VI (or VII) 3

896

Calixtus (III)

1168-78

Gregory XV

1621-23

Anastasius II

496-98

Romanus

897

Innocent (III)

1179-80

Urban VIII

1623-44

Symmachus

498-514

Theodore II

897

Lucius III

1181-85

Innocent X

1644-55

Laurentius

498, 501-c.

John IX

898-900

Urban III

1185-87

Alexander VII

1655-67

505/507

Benedict IV

900-903

Gregory VIII

1187

Clement IX

1667-69

Hormisdas

514-23

Leo V

903

Clement III

1187-91

Clement X

1670-76

John 1

523-26

Christopher

903-4

Celestine III

1191-98

Innocent XI

1676-89

Felix IV (or III) 2

526-30

Sergius III

904-11

Innocent III

1198-1216

Alexander VIII

1689-91

Dioscorus

530

Anastasius III

911-13

Honorius III

1216-27

Innocent XII

1691-1700

Boniface II

530-32

Lando

913-14

Gregory IX

1227-41

Clement XI

1700-21

John II

533-35

John X

914-28

Celestine IV

1241

Innocent XIII

1721-24

Agapetus 1

535-36

Leo VI

928

Innocent IV

1243-54

Benedict XIII

1724-30

Silverius

536-37

Stephen VII (or VIII) 3

929-31

Alexander IV

1254-61

Clement XII

1730-40

Vigilius

537-55

John XI

931-35

Urban IV

1261-64

Benedict XIV

1740-58

Pelagius 1

556-61

Leo VII

936-39

Clement IV

1265-68

Clement XIII

1758-69

John III

561-74

Stephen VIII (or IX) 3

939-42

Gregory X

1271-76

Clement XIV

1769-74

Benedict 1

575-79

Marinus II

942-46

Innocent V

1276

Pius VI

1775-99

Pelagius II

579-90

Agapetus II

946-55

Adrian V

1276

Pius VII

1800-23

Gregory 1

590-604

John XII

955-64

John XXI 5

1276-77

Leo XII

1823-29

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Pope ► popular music I 1529

Popes and Antipopes 1 (antipopes in italics) (continued)

Pius VIII

1829-30

Pius XII

1939-58

Gregory XVI

1831-46

John XXIII

1958-63

Pius IX

1846-78

Paul VI

1963-78

Leo XIII

1878-1903

John Paul 1

1978

Pius X

1903-14

John Paul II

1978-2005

Benedict XV

1914-22

Benedict XVI

2005-

Pius XI

1922-39

’Until the 4th cent., the popes were usually known only as bishops of Rome.

^he higher number is used if Felix (II), who reigned 355-58 and is ordinar¬ ily classed as an antipope, is counted as a pope.

3 Though elected on March 23, 752, Stephen (II) died two days later before he could be consecrated and thus is ordinarily not counted. The issue has made the numbering of subsequent Stephens somewhat irregular.

^Either Leo VIII or Benedict V may be considered an antipope.

5 A confusion in the numbering of popes named John after John XIV (r.983-84) resulted because some 1 lth-cent. historians mistakenly believed that there had been a pope named John between antipope Boniface VII and the true John XV (r.985-86). Therefore they mistakenly numbered the real popes John XV to XIX as John XVI to XX. These popes have since customari¬ ly been renumbered XV to XIX, but John XXI and John XXII continue to bear numbers that they themselves formally adopted on the assumption that there had indeed been 20 Johns before them. In current numbering, there thus exists no pope by the name of John XX.

6 ln the 13th cent, the papal chancery misread the names of the two popes Marinus as Martin, and as a result of this error Simon de Brie in 1281 assumed the name of Pope Martin IV instead of Martin II. The enumeration has not been corrected, and thus there exist no Martin II and Martin III.

epic The Dunciad (1728) and An Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot (1735). The philosophical An Essay on Man (1733-34) was intended as part of a larger work that he never completed.

Pope, John (b. March 16, 1822, Louisville, Ky., U.S.—d. Sept. 23, 1892, Sandusky, Ohio) U.S. army officer. A graduate of West Point, he served in the Mexican War. At the outbreak of the American Civil War, he was appointed brigadier general of volunteers, and he commanded operations that secured Union navi¬ gation of the Mississippi River almost to Memphis. In 1862 he was given command of the Army of Vir¬ ginia. At the Second Battle of Bull Run, his forces were defeated.

Though he tried to blame the rout on his subordinates, including Fitz-John Porter, he was relieved of his com¬ mand and sent to Minnesota to quell a Sioux uprising. After the war he commanded the Department of the Missouri (1870-83).

Popish Plot (1678) In English his¬ tory, a fictitious but widely believed rumour that Jesuits planned to assassinate Charles II and replace him with his brother, the Catholic duke of York (later James II). The rumour was fabricated by Titus Oates, who gave a sworn deposition of his “evidence” to a London justice of the peace. When the latter was found murdered, a panic among the people was followed by accusations and trials, leading to the execution of about 35 innocent people. When Oates was finally discredited, the panic subsided.

poplar Any of at least 35 species and many natural hybrids of trees that make up the genus Populus (willow family). Poplars grow throughout northern temperate regions, some even beyond the Arctic Circle. They are rapid-growing but relatively short-lived. Their leaves flutter in the slight¬ est breeze because of their laterally compressed petioles (leafstalks). The relatively soft wood is used to make cardboard boxes, crates, paper, and veneer. North America has three groups of native poplars: cottonwoods, aspens, and balsam poplars.

poplar, yellow See tulip tree

Popocatepetl \ 1 po-p3- , ka-t3-,pe-tT\ Volcano, Puebla state, southeast- central Mexico, west of the city of Puebla. The perpetually snowcapped,

symmetrical cone reaches 17,930 ft (5,465 m). The first Spanish ascent is thought to have been made in 1519. After being inactive for more than 50 years, Popocatepetl erupted in 1994, with frequent recurrences in the years that followed.

Popol Vuh Vpo-pol-'viiV Mayan document that provides valuable infor¬ mation on ancient Maya mythology and culture. It was written between 1554 and 1558 in the Quiche language using Spanish letters. It tells of the creation of man, the acts of the gods, and the origin and history of the Quiche people and also gives a chronology of their kings. The book was discovered early in the 18th century by Francisco Jimenez, a parish priest in the Guatemalan highlands, who copied out the original, now lost, and translated it into Spanish.

popolo \'po-p6-l6\ (Italian: “people”) In the communes (city-states) of 13th-century Italy, a pressure group instituted to protect the interests of the commoners against the nobility. Until then noblemen had exclusively controlled the commune governments, and the popolo was the means by which wealthy merchants sought to extend their power. The popolo in Florence controlled the government 1250-60 and again after 1282. By the beginning of the 14th century, its elders formed the supreme execu¬ tive of the commune.

Popper, Sir Karl (Raimund) (b. July 28, 1902, Vienna, Austria—d. Sept. 17, 1994, Croydon, Greater London, Eng.) Austrian-British philoso¬ pher of natural and social science. In The Logic of Scientific Discovery (1934), he rejected the traditional conception of induction, which held that a scientific hypothesis may be verified through the accumulation of con¬ firming observations, arguing instead that scientific hypotheses can at best only be falsified. His later works include The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945), The Poverty of Historicism (1957), and Postscript to the Logic of Scientific Discovery (3 vol., 1981-82).

poppy family Family Papaveraceae, containing about 200 species of mostly herbaceous plants and some woody small trees and shrubs. Most species of this family, which is outstanding for its many garden ornamen¬ tals (largely of the genus Papaver) and for pharmaceutically important plants, are found in the Northern Hemisphere. All have cup-shaped flow¬ ers, a capsule fruit, leaves that are usually deeply cut or divided into leaf¬ lets, and coloured sap. Members include the opium poppy and the com, or Flanders, poppy ( P. rhoeas ), the seeds of which may lie dormant for years. The latter became a symbol of World War I because it bloomed in fields that had been disturbed by battle. See also California poppy.

popular front In European politics, any coalition of working-class and middle-class political parties united to defend democracy against an expected fascist assault. The policy of a “united front” against fascism was announced at the communist Third International (1935); it was to include not only communists and socialists but also liberals, moderates, and even conservatives. Popular-front governments were formed in France and Spain in 1936, but the financial consequences of the reforms undertaken by the French government, under Leon Blum, proved its undoing, and the Spanish government was brought down by Francisco Franco in the Span¬ ish Civil War.

Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman (PFLO) orig. Dho- far Liberation Front Resistance group founded in 1963 by Arab nationalists and religious conservatives to depose Sultan SaTd ibn Taymur (r. 1932-70). In 1968 its leadership was taken over by Marxists. In 1970 the sultan was deposed by his son, Qabus ibn SaTd, who softened the resistance with a combination of military pressure and economic devel¬ opment.

Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia el Hamra and

Rio de Oro See Polisario

popular music Any music intended to be received and appreciated by ordinary people in a literate, technologically advanced society dominated by urban culture. Unlike traditional FOLK MUSIC, popular music is written by known individuals, usually professionals, and does not evolve through the process of oral transmission. Historically, popular music was any non¬ folk form that acquired mass popularity—from the songs of the medieval minstrels and troubadours to those elements of fine art music originally intended for a small, elite audience but that became widely popular. After the Industrial Revolution, true folk music began to disappear, and the popular music of the Victorian era and the early 20th century was that of the music hall and vaudeville, with its upper reaches dominated by waltz music and operettas. In the U.S., minstrel shows performed the composi-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1530 I Popular Party ► pork

tions of songwriters such as Stephen Foster. In the 1890s Tin Pan Alley emerged as the first popular song-publishing industry, and over the next half century its lyricism was combined with European operetta in a new kind of play known as the musical. Beginning with ragtime in the 1890s, African Americans had begun combining complex African rhythms with European harmonic structures, a synthesis that would eventually create jazz. The music audience greatly expanded, partly because of technology. By 1930, phonograph records had replaced sheet music as the chief source of music in the home. The microphone enabled more intimate vocal tech¬ niques to be commercially adapted. The ability of radio broadcasting to reach rural communities aided the dissemination of new styles, notably country music. U.S. popular music achieved international dominance in the decades after World War II. By the 1950s, the migration of African Americans to cities in the North had resulted in the cross-fertilization of elements of blues with the uptempo rhythms of jazz to create rhythm and blues. Rock and roll, with figures such as Elvis Presley, soon developed as an amalgam of rhythm and blues with country music and other influences (see rock music). In the 1960s, British rock groups, including the Beatles, became internationally influential. Rock quickly attracted the allegiance of Western teenagers, who replaced young adults as the chief audience for popular music. From the late 1960s black pop (see Motown) achieved greater sophistication and a wide audience. The history of pop through the 1990s was basically that of rock and its variants, including disco, heavy metal, punk rock, and rap, which spread throughout the world and became the standard musical idiom for young people in many countries.

Popular Party (Italy) See Italian Popular Party

Popular Republican Movement (MRP) French social reform party. Founded in 1944, the MRP was a strong centre party of the Fourth Republic and the French expression of Christian Democracy. After winning about 25% of the vote, it declined in the 1950s, losing strength to both right and left factions. In 1966 it was merged with other right-centre par¬ ties to become the Centre Democrate, which won only 13% of the vote. By 1968 it had become little more than a political club.

popular sovereignty Political doctrine that allowed the settlers of U.S. federal territories to decide whether to enter the Union as free or slave states. It was applied by Sen. Stephen A. Douglas as a means to reach a compromise through passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Critics of the doctrine called it “squatter sovereignty.” The resulting violence between pro- and antislavery factions (see Bleeding Kansas) showed its failure as a workable compromise. See also Dred Scott decision.

Populares See Optimates and Populares

Populations I and II Two broad classes of stars and stellar groupings, whose members differ primarily in age, chemical composition, and loca¬ tion in galaxies. They were distinguished and named by Walter Baade (1893-1960). Population I consists of younger stars, clusters, and asso¬ ciations. These occur in and near the arms of the Milky Way Galaxy and other spiral galaxies and have been detected in irregular galaxies (such as the Magellanic Clouds). Population I objects are thought to have origi¬ nated from interstellar gas that underwent various processes, including supernova explosions, which enriched their constituent matter with heavier elements. Population II consists of older (generally 1 billion-15 billion years old) stars and clusters, presumably formed from interstellar gas clouds that emerged very early in a galaxy’s history. Consisting almost entirely of hydrogen and helium, they are found in the galactic halos of spiral galaxies, in globular clusters, and, in large numbers, in elliptical galaxies. Astronomers sometimes refer to a Population III as the very first generation of stars to emerge after the big bang.

populism Political program or movement that champions the common person, usually by favourable contrast with an elite. Populism usually combines elements of the left and right, opposing large business and finan¬ cial interests but also frequently being hostile to established socialist and labour parties. In the U.S. the term was applied to the program of the Populist movement of the 1890s.

Populist See Narodnik

Populist Movement Coalition of U.S. agrarian reformers in the Mid¬ west and South in the 1890s. The movement developed from farmers’ alliances formed in the 1880s in reaction to falling crop prices and poor credit facilities. The leaders organized the Populist, or People’s, Party (1892), which advocated a variety of measures to help farmers. They also demanded an increase in the circulating currency (to be achieved by the

unlimited coinage of silver), a graduated income tax, government own¬ ership of the railroads, a tariff for revenue only, and the direct election of U.S. senators. The party’s presidential candidate in 1892, James B. Weaver (1833-1912), received more than one million votes. Many state and local Populist candidates were elected in the Midwest. In 1896 the Populists joined with the Democratic Party to support the Free Silver Movement and the unsuccessful presidential candidacy of William Jennings Bryan. The movement declined thereafter, though some of its causes were later embraced by the Progressive Party.

Populonia ancient Pupluna Ancient Roman city, western coast of central Italy. It was originally Etruscan. Silver and iron ores from the nearby island of Elba supplied its metal-manufacturing industry. During the 5th century bc it became wealthy as the first city in Etruria to coin silver. It was conquered by Romans and suffered during the wars between Sulla and Marius in the 1st century bc.

porcelain Vitrified pottery with a white, fine-grained body that is usu¬ ally translucent. It was first made in China during the Tang dynasty (618— 907) and in its advanced form during the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368). The three main types are true (or hard-paste) porcelain, artificial (or soft-paste) porcelain, and bone china. Attempts by medieval European potters to imi¬ tate true porcelain led to the discovery of soft-paste porcelain, which can be cut with a file. The secret of true porcelain was discovered c. 1707 in Saxony. Standard English bone china was produced c. 1800 when Josiah Spode II (1754-1827) added calcined bones to the hard-paste porcelain formula. Hard-paste porcelain, though strong, chips more readily than bone china. See also Bow porcelain; Chantilly porcelain; Chelsea porcelain; Meissen porcelain; Nymphenburg porcelain; Saint-Cloud porcelain; Sevres porcelain; stoneware.

porch Roofed structure, usually open at front and sides, projecting from the face of a building and used to protect an entrance. If colonnaded, it may be called a portico. A veranda is typically a long porch surrounded by a railing, often extending along more than one side of a building. Simple porches were exceedingly common in the domestic architecture of Britain and the U.S. from the late 18th century. In Gothic cathedrals the porch was often a small gabled structure projecting from the northern or southern walls of the nave. See also loggia, narthex.

porcupine Heavy-bodied, solitary, slow-moving, nocturnal rodent with quills (modified hairs) along the back, tail, and, on certain crested spe¬ cies, the neck and shoulders. The quills are easily detached when touched. The New World species (four genera in family Erethizontidae) are arbo¬ real and have barbed quills; the Old World species (four genera in family Hystricidae) are terrestrial and have unbarbed quills. The North Ameri¬ can porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum ), about 31 in. (80 cm) long with a tail about 12 in. (30 cm) long and quills about 3 in. (8 cm) long, drives its powerful tail against an assailant. For food, it favours the tender tissue beneath tree bark. Crested porcupines, the typical Old World porcupines, run backward, quills erect, into the enemy. They eat roots, fruit, and other vegetation. The African crested porcupine, the largest terrestrial rodent in Europe and Africa, may weigh 60 lb (27 kg) and have quills 14 in. (35 cm) long.

porgy Vpor-je\ Any of about 100 species (family Sparidae) of generally shallow-water fishes found through¬ out tropical and temperate seas. Por- gies, sometimes called sea breams, are typically high-backed, with a single dorsal fin, a small mouth, and teeth strong enough to handle fishes and hard-shelled invertebrates. Most species do not exceed 1 ft (30 cm) long, but some may grow to 4 ft (120 cm). The South African mussel- crackers, popular sport fishes, grow to 100 lbs (45 kg). In Australia and Japan, several species of Chrysophrys are important food fish (called snappers in Australia). The red sea bream inhabits deep European waters. See also sheepshead.

pork Flesh of hogs, usually slaughtered between the ages of six months and one year. The world’s most popular meat, it is consumed fresh in various cuts or preparations, including chops and sausage, or cured or smoked for ham, bacon, dry sausage, or other products. Because pigs may be infected by the parasitic disease trichinosis, fresh pork must be cooked

Northern porgy (Stenotomus chrysops).

RUNK/SCHOENBERGER FROM GRANT HEILMAN

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

pornography ► Porter I 1531

to an internal temperature of 160 °F (71 °C) to destroy the parasite. Pork is proscribed by the dietary laws of Islam and Judaism.

pornography Depiction of erotic behaviour intended to cause sexual excitement. The word originally signified any work of art or literature depicting the life of prostitutes. Though pornography is clearly ancient in origin, its early history is obscure because it was customarily not thought worthy of transmission or preservation. Nevertheless, in the artwork of many historic societies, including ancient India, ancient Greece, and Rome, erotic imagery was commonplace and often appeared in religious contexts. The Art of Love, by Ovid, is a treatise on seduction and sensual arousal. The invention of printing led to the production of ambitious works of pornographic writing intended to entertain as well as to arouse. In 18th-century Europe, pornography became a vehicle for social and politi¬ cal protest through its depiction of the misdeeds of royalty and other aris¬ tocrats, as well as those of clerics, a traditional target. The development of photography and motion pictures in the 19th and 20th centuries con¬ tributed greatly to the proliferation of pornography, as did the advent of the Internet in the late 20th century. During the 20th century, restrictions on pornography were relaxed throughout much of Europe and North America, though regulations remained strict in Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. Child pornography is almost universally prohibited.

porphyrin Vpor-fo-ronX Any of a class of biologically important het¬ erocyclic compounds of a characteristic chemical structure that includes four pyrrole groups (five-membered organic rings each containing a nitro¬ gen atom) linked by additional carbon atoms to form a large flat ring. As biological pigments, they and closely related molecules are responsible for many of the vivid colours in living organisms, where they often occur combined with metal ions and various substituents as coordination com¬ plexes (see compound). These include the magnesium-containing chloro¬ phylls and the iron-containing heme group, a constituent (along with protein) of, e.g., hemoglobin, the cytochromes, and the enzyme catalase. In medicine, porphyrins are used in conjunction with light, often a laser beam, to induce reactions in the body against cancer and other diseases.

porphyry copper deposit \'por-f9-re\ A large body of igneous rock, having distinct crystals in a relatively fine-grained base, that contains chal- copyrite and other sulfide minerals. These deposits contain vast amounts of ore that averages a fraction of 1% copper by weight; although low-grade, the deposits are important because they can be worked on a large scale at low cost. Large porphyry copper deposits are worked in the southwestern U.S. (where molybdenum may be produced as a by-product), the Solomon Islands, Canada, Peru, Chile, Mexico, and elsewhere.

porpoise Any toothed whale in the family Phocoenidae (or, by some authorities, part of the dolphin family Delphinidae). The four species (genus Phocoena) of the common, or harbour, porpoise are primarily fish eaters that travel in pairs or large groups. They are gray or black above and white below. The shy P. phocoena, found throughout the Northern Hemisphere, rarely leaps. The other species of Phocoena are found along Californian and South American coasts. The active, gregarious Dali por¬ poise ( Phocoenoides dalli ) of the North Pacific and the True porpoise (P. truei) of Japan often swim with ships, usually in groups of 2 to 20. Both eat cephalopods and fishes and are black with a large white patch on each side. The black finless porpoise ( Neomeris phocoenoides ), a small, slow animal, inhabits the Pacific and Indian oceans. At most 7 ft (2 m) long, porpoises are shorter and chubbier than dolphins and have a blunt snout. Like the dolphins, they are known for their high intelligence.

port Input/output conduit for personal computers. The serial port was cre¬ ated as an interface between data terminal equipment and data- communications equipment. It processes data sequentially, as a series of bits, and is used to connect equipment (e.g., a modem or mouse) to the com¬ puter. The parallel port processes several data bits in parallel and is used to connect peripherals such as computer printers and optical scanners to the computer. The parallel port is faster, but the serial port is cheaper and requires less power. See also USB.

port Sweet, fortified wine of rich taste and aroma made in Portugal. The name derives from Porto, the town where it is traditionally aged and bottled. Most port is red, but lesser amounts of tawny and white are pro¬ duced. Peculiar to the manufacture of port is a large dose of brandy given to the still-fermenting liquid (called must). Much time, often decades, is needed for the maturing of fine ports.

Port Arthur See Lushun

Port-au-Prince X.por-to-'prinsN City (metro, area pop., 1997: 1,556,000), seaport, and capital of Haiti, West Indies, on the southeast¬ ern shore of the Golfe de la Gonave. Founded by the French in 1749, it was destroyed by earthquakes in 1751 and 1770 and has frequently suf¬ fered from fires and civil strife. In 1807 the port was opened to foreign commerce. It is the country’s principal port and commercial centre, pro¬ ducing sugar, flour, cottonseed oil, and textiles.

Port Blair City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 100,186), capital of Andaman and Nicobar Islands union territory, India, in the Bay of Bengal. It was occu¬ pied by the British in 1789 but soon abandoned. The town was made a penal colony in 1858. It was occupied by the Japanese in 1942-45. The penal colony was abolished in 1945. Port Blair is a market town with several local museums and an airport.

Port-de-France See Noumea

Port Jackson Inlet of the South Pacific Ocean, New South Wales, southeastern Australia. It is one of the world’s finest natural harbours. It was sighted in 1770 by Capt. James Cook. Its entrance is between North and South Heads, where naval and military stations are located. Sydney is on its southern shore and the northern suburbs of Sydney are on its north¬ ern shore; the shores are joined by the Sydney Harbour Bridge, which was built in 1932.

Port Louis City (pop., 2000: 148,506), capital, and main port of Mau¬ ritius. It was founded c. 1736 by the French as a port for ships rounding the Cape of Good Hope to and from Asia and Europe. With the comple¬ tion of the Suez Canal in 1869, the city’s importance declined. It is the principal commercial centre of the island; its primary export is sugar.

Port Moresby City (pop., 1997: 271,813), capital of Papua New Guinea, on the southeastern coast of the Gulf of Papua. Its large, shel¬ tered harbour was explored by British Capt. John Moresby in 1873. The British annexed the area in 1883-84. The town became a main Allied base in World War II. The National Capital District, established in 1974, includes all of Port Moresby; it became the capital when Papua New Guinea became independent in 1975. A commercial centre, the city is also the site of a university.

Port of Spain City (pop., 1996 est.: 43,396), seaport, and capital of Trinidad and Tobago. Formerly the capital of the West Indies Federation, it is located in the northwestern part of the island of Trinidad on the Gulf of Paria. It is an air transport centre for the Caribbean and has a diver¬ sified economy, producing rum, beer, and lumber. It is also a principal port and shipping centre; exports include oil, sugar, citrus, and asphalt.

Port Said \sa-'ed, 'sid\ Seaport city (pop., 1996 est.: 470,000), northeast¬ ern Egypt. It is on the Mediterranean Sea at the northern end of the Suez Canal. Founded in 1859 on a narrow, sandy strip separating the Mediter¬ ranean from Lake Manzilah, it became the world’s most important coaling station. It was the landing point of French and British troops during the Suez Crisis (1956) that followed Egypt’s nationalization of the Suez Canal. In the Six- Day War of 1967, Israeli forces occupied the eastern bank of the canal, which was closed until 1975. The city was revitalized after 1975, and its industries include textiles, clothing, cosmetics, and glass.

Port-Vila See Vila

porte cochere V.port-ko-'sherX (French: “coach door”) Passageway through a building, or gateway in an outer wall, designed to let vehicles pass from the street to an interior courtyard. Such gateways are common features of homes and palaces built in the grand style of Louis XIV and Louis XV. The term also applies to a roofed structure extending from the entrance of a building over an adjacent driveway.

Porter, Cole (Albert) (b. June 9, 1891, Peru, Ind., U.S.—d. Oct. 15, 1964, Santa Monica, Calif.) U.S. composer and lyricist. Porter was born to an affluent family and studied violin and piano as a child and com¬ posed an operetta at age 10. As a student at Yale University he composed about 300 songs, including “Bulldog”; he went on to study law and then music at Harvard. He made his Broadway debut with the musical com¬ edy See America First (1916). In 1917 he went to France and became an itinerant playboy; though rather openly homosexual, he married a wealthy divorcee. He wrote songs for the Broadway success Paris (1928), and this led to a series of his own hit musicals, including Anything Goes (1934), Red, Hot and Blue (1934), Kiss Me, Kate (1948), Can-Can (1953), and Silk Stockings (1955). Porter also worked on a number of films, such as High Society (1956). His witty, sophisticated songs, for which he wrote

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1532 I Porter ► Portsmouth

both words and music, include “Night and Day,” “I Get a Kick Out of You,” “Begin the Beguine,” and “I’ve Got You Under My Skin.” Porter’s large output might have been even more vast had not a riding accident in 1937 necessitated 30 operations and eventually the amputation of a leg.

Porter, David (b. Feb. 1, 1780, Boston, Mass., U.S.—d. March 3,1843, Pera, Tur.) U.S. naval officer. He joined the navy (1798) and served in the Tripolitan War. In the War of 1812 he commanded the Essex, the first U.S. warship to operate in the Pacific Ocean; he captured several British whal¬ ing vessels and took possession of Nuku Hiva, the largest of the Marquesas Islands (1813). He was blockaded by British frigates in Valparaiso, Chile, where he surrendered (1814). He served on the board of naval commis¬ sioners (1815-23) and commanded a squadron to suppress piracy in the West Indies (1823-25). For unauthorized action against Spanish authori¬ ties in Puerto Rico, he was court-martialed and suspended from duty. He resigned in 1826 and became commander of the Mexican navy (1826-29).

Porter, David Dixon (b. June 8, 1813, Chester, Pa., U.S.—d. Feb. 13, 1891, Washington, D.C.) U.S. naval officer. He served under his father,

David Porter, in the West Indies and in the Mexican navy before joining the U.S. Navy in 1829. Promoted to commander in the American Civil War, he served under his foster brother, David Farragut, to help win the Battle of New Orleans. In 1863 he succeeded in running his fleet past the Confederate fort at Vicksburg to meet Ulysses S. Grant’s troops and complete the effort to open the Mis¬ sissippi River to Union forces. After the war he served as superintendent of the U.S. Naval Academy (1865—

69) and was promoted to admiral

(1870).

Porter, Fitz-John (b. Aug. 31,

1822, Portsmouth, N.H., U.S.—d.

May 21, 1901, Morristown, N.J.) U.S. army officer. He graduated from West Point and later taught there (1849-55). In the American Civil War he was made a brigadier general of volunteers. In the Second Battle of Bull Run he served under Gen. John Pope, who blamed Porter for the Union’s defeat. At his court-martial, Porter claimed that Pope’s orders were con¬ fusing and impossible to execute, but he was found guilty and cashiered. In 1879 he won a review of his case, which supported his claim of inno¬ cence. In 1886 he was reappointed an army officer and placed, at his own request, on the retired list.

Porter, Katherine Anne (b. May 15, 1890, Indian Creek, Texas, U.S.—d. Sept. 18, 1980, Silver Spring, Md.) U.S. writer. She worked as m a journalist in Chicago and Denver, Colo., before leaving in 1920 for

Mexico, the setting of several of her stories. Her collections include Flow¬ ering Judas (1930), her first and most popular; Pale Horse, Pale Rider m (1939), a set of three novellas; and Collected Short Stories (1965, Pulitzer

Prize, National Book Award). Her stories have a richness of texture and complexity of character delineation usually achieved only in the novel. Ship of Fools (1962) is her only novel.

portico Colonnaded porch or entrance to a structure, or a covered walk¬ way supported by regularly spaced columns. The portico is a principal feature of Greek temple architecture and thus a prominent element in Roman and all subsequent Classically inspired structures.

Portillo, Jose Lopez See Jose Lopez Portillo

Portland Seaport city (pop., 2000: 64,249), southwestern Maine, U.S. First settled in 1633, it was raided by Indians in 1676 and by French and Indians in 1690. It was incorporated as a town in 1786 and was the state capital 1820-31. A fire destroyed much of the city centre in 1866, but Portland was again rebuilt. The state’s largest city, it is the hub of a met¬ ropolitan area that includes the cities of South Portland and Westbrook and many towns. It is built largely on two hilly peninsulas overlooking Casco Bay. The city’s diversified manufactures include semiconductors, food products, stainless steel, and printed materials. Ship modernization and commercial fishing also are important. It was the birthplace of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.

Portland City (pop., 2000: 529,121) and port, northwestern Oregon, U.S. Situated on the Willamette River, southeast of its confluence with the Columbia River, Portland was settled in 1829 on the site of an early Indian campground. It was laid out in 1844 and incorporated in 1851. Early growth was stimulated by gold rushes and the flow of immigrants along the Oregon Trail. It is the state’s largest city and principal port. Exports include lumber, aluminum, and wheat. Shipbuilding and meat-packing are important industries. It is the site of many educational institutions, includ¬ ing Lewis and Clark College (1867) and Reed College.

Portland cement Binding agent of present-day concrete. It is a finely ground powder made by burning and grinding a limestone mixed with clay or shale. Its inventor, Joseph Aspdin (1799-1855), patented the pro¬ cess in 1824, naming the material for its resemblance to the limestone of the Isle of Portland, England. The cement combines chemically with the water it is mixed with, then hardens and strengthens.

Portland Vase Roman vase (1st century ad) of dark-blue glass deco¬ rated with white figures, the finest surviving Roman example of cameo glass. It came into the possession of the duke of Portland in the 18th cen¬ tury. The vase has been extensively copied, particularly in the Victorian period. The most accurate copies were made in jasperware with white figures in relief (by Josiah Wedg¬ wood, 1790) and in glass (1876). In 1845, while in the British Museum (where it still resides), the original vase was smashed, necessitating painstaking restoration.

Porto \'por-tu\ Portuguese Oporto Seaport city (pop., 2001 prelim.: 262,928), northwestern Por¬ tugal. On the right (north) bank of the Douro River, Porto was called Portus Cale in Roman times and was earlier a flourishing settlement on the Douro’s south bank. Held succes¬ sively by the Alani, Visigoths,

Moors, and Christians, it became an important port in the 14th century. Henry the Navigator was bom there in 1394. It was the site of a British victory over the French in the 1809 Pen¬ insular War. World-famous for its port wine, Porto is Portugal’s second largest city and the region’s commercial and industrial centre.

Porto Alegre Vpor-tu-a-Ta-gre\ Port and city (pop., 2002: city, 1,342,900; metro, area, 3,765,500), southern Brazil. Located along the Guafba River near the Atlantic Ocean coast, it was founded c. 1742 by immigrants from the Azores. It was first known as Porto dos Casais. It received many German and Italian settlers in the 19th century. It is a cen¬ tre of inland navigation and is the most important Brazilian commercial city south of Sao Paulo; exports include rice, tobacco, and hides. Indus¬ tries include shipbuilding and the manufacture of textiles, pharmaceuti¬ cals, and chemicals. It is also an educational centre.

Porto-Novo \,p6r-t6-'n6-v6\ City (pop. 2004 est.: 234,300), seaport, and capital of Benin, on the Gulf of Guinea, western Africa. Situated on a coastal lagoon in the southeastern part of the country, it was probably founded in the late 16th century as the centre of the kingdom of Porto- Novo. The Portuguese established a trading post in the 17th century, and it became a centre of the Atlantic slave trade. It became a short-lived French protectorate in 1863 and attained that status again in 1882. The ruins of old African palaces remain, and there are many colonial-style buildings, including the old Portuguese cathedral. Porto-Novo was estab¬ lished as the official capital of the country by the constitution, but only the legislature is found there; the president, most government ministers, and the judiciary reside in Cotonou.

Portsmouth Vport-smotIA City and unitary authority (pop., 2001: 186,704), geographic and historic county of Hampshire, southern England. The seaport city is a major naval base and, with Southsea, a popular holi¬ day resort. Located on the island of Portsea in the English Channel, Ports¬ mouth was founded and received its first charter in 1194. A naval dockyard was established in 1496 and greatly expanded after 1698. Covering more

David Dixon Porter, photograph; in the Mathew Brady collection

COURTESY OF THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

Portland Vase, Roman cameo glass, 1 st century ad; in the British Museum

COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Portsmouth ► positivism I 1533

than 300 acres (120 hectares), the dockyard is the city’s main source of employment. Portsmouth suffered extensive damage from German bomb¬ ing in World War II. Important industries are shipbuilding and aircraft engineering. The city was the birthplace of Charles Dickens.

Portsmouth City (pop., 2000: 100,565) and seaport, southeastern Vir¬ ginia, U.S. Located on the Elizabeth River opposite Norfolk, with Nor¬ folk and Newport News, Portsmouth makes up the Port of Hampton Roads. Founded in 1752 and named after Portsmouth, Eng., it was occupied by both British and American troops during the American Revolution. It was incorporated as a city in 1858. During the American Civil War the U.S. Navy Yard was evacuated by Union troops, allowing Southern troops access to stores of equipment; Portsmouth was recaptured in 1862. It is part of the U.S. military complex at Hampton Roads. Shipbuilding and ship repair are the main economic activities, augmented by various manu¬ factures.

Portsmouth, Treaty of (1905) Peace settlement that ended the Russo- Japanese War. It was mediated by Pres. Theodore Roosevelt and signed at the U.S. naval base near Portsmouth, N.H. By its terms, Russia recog¬ nized Japan as the dominant power in Korea and ceded its leases to Port Arthur (now Lushun) and the Liaodong Peninsula, as well as the south¬ ern half of Sakhalin, to Japan. Both powers agreed to restore Manchuria to China.

Portugal officially Portuguese Republic Country, on the west coast of the Iberian Peninsula, southwestern Europe. Area: 35,580 sq mi (92,152 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 10,513,000. Capital: Lisbon. Most of the

Mount Coroa

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