Britannica Concise 2005

black bass Any of about six species (genus Micropterus) of slender freshwater fishes of the sunfish family; found in eastern North America. Two, the largemouth and smallmouth black basses, have been introduced into other countries and are prized as hard-fighting game fishes. Black basses are larger and longer-bodied than sunfishes and more predatory. The largemouth bass may grow to 32 in. (80 cm) long and weigh 22 lbs (10 kg); it lives in quiet weedy lakes and streams. The smallmouth bass, which usually grows to 5-6 lbs (2-3 kg), inhabits clear, cool lakes and running streams.

black bear Forest-dwelling bear (Ursus americanus) that, despite reductions in population and range, is still the most common North American bear. The adult ranges from 5 to 6 ft (150-180 cm) in length and weighs 200-600 lbs (90-270 kg). It has various colour morphs but always a brown face and usually a white chest mark. It eats animals and vegetation, including pinecones, ber¬ ries, and roots. It frequently raids campsites and seizes anything edible. Though it may be tamed and taught tricks, it often becomes dan¬ gerous when mature.

Black Canyon of the Gunni¬ son National Park Park, west¬ ern Colorado, U.S. Comprising a narrow, deep gorge of the Gunnison River, the preserve, established as a national monument in 1933 and elevated to a national park in 1999, occu¬ pies an area of 51 sq mi (133 sq km). The canyon derives its name from its black-stained, lichen-covered walls, which accentuate the gloom of the chasm.

black codes Laws, enacted in the former Confederate states after the American Civil War, that restricted the freedom of former slaves and were designed to assure white supremacy. They originated in the slave codes, which defined slaves as property. In some states these codes included vagrancy laws that targeted unemployed blacks, apprentice laws that made black orphans and dependents available for hire to whites, and commer¬ cial laws that excluded blacks from certain trades and businesses and restricted their ownership of property. Northern reaction to the laws helped produce Radical Reconstruction and passage of the 14th and 15th amendments to the Constitution, as well as creation of the Freedmen's Bureau. Many provisions of the black codes were reenacted in the Jim Crow laws and remained in force until the 1964 Civil Rights Act.

Black Death Fierce and widespread outbreak of plague, probably bubonic and pneumonic, that ravaged Europe during the 14th century. The epidemic originated in Asia and was transmitted to Europeans in 1347 when a Turkic army besieging a Genoese trading post in the Crimea cata¬ pulted plague-infested corpses into the town. It spread from the Mediter¬ ranean ports and ravaged all of Europe between 1347 and 1351. Renewed outbreaks occurred in 1361-63, 1369-71, 1374-75, 1390, and 1400. Towns and cities were more heavily hit than the countryside, and whole communities were sometimes destroyed. Much of Europe’s economy was devastated. About one-third of the European population, or a total of 25 million people, died in the Black Death.

black-eyed pea See cowpea

black-eyed Susan Either of two North American coneflowers ( Rud- beckia hirta and R. serotina ) having flower heads with deep yellow to orange petals and dark conical centers. The stems are rough and hairy; the leaves are large and ovate at the base of the plant and narrow at the top.

black-figure pottery Type of Greek pottery that originated in Corinth c. 700 bc. The figures were painted in black pigment on the natural red clay ground. Finishing details were then incised into the black pigment,

(Ursus americanus) that, despite

American black bear (Ursus america¬ nus)

LEONARD LEE RUE III

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Black Forest ► black market I 227

revealing the red ground. The great Attic painters (mid 6th century bc), most notably Exekias, developed nar¬ rative scene decoration and perfected the style. It continued to be popular until the advent of red-figure pottery ( c. 530 bc).

Black Forest German Schwarz- wald Vshfarts-.vahA Mountain region, Baden-Wlirttemberg, south¬ western Germany. It extends in a fairly narrow strip about 100 mi (160 km) along the eastern bank of the upper Rhine River, from the Neckar River to the Swiss border. Its highest peak is Feldberg, at 4,897 ft (1,493 m). Its name comes from its dark interior, the higher parts being thickly forested with fir and pine. It is the source of the Neckar and Danube rivers. The setting of many of the Grimm brothers’ fairy tales, it is famed for the beauty and charm of its villages and rolling hills. Winter sports are prominent in the area, which also has many mineral springs and watering places, including the spa town of Baden-Baden.

Black Friday Day (Sept. 24, 1869) when plunging gold prices precipi¬ tated a U.S. stock-market panic. An attempt by Jay Gould and James Fisk to corner the market in gold and drive up its price depended on prevent¬ ing the sale of government gold, an arrangement assured through the two men’s political influence. When Pres. Ulysses S. Grant heard of the scheme, he ordered the government to sell $4 million in gold, which caused the price to drop and produced a panic selling of other stocks.

black gum or sour gum Most widely distributed tupelo, Nyssa syl- vatica, also known as black tupelo or pepperidge tree. It is found in moist areas of the eastern U.S. from Maine south to the Gulf Coast and west¬ ward to Oklahoma. Its wood is light and soft but tough. The black gum is sometimes grown as an ornamental and is prized for its brilliant scar¬ let autumnal foliage.

Dionysus and satyrs, amphora painted in the black-figure style by the Amasis Painter, c. 540 bc; in the Antikenmu- seum, Basel, Switz.

COURTESY OF THE ANTIKENMUSEUM, BASEL, SWITZ.; PHOTOGRAPH, COLORPHOTO HANS HINZ

Black Hand Secret Serbian society formed in 1911 primarily by army officers, which used terrorist methods to promote the liberation of Serbs outside Serbia from Habsburg or Ottoman rule. It conducted propaganda campaigns, organized armed bands in Macedonia, and established revo¬ lutionary cells throughout Bosnia. Within Serbia it dominated the army and wielded tremendous influence over the government. It gained its greatest notoriety with the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand in 1914. After a trial in 1917, three leaders were executed and more than

200 were imprisoned. The name also run by immigrant Sicilian and Italian gangsters in the Italian communities of many large U.S. cities c. 1890- 1920. Local merchants and wealthy individuals would receive threaten¬ ing notes printed with black hands, daggers, or other menacing symbols that demanded money on pain of death or destruction of property. It declined with the beginning of Pro¬ hibition and large-scale bootlegging.

Black Hawk (b. 1767, Sauk Sau- tenuk, Va.—d. Oct. 3, 1838, village on the Des Moines River, Iowa, U.S.) Sauk Indian leader. Long antagonistic to whites, Black Hawk was driven into Iowa from Illinois in 1831. Defying the government orders to vacate villages along the Rock River in Illinois, he led a fac¬ tion of Sauk and Fox Indians back across the Mississippi River the fol¬ lowing year. This act led to the brief

referred to several extortion rackets

Black Hawk, oil painting by George Catlin, 1832; in the National Museum of American Art, Smithsonian Institu¬ tion, Washington, D.C.

COURTESY OF NATIONAL MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ART, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, WASHINGTON, D.C.

but tragic Black Hawk War of 1832. He himself survived the final battle, a massacre. The ruthlessness of the war so affected neighbouring Indian groups that by 1837 most had fled far west, leaving most of the North¬ west Territory to white settlers.

Black Hills Group of mountains in western South Dakota and north¬ eastern Wyoming, U.S. Occupying about 6,000 sq mi (15,540 sq km), they lie between the Cheyenne and Belle Fourche rivers and rise to a maximum elevation of 7,242 ft (2,207 m) at Harney Peak. Their name refers to the dark appearance that their rounded hilltops and well-forested slopes present at a distance. The Sioux Indians were guaranteed treaty rights to the region in 1868; however, the discovery of gold in 1874 led to an influx of white miners and to the Black Hills War (1876), including the Battle of the Little Bighorn. Tourist attractions include the mining town of Dead- wood, Mount Rushmore and Jewel Cave national monuments, Wind Cave National Park, and Custer State Park, all in South Dakota, and Devils Tower National Monument in Wyoming.

black hole Cosmic body with gravity (see gravitation) so intense that nothing, not even light, can escape. It is suspected to form in the death and collapse of a star that has retained at least three times the Sun’s mass. Stars with less mass evolve into white dwarf stars or neutron stars. Details of a black hole’s structure are calculated from Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity: a “singularity” of zero volume and infinite density pulls in all matter and energy that comes within an event horizon, defined by the Schwarzschild radius, around it. Black holes cannot be observed directly because they are small and emit no light. However, their enor¬ mous gravitational fields affect nearby matter, which is drawn in and emits X rays as it collides at high speed outside the event horizon. Some black holes may have nonstellar origins. Astronomers speculate that supermas- sive black holes at the centres of quasars and many galaxies are the source of energetic activity that is observed. Stephen W. Hawking theorized the creation of numerous tiny black holes, possibly no more massive than an asteroid, during the big bang. These primordial “mini black holes” lose mass over time and disappear as a result of Hawking radiation. Although black holes remain theoretical, the case for their existence is supported by many observations of phenomena that match their predicted effects.

black humour Humour marked by the use of morbid, ironic, or gro¬ tesquely comic episodes that ridicule human folly. The term came into common use in the 1960s to describe the work of novelists such as Joseph Heller, whose Catch-22 (1961) is an outstanding example; Kurt Vonnegut, particularly in Slaughterhouse Five (1969); and Thomas Pynchon, in V (1963) and Gravity’s Rainbow (1973). A film exemplar is Stanley Kubrick’s Dr. Strangelove (1963). The term black comedy has been applied to some playwrights in the Theatre of the Absurd, especially Eugene Ionesco.

black lead See graphite

Black Legend Stories from the Spanish colonies in the Americas that led to the general belief, eagerly endorsed by such rivals as Britain and Holland, that Spain exceeded other nations in cruelty to its subject popu¬ lations. The 16th-century historians Bartolome de Las Casas and Garcilaso de la Vega documented the treatment of the Indians in New Spain (Mexico and Guatemala) and Peru, respectively, and laid the foundation for the legend. Though Spain may not actually have surpassed other colonial powers in cruelty, the Spanish conquest clearly reduced the numbers of indigenous peoples rapidly and caused them great suffering.

black letter or Gothic script or Old English script Style of alpha¬ bet used in handwriting throughout Europe in the Middle Ages. It features uniform vertical strokes that end on the baseline, angular lines instead of smooth curves and circles, and the overlapping of convex forms. Black letter and roman were the dominant letter shapes of medieval typography. The only extant work known to have been printed by Johannes Gutenberg, the 42-line Bible (1450s), was set in black-letter type. Roman type largely superseded it in the Renaissance, though black letter persisted in Germany well into the 20th century. Today black letter is often used for diplomas, Christmas cards, and liturgical writings.

black market Trading in violation of publicly imposed regulations such as rationing laws, laws against the sale of certain goods, and official rates of exchange among currencies. Black-market activity is common in wartime, when scarce goods and services are often strictly rationed (see rationing). Black-market foreign-exchange transactions flourish in coun¬ tries where convertible foreign currency is scarce and foreign exchange is tightly controlled.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

228 I Black Muslims ► blackbird

Black Muslims See Nation of Islam

black nationalism U.S. political and social movement aimed at developing economic power and community and ethnic pride among Afri¬ can Americans. It was proclaimed by Marcus Garvey in the early 20th century, when many U.S. black nationalists hoped for the eventual cre¬ ation of a separate black nation in Africa. In the 1960s and ’70s, Elijah Muhammad and Malcolm X preached the ideal of black nationalism as an alternative to assimilation into the predominantly white culture of the U.S.

Black Panther Party (for Self-Defense) U.S. African American revolutionary party founded in 1966 by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale (b. 1936) in Oakland, Calif. Its original purpose was to protect African Americans from acts of police brutality. Eventually the Panthers devel¬ oped into a Marxist revolutionary group that called for the arming of African Americans, their exemption from the draft, the release of all Afri¬ can American prisoners, and payment of compensation to African Ameri¬ cans for centuries of exploitation by white Americans. By the late 1960s it had more than 2,000 members, with chapters in several major cities; an early spokesman was Eldridge Cleaver (1935-98). Conflicts with police in the late 1960s and early ’70s led to shoot-outs in California, New York, and Chicago, one of which resulted in Newton’s imprisonment for the murder of a police officer. Though some members of the party were guilty of criminal acts, the entire group was subjected to violent attacks by police and harassment by other government agencies, including the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Police activities in dealing with the Panthers were later the subject of congressional investigations. By the mid-1970s, hav¬ ing lost many members and having fallen out of favour with African American leaders, the party turned to providing social services in Afri¬ can American neighbourhoods. By the early 1980s it had effectively dis¬ banded.

black pepper or pepper Perennial, woody climbing vine ( Piper nigrum ) of the family Piperaceae, native to India; also, the hotly pungent spice made from its berries. One of the earliest spices known, pepper is probably the most widely used spice in the world today. It early became an important article of overland trade between India and Europe. The plant is cultivated throughout Indonesia and has been introduced into tropical areas elsewhere. It has broad, shiny leaves and dense, slender spikes of small flowers. The small berrylike fruits are called peppercorns. See also PEPPER.

black sand Accumulation of fragments of durable, usually dark, heavy minerals (those with a density greater than that of quartz). These accu¬ mulations are found in streambeds or on beaches where stream flow and wave energy are sufficient to carry away low-density material but not the heavy minerals. Thus, heavy minerals resistant to weathering and abra¬ sion concentrate in these areas, though they may be only minor constitu¬ ents of inland rocks. Placer mining of such deposits yields magnetite, cassiterite, and zircon, as well as gold, platinum, and other rare metals.

Black Sea Sea between Europe and Asia. Bordered by Ukraine, Rus¬ sia, Georgia, Turkey, Bulgaria, and Romania, it has a maximum depth of 7,250 ft (2,210 m). The Black Sea proper has an area of 163,000 sq mi (422,000 sq km). It is connected with the Aegean Sea through the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, and with the Sea of Azov by Kerch Strait. It receives many rivers, including the Danube, Dni¬ ester, Bug, Dnieper, Kuban, Kizil, and Sakarya. The Crimean Peninsula (see Crimea) extends into it from the north. Created when structural upheavals in Asia Minor split off the Caspian basin from the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea gradually became isolated; salinity is now less than half that of the world’s oceans. Though long popular for its resorts, it has suffered severe pollution in recent decades.

black snake Any of several species of all-black or nearly all-black snakes. Australian black snakes are in the elapid genus Pseudeschis. The black snake of Australian wetlands (P. porphyriacus) grows to an aver¬ age length of 5 ft (1.5 m). If annoyed, it expands its neck, cobra fashion. Its venom is rarely fatal. Other Australian black snakes are the mulga snake (P. australis ) and the spotted black snake (P. guttatus). North Ameri¬ can black snakes include two species in the family Colubridae: the black racer and the pilot black snake ( Elaphe obsoleta).

Black Sox scandal U.S. baseball scandal, centring on the charge that eight members of the Chicago White Sox had been bribed to lose the 1919 World Series to the Cincinnati Reds. Five of those accused admitted to a grand jury that they had thrown the series, but their signed confessions

later disappeared. Although all eight players were acquitted in 1921, com¬ missioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis banned them from playing for life.

Black Stone of Mecca Muslim object of veneration, built into the eastern wall of the Kaaba and probably predating Islam. It consists of three large pieces of stone and some fragments, surrounded by a stone ring and held together with a silver band. According to legend, the stone was given to Adam on his fall from paradise and was originally white but has been made black by the sins of the thousands of pilgrims who have touched and kissed it.

black theatre In the U.S., a dramatic movement encompassing plays written by, for, and about blacks. The first known play by an American black was James Brown’s King Shotaway (1823). After the Civil War, blacks began to perform in minstrel shows, and musicals written, produced, and acted entirely by blacks appeared by c. 1900. The first real success of a black dramatist was Angelina W. Grimke’s Rachel (1916). Theatre flourished during the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s and ’30s, and by 1940 the American Negro Theater and the Negro Playwrights’ Co. were firmly established. After World War II black theatre grew more progres¬ sive and militant, seeking to establish its own mythology, abolish racial stereotypes, and integrate black playwrights into the mainstream. Its stron¬ gest proponent, Amiri Baraka, established the Black Arts Repertory The¬ atre in 1965. In the 1980s and ’90s the African American playwrights Charles Fuller and August Wilson won Pulitzer Prizes.

Black Warrior River Navigable river, western Alabama, U.S. Formed by the confluence of the Locust and Mulberry forks in Jefferson county, it flows southwest through coalfields to join the Tombigbee River near Demopolis. The river is 178 mi (286 km) long and furnishes waterpower above Tuscaloosa.

black widow Any of several black spiders in the genus Latrodectus with a venomous bite that is rarely fatal to humans. Black widow species are found worldwide, with three living in North America. In Australia it is called the redback. The females are shiny black, usually with a reddish hourglass-shaped design on the underside of the spherical abdomen and with a body about 1 in. (2.5 cm) long. The black widow preys on insects. The male, about one-fourth the female’s size, is often killed and eaten by the female after mating (the source of its name).

Blackbeard orig. Edward Teach (b. Bristol?, Eng.—d. Nov. 22, 1718, Ocracoke Island, North Carolina) English pirate. He was probably a privateer in the West Indies until 1716. With his 40-gun warship, he preyed on shipping off the Virginia and Carolina coasts, sharing his prizes with the governor of the North Carolina colony in return for protection. He was eventually killed by a British naval force, and his head, with its great black beard, was affixed to the end of his bowsprit. According to legend, he left a great buried treasure; it has never been found and prob¬ ably never existed.

blackberry Usually prickly, fruit-bearing bush of the genus Rubus, in the rose family, native chiefly to northern temperate regions. The blackberry is abundant in eastern North America and on the Pacific coast; in Europe it is common in thickets and hedges. Its usually bien¬ nial, prickly, and erect, semierect, or trailing stems bear leaves with usu¬ ally three or five oval, coarsely toothed, stalked leaflets; white, pink, or red flowers in terminal clusters; and black or red-purple aggregate fruits. The several trailing species are commonly called dewberries.

Blackberries are a fairly good source of iron and vitamin C.

blackbird In the New World, any of several species of songbirds in the family Icteridae, collectively called icterids; also, an Old World thrush (Turdus merula, family Turdidae). The best known icterid is the red¬ winged blackbird ( Agelaius phoeniceus ), which ranges from Canada to the West Indies and Central America. It is 8 in. (20 cm) long, and the male’s black plumage is set off by red shoulder patches. The Old World blackbird, 10 in. (25 cm) long, is common in woods and gardens throughout temperate Eurasia as well as in Australia and New Zealand. See also grackle.

Blackberry (Rubus).

DEREK FELL

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

blackbody ► Blackwell I 229

blackbody Theoretical surface that absorbs all radiant energy that falls on it, and radiates electromagnetic energy at all frequencies, from radio waves to gamma RAYS, with an intensity distribution dependent on its tem¬ perature. Because all visible light falling on such a surface is absorbed without reflection, the surface will appear black as long as its tempera¬ ture is such that its emission peak is not in the visible portion of the spec¬ trum. See also absorption.

blackcap Common warbler (Sylvia atricapilla, family Sylviidae) from Europe and North Africa to central Asia. It is about 6 in. (14 cm) long and has brownish upper parts, gray underparts and face, and a black (male) or reddish brown (female) crown. Common in woodland bor¬ ders and rough hedges, it has a rich song.

Blackett \'blak-ot\ (of Chelsea),

Patrick M(aynard) S(tuart),

Baron (b. Nov. 18, 1897, London,

Eng.—d. July 13, 1974, London)

British physicist. He graduated from the University of Cambridge in 1921 and spent 10 years at the Cavendish Laboratory, where he developed the Wilson cloud chamber into an instru¬ ment for the study of cosmic radia¬ tion. He was awarded a 1948 Nobel Prize for his discoveries and was made a life peer in 1969.

blackfly Any member of the insect family Simuliidae, comprising 300 species of small, humpbacked dipter- ans found worldwide. Usually black or dark gray, the blackfly has short mouthparts adapted for sucking blood. The females bite and are sometimes abundant enough to kill chickens and even cattle. Some spe¬ cies carry worms capable of causing human disease, including river blind¬ ness. In subarctic regions blackflies may be so numerous that human habitation is impossible.

Blackfoot or Blackfeet Group of ALGONQUiAN-speaking Indian peoples in Alberta, Can., and Montana, U.S., comprising the Piegan (Pikuni or Blackfeet), the North Piegan Pikuni, the Blood (Kainai), and the Blackfoot proper (Siksika). Together they are referred to as Siksika, or Blackfoot, a name thought to have derived from the discoloration of moccasins with ashes. They were among the first Algonquians to move westward from timberland to open grass¬ land and, later, among the first to acquire horses and firearms. They were known as the strongest and most aggressive military power on the north¬ western plains. At the height of their power, in the first half of the 19th century, they held a vast territory extending from northern Saskatchewan to southwestern Montana. Each group was subdivided into hunting bands led by one or more chiefs. These bands wintered separately but came together in summer to celebrate the sun dance. For three decades begin¬ ning in 1806, the Blackfoot prevented white men from settling in their territory. They signed their first treaty with the U.S. in 1855, after which they were forced into farming and cattle raising. Some 10,000 Blackfoot live in Canada, and more than 27,000 claimed sole Blackfoot descent in the 2000 U.S. census, although only 15,000 U.S. Blackfoot are enrolled members. See photograph opposite.

blackjack or twenty-one Card game whose object is to be dealt cards having a higher count than those of the dealer, up to but not exceed¬ ing 21. The dealer may use a single deck of 52 cards or two or more decks from a holder called a shoe. Aces count as 1 or 11, and face cards as 10. Depending on the rules used, bets may be placed before the deal, after each player has been dealt one card facedown, or after each player has received two cards facedown and the dealer has exposed one of his cards.

blackmail See extortion

Blackmun, Harry (b. Nov. 12, 1908, Nashville, Ill., U.S.—d. March 4, 1999, Arlington, Va.) U.S. jurist. He received his law degree from Har¬ vard (1932) and taught law at the St. Paul College of Law (1935-41) while advancing to general partner in a Minnesota law firm. After serving as resident counsel to the Mayo Clinic (1950-59), he was appointed to the Eighth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals. In 1970 Pres. Richard Nixon named him to the Supreme Court of the United States, where he served until 1994. Perceived as a conservative when he began his Supreme Court service, Blackmun became increasingly liberal over the years. He wrote the major¬ ity decision in Roe v. Wade (1973).

blackpoll warbler Species (Dendroica striata) of wood warbler. Like all wood warblers, it is a small, active bird that feeds on insects and has a short thin bill. A common species, it is less striking than many other wood warblers, which are known for their brightly coloured plumage.

Blackshirts Italian Camicie Nere Armed squads of Italian Fascists under Benito Mussolini who wore black shirts as part of their uniform. The squads, first organized in 1919, targeted socialists, communists, republi¬ cans, and others. Hundreds of people were killed as the squads grew in number. In 1922 Blackshirts from all over Italy participated in the March on Rome (see Rome, March on). In 1923 the private Blackshirts were offi¬ cially transformed into a national militia. With Mussolini’s fall in 1943, the Blackshirts fell into disgrace.

Blackstone, Sir William (b. July 10, 1723, London, Eng.—d. Feb. 14, 1780, Wallingford, Oxfordshire) British jurist. Orphaned at age 12, he was educated at public school and later at Pembroke College, Oxford, at the expense of his uncle, a London surgeon. He was elected a fellow of All Souls College in 1744, and in 1746 he became a barrister. Having taken a doctorate in civil law in 1750, he abandoned his legal practice in 1753 to concentrate on teaching and legal work around Oxford. He gave the first university lectures on English common law, publishing a synopsis for students in 1756. He was elected to the first chair in common law, the Vinerian professorship at Oxford, in 1758. His classic Commentaries on the Laws of England (1765—69) is the best-known description of the doc¬ trines of English law; it became the basis of university legal education in England and North America. He also served as a member of Parliament (1761-70), as solicitor general to the queen (from 1763), and as judge of the Court of Common Pleas (1770-80).

Blackstone River River, central Massachusetts and Rhode Island, U.S. It flows about 50 mi (80 km) past Worcester and across northeastern Rhode Island to Pawtucket, where it becomes the Seekonk River. It fur¬ nishes power to a highly industrialized area.

Blackwell, Elizabeth (b. Feb. 3, 1821, Counterslip, Bristol, Glouc¬ estershire, Eng.—d. May 31, 1910, Hastings, Sussex) British-born U.S. physician. Her family immigrated to the U.S. in 1832. She began her medical education by reading medical books and hiring private instruc¬ tors. Medical schools rejected her applications until she was accepted at

can Indian

COURTESY OF THE EDWARD E. AYER COLLECTION, THE NEWBERRY LIBRARY, CHICAGO

E.S. ROSS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

230 I Blackwell's Island ► Blakeslee

the Geneva Medical (later Hobart) College in 1847. Though ostracized, she graduated at the head of her class in 1849, becoming the first woman doctor in modern times and the first to gain her degree from a U.S. medi¬ cal school. In 1857, despite much opposition, she established the New York Infirmary, staffed entirely by women, and she later added a full course of medical education for women. She was also a founder of the London School of Medicine for Women. Her sister Emily (1826-1910) ran the infirmary for many years and served as dean and professor at the associated medical college.

Blackwell's Island See Roosevelt Island

bladder cancer Malignant tumour of the bladder. The most significant risk factor associated with bladder cancer is smoking. Exposure to chemi¬ cals called arylamines, which are used in the leather, rubber, printing, and textiles industries, is another risk factor. Most bladder cancers are diag¬ nosed after the age of 60; men are affected more than women. Symptoms include blood in the urine, difficulty urinating, excessive urination, or, more rarely, painful urination. Bladder cancer can be treated with surgery, radiation therapy, or chemotherapy.

bladderwort Any of about 120 widespread species of terrestrial and aquatic carnivorous plants of the genus Utricularia (family Lentibulari- aceae). They are characterized by small hollow sacs (bladders) that actively capture and digest tiny animals that touch them, including insect larvae, aquatic worms, water fleas, and other small swimmers. Closely related to the bladderworts are the butterworts ( Pinguicula ), 35 species of land plants that capture insects by means of sticky glands on the leaf sur¬ faces.

Blaine, James G(illespie) (b. Jan. 31, 1830, West Brownsville, Pa., U.S.—d. Jan. 27, 1893, Washington, D.C.) U.S. politician and diplomat. He moved to Maine in 1854 to become editor of the Kennebec Journal , a crusading Republican newspaper. He served in the U.S. House of Rep¬ resentatives (1863-76), becoming speaker in 1868. An advocate of mod¬ eration in the Republican Party, he opposed the Radical Republicans led by Roscoe Conkling. Elected to the U.S. Senate in 1876, he resigned his seat in 1881 to become secretary of state. In this office he took the first steps toward securing U.S. control of the eventual route of the Panama Canal. As the Republican presidential candidate in 1884 he narrowly lost to Grover Cleveland. As secretary of state for a second time in 1889-92, he chaired the first Pan-American Conference.

Blair, Henry William (b. Dec. 6, 1834, Campton, N.H., U.S.—d. March 14, 1920, Washington, D.C.) U.S. politician. He practiced law from 1859 and served in the New Hampshire state legislature before being elected to the U.S. House of Representatives (1875-79) and Senate (1879-91). In 1876 he sought to give revenues from the sale of public lands to the nation’s schools, and in 1881 he proposed to “vitalize” the schools with a $ 120-million grant to the states; neither effort succeeded. He also advocated women’s rights and racial justice.

Blair, Tony orig. Anthony Charles Lynton (b. May 6, 1953, Edin¬ burgh, Scot.) British politician who in 1997 became the country’s young¬ est prime minister since 1812. Blair was a lawyer before winning election to the House of Commons in 1983. Entering the shadow cabinet of the Labour Party in 1988 at age 35, Blair urged the party to move to the politi¬ cal centre and deemphasize its traditional advocacy of state control and public ownership of certain sectors of the economy. He assumed leader¬ ship of Labour in 1994 and revamped its platform. He led the party to victories in the 1997, 2001, and 2005 elections. His government brokered a peace agreement between unionists and republicans in Northern Ireland, introduced devolved assemblies in Wales and Scotland, and carried out reforms of Parliament. After the September 11 attacks on the U.S. in 2001, Blair allied the United Kingdom with the U.S. and its president, George W. Bush, in a global war against terrorism. In late 2002 Blair and Bush accused the Iraqi government of Saddam Hussein of continuing to possess and develop biological, chemical, and nuclear weapons in violation of UN mandates. Despite deep divisions within his own party and strong public opposition to a war with Iraq, Blair, with Bush, led an attack on Iraq that toppled Hussein’s regime in March-April 2003.

Blais Vble\, Marie-Claire (b. Oct. 5, 1939, Quebec, Que., Can.) French-Canadian novelist and poet. In two early, dreamlike novels, Mad Shadows (1959) and Tete blanche (1960), she staked out her territory, working-class people doomed to unrelieved sorrow and grinding poverty. A Season in the Life of Emmanuel (1965) received the Prix Medicis and

was widely translated and discussed. Later works include The Manu¬ scripts of Pauline Archange (1968, Governor General’s Award) and Deaf to the City (1979, Governor General’s Award). She received the Gover¬ nor General’s Award again in 1996 for Soifs (1995). She has also pub¬ lished poetry collections and several plays.

Blake, Edward (b. Oct. 13, 1833, Adelaide, Upper Canada—d. March 1, 1912, Toronto, Ont., Can.) Canadian politician. Blake was called to the bar in 1856 and created a queen’s counsel in 1864. In 1867 he was elected to the Canadian House of Commons. He served as premier of Ontario (1871-72) and minister of justice (1875-77) in Alexander Mackenzie’s cabinet, helping draft the constitution. He was leader of the Liberal Party (1880-87). In 1890 he withdrew from Canadian politics and moved to Ireland, where he served in the British House of Commons (1892-1907).

Blake, Eubie orig. James Hubert Blake (b. Feb. 7, 1883, Balti¬ more, Md., U.S.—d. Feb. 12, 1983, Brooklyn, N.Y.) U.S. songwriter and pianist. He played piano in cafes and brothels as a teenager, and in 1899 he composed his first ragtime song, “Sounds of Africa.” He and his part¬ ner, lyricist and vocalist Noble Sissle (1889-1975), were among the first African American performers to appear onstage without minstrel makeup. Their show Shuffle Along (1921), which introduced Paul Robeson and Josephine Baker, was among the first musicals written, produced, and directed by African Americans. In 1925 Blake cowrote the score to Black¬ birds of 1930. He achieved his greatest fame when the musical Eubie opened on Broadway (1978). He gave his last concert in 1982.

Blake, William (b. Nov. 28, 1757, London, Eng.—d. Aug. 12, 1827, London) English poet, painter, engraver, and visionary. Though he did not attend school, he was trained as an engraver at the Royal Academy and opened a print shop in London in 1784. He developed an innovative technique for producing coloured engravings and began producing his own illustrated books of poetry with his “illuminated printing,” including Songs of Innocence (1789), The Marriage of Heaven and Hell (1793), and Songs of Experience (1794). Jerusalem (1804-20), his third major epic treating the fall and redemption of humanity, is his most richly decorated book. His other major works include The Four Zoas (1795-1804) and Milton (1804-08).

A late series of 22 watercolours inspired by the Book of Job includes some of his best-known pictures. He was called mad because he was single-minded and unworldly; he lived on the edge of poverty and died in neglect. His books form one of the most strikingly original and inde¬ pendent bodies of work in the Western cultural tradition. Ignored by the public of his day, he is now regarded as one of the earliest and greatest figures of Romanticism.

Blakelock, Ralph (b. Oct. 15, 1847, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Aug. 9, 1919, near Elizabethtown, N.Y.) U.S. painter. A self-taught artist, he developed a highly original and subjective style of landscape painting, characterized by luminous impasto images of moonlit scenes with noc¬ turnal lighting and strangely dappled trees and foliage. Neglected by the public and constantly under the strain of poverty, he suffered a breakdown in 1899, ceased to paint, and spent the rest of his life in an asylum. Dur¬ ing his confinement he achieved some fame, and forgeries of his work became common as his popularity rose.

Blakeslee, Albert Francis (b. Nov. 9, 1874, Geneseo, N.Y., U.S.—d. Nov. 16, 1954, Northampton, Mass.) U.S. botanist and geneticist. He received his Ph.D. from Harvard University. In his dissertation he became the first person to describe sexuality in the lower fungi. His later experi¬ mental work focused on higher plants. After a long tenure with the Car¬ negie Institution’s Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (1915—41), he joined the faculty of Smith College, where he published a series of papers on the genetics and cell biology of jimsonweed. He used the alkaloid colchicine

//

William Blake, watercolour portrait by John Linnell; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

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© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Blakey ► Blasis I 231

to achieve an increase in the number of chromosomes and thus opened up a new field of artificially produced polyploids.

Blakey, Art later Abdullah Ibn Buhaina (b. Oct. 11, 1919, Pitts¬ burgh, Pa., U.S.—d. Oct. 16, 1990, New York, N.Y.) U.S. jazz drummer and bandleader. He worked with Fletcher Henderson’s big band before joining Billy Eckstine’s forward-looking ensemble (1944-47). Blakey’s prodigious technique and thunderous attack assured his role as one of the principal drum stylists in modern jazz. With Horace Silver, Blakey formed the Jazz Messengers in 1954, and the group, with its aggressive blues- inflected approach, became the archetypal hard-bop unit (see bebop).

Blalock Vbla-JakV Alfred (b. April 5, 1899, Culloden, Ga., U.S.—d. Sept. 15, 1964, Baltimore, Md.) U.S. surgeon. He received an M.D. from Johns Hopkins University. His research, showing that traumatic and hem¬ orrhagic shock resulted from loss of blood volume, led to volume- replacement treatment, which saved countless lives during World War II. He is remembered for his development, with Helen Brooke Taussig, of a surgical treatment for heart malformations in newborns. In 1944 he per¬ formed the first subclavian-pulmonary artery anastomosis operation, which corrected the birth defect.

His balloon flights in other European countries and in the U.S. in 1793 spurred an interest in ballooning. He and his wife performed many exhibitions in Europe; they died in separate balloon accidents.

Blanchard Vblan-chordV, Thomas (b. June 24, 1788, Sutton, Mass., U.S.—d. April 16, 1864, Boston, Mass.) U.S. inventor. In 1818 he invented a lathe capable of turning irregular shapes, such as a gunstock. It duplicated the form of a pattern object by transmitting to the cutting tool the motion of a friction wheel rolling over the pattern. His invention was an essential step in the development of mass production techniques. He produced several successful designs of shallow-draft steamboats, and in 1849 he invented machinery for bending wood into complex shapes such as plow handles and ship’s frames.

Blanda, George (Frederick) (b. Sept. 17, 1927, Youngwood, Pa., U.S.) U.S. football player. He played for the University of Kentucky. As a professional quarterback and kicker, he played for the Chicago Bears (1949-58), Houston Oilers (1960-66), and Oakland Raiders (1967-76), setting still-standing records for most seasons played (26), most games played (340), and most points after touchdowns (943). His record for most field goals (335) was broken in 1983.

blank verse Unrhymed verse, specifically unrhymed iambic pentam¬ eter, the preeminent dramatic and narrative verse form in English. It is also the standard form for dramatic verse in Italian and German. Adapted from Greek and Latin sources, it was introduced in Italy, then in England, where in the 16th century William Shakespeare transformed blank verse into a vehicle for the greatest English dramatic poetry, and its potential for grandeur was confirmed with John Milton’s Paradise Lost (1667).

Blanqui \bla n -'ke\, (Louis-) Auguste (b. Feb. 1, 1805, Puget- Theniers, France—d. Jan. 1, 1881, Paris) French socialist and revolution¬ ary. A legendary martyr-figure of French radicalism, Blanqui believed that there could be no socialist transformation of society without a temporary dictatorship that would eradicate the old order. His activities, including the formation of various secret societies, caused him to be imprisoned various times for a total of more than 33 years. His disciples, the Blan- quists, played an important role in the history of the workers’ movement even after his death.

blanquillo See tilefish

Blanton, Jimmy orig. James Blanton (b. October 1918, Chatta¬ nooga, Tenn., U.S.—d. July 30, 1942, Monrovia, Calif.) U.S. jazz musi¬ cian. He joined Duke Ellington’s orchestra as a string bass player in 1939. Blanton’s buoyant rhythmic approach and harmonic subtlety provided a supple, relaxed sense of swing for the band. His unprecedented dexterity, tone, and intonation enabled him to execute a melodic conception of the role of the bass in jazz, demonstrated on recordings made with Ellington such as “Jack the Bear” and “Pitter Panther Patter.” His revolutionary technique changed jazz bass playing and became the major influence on subsequent bassists. He died of tuberculosis.

Blantyre \blan-'tlr\ City (pop., 2003 est.: 646,235), southern Malawi. It is the largest city in Malawi and the seat of the country’s judiciary. Blantyre was founded in 1876 as a Church of Scotland mission station and named after explorer David Livingstone’s Scottish birthplace. It became a British consular post in 1883 and attained municipal status in 1895; it is Malawi’s oldest municipality. Its colonial trade laid the foundation for its present importance as Malawi’s chief commercial centre. In 1956 Blan¬ tyre was united with nearby Limbe.

Blarney Village (pop., 2002: 2,146), County Cork, Ireland. Situated northwest of the city of Cork, it is famous as the site of Blarney Castle (c. 1446). Below the battlements on the southern castle wall is the Blar¬ ney Stone, which in local legend is said to confer eloquence on anyone who kisses it.

Blasco Ibanez Vblas-ko-e-'ban-yathX, Vicente (b. Jan. 29, 1867, Valencia, Spain—d. Jan. 28, 1928, Menton, France) Spanish writer and politician. An ardent republican, he was elected to the Cortes (parliament) but later settled on the French Riviera because of his opposition to the military dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera. His early novels are pri¬ marily intense depictions of life in Valencia. He achieved world renown for his novels dealing with World War I, especially The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (1916).

Blasis \'bla-ses. Carlo (b. Nov. 4, 1803, Naples, Kingdom of Naples—d. Jan. 15, 1878, Cernobbio, Italy) Italian ballet teacher and

Blanc \'bla n \, (Jean-Joseph-Charles-) Louis (b. Oct. 29, 1811, Madrid, Spain—d. Dec. 6, 1882,

Cannes, France) French utopian socialist and journalist. In 1839 he founded the socialist newspaper Revue du Progres and serially pub¬ lished his The Organization of Labour , which described his theory of worker-controlled “social work¬ shops” that would gradually take over production until a socialist soci¬ ety came into being. He was a mem¬ ber of the provisional government of the Second Republic (1848) but was forced to flee to England after work¬ ers unsuccessfully revolted. In exile (1848-70), he wrote a history of the French Revolution and other politi¬ cal works.

Louis Blanc.

H. ROGER-VIOLLET

Blanc \'blaqk\, Mel(vin Jer¬ ome) (b. May 30, 1908, San Fran¬ cisco, Calif., U.S.—d. July 10, 1989,

Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. entertainer. He began his career as a musician on NBC radio, and in 1933 he joined a daily radio program, for which he created several voices to augment the cast. In 1937 he joined the car¬ toon department of Warner Brothers, and he took part in the development of Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies, providing the voices of Porky Pig, Daffy Duck, Woody Woodpecker, and Bugs Bunny. In his 50-year career he supplied the voices for about 3,000 animated cartoons, including 90% of the Warner Brothers cartoons.

Blanc Vbla n \, Mont Italian Monte Bianco Mountain massif, Europe. Located in the Alps on the borders of France, Italy, and Switzer¬ land, it is Europe’s highest peak, at 15,771 ft (4,807 m). It was first climbed in 1786 by Michel-Gabriel Paccard and Jacques Balmat. Mont Blanc Tunnel, 7.3 mi (11.7 km) long and one of the longest vehicular tun¬ nels in the world, connects France with Italy. The region has become a major tourist and winter sports cen¬ tre.

Blanchard VblaVshArN, Jean- Pierre-Francois (b. July 4, 1753, Les Andelys, France—d. March 7, 1809, Paris) French balloonist. In 1785 he made the first aerial cross¬ ing of the English Channel, accom¬ panied by John Jeffries, a U.S. doctor. He invented a parachute in

J.-P.-F. Blanchard, engraving by James Newton, 1785, after an oil painting by Richard Livesay.

COURTESY OF THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

232 I Blass ► Bleuler

writer on the technique, history, and theory of dance. He danced briefly at the Paris Opera before being appointed director of the ballet school at Milan’s La Scala in 1837, where he would train many of the most bril¬ liant dancers of the 19th century. Among his many innovations, Blasis discovered the technique of spotting (focusing on one spot and snapping one’s head around faster than one’s body) to prevent dizziness when turn¬ ing. Many of his teachings still form the basis of classical ballet.

Blass, Bill (b. June 22, 1922, Ft. Wayne, Ind., U.S.—d. June 12, 2002, New Preston, Conn.) U.S. fashion designer. Blass left home at age 17 to attend the Parsons School of Design in New York City. After serving in the U.S. Army during World War II, he returned to New York, where in 1959 he became the head designer of Maurice Rentner, Ltd. Building upon the innovations of European designers such as Coco Chanel, Blass made clothes that allowed women a chic, modern sense of ease and comfort. His work became popular among New York high-society women. In 1970 Blass became owner of Rentner, which he renamed after himself. He was a pioneer in employing the business strategy of licensing his designs and name to a huge array of fashion accessories. In 1999 he sold his company, which continued as Bill Blass Ltd., and he retired the following year.

blast furnace Vertical shaft furnace that produces liquid metals by the reaction of air introduced under pressure into the bottom of the furnace with a mixture of metallic ore, fuel, and flux fed into the top. Blast fur¬ naces are used to produce pig iron from iron ore for subsequent process¬ ing into steel; they are also employed in processing lead, copper, and other metals. The current of pressurized air maintains rapid combustion. Blast furnaces were used in China as early as 200 bc, and appeared in Europe in the 13th century, replacing the bloomery process. Modem blast furnaces are 70-120 ft (20-35 m) high, have 20—45-ft (6-14-m) health diameters, use coke fuel, and can produce 1,000-10,000 tons (900-9,000 metric tons) of pig iron daily. See also metallurgy, smelting.

Blaue Reiter \ I blau-9- , rI-t3r\, Der German "The Blue Rider" Orga¬ nization of Expressionist artists formed in Munich in 1911 by Vasily Kan¬ dinsky and Franz Marc. The name derived from a volume of essays and illustrations they published. Other members included Paul Klee and August Macke (1887-1914). Influenced by Jugendstil, Cubism, and Futurism but lacking a specific program or philosophy, they exhibited with an interna¬ tional group, including Georges Braque, Andre Derain, and Pablo Picasso. The group disintegrated at the outbreak of World War I.

Blavatsky \bb-'vat-ske\, Helena (Petrovna) orig. Helena Petrovna Hahn known as Madame Blavatsky (b. Aug. 12, 1831, Yekaterinoslav, Ukraine, Russian Empire—d. May 8, 1891, London, Eng.) Russian spiritualist and writer. After a brief marriage, she studied occultism and spiritualism and traveled through Europe, Asia, and the U.S. In 1873 in New York City she became a close companion of Henry Olcott (1832-1907); they and others founded the Theosophical Society (1875; see theosophy). In 1879 Blavatsky and Olcott went to India and established headquarters at Adyar. The society thrived, and she edited its journal. The Theosophist. She claimed psychic powers, but the London Society for Psychical Research in 1885 labeled her a fraud. In poor health, she returned to live in Europe. Her most important work, The Secret Doc¬ trine (1888), was an overview of theosophical teachings.

bleach Solid or liquid chemical compound used to whiten or remove the natural colour of fibres, yarns, paper, and textile fabrics. Sunlight was the chief bleaching agent up to the discovery of chlorine in 1774 by Karl Wilhelm Scheele (b. 1742—d. 1786) and the demonstration of its bleach¬ ing properties in 1785 by Claude-Louis Berthollet (b. 1748—d. 1822). In textile finishing, the bleaching process is used to produce white cloth, to prepare fabrics for other finishes, or to remove discoloration. Chlorine, sodium hypochlorite, calcium hypo¬ chlorite, and hydrogen peroxide are commonly used as bleaches.

bleeding heart Any of several species of Dicentra, a genus of her¬ baceous flowering plants of the fumitory family (Fumariaceae). The old garden favourite is the Japanese D. spectabilis, which has small rosy- red and white, heart-shaped flowers dangling from arching stems. The eastern, or wild, bleeding heart ( D.

eximia ) produces sprays of small pink flowers from April to September in the Allegheny Mountains region of the U.S. The Pacific, or western, bleeding heart ( D . formosa ), ranging from California to British Colum¬ bia, has several varieties of garden interest.

Bleeding Kansas Term applied to a period of civil unrest (1854-59) between proslavery and antislavery advocates for control of the new Kan¬ sas Territory. Under the doctrine of popular sovereignty, antislavery emi¬ grants from the North clashed with armed proslavery groups from Missouri. In 1856 a proslavery raid and burning of a hotel and newspa¬ per in Lawrence were followed by several murders instigated by antisla¬ very radicals under John Brown. Sporadic battles continued until Kansas was admitted to the Union as a free state in 1861.

blende See sphalerite

Blenheim \'ble-nim. Battle of (Aug. 13, 1704) Famous victory of the duke of Marlborough and Eugene of Savoy against the French in the War of the Spanish Succession, fought at Blenheim (now Blindheim) on the Danube River in Bavaria. English and Austrian troops led by Marl¬ borough and Eugene surprised the unprepared French and Bavarian forces, broke through their centre, and captured 13,000 of their troops; another 18,000 were killed, wounded, or drowned. The French army suf¬ fered its first major defeat in more than50 years, and Bavaria was removed from the war.

Blenheim Vble-nim\ Palace English residence near Woodstock, Oxfordshire, designed by John Vanbrugh and built (1705-24) by the Brit¬ ish Parliament as a gift to John Churchill, duke of Marlborough. It is regarded as the finest example of Baroque architecture in Britain. In the early 18th century Queen Anne’s gardener, Henry Wise, designed its grounds in the formal style of the Palace of Versailles; Capability Brown later redesigned them in his pastoral style, using natural-looking woods, lawns, and waterways.

blenny Any of numerous and diverse fishes (suborder Blenniodei, order Perciformes) that are mostly small, marine species found from tropical to cold seas. Blennies are slim, rang¬ ing from moderately elongated to very long and eel-like. Their habitats range from rocky pools to sandy beaches, reefs, and beds of kelp.

Many live in shallow water, but some range to depths of about 1,500 ft (450 m). Some are mainly herbi¬ vores; others are partial or complete carnivores. They are generally unob¬ trusive and of little economic impor¬ tance.

Bleriot, Louis (b. July 1, 1872,

Cambrai, France—d. Aug. 2, 1936,

Paris) French aviator who made the first airplane flight across the English Channel between continental Europe and Great Britain. A successful manufacturer of automotive accessories, Bleriot also built and tested a variety of powered aircraft. On July 25, 1909, he piloted his Bleriot XI, a monoplane with a 28-horsepower engine, from Calais, France, to Dover, Eng., winning a prize of £1,000 and demonstrating the power of airplanes to overcome geographic barriers. Bleriot remained a leader of the avia¬ tion industry through World War I and in the immediate postwar decade.

Blessing Way Central ritual in the complex system of ceremonies per¬ formed by the Navajo to restore equilibrium to the cosmos. Of the major categories of Navajo rituals, the largest group is the Chant Ways, which are concerned with curing. The Chant Ways include a subgroup of chants called the Holy Ways, which are further divided into the Blessing Way and the Wind Ways (used to cure illness). Lasting for two days, the Bless¬ ing Way is a simple chant performed for the well-being of the commu¬ nity rather than for a specific curative purpose.

Bleuler \'bl6i-br\, Eugen (b. April 30, 1857, Zollikon, Switz.—d. July 15, 1939, Zollikon) Swiss psychiatrist. He is best known for his studies of schizophrenia and for introducing (1908) the term for the disorder pre¬ viously called dementia praecox. Bleuler argued (against accepted wis¬ dom) that schizophrenia was more than one disease, was not always incurable, and did not always progress to full dementia. He described the basic symptoms—disordered mental associations and splitting or frag-

Bleeding heart (Dicentra spectabilis)

GRANT HEILMAN

Shanny (Blennius pholis), a common European blenny

JANE BURTON-BRUCE COLEMAN LTD.

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Bligh ► Bloc National I 233

mentation of the personality—but believed that many cases were not apparent. He insisted that psychosis did not need to result from organic brain damage and could have psychological causes instead. His Textbook of Psychiatry (1916) became a standard text.

Bligh, William (b. Sept. 9, 1754, county of Cornwall, Eng.—d. Dec. 7, 1817, London) English admiral. He went to sea at the age of seven and joined the Royal Navy in 1770. After serving as the sailing master on Capt. James Cook’s final voyage (1776-80), he was named to command the HMS Bounty in 1787. While en route from Tahiti to Jamaica, the ship was seized by Fletcher Christian, the master’s mate, and Bligh and loyal crew members were set adrift; some two months later, they reached Timor. The mutiny made little difference to Bligh’s career, though he had two more encounters with mutineers, including one while he was governor of New South Wales, Australia (1805-08). Described as overbearing, he was unpopular as a commander but was also courageous and a greatly skilled navigator.

blight Any of various plant diseases whose symptoms include sudden and severe yellowing, browning, spotting, withering, or dying of leaves, flow¬ ers, fruit, stems, or the entire plant. Usually the shoots and other young, rapidly growing tissues of a plant are attacked. Most blights are caused by bacteria or fungi (see fungus); some result from drought. Fungal and bac¬ terial blights are most likely under cool, moist conditions. Most economi¬ cally important plants are susceptible to one or more blights. Measures taken to fight blight include destroying the infected plant parts; using disease-free seed or stock and resistant varieties; rotating crops (see crop rotation); pruning and spacing plants for better air circulation; controlling pests that carry the fungus from plant to plant; avoiding overhead watering and working among wet plants; and, where needed, applying fungicides or antibiotics. Maintaining sanitary conditions is the most important measure for stopping the spread of the infestation. See also chestnut blight.

blind fish Any of various species of sightless fishes, among them sev¬ eral unrelated cave-dwelling species. Blind cave fishes are pale and small, growing to about 4 in. (10 cm) long, and are found in dark limestone caves of the U.S. All have small but nonfunctional eyes and tactile organs that are sensitive to touch, allowing the fish to feel what it cannot see. Other cave-dwelling fishes tending toward blindness are found in Cuba, Mexi¬ co’s Yucatan, South America, and Africa.

blindness Inability to see with one or both eyes. Transient blindness (blackout) can result from vertical acceleration causing high gravitational forces, glomerulonephritis (a kidney disease), or a clot in a blood vessel of the eye. Continuing blindness may arise from injuries or diseases of the eye (e.g., cataract, glaucoma), including the retina, the optic nerve, or the brain’s visual centres. Many infectious, noninfectious, and parasitic systemic diseases can cause blindness. Sexually transmitted diseases and rubella in pregnant women can cause blindness in their infants. See also MACULAR DEGENERATION; VISUAL-FIELD DEFECT.

Bliss, Sir Arthur (Edward Drummond) (b. Aug. 2, 1891, Lon¬ don, Eng.—d. March 27, 1975, London) British composer. He studied with Ralph Vaughan Williams and Gustav Holst. Though he was compo- sitionally adventurous at first, he later adopted a conservative, Romantic style. His works include A Colour Symphony (1922), Pastoral (1928), the choral symphony Morning Heroes (1930), Music for Strings (1936), and the ballets Checkmate (1937) and Miracle in the Gorbals (1944).

Bliss, Tasker (Howard) (b. Dec. 31, 1853, Lewisburg, Pa., U.S.—d. Nov. 9, 1930, Washington, D.C.) U.S. general. After attending West Point (1875), he served in various military assignments, including that of instructor at West Point and military attache at the U.S. legation in Madrid. In the Spanish-American War, he was chief of staff under Gen. James H. Wilson in Puerto Rico; he later served in the Philippines (1905-09). As army chief of staff in 1917, he made the U.S. Army battle-ready for World War I and resisted attempts to divide the force among the various Allied commands. He was a delegate to the Paris Peace Conference and an ardent supporter of U.S. participation in the League of Nations.

Bliss, William D(wight) P(orter) (b. Aug. 20, 1856, Constantino¬ ple, Tur.—d. Oct. 8, 1926, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. social reformer. The son of U.S. missionaries, he graduated from Hartford Theological Seminary and held Congregationalist and Episcopalian pastorates. An advocate of Christian socialism, he organized the first such group in the U.S. in 1889. He lectured widely on labour and social reform and com¬ piled many books, including the Encyclopedia of Social Reform (1897).

blister Rounded skin elevation in which fluid fills a separation between layers of epidermis or between the epidermis and the dermis. The fluid is usually clear; yellowish fluid contains pus, and red fluid contains blood. Blisters often occur on the palms or soles when pressure and friction cause an upper skin layer to move back and forth over the one under it. A small gap opens between them and becomes filled with fluid. This type gener¬ ally heals spontaneously, sometimes leaving a thickened callus. Blisters that occur as symptoms of contact dermatitis, viral infection, or autoimmune disease can appear anywhere on the body and may leave scars.

blister beetle Any of approximately 2,000 species of beetles (family Meloidae) that secrete an irritating substance, cantharidin, which is used medically as a topical skin irritant to remove warts. In the past, canthari¬ din was often used to induce blisters, a common remedy for many ail¬ ments, and the dried remains of Spanish fly ( Lytta vesicatoria ) were a major ingredient in so-called love potions. Adult blister beetles, which are often brightly coloured, range between 0.1 and 0.8 in. (3-20 mm) in length. Blister beetles are both helpful and harmful to humans; the lar¬ vae eat grasshopper eggs, but the adults destroy crops.

blister rust Any of several diseases of pines, caused by rust fungi (see fungus) of the genus Cronartium. Blister rust affects sapwood (see wood) and inner bark and produces external blisters from which additional spores of the fungus are released and resin oozes, forming characteristic hard¬ ened masses on the trunk. It affects pines of all ages and sizes, retarding growth and weakening stems as it spreads along the trunk, sometimes killing the tree; young trees are killed more quickly than older ones. Mea¬ sures taken to fight blister rust include growing resistant varieties, destroy¬ ing nearby alternative host plants, observing strict sanitation measures, and spraying with fungicides.

blitzkrieg Vblits-,kreg\ (German: “lightning war”) Military tactic used by Germany in World War II, designed to create psychological shock and resultant disorganization in enemy forces through the use of surprise, speed, and superiority in materiel or firepower. The Germans tested the blitzkrieg during the Spanish Civil War in 1938 and against Poland in 1939, and used it in the successful invasions of Belgium, the Netherlands, and France in 1940. The German blitzkrieg coordinated land and air attacks— using tanks, dive-bombers, and motorized artillery—to paralyze the enemy principally by disabling its communications and coordination capacities.

Blitzstein Vblit-.stlnV Marc (b. March 2, 1905, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—d. Jan. 22, 1964, Fort-de-France, Martinique) U.S. composer. He studied at the Curtis Institute, then with the conductor Nadia Boulanger in Paris and the composer Arnold Schoenberg in Berlin. His best-known works were for the theatre: The Cradle Will Rock (1937), the circum¬ stances of whose production by Orson Welles and John Houseman became legendary; the opera Regina (1949); and his English adaptation of Bertolt Brecht and Kurt Weill’s The Threepenny Opera (1952), which became a Broadway hit. He was working on a Metropolitan Opera commission for an opera about the Sacco-Vanzetti case when he was murdered.

Blobel, Gunter (b. May 21, 1936, Waltersdorf, Silesia, Ger.) U.S. cel¬ lular and molecular biologist. He earned his M.D. from Eberhard-Karl University and his Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin. Working in collaboration with other research groups, Blobel showed that each pro¬ tein carries a signal sequence that directs it to the proper location inside the cell. He also concluded that proteins enter organelles through a pore¬ like channel that opens in the organelle’s outer membrane when the cor¬ rect protein arrives at the organelle. For his work, Blobel was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1999. His research shed light on such hereditary diseases as cystic fibrosis and provided the basis for bioengineered drugs, includ¬ ing INSULIN.

Bloc National Vblok-nas-yo-'naU Right-wing coalition that controlled the French government from 1919 to 1924. On a wave of nationalist sen¬ timent at the end of World War I, the Bloc gained about 75% of the seats in the French Chamber of Deputies in the 1919 elections. The government tried to ensure French security against Germany through a strict enforce¬ ment of the Treaty of Versailles. Its leaders, including Raymond Poincare,

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

234 I Bloch ► bloodhound

supported the Ruhr occupation (1923) to force Germany to pay reparations. It gradually lost public support, and it was defeated in the 1924 elections.

Bloch VblokA, Ernest (b. July 24, 1880, Geneva, Switz.—d. July 15, 1959, Portland, Ore., U.S.) Swiss-born U.S. composer. He conducted and lectured at the Geneva Conservatory before moving in 1916 to the U.S., where he served as director of the San Francisco Conservatory (1925-30) and taught at the University of California, Berkeley (1942-52). He worked in tonal, atonal, and serialist idioms (see also tonality; atonality; serialism); his works, many of them inspired by Jewish themes, include the opera Macbeth (1910), Schelomo for cello and orchestra (1916), the large choral works America (1926) and Avodath hakodesh (1933), and a violin concerto (1938).

Bloch Vblak\, Felix (b. Oct. 23,1905, Zurich, Switz.—d. Sept. 10, 1983, Zurich) Swiss-born U.S. physicist. He emigrated to the U.S. in 1933 and taught at Stanford University (1934-71). He worked on atomic energy at Los Alamos and on radar countermeasures at Harvard University during World War II. In 1954 he became the first director general of CERN. For developing the nuclear magnetic resonance method of measuring the mag¬ netic fields of atomic nuclei, he shared with Edward Purcell (1912—97) the 1952 Nobel Prize for Physics.

Bloch Vblok\, Marc (Leopold Benjamin) (b. July 6, 1886, Lyon, France—d. June 16, 1944, near Lyon) French historian. He served in the French infantry in World War I. From 1919 he taught medieval history at the University of Strasbourg, where he cofounded the important periodi¬ cal Annales d’histoire economique et sociale. He taught economic history at the Sorbonne from 1936. During World War II he joined the French Resistance and was captured and killed by the Germans. Among his major works are The Royal Touch (1924), French Rural History (1931), and Feudal Society (1939). As the founder of the Annales school of histori¬ ography, with its wide-ranging, interdisciplinary approach, Bloch exerted a huge influence on the study of history.

block and tackle Combination of pulleys with a rope or cable, com¬ monly used to augment pulling force. Two or more of the pulleys are attached to a fixed block, and the remaining pulleys are free to move as well as rotate. A block and tackle can be used to lift heavy weights or to exert large forces in any direction. Higher force ratios may be obtained by the use of more pulleys, but this advantage may be offset by increased friction.

Block Island Island, Rhode Island, U.S. It lies at the eastern entrance to Long Island Sound, 9 mi (15 km) southwest of Point Judith, R.I. It has an area of about 11 sq mi (29 sq km) and is coextensive with the town of New Shoreham (pop., 2000: 1,010). Called Manisses by its original Indian inhabitants. Block Island (named for the Dutch explorer Adriaen Block) received its first European settlers in 1661 and was admitted to the colony of Rhode Island in 1664. Once dependent on fishing and farming, it is now primarily a resort.

block mill Earliest mechanized factory for mass production. It was con¬ ceived by Samuel Bentham, with machinery designed by Marc Brunel and built by Henry Maudslay, and built at England’s Portsmouth naval dock¬ yard. By 1805 it was producing 130,000 pulley blocks per year. It remained in production for over 100 years. See also American System of MANUFACTURE.

blockade Act of war whereby one party blocks entry to or departure from an enemy area, often a coast. Blockades are regulated by interna¬ tional law and custom, which require advance warning to neutral states and impartial application. Penalties for breach of blockade are seizure of ship and cargo and their possible condemnation as lawful prizes. Neutral ships may not be destroyed for blockade running.

Bloemfontein Vblum-.fan-.tanN City (pop., 2005 est.: 379,000), judi¬ cial capital of the Republic of South Africa. It is also the capital of Free State province. Founded in 1846 as a fort, it became the seat of the British-administered Orange River Sovereignty (1848-54) and later that of Orange Free State, an independent Boer republic formed in 1854. The failure of the Bloemfontein Conference (1899) resulted in the outbreak of the South African War. In the 20th century the city became a geographi¬ cal transportation hub. Bloemfontein became part of the Mangaung Local Municipality in 2000. See also Pretoria; Cape Town.

Blok, Aleksandr (Aleksandrovich) (b. Nov. 28, 1880, St. Peters¬ burg, Russia—d. Aug. 7, 1921, Petrograd [St. Petersburg]) Russian poet and dramatist. He was the principal representative of Russian Symbolism

(see Symbolist movement). He later rejected what he termed their sterile bourgeois intellectualism and embraced the Bolshevik movement as essential for the redemption of the Russian people. Influenced by early 19th-century Romantic poetry, he wrote musical verse in which sound was paramount. His preeminent work of impressionistic verse was the enig¬ matic ballad The Twelve (1918), which united the Russian Revolution and Christianity in an apocalyptic vision. In the era of postrevolutionary hard¬ ship he declined into mental and physical illness, possibly brought on by venereal disease, and died at 40.

Blondin \blo n -'da n ,\ English \'blan-den\ orig. Jean-Francois Grav- elet (b. Feb. 28, 1824 , Hesdin, Fr.—d. Feb. 22, 1897, Little Ealing, near London, Eng.) French tightrope walker. After training as an acrobat, he achieved fame, first in 1859, with his many crossings of Niagara Falls on a tightrope 1,100 ft (335 m) long, 160 ft (48 m) above the water. Each time he used a different theatrical variation: blindfolded, in a sack, trun¬ dling a wheelbarrow, on stilts, carrying a man on his back, and sitting down midway to cook an omelette. He gave his last performance in 1896.

blood Circulatory fluid (see circulation) in multicellular animals. In many species it also carries hormones and disease-fighting substances. Blood picks up oxygen from the lungs and nutrients from the gastrointes¬ tinal tract and carries them to cells throughout the body for metabolism. It picks up carbon dioxide and other wastes from those cells and transports them to the lungs and excretory organs. Blood composition varies among species. Mammalian blood consists of plasma, red and white cells (eryth¬ rocytes and leukocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes). Blood disorders include polycythemia (abnormal increase in the number of circulating red blood cells), anemia, leukemia, and hemophilia. See also ABO blood-group system; blood analysis; blood bank; blood pressure; blood transfusion; blood typing; Rh blood-group system.

blood analysis Laboratory examination of the physical and chemical properties and components of a sample of blood. Analysis includes num¬ ber of red and white blood cells (erythrocytes and leukocytes); red cell vol¬ ume, sedimentation (settling) rate, and hemoglobin concentration; blood typing; cell shape and structure; hemoglobin and other protein structure; enzyme activity; and chemistry. Special tests detect substances character¬ istic of specific infections.

blood bank Organization that collects, stores, processes, and supplies blood. Most blood donations are separated into components, which can be frozen and stored longer than whole blood and used by multiple patients. In hemapheresis, large amounts of one component can be sepa¬ rated from a single donor’s blood and the rest returned to the donor. Before World War I, a physician had to find a compatible donor and give an immediate blood transfusion. Safe storage of blood and its components made possible innovations such as heart-lung machines.

blood poisoning See septicemia

blood pressure Force originating when the heart’s pumping pushes the blood against the walls of the blood vessels. Their stretching and con¬ traction help maintain blood flow. Usually measured over an arm or leg artery in humans, blood pressure is expressed as two numbers; normal adult blood pressure is about 120/80 mm of mercury. The higher number (systolic) is measured when the heart’s ventricles contract and the lower (diastolic) when they relax. See also hypertension, hypotension.

blood transfusion Transfer of blood taken from one person into the circulation of another to restore blood volume, increase hemoglobin lev¬ els, or combat shock. Once the blood-group antigens and antibodies (see ABO blood-group system, Rh blood-group system) were discovered, BLOOD typing of donors and recipients rendered transfusion safe. In exchange transfusion, all or most of the blood is removed and replaced with anoth¬ er’s blood. Undesirable reactions to transfusion are not uncommon.

blood typing Classification of blood by inherited antigens associated with erythrocytes (red blood cells). The ABO blood-group system and Rh blood-group system are among those most commonly considered. Without identification of these factors, blood transfusion from an incompatible donor may result in destruction of red cells or coagulation. Blood typing also helps identify disorders such as erythroblastosis fetalis.

bloodhound Breed of dog superior to any other in scenting ability, the foundation breed of most scent-hunting hound breeds. They were known, although not in the present form, in the Mediterranean area in pre- Christian times. Calm and affectionate, they are often used to track ani-

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Bloodless Revolution ► Bliicher I 235

mals and trail persons. A large, strong dog, the bloodhound stands 23-27 in. (58-69 cm) and weighs 80-110 lb (35-50 kg). It has short hair and long ears, with loose skin that falls into folds and wrinkles around the head and neck. The coat is black-and-tan, red-brown and tan, or tawny.

Bloodless Revolution See Glorious Revolution

bloodroot Plant ( Sanguinaria canadensis ) of the poppy family, native throughout eastern and midwestern North America, growing mainly in deciduous woodlands and blooming in early spring. The white, cup¬ shaped flower with bright yellow sta¬ mens in the centre is borne on a reddish stalk. Large, veiny, half- opened leaves on red stalks enfold the flower stem and, after the flower has bloomed, open into multilobed, round, blue-green leaves. The orange-red sap, once used by Ameri¬ can Indians for dye, is found in the rhizomes, as is the medical alkaloid sanguinarine. The species, particu¬ larly the variety S. canadensis ‘Mul¬ tiplex,’ which has showy double flowers, is an interesting plant for the wild garden.

Bloody Sunday (1905) Massacre of peaceful demonstrators in Saint Petersburg, marking the beginning of the Russian Revolution of 1905. The priest Georgy Gapon (1870-1906), hoping to present workers’ request for reforms directly to Nicholas II, arranged a peaceful march toward the Winter Palace. Police fired on the demonstrators, killing more than 100 and wounding several hundred more. The massacre was followed by strikes in other cities, peasant uprisings, and mutinies in the armed forces. The term “Bloody Sunday” was also used to describe the murder in Dub¬ lin, Ireland (Nov. 21, 1920), of 11 Englishmen suspected of being intel¬ ligence agents, by the Irish Republican Army; the Black and Tans took revenge and attacked spectators at a football (soccer) match, killing 12 and wounding 60. The term was used again in Londonderry (Derry) when on Jan. 30, 1972, 3 participants in a civil rights march were killed by British soldiers, who allegedly had been fired on by the marchers.

Bloom, Harold (b. July 11, 1930, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. literary critic. Bloom studied at Cornell and Yale universities and taught at Yale from 1955. In The Anxiety of Influence (1973) and A Map of Misreading (1975) he suggested that poetry results from poets deliberately misread¬ ing the works that both influence and threaten them. In The Book of J (1990) he speculated that the earliest known biblical texts were written by a woman with principally literary intentions. His best-selling The West¬ ern Canon (1994) identifies 26 canonical Western writers and argues against the politicization of literary study.

Bloomer, Amelia orig. Amelia Jenks (b. May 27, 1818, Homer, N.Y., U.S.—d. Dec. 30, 1894, Council Bluffs, Iowa) U.S. reformer. In 1840 she married Dexter Bloomer, a Quaker newspaper editor. She wrote articles on education, unjust marriage laws, and women’s suffrage and published the biweekly Lily (1849-54). Among her interests was dress reform, and the full trousers that she wore came to be known as bloomers. Her costume generated considerable publicity and helped to attract large crowds to her lectures in New York City, where she often shared the plat¬ form with Susan B. Anthony and the Rev. Antoinette L. Brown.

bloomery process Process for iron smelting. In ancient times, smelt¬ ing involved creating a bed of red-hot charcoal in a furnace to which iron ore mixed with more charcoal was added. The ore was chemically reduced (see oxidation-reduction), but, because primitive furnaces could not reach the melting temperature of iron, the product was a spongy mass of pasty globules of metal intermingled with a semiliquid slag. This hardly usable product, known as a bloom, may have weighed up to 10 lbs (5 kg). Repeated reheating and hot hammering eliminated much of the slag, cre¬ ating wrought iron, a much better product. By the 15th century, many bloomeries used low shaft furnaces with waterpower to drive the bellows, and the bloom, which might weigh over 200 lbs (100 kg), was extracted through the top of the shaft. The final version of this kind of bloomery hearth survived in Spain until the 19th century. Another design, the high bloomery furnace, had a taller shaft and evolved into the Stiickofen, which produced blooms so large they had to be removed through a front opening.

Bloomfield, Leonard (b. April 1, 1887, Chicago, Ill., U.S.—d. April 18, 1949, New Haven, Conn.) U.S. linguist. He began his career as a phi¬ lologist trained in Indo-European, especially Germanic languages. He taught Germanic philology at the University of Chicago (1927^10) and linguistics at Yale (1940-49). In Language (1933), one of the clearest 20th-century presentations of linguistics, he advocated the study of lin¬ guistic phenomena in isolation from their nonlinguistic environment and emphasized the need for empirical description. His thinking was influ¬ enced by his work on non-Indo-European languages, particularly the Algonquian family; The Menomini Language (1962) is a paragon of lin¬ guistic description and American Indian linguistic scholarship.

Bloomsbury group A coterie of English writers, philosophers, and artists. The name was a reference to the Bloomsbury district of London, where between about 1907 and 1930 the group frequently met to discuss aesthetic and philosophical questions. Among the group were E.M. For¬ ster, Lytton Strachey, Clive Bell, the painters Vanessa Bell (1879-1961) and Duncan Grant (1885-1978), John Maynard Keynes, the Fabian writer Leonard Woolf (1880-1969), and Virginia Woolf.

Blount \'bl3nt\, William (b. March 26, 1749, Bertie county, N.C.—d. March 21, 1800, Knoxville, Tenn., U.S.) U.S. politician. He served in the American Revolution before being elected to six terms in the North Caro¬ lina legislature. He was a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. As the first governor of lands ceded to the U.S. by North Carolina, he worked to secure statehood for what would become Tennessee. In 1796 he became one of Tennessee’s first two senators, but he was expelled from the Sen¬ ate in 1797 on charges of plotting to help the British gain control of Span¬ ish Florida and Louisiana.

Blow, John (baptized Feb. 23, 1649, Newark-on-Trent, Nottingham¬ shire, Eng.—d. Oct. 1, 1708, Westminster, London) British composer, organist, and teacher. He was appointed organist at Westminster Abbey in 1668; in 1774 he became master of the children at the Chapel Royal, and he later held various equally prominent posts, in which he influenced many students, including composer Henry Purcell. Of the many religious and secular ceremonial works he wrote in his official capacities, about 12 services and more than 100 anthems survive. His court masque Venus and Adonis { 1685) represents a landmark in the development of English opera.

blowfish See puffer

blowfly Any member of the dipteran family Calliphoridae, including the screwworm and the bluebottle, greenbottle, and cluster flies. Metallic blue, green, or bronze, and noisy in flight, blowflies resemble the housefly in size and habits. The larvae usually feed on decaying flesh and sometimes infest open wounds. They may help prevent infection by cleaning away dead flesh, but may also destroy healthy tissue. Blowflies were once used to treat gangrene and a human bone disease and were used in World War I to clean soldiers’ wounds. Some species seriously hurt or kill livestock by massive infestation or by carrying diseases such as anthrax, dysentery, and jaundice.

blowgun Long, narrow pipe through which darts or other projectiles are blown. Primarily a hunting weapon, it is rarely used in warfare. It has been used by aboriginal peoples in Malaysia and elsewhere in South Asia, southern India and Sri Lanka, Madagascar, northwestern South America, and Central America. Blowguns vary in length from 18 in. to more than 23 ft (45 cm to 7 m) and are often made of cane or bamboo. Darts are usually made of palm-leaf midribs or wood or bamboo splinters 1.5-40 in. (4-100 cm). The dart must fit the tube snugly, so that a puff of human breath will cause it to fly from the tube. To be effective against quarry larger than small birds, blowgun darts require poison.

blowing engine Machine for pumping air into a furnace. Bellows driven by a waterwheel were the earliest form of blowing engine, later replaced by reciprocating pumps driven by steam or gas engines and by turbo-blowers. A modem blast furnace requires an enormous blowing engine.

Blucher Vblii-koiA, Gebhard Leberecht von, prince von Wahlstatt \'val-,shtat\ (b. Dec. 16, 1742, Rostock, Mecklenburg—d. Sept. 12, 1819, Krieblowitz, near Kanth, Silesia, Prussia) Prussian mili¬ tary leader. He joined the Prussian army in 1760 and commanded troops against the French (1793-94) and in the Napoleonic Wars. In 1813 he came out of retirement to command Prussian troops against the French, defeating them at Wahlstatt and assisting in the allied victory at the Battle of Leipzig. In 1815 he again commanded Prussian forces in the Battle of

Bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis)

WALTER CHANDOHA

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

236 I blue ► bluebonnet

Waterloo, coordinating his army with the allied forces under the duke of Wellington to bring about Napoleon’s defeat.

blue (butterfly) Any member of the widely occurring lepidopteran fam¬ ily Lycaenidae. Adults, sometimes known as gossamer-winged butterflies, are small and delicate, with a wingspan of 0.75-1.5 in. (18-38 mm). Blues are rapid fliers, and most species have iridescent wings. Larvae are short, broad, and sluglike. Some species secrete honeydew, a sweet by-product of digestion that attracts ants, which stroke the larvae with their legs to stimulate honeydew secretion.

blue asbestos See crocidolite

blue crab Any member of a genus ( Callinectes ) of decapods, particularly C. sapidus and C. hastatus, common edible crabs of the western Atlantic coast prized as delicacies. Their usual habitats are muddy shores, bays, and estuaries. The blue crab shell, green¬ ish on top and dingy white below, is about 3 in. (15-18 cm) long. The legs are bluish. The chelae, or pincers, are large and somewhat unequal in size, and the fifth pair of legs is flattened for swimming. Blue crabs are scav¬ engers.

blue-green algae See cyanobac¬ teria

blue ground See kimberlite

blue law U.S. statute regulating work, commerce, and amusements on Sundays. The name is said to derive from a list of Sabbath regulations published (on blue paper or in blue wrappers) in New Haven, Conn., in 1781. Throughout colonial New England such laws regulated morals and conduct. Most lapsed after the American Revolution, but some, such as prohibitions against the Sunday sale of alcoholic beverages, remain on the books in some areas.

Blue Mountains Plateau region, part of the Great Dividing Range, southeastern Australia. Located in New South Wales, the region rises to about 3,600 ft (1,100 m). Once used as a retreat by wealthy Sydney resi¬ dents, it is now accessible by good roads and is a popular tourist area; the Blue Mountains area was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2000. The city of Blue Mountains (pop., 2004 est.: 77,011) was incorpo¬ rated in 1947.

Blue Mountains Mountain range, eastern Jamaica. It extends from north of Kingston eastward 30 mi (50 km) to the Caribbean Sea. Its high¬ est point is Blue Mountain Peak, at 7,388 ft (2,252 m). It experiences heavy rain and widely divergent temperatures. Blue Mountain coffee is famous for its excellent quality.

Blue Nile See Nile River

Blue Ridge or Blue Ridge Mountains Section of the Appalachian Mountains, eastern U.S. The range extends southward from Carlisle, Pa., through parts of Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina to Mt. Oglethorpe in Georgia. The highest peaks are in the Black Moun¬ tains of North Carolina; the average elevation is 2,000-4,000 ft (600- 1,200 m). The scenic Blue Ridge Parkway, established in 1936 and administered by the National Park Service, runs 469 mi (755 km) along the crest.

blue whale Mottled, blue-gray baleen whale ( Balaenoptera musculus), also called sulfur-bottom whale because of the yellowish diatoms on some individuals. The largest of all animals, the blue whale reaches a maxi¬ mum length of about 100 ft (30 m) and a maximum weight of 150 tons (136,000 kg). It is found alone or in small groups in all oceans. In sum¬ mer it feeds on krill in polar waters, and in winter it moves toward the equator to breed. It was once the most important of the commercially hunted baleen whales, and its populations were greatly reduced. Listed as an endangered species, it is now protected.

Bluebeard or Gilles de Rais \zhel-do-'ra\ or Gilles de Retz (b.

Sept./Oct. 1404, Champtoce, Fr.—d. Oct. 26, 1440, Nantes) Baron and marshal of France renowned for his cruelty. His name was later connected with the story “Bluebeard” by Charles Perrault. He fought several battles at the side of St. Joan of Arc and was made marshal of France (1429).

JOHN H. GERARD FROM THE NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCIETY COLLECTION/PHOTO RESEARCHES-EB INC.

Back in Brittany he led a dissipated life and eventually turned to alchemy and satanism. Accused of abducting and murdering more than 140 chil¬ dren, he was tried by ecclesiastical and civil courts. Condemned for her¬ esy, he confessed, repented, and died bravely at the gallows; his body was burned. Skeptics have noted irregu¬ larities in the trials and the interest of others in his ruin. The fairy-tale Bluebeard takes a wife, who, curious about the one room of the castle to which he denies her the key, discov¬ ers there the skeletons of her prede¬ cessors.

bluebell Any plant of the genus Endymion , in the lily family, native to Eurasia. Bluebell, or wild hyacinth (E. nonscriptus ), and Spanish blue¬ bell ( E. hispanicus ), bearing clusters of bell-shaped blue flowers, are cul¬ tivated as garden ornamentals; some authorities place them in the related genus Scilla of the same family. Many other plants are commonly known as bluebells, including spe¬ cies of the genera Campanula, Eus- toma, Polemonium , and Clematis. In the U.S. the name bluebell is usually reserved for Mertensia virginica.

blueberry Any of several shrubs, native to North America, of the genus Vaccinium in the heath family. They are prized for their sweet edible fruits, a source of vitamin C and iron. Blueberries grow only in highly acidic and well-drained but moist soils. The highbush blueberry (V. corymbosum ), economically and ornamentally the most important species, is in the U.S. cultivated pri¬ marily in Maine, New Jersey, south¬ western Michigan, and eastern North Carolina.

bluebird Any of three North American bird species (songbird genus Sialia ) of the chat-thrush group. The eastern bluebird ( S. sia- lis), which is 5.5 in. (14 cm) long, and the western bluebird (S. mexi- cana) are red-breasted forms found east and west of the Rockies, respec¬ tively. The mountain bluebird ( S . currucoides ), also found in the West, is all blue. Bluebirds arrive from the south in earliest spring. They live in open country and woodlands and nest in holes in trees or in fence posts and bird boxes.

Bluebeard, illustration by Gustave Dore

COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM; PHOTOGRAPH, J.R. FREEMAN & CO., LTD.

Wild hyacinth (Endymion nonscriptus)

M.T. TANTON-THE NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCIETY COLLECTION/PHOTO RESEARCHERS

Blueberry.

GRANT HEILMAN—EB INC.

bluebonnet Any of several flow¬ ering plants, including the Texas bluebonnet ( Lupinus subcarnosus ), a North American annual legume native to the plains of Texas. About 1 ft (0.3 m) tall, it bears silky-haired com¬ pound leaves and clusters of purplish blue flowers marked in the centre with white or yellow. In the spring it covers immense areas in southern and western Texas like a blue carpet. It is one of the most popular wild- flowers of Texas. In Scotland the name is given to the bluebottle ( Cen- taurea cyanus ) and to the blue scabious, or devil’s bit {Succisapratensis).

Western bluebird (Sialia mexicana)

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

bluefish ► Blyton I 237

bluefish Swift-moving food and game fish ( Pomatomus saltatrix ) found throughout warm and tropical regions of the Atlantic and Indian oceans. It lives in schools and is a voracious predator of smaller animals, espe¬ cially other fishes. It is slender and has a forked tail and a large mouth with strong, pointed teeth. It is blue or greenish and grows to a length of about 4 ft (1.2 m) and a weight of 25 lbs (11.5 kg).

bluegill Popular game fish ( Lepomis macrochirus) and one of the best- known sunfishes throughout its original range, the freshwater habitats of the central and southern U.S. It has been introduced throughout the west¬ ern U.S. and in other parts of the world. Bluegills are usually bluish or greenish and have a characteristic dark flap at the rear of the gill cover. Among the smallest of the food and game fishes, they normally are only 6-9 in. (15-23 cm) long and weigh less than 0.5 lbs (0.25 kg). Bluegills are known as highly spirited fighters on the end of a fishing line.

bluegrass Any of many slender annual and perennial lawn, pasture, and forage GRASSes of the genus Poa, in the family Poaceae, or Gramineae. About 250 species are found in temperate and cool climates, more than 50 in the U.S. Most have small spikelets lacking bristles and arranged in open clusters. The narrow leaf blades have boat-shaped tips. With its blue-green leaves, Kentucky bluegrass (P. pratensis), the best-known U.S. species, is a popular lawn and pasture grass in the northern states and is common in open areas and along roadsides. Texas bluegrass (P. arach- nifera), mutton grass (P. fendleriana), and plains bluegrass (P arida ) are important western forage grasses. Annual bluegrass (P. annua), a small, light green species, is considered a pest in lawns.

bluegrass In music, a country-music style that emerged after World War II. It is a direct descendant of the string-band music played by groups such as the Carter Family. Bluegrass is distinguished from its predecessors by its more syncopated rhythm, its high-pitched tenor (lead) vocals, its tight harmonies, its driving rhythms, and a strong influence of jazz and blues. A very prominent place is given to the banjo, always played in the unique three-finger style developed by Earl Scruggs (see Lester Flatt). Mandolin and fiddle are generally featured, and traditional square-dance tunes, religious songs, and ballads furnish much of the repertory. Blue¬ grass was originated by and got its name from Bill Monroe and his Blue Grass Boys. From the late 1940s on, it continued to grow in popularity; from the 1970s an influx of younger musicians brought some influence from rock music.

Bluegrass region Area of central Kentucky, U.S. The region contains Kentucky’s best agricultural land and thus became the first area to be settled. It became known for its abundant bluegrass and became famous for breeding fine horses; the calcium-rich soil imparts its minerals to the grass and thence into the horses’ bones.

blues Secular musical form incorporating a repeating harmonic struc¬ ture with melodic emphasis on the flatted or “blue” third and seventh notes of the scale. The specific origins of the blues are not known, but elements of the music of former slaves include the call-and-response pattern and syncopated rhythms of spirituals and work songs. The codification of the structure of the blues occurred in the early 20th century, most commonly as a 12-bar phrase using the chords of the first, fourth, and fifth degrees of the major scale. Its origins as a primarily vocal form induced instru¬ mental performers to imitate the human voice with “bent” notes. Lyric stanzas are usually in three lines, the words of the second generally repeat¬ ing those of the first. The elaboration of the rural blues from Texas and the Mississippi delta established both lyric and instrumental traditions, often featuring speech-like inflection and guitar accompaniment. The bandleader W.C. Handy’s compositions brought blues elements to the popular music of the first decades of the century. The first blues record¬ ings, in the early 1920s, featured singers such as Ma Rainey and Bessie Smith using jazz accompanists; their style would become known as clas¬ sic blues. The highly personal interpretations and improvisation of the blues, combined with elements of its structure and inflection, served as the foundation for jazz, rhythm and blues, and rock music.

Bluestocking In mid-18th-century England, any of a group of women who met to discuss literature. Attempting to replace the playing of cards and such social activities with more intellectual pursuits, they held “con¬ versations” to which they invited men of letters and members of the aris¬ tocracy with literary interests. The term probably originated when Mrs. Elizabeth Vesey invited the learned Benjamin Stillingfleet to one of her parties; he declined, saying he lacked appropriate dress, until she told him to come “in his blue stockings”—the ordinary worsted stockings he was

wearing at the time. The word bluestocking came to be applied derisively to a woman who affects literary or learned interests.

Bluford Vblii-fordX, Guion S(tewart), Jr. (b. Nov. 22, 1942, Phila¬ delphia, Pa., U.S.) U.S. astronaut. He flew 144 combat missions in the Vietnam War; on his return, he received a Ph.D. in aerospace engineer¬ ing from the Air Force Institute of Technology. He joined NASA’s astro¬ naut program in 1978 and flew on numerous space-shuttle missions; his first was Challenger's third flight (1983), the first to be launched and land at night. He was the first African American to fly in space.

Blum \'blum\, Leon (b. April 9, 1872, Paris, France—d. March 30, 1950, Jouy-en-Josas) French politician and writer. He made a name as a brilliant literary and drama critic, then entered politics in the French Socialist Party. As a member of the Chamber of Deputies (1919-28, 1929- 40), he became a leader of the Socialists from 1921. The chief architect of an electoral alliance of the left, he became the first Socialist (and the first Jewish) premier of France as head of the Popular Front government (1936-37). He introduced such reforms as the 40-hour workweek and collective bargaining and nationalized the chief war industries and the Bank of France. Arrested by the Vichy government in 1940, he was imprisoned until 1945. In the postwar years he was one of France’s lead¬ ing veteran statesmen.

Blumberg Vbbm-borgX, Baruch S(amuel) (b. July 28, 1925, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. research physician. He received his M.D. from Columbia University. His discovery of an antigen that he later proved to be part of the hepatitis B virus, and which causes the body to produce antibodies to the virus, led to blood-donor screening and a vaccine. He shared a 1976 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with D. Carleton Gajdusek.

Blunt, Anthony (Frederick) (b. Sept. 26, 1907, Bournemouth, Hampshire, Eng.—d. March 26, 1983, London) British art historian and spy. He began his espionage for the Soviet Union after meeting Guy Bur¬ gess at the University of Cambridge in the 1930s. From 1937 Blunt had a brilliant career as an art historian, publishing scores of scholarly works that largely established art history in Britain. In World War II he served in British military intelligence and also gave secret information to the Soviets. In 1945 he was appointed surveyor of the king’s (later queen’s) pictures, and in 1947 he became director of the prestigious Courtauld Institute. He ceased active intelligence work but in 1951 arranged for the escape of Burgess and Donald Maclean (1913-1983) from Britain. In 1964, after the defection of Kim Philby, Blunt was confronted by British authorities and secretly confessed his Soviet connections. When his past as the “fourth man” in the spy ring was made public in 1979, he was stripped of the knighthood awarded him in 1956.

Bly, Nellie orig. Elizabeth Cochrane (b. May 5, 18677, Cochran’s Mills, Pa., U.S.—d. Jan. 27, 1922, New York, N.Y.) U.S. newspaper writer. Bly started writing for The Pittsburgh Dispatch at age 18, pro¬ ducing feature articles on such subjects as divorce and slum life. After joining the New York World, she feigned insanity to get into an asylum and wrote an expose that brought about needed reforms. Beginning in 1889, in an attempt to beat the fictional record in Jules Verne’s Around the World in Eighty Days, she circled the globe in about 72 days, 6 hours. The much-publicized trip made her byname a celebrated synonym for a female star reporter.

Bly, Robert (Elwood) (b. Dec. 23, 1926, Madison, Minn., U.S.) U.S. poet and translator. Bly attended Harvard University and the University of Iowa. In 1958 he founded the magazine The Fifties (later The Sixties), which published the works of young poets. He helped found American Writers Against the Vietnam War, and he donated his 1968 National Book Award prize money (received for The Light Around the Body) to a draft resisters’ organization. His best-selling Iron John (1990) probed the male psyche, and Bly became the best-known leader of the “men’s movement.” In 2001 he published The Night Abraham Called to the Stars, poems uti¬ lizing the Arabic ghazal form. He is also known for his translations of a wide range of poetry.

Blyton Vbli-t 3 n\, Enid (Mary) (b. Aug. 11, 1897, London, Eng.—d. Nov. 28, 1968, London) English children’s writer. Trained as a school¬ teacher, she published her first book, Child Whispers, in 1922. She went on to produce more than 600 children’s books and numerous magazine articles. She is probably best known for several book series, including those featuring Noddy, the Famous Five, and the Secret Seven. Though

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

238 I BMW ► bobsledding

often criticized for their stereotyped characters, simple writing style, and didactic moralism, her books were widely translated and remained inter¬ nationally popular long after her death.

BMW in full Bayerische Motoren Werke Vbl-er-ish-o-mo- 'tor-on-'ver-koV AG German automaker. Founded as an aircraft engine manufacturer in 1916, the company assumed the name Bayerische Motoren Werke and became known for its high-speed motorcycles in the 1920s. During World War II, BMW built the world’s first jet airplane engines for the Luftwaffe. It suffered financially in the postwar period but recovered after 1959 with a new line of conventionally designed high- performance cars. The company’s turnaround was also credited to Ger¬ man entrepreneur Herbert Quandt, who purchased a controlling share of BMW’s stock in 1959. In the 21st century the firm’s brands included BMW cars and motorcycles, MINI automobiles, and Rolls-Royce. Mem¬ bers of the Quandt family continued to hold a significant stake in the company.

B'nai B'rith Vbo-'na-'brithX (Hebrew: “Sons of the Covenant”) Oldest and largest Jewish service organization. Founded in New York City in 1843, it now has men’s lodges, women’s chapters, and youth organiza¬ tions around the world. Its goals include defending human rights, aiding Jewish college students (mainly through the Hillel Foundation), sponsor¬ ing educational programs for adult and youth groups, helping victims of natural disasters, supporting hospitals and philanthropic institutions, and promoting the welfare of Israel. In 1913 it established the Anti- Defamation League to combat anti-Semitism.

Bo Hai Vbo-'hrf or Po Hai conventional Gulf of Chihli Vjo-'leX Arm of the Yellow Sea off the northern China coast. With the Gulf of Liaodong (generally considered part of the Bo Hai), its maximum dimensions are 300 mi (480 km) northeast-southwest and 190 mi (306 km) east-west. The Liao River and Huang He (Yellow River) empty into it.

Bo Juyi Vbwo-'jiE-'eX or Po Chu-i (b. 772, Xinzheng, China—d. 846, Luoyang) Chinese poet of the Tang dynasty. He began composing poetry at age 5, and at age 28 he passed the examinations for the Chinese civil service. He rose steadily in official life and became the informal leader of a group of poets who rejected the courtly style of the time, believing that poetry should have a moral and social purpose. His satirical ballads and poems of social protest often took the form of free verse based on old folk ballads. He was revered in both China and Japan, where his poems, notably the “Song of Everlasting Sorrow,” became material for other literary works.

bo tree See bodhi tree

boa Any of about 60 species of stout-bodied snakes (subfamily Boinae, family Boidae) found in both the Old and New Worlds, mostly in warm regions. Species vary in length from about 8 in. (20 cm) to more than 25 ft (7.5 m). Most are terrestrial or semiaquatic; some live in trees. Most species have blotches and diamonds on their brown, green, or yellowish body. Boas bite their prey, then kill by wrapping their body around the prey and crushing it. Several species have heat-sensitive lip pits for detect¬ ing warm-blooded prey, and most bear live young. Contrary to folklore, boas are not dangerous to humans.

Boadicea See Boudicca

boar or wild boar or wild pig Any wild member of the pig species Sus scrofa; the ancestor of domestic pigs. It is native to forests ranging from western and northern Europe and North Africa to India, the Andaman Islands, and China and has been introduced to New Zealand and the U.S. It has a bristly, blackish or brown coat and stands up to 35 in. (90 cm) tall at the shoulder. Except for old, solitary males, boars live in groups. They are omnivores and are good swimmers. They have sharp tusks and, though normally not aggressive, can be dangerous. Because of its strength, speed, and ferocity, the boar has long been a prized game animal.

Board of Trade See Board of Trade

Boas Vbo-,az\, Franz (b. July 9, 1858, Minden, Westphalia [Germany]—d. Dec. 22, 1942, New York, N.Y., U.S.) German-bom U.S. anthropologist. Trained in physics and geography (Ph.D., 1881), Boas was part of an early scientific expedition to Baffin Island (1883-84), where he turned to studying Eskimo culture. He later studied native peoples of Brit¬ ish Columbia, including the Kwakiutl. From 1896 to 1905 he directed the Jesup North Pacific Expedition, which investigated the relationships between the aboriginal peoples of Siberia and North America. Teaching

at Columbia University from 1896 until his death, he was a leading organizer of the profession in the U.S. and the mentor of Ruth Bene¬ dict, Alfred L. Kroeber, Margaret Mead, and Edward Sapir. He is largely credited with establishing anthropology as an academic disci¬ pline in the U.S. His achievements in anthropology are virtually unrivaled.

Before Boas, most anthropologists adhered to a relatively crude theory of sociocultural evolution, arguing that some peoples are inherently more civilized or developed than others. Boas argued that such views are ethnocentric and that all human groups have actually evolved equally but in different ways. It is largely because of Boas that anthropologists now attribute human differences to historic “cultural,” rather than genetic, factors. His books include The Mind of Primitive Man (1911), Primitive Art (1927), and Race, Language, and Culture (1940).

boat people Refugees fleeing by boat. The term originally referred to the thousands of Vietnamese who fled their country by sea following the collapse of the South Vietnamese government in 1975. Crowded into small vessels, they were prey to pirates, and many suffered dehydration, starvation, and death by drowning. The term was later applied to waves of refugees who attempted to reach the U.S. by boat from Cuba and Haiti and also to Afghan and other refugees seeking asylum in Australia.

Bob and Ray in full Robert Brackett Elliott and Raymond Walter Goulding (respectively b. March 26, 1923, Boston, Mass., U.S.(b. March 20, 1922, Lowell, Mass.) —d. March 24, 1990, Manhas- set, N.Y.) U.S. comedy team. They met while working at a Boston radio station and soon established their comic style in a program of parodies and satire (1946-51). The Bob and Ray Show was nationally syndicated (1951-53), and their comedy sketches were popular in the 1950s and ’60s on several networks. They also performed in the theatre and starred in the Broadway show The Two and Only (1970).

bobbin Elongated spool of thread, used in the textile industry. In mod¬ em processes, the spun fibres are wound on bobbins; the weft filling in weaving comes off bobbins. Bobbins are essential to the manufacture of bobbin lace (see lacemaking). The first bobbin lace probably originated in Flanders in the early 16th century. Early bobbin lace consisted of rows of deep acute-angled points worked from a narrow band, and the patterns were usually similar to those of the needle laces. It was much used for ruffs and collars in the 16th— 17th centuries. See also tapestry.

bobcat Bobtailed, long-legged North American cat ( Lynx rufus ) found in forests and deserts from southern Canada to southern Mexico. It is a close relative of the lynx and caracal. Bobcats have large paws and tufted ears; are 24-40 in. (60-100 cm) long, excluding the 4-8-in. (10-20-cm) tail; stand 20-24 in. (50-60 cm) at the shoulder; and weigh 15-33 lb (7—15 kg). The fur is pale brown to reddish with black spots. Bobcats are noc¬ turnal and generally solitary. They feed on small mammals and some birds and are important for controlling rodent and rabbit populations. They are sometimes found in suburban areas. See photograph on opposite page.

bobolink Vbab-o-.liqkX Songbird ( Dolichonyx oryzivorus ) that breeds in northern North America and winters chiefly in central South America. Migrating flocks may raid rice fields, and the fat “ricebirds” were for¬ merly shot as a table delicacy. In the breeding season the 7-in (18-cm) male bobolink (named for his bubbling song) has a black underside, yel¬ low hindneck, white back and rump, and white patches on the wings; in winter he resembles the brown female.

bobsledding Sport of sliding down a winding ice-covered run on a large metal sled (bobsled). The sled is equipped with two pairs of run¬ ners, a long seat for two or more (usually four) people, a steering wheel or steering ropes, and a hand brake. Bobsledding originated in Switzer¬ land in the 1890s and was included in the first Olympic Winter Games in 1924. Championship competitions are held each year. Bob runs are typi¬ cally about 4,920 ft (1,500 m) long, with 15-20 banked turns. Four-person sleds attain speeds approaching 100 mph (160 kph).

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

bobwhite ► bodhi tree I 239

bobwhite North American quail species ( Colinus virginianus) that exists in about 20 subspecies from southern Canada to Guatemala. It is reddish brown and has a gray tail. Its name is suggestive of its two-note call. A popular game bird of the southern and central U.S., it is found in brush, open pinelands, and abandoned fields.

Boccaccio \bok-'kach-cho\, Giovanni (b. 1313, Paris, France—d. Dec. 21, 1375, Certaldo, Tuscany)

Italian poet and scholar. His life was full of difficulties and occasional bouts of poverty. His early works include The Love Afflicted (c. 1336), a prose work in five books, and The Book of Theseus (c. 1340), an ambi¬ tious epic of 12 cantos. He is best known for his Decameron, a master¬ piece of classical Italian prose that had an enormous influence on litera¬ ture throughout Europe. A group of 100 earthy tales united by a frame story, it was probably composed 1348-53. After this period he turned to humanist scholarship in Latin.

With Petrarch, he laid the founda¬ tions for Renaissance humanism, and through his writings in Italian he helped raise vernacular literature to the level of the classics of antiquity.

Boccherini \,ba-k3-'re-ne\, Luigi (Rodolfo) (b. Feb. 19, 1743,

Lucca—d. May 28, 1805, Madrid,

Spain) Italian composer. Son of a musician, he received excellent early training and toured widely in Europe as a cellist. He held positions at the courts of Madrid and Prussia. His vast chamber music output includes some 125 string quintets (more than any other composer), some 90 string quartets, and many string trios. He also wrote symphonies and cello concertos. The elegance and charm of his music has ensured its continuing popularity.

boccie or bocci or bocce \'ba-che\ (from Italian bocce, “balls”) Game of Italian origin, similar to bowls. It is played on a long, narrow, packed- clay court enclosed with boarded ends and sides. Each player or team in turn rolls four balls (made of wood, metal, or composition material) toward a smaller target ball. The object is to bring the ball to rest nearest the target ball (for which points are awarded at the end of a round), to protect a well-placed ball, or to knock aside an opponent’s ball. The game usually proceeds until one side has 12 points.

Boccioni Xbot-'cho-neV Umberto (b. Oct. 19, 1882, Reggio di Cala¬ bria, Italy—d. Aug. 16, 1916, Verona) Italian painter, sculptor, and theo-

Bobcat (Felis rufa)

JOE VAN WORMER/PHOTO RESEARCHERS

rist. He was trained in the studio of Giacomo Balia (1871-1958) in Rome. The most energetic member of the Futurist group (see also Futurism), Boc¬ cioni helped publish Technical Manifesto of the Futurist Painters (1910), promoting the representation of modem technology, power, time, motion, and speed. These ideas are best shown in his masterpiece of early mod¬ em sculpture, Unique Forms of Continuity in Space (1913). His painting The City Rises (1910) is a dynamic composition of swirling human fig¬ ures in a fragmented crowd scene.

Bochco \'bach-ko\, Steven (Ronald) (b. Dec. 16, 1943, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. television writer, director, and producer. He worked as a scriptwriter and producer for Universal Studios (1966-78) and MTM Enterprises (1978-85) before forming his own production company in 1987. He cowrote and produced such successful television dramas as Hill Street Blues (1981-86), L.A. Law (1986-94), and NYPD Blue (from 1993), winning numerous Emmy Awards for his scripts.

B6cklin\'boek-len\, Arnold (b. Oct. 16,1827, Basel, Switz.—d. Jan. 16, 1901, Fiesole, Italy) Swiss-bom Ital¬ ian painter. After studies and work in northern Europe and Paris, he won the patronage of the king of Bavaria with his mural Pan in the Bulrushes (1856-58). From 1858 to 1861 he taught at the Weimar Art School and executed mythological frescoes for the Public Art Collection in his native Basel. He settled in Italy, painting nymphs, satyrs, tritons, moody land¬ scapes, and sinister allegories that presaged Symbolism and Surrealism.

His later style was sombre, mystical, and morbid, as in his five versions of The Isle of the Dead (1880-86).

Though most of his time was spent in Italy, he was the most influential art¬ ist in the German-speaking world in the late 19th century.

Bodawpaya \ 1 b6-do- , pI-9\ (b.

1740/41—d. 1819, Amarapura,

Myanmar) King of Myanmar (Burma) (r. 1782-1819). He was a son of Alaungpaya and the sixth monarch of the Alaungpaya dynasty. Bodaw¬ paya deposed his grandnephew to become king. In 1784 he invaded the kingdom of Arakan and deported more than 20,000 of its people as slaves; in 1785 he attempted to conquer Siam. His oppressive rule in Arakan led to rebellion; his pursuit of rebel leaders across the border into British- controlled Bengal nearly brought him into open conflict with the British. His campaigns in Assam heightened tensions. A fervent Buddhist, he pro¬ claimed himself Arimittya, the messianic Buddha destined to conquer the world.

Bodensee See Lake Constance

Bode's law Rule giving the approximate distances of planets from the Sun. First announced in 1766 by the German Johann Daniel Titius (b. 1729—d. 1796), it was popularized, from 1772, by his countryman Johann Elert Bode (b. 1747—d. 1826). It may be given as follows: To each num¬ ber in the sequence 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, and so on, add 4 and divide the result by 10. The answers closely approximate the distances from the Sun, in astronomical units, of the first seven planets. Bode’s law also suggested that a planet should be found between Mars and Jupiter, where the aster¬ oid belt was later discovered. Once thought to have some significance regarding the formation of the solar system, it is now regarded as a numerological curiosity.

bodhi Vbo-de\ (Sanskrit and Pali: “awakening” or “enlightenment”) In Buddhism, the final enlightenment that ends the cycle of death and rebirth and leads to nirvana. This awakening transformed Siddhartha Gautama into the historical Buddha. Bodhi is achieved by ridding oneself of false beliefs and the hindrance of passions through the discipline of the Eight¬ fold Path. Though not supported in canonical texts, commentaries give a threefold classification of bodhi: that of a perfectly enlightened one, or a Buddha; that of an independently enlightened one; and that of an arhat.

bodhi tree or bo tree In Buddhism, the fig tree under which the Bud¬ dha sat when he attained enlightenment (bodhi) at Bodh Gaya (near Gaya,

Boccaccio, detail of a fresco by Andrea del Castagno; in the Cenacolo di Sant'Apollonia, Florence.

AUNARI/ART RESOURCE

"Self-Portrait with Death as a Fiddler," oil on canvas by Arnold Bocklin, 1872; in the Nationalgalerie, Berlin.

COURTESY OF THE STAATLICHE MUSEEN PREUSSISCHER KULTURBESITZ, NATIONALGALERIE, BERLIN; PHOTOGRAPH, WALTER STEINKOPF

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

240 I Bodhidharma > Boethius

India). The tree growing on the site now is believed to be a descendant of the original, planted from a cutting of a tree in Sri Lanka that had been propagated from the original; both trees are sites of pilgrimage for Bud¬ dhists. The bo tree or a representation of its leaf has often been used as a symbol of the Buddha.

Bodhidharma \ 1 bo-di-'dor-mo\ Chinese Damo Japanese Daruma (fl. 6th century ad) Legendary Indian monk credited with the establish¬ ment of the Chan (Son, or Zen) school of Buddhism. Considered the 28th Indian successor in a direct line from the Buddha Gautama, he is recog¬ nized by the Chan school as its first patriarch. Legend states that he trav¬ eled from India to Guang (now Guangzhou), China, where he was granted an interview with the emperor Wudi, who was famous for his good works. He told the emperor that meditation, not good deeds, led to enlighten¬ ment. He himself was said to have meditated sitting motionless for nine years.

bodhisattva \,bo-di-'s9t-v9\ Term for the historical Buddha Gautama prior to his enlightenment as well as for other individuals destined to become buddhas. In Mahayana Buddhism the bodhisattva postpones attainment of nirvana in order to alleviate the suffering of others. The ideal supplanted the Theravada Buddhist ideals of the arhat and the self- enlightened buddha, which Mahayana deemed selfish. The number of bodhisattvas is theoretically limitless, and the title has been applied to great scholars, teachers, and Buddhist kings. Celestial bodhisattvas (e.g., Avalokitesvara) are considered manifestations of the eternal Buddha and serve as savior figures and objects of personal devotion, especially in East Asia.

Bodin \b6-'da n \/ Jean (b. 1530, Angers, Fr.—d. June 1596, Laon) French political philosopher. He studied at the University of Toulouse and later taught law there (1551-61). In 1571 he entered the household of the king’s brother, Francois, duke d’Alengon. He favoured negotiation with the Huguenots, with whom the government was engaged in a civil war, and opposed the sale of royal domains. His The Six Bookes of a Com- monweale (1576) won him immediate fame. In it he suggested that the key to securing order and authority lay in recognition of the state’s sov¬ ereignty, which he believed derived from divine right and not from the consent of the subject. He distinguished three types of government: mon¬ archy (which he favoured), aristocracy, and democracy.

Bodleian \bod-Te-on\ Library Library of the University of Oxford and one of the oldest and most important nonlending reference libraries in Britain. The Bodleian is particularly rich in Asian manuscripts and col¬ lections of English literature, local history, and early printing. Though it was established earlier, it was not secured by the university until 1410. After a period of decline, it was restored by Sir Thomas Bodley (1545— 1613), a collector of medieval manuscripts, and reopened in 1602. Under provisions established in 1610 and 1662, it is a legal deposit library entitled to free copies of all books printed in Britain.

Bodmer Vbod-morV Johann Georg (b. Dec. 6, 1786, Zurich, Switz.—d. May 30, 1864, Zurich) Swiss inventor of machine tools and textile-making machinery. In 1824 he established a small factory in England to make textile machinery, and by 1833 he had a shop equipped with his own machine tools. Between 1839 and 1841 he patented more than 40 specialized machine tools that he then set up in an ingenious factory-type arrangement. A gear-making machine that cut teeth of pre¬ determined pitch, form, and depth in a metal blank was especially note¬ worthy. Bodmer also patented various steam-engine devices and is credited with inventing the cylinder with opposed pistons.

Bodoni Xbo-'do-neV Giambattista (b. Feb. 16, 1740, Saluzzo, Piedmont—d. Nov. 29, 1813, Parma, French Empire) Italian typographer. Son of a printer, he served an apprenticeship at the press of the Roman Catholic Church in Rome. In 1768 he assumed management of the Royal Press of the duke of Parma. By the 1780s he was designing his own type¬ faces; the Bodoni typeface appeared in 1790 and is still in use today. He became internationally known and collectors sought his books. His many important works include fine editions of Horace (1791), Virgil (1793), and Homer’s Iliad (1808).

Bodrum See Halicarnassus body louse See human louse

body modification and mutilation Intentional modification of the human body for religious, aesthetic, or social reasons. It is frequently per¬

formed for magical or pseudo-medical purposes, but cosmetic motives are equally common. The variability of the results in different cultures reflects varying ideals of beauty or morality. Modifications include head flatten¬ ing, insertion of a lip plug, tattoos, scarification, and piercing of the ear and other parts of the body. Mutilations include male and female circum¬ cision, foot binding, and amputation.

bodybuilding Developing of the physique through exercise and diet, often for competitive exhibition. Bodybuilding aims at displaying pro¬ nounced muscle tone and exaggerated muscle mass and definition for overall aesthetic effect. Weight training is the principal form of exercise used; high-protein foods and vitamin and mineral supplements contribute to the diet. Bodybuilding competition grew largely out of 19th-century European strongman theatrical and circus acts. The first important inter¬ national competition was the Mr. Universe contest, founded in 1947. It was followed in 1965 by the even more prestigious Mr. Olympia contest. Competition for women began in the 1970s. In 1998 bodybuilding was granted provisional status by the International Olympic Committee. The use of steroids to enhance performance, though generally forbidden, has long been common among bodybuilders.

Boehm Vb6em\, Theobald (b. April 9, 1794, Munich, Bavaria—d. Nov. 25, 1881, Munich, German Empire) German flutist and flute designer. Son of a goldsmith, he was a self-taught virtuoso flutist. Real¬ izing that the craft he learned from his father could be put to use to improve the instrument, he created a new kind of key mechanism in 1832. He later studied acoustics, and by 1847 he had completely redesigned the flute, giving it a different internal shape, moving the holes, and extending the use of the keys. His work achieved a stronger and more uniform tone than that of earlier instruments and formed the basis for the modern flute.

Boeing Co. Major U.S. firm that is the world’s largest aerospace com¬ pany and foremost maker of commercial jet transports. It was founded by William E. Boeing (1881-1956) in 1916 (as Aero Products Company). In the late 1920s it became part of United Aircraft and Transport Corp., but it reemerged as an independent entity in 1934 when that company was broken up to comply with antitrust legislation. Boeing pioneered the development of single-wing planes in the 1930s; its B-l 7 Flying Fortress (first flown 1935) and B-29 Superfortress (1942) played prominent roles in World War II. After the war the company developed the B-52 jet bomber, long a mainstay of U.S. strategic forces. It produced the first U.S. jetliner, the Boeing 707 (in service 1958), and went on to develop a highly successful series of commercial jet transports. By the start of the 21st century these formed seven families—the narrow-body 737 and 757; wide-body 747, 767, and 777; 717 (formerly McDonnell Douglas MD-95); and MD-11. In the 1960s Boeing built the Lunar Orbiters, Lunar Roving Vehicles, and the first stage of the Saturn V rockets (see Saturn) for the U.S. Apollo program. Beginning in 1993, it served as NASA’s prime contractor for the International Space Station. In 1996 it purchased the aerospace and defense units of Rockwell International Corp., and a year later it bought McDonnell Douglas Corp. It acquired the satellite business of Hughes Electronics in 2000. See also Lockheed Martin Corp.

Boeotia \be-'o-sh3\ District and ancient republic, eastern central Greece. Bounded by Attica and the Gulf of Corinth, its chief cities were Orchomenus and Thebes. Inhabited by Boeotians, an Aetolian people from Thessaly, it became politically significant after the Boeotian League was formed under Theban leadership c. 600-550 bc. Hostile to Athens, the League revolted against it c. 447 bc. In the Peloponnesian War, Boeotia defeated Athens at Delium in 424 bc. Led by Thebes, it dominated Greece until Thebes was destroyed by Alexander the Great c. 335 bc.

Boer See Afrikaner

Boerhaave Vbiir-.ha-voV Hermann (b. Dec. 31, 1668, Voorhout, Neth.—d. Sept. 23, 1738, Leiden) Dutch physician. As a professor at the University of Leiden, he was renowned as a teacher, and he is often cred¬ ited with founding the modern system of teaching medical students at the patient’s bedside. His reputation as one of the greatest physicians of the 18th century lay partly in his attempts to organize the mass of medical information known at the time, in a series of major texts and encyclope¬ dic works.

Boethius \bo-'e-the-3s\ in full Anicius Manlius Severinus Boe¬ thius (b. ad 470^-75?, Rome—d. 524, Pavia?) Roman scholar, Christian philosopher, and statesman. Born to a patrician family, he became consul in 510 and subsequently chief minister to the Ostrogothic king Theodoric.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

bog body ► Bohemian language I 241

Accused of treason and condemned to death, he wrote his Neoplatonic The Consolation of Philosophy while in prison awaiting execution. The work was extremely popular and influential through the Middle Ages and later. He is also known for his translations of works of Greek logic and mathematics, including those of Porphyry and Aristotle. His translations and commentaries were among the basic texts of medieval Scholasticism.

bog body Any of an informal collection of some 700 variously pre¬ served human remains found over the past 200 years in natural peat bogs, mostly in western Europe. The bodies, including the soft tissues and the stomach contents, remain preserved because of the anaerobic fluid con¬ ditions in the bogs. They range chronologically from c. 8000 bc to early medieval times. That they have been variously found with cut throats, severed limbs, ropes around the neck, and so on suggests the possibility of ritual killings, murders, and ignominious burial (since none was found within a proper grave).

bog iron ore Iron ore consisting of hydrated iron oxide minerals such as limonite and goethite formed by precipitation of groundwater flowing into wetlands. Bacterial action contributes to formation of the ore. Eco¬ nomically useful deposits can regrow within 20 years after harvesting. Bog iron was widely used as a source of iron in the past.

Bogarde \ l bo-,gard\ / Sir Dirk orig. Derek Niven van den Bogaerde (b. March 28, 1921, London, Eng.—d. May 8, 1999, Lon¬ don) British actor. The son of a Dutch-bom art critic, he made his stage debut in 1939 and won a film contract from the Rank studios after World War II. After appearing for a decade mainly in light comedies such as Doctor in the House (1953), he began demonstrating his acting range in serious films such as The Doctor’s Dilemma (1958), The Servant (1963), Darling (1965), and Providence (1977).

Bogart, Humphrey (DeForest)

U.S.—d. Jan. 14, 1957, Hollywood, Calif.) U.S. actor. He had minor roles on the stage and in Hollywood before winning success on Broad¬ way as the murderer Duke Mantee in The Petrified Forest (1935), a role he reprised in the film version (1936). He appeared in many low-budget films, usually as a gangster, before achieving stardom in High Sierra (1941) and The Maltese Falcon (1941). Often playing a sardonic loner who proves capable of love, he appeared in films such as Casa¬ blanca (1942), Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948), and The African Queen (1951, Academy Award). He acted in four films with his fourth wife, Lauren Bacall.

(b. Dec. 25, 1899, New York, N.Y.,

Humphrey Bogart in Sahara (1943).

THE BETTMANN ARCHIVE

Bogazkoy \bo-'a-kcei\ or

Bogazkale \bo-'az-ka-le\ Village, north-central Turkey. Located about 90 mi (145 km) east of Ankara, it is on the ruins of the ancient Hittite capital of Hattusas (Hattusha). The site contains archaeological remains, including temples, city gates, and walls, associated with the powerful Hattie dynasty (c. 16th—12th century bc) and was later described by Hero¬ dotus. Excavations conducted during the 20th century uncovered hundreds of cuneiform tablets attesting to the ancient city’s importance. Hattusas was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1986.

Bogd Gegeen Khan Vbog-sd-go-'genV (fl. 1911-24, Urga [Ulaanbaa- tar]) “Living Buddha” of the Yellow Hat (Dge-lugs-pa) sect. In 1911 he proclaimed Mongolia independent of China, though true independence was not achieved until 1921. He remained head of state until 1924.

Bogomil Vba-go-.miA Any member of a religious sect that flourished in the Balkans during the 10th-15th centuries. Founded by a 10th-century Bulgarian priest traditionally known as Bogomil, the sect’s beliefs arose from the possible fusion of dualistic doctrines imported mainly from the Paulicians (a sect of Armenia and Asia Minor) and a local Slavonic move¬ ment aimed at reforming the new Bulgarian Orthodox church. Its central teaching was that the visible, material world was created by the Devil. The Bogomils taught a Docetist Christology instead of the traditional doctrine of the Incarnation, rejected the Christian conception of matter as

a vehicle of grace, and repudiated the whole organization of the Ortho¬ dox church. They were active missionaries who lived rigorously ascetic lives. During the 11 th— 12th centuries Bogomilism spread over many European and Asian provinces of the Byzantine Empire; it also spread into western Europe, where it contributed to the formation of the Cathar heresy. In Bulgaria it remained a powerful force until the late 14th cen¬ tury. With the Ottoman conquest of southeastern Europe in the 15th cen¬ tury, its influence declined. See also dualism.

Bogota \,bo-go-'ta\ in full Capital District of Santafe de Bogota

City (pop., 1999: 6,276,428), capital of Colombia. It lies on a plateau east of the Andes Mountains. European settlement began in 1538 when Span¬ ish conquistadores overran Bacata, the main seat of the Chibcha Indians; the name was soon corrupted to Bogota. It became the capital of the Vice¬ royalty of New Granada and a centre of Spanish colonial power in South America. It was the scene of revolt against Spanish rule (1810-11), and the revolutionary leader Simon Bolivar took the city in 1819. It became the capital of the confederation of Gran Colombia; when that entity was dis¬ solved in 1830, it remained the capital but of New Granada and later the Republic of Colombia. Today Bogota is an industrial, commercial, edu¬ cational, and cultural centre.

Bogustawski \ l b6-gii- , slaf-ske\ / Wojciech (b. April 9, 1757, Glinna, Pol.—d. July 23, 1829, Warsaw) Polish actor, director, and playwright. He joined the Polish National Theatre in Warsaw as an actor in 1778 and later became its director (1783-1814). Considered the father of Polish theatre, he wrote over 80 plays, including numerous comedies adapted from western European writers as well as the popular original play Kra- kovians and Highlanders (1794). He helped develop theatre companies in Vilna (1785) and Lwow (1794) and toured with the Lwow company, per¬ forming in foreign and Polish plays. In 1787 he played Hamlet in his own translation of Shakespeare’s play.

Bohai See Parhae

Bohemia Former kingdom, central Europe. Settled in the 5th century ad by the Czechs, it became tributary to Charlemagne’s empire. It was part of the kingdom of Moravia in 870; on the dissolution of Moravia, it became a duchy with an important center at Prague. In the 10th century it expanded to include parts of Silesia, Slovakia, and Krakow. From the election of Ferdinand I as king in 1526, it remained under Habsburg rule until 1918. Following World War I, Bohemia declared independence along with Moravia and Slovakia. It was invaded by Germany in 1939 on the pretext that much of the population was German. After World War II it became a province of Czechoslovakia (later the Czech Socialist Repub¬ lic). On the breakup of the eastern European bloc, it became part of the independent Czech Republic in 1993.

Bohemian Forest German Bohmer Wald Vbce-mor-.valtV Moun¬ tain range, central Europe. It lies along the boundary between Bavaria (Germany) and Bohemia (Czech Republic), extending northwest- southeast from the Ohre River to the Danube River valley in Austria. Its highest point, the Arber, rises 4,780 ft (1,457 m). It is the source of the Vltava (Moldau) River.

Bohemian glass Decorative glass made in Bohemia from the 13th century. In the early 17th century,

Caspar Lehmann, gem cutter to Rudolf II in Prague, perfected the technique of gem engraving on glass.

By 1700, a heavy, high-lustre, richly ornamented potash-lime glass (Bohemian crystal) had become popular. In the late 18th century, black glass with chinoiserie designs was introduced. Ruby glass and an opaque glass with white overlay, both carved and enameled, were introduced in the 19th century.

Bohemian language See Czech

LANGUAGE

Bohemian glass goblet, relief cut and decorated with intaglio-engraved Baroque flowers, from the workshop of Friedrich Winter in Silesia, about 1710-20; in the Museum of Decorative Arts, Prague

MUSEUM OF DECORATIVE ARTS, PRAGUE

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

242 I Bohemian school ► Boise

Bohemian school School of visual arts that flourished in and around Prague in the later 14th century.

Charles IV attracted artists and schol¬ ars to Prague from all over Europe.

French and Italian manuscripts inspired a local school of book illu¬ mination. Though most of the paint¬ ers are anonymous, their achievements in panel painting and fresco had an important influence on German Gothic art. A vital Bohe¬ mian tradition in architecture pro¬ vided the impetus for the great German Gothic architecture of the 15 th century.

Bohemond Vbo-o-mondV I orig.

Marc (b. 1050-58—d. March 5 or 7, 1109, probably Bari) Prince of Otranto (1089-1109) and of Antioch (1098-1101, 1103-4). The son of a duke who held sway in southeastern Italy, he was nicknamed after a leg¬ endary giant. He joined his father’s army and contested with Alexius I Comnenus for territory in the Byzan¬ tine Empire. In 1095 he joined the First Crusade, reconquering Byzantine lands from the Turks and captur¬ ing Antioch (1098). Rather than taking part in the battle to gain Jerusa¬ lem, Bohemond remained in Antioch, which he ruled as a principality. His efforts to muster French and Italian support against Alexius and the Byzantine Empire were ultimately unsuccessful.

B6hm\'bcem\, Karl (b. Aug. 28, 1894, Graz, Austria—d. Aug. 14,1981, Salzburg) Austrian conductor. Having risen from rehearsal pianist to chief conductor at the Graz Opera House, he was invited to conduct at the Munich Opera in 1921. As director of the Dresden State Opera (1934-42), he conducted numerous premieres. He had a long association with the Salzburg Festival (from 1938) and was especially admired for his interpre¬ tations of the works of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. His recordings and per¬ formances elicited admirable qualities of warmth, subtlety, and lyricism.

Bohme Vbce-maV Jakob (b. 1575, Altseidenberg, Saxony—d. Nov. 21, 1624, Gorlitz) German philosophical mystic. Originally a cobbler, Bohme had a religious experience in 1600 that he felt gave him insight into how the tensions of his age could be resolved. He expounded this insight in his work Aurora (1612). The writings of Paracelsus inspired his interest in nature mysticism. In The Great Mystery (1623), he explained the Genesis account of creation in terms of Paracelsian principles. In On the Election of Grace, he expounded the free will problem, made acute at the time by the spread of Calvinism and its doctrine of predestination. He profoundly influenced later intellectual movements such as idealism and Romanticism, and he is regarded as the father of theosophy.

Bohol \b6-'hol\ Island (pop., 2000: 1,137,268), Philippines. Located in the Visayan group north of Mindanao, it has an area of 1,492 sq mi (3,864 sq km). Visited by the Spanish in 1565, it remained under their rule until the late 19th century. Its character is essentially rural and its economy agricultural. The chief settlements, including Loon and Talibon, are on the coast.

Bohr \'bor\, Niels (Henrik David) (b. Oct. 7, 1885, Copenhagen, Den.—d. Nov. 18, 1962, Copenhagen) Danish physicist. He studied the structure of the atom with J J. Thomson and Ernest Rutherford at the uni¬ versities of Cambridge and Manchester. He was among the first to see the importance of an element’s atomic number and postulated that any atom could exist only in a discrete set of states characterized by definite val¬ ues of energy. He became the first to apply the quantum theory to atomic and molecular structure, and his concept of the atomic nucleus was a key step in understanding such processes as nuclear fission. From 1920 to 1962 he directed the newly created Institute for Theoretical Physics in Copen¬ hagen. His work on atomic theory won him a Nobel Prize for Physics in 1922. He was president of the Royal Danish Academy from 1939 until his death. Though he contributed to atomic bomb research in the U.S. during World War II, he later dedicated himself to the cause of arms con¬ trol. He received the first U.S. Atoms for Peace Award in 1957. Element

107, bohrium, is named in his honour. His son Aage Niels Bohr (b. 1922) shared the 1975 Nobel Prize for Physics with Ben Mottelson (b. 1926) and James Rainwater (1917-86) for their work on atomic nuclei.

Boieldieu \bo-yel-'dyce\, (Francois-) Adrien (b. Dec. 16, 1775, Rouen, France—d. Oct. 8, 1834, Jarsy) French composer. Well known as a concert pianist, he taught piano at the Paris Conservatoire from 1798. His early operas comiques won popularity in Paris, and he wrote several more operas as director of the French Opera in St. Petersburg (1804-10). Of his approximately 40 operas (including many one-act works), the most popular were Le Calife de Bagdad (1800), Le Petit Chaperon rouge (1818), and La Dame blanche (1825). He was France’s leading opera composer of the early 19th century, but his achievements were increas¬ ingly overshadowed by those of Gioacchino Rossini.

Boigny, Felix Houphouet- See Felix Houphouet-Boigny

boil or furuncle Vfyur-.oq-koL or furunculosis Inflamed pus-filled swelling due to staphylococcus skin infection at a hair follicle. It is pain¬ ful and feels hard. Boils usually occur in hairy areas exposed to friction and maceration. Scratching an existing skin disorder may introduce sta¬ phylococci on the skin into hair follicles and cause a boil to arise. A car¬ buncle occurs when several adjoining boils merge. Healing requires discharging the pus. Treatment involves antibiotics.

Boileau \bwa-'lo\ (-Despreaux), Nicolas (b. Nov. 1, 1636, Paris, France—d. March 13, 1711, Paris) French poet and literary critic. His L’Art poetique (1674), a didactic treatise in verse setting out rules of composition of poetry in the classical tradition, provides valuable insight into the literary controversies of the period. He also translated the clas¬ sical treatise On the Sublime, attributed to Longinus, which ironically became a key source of the aesthetics of Romanticism. His works upheld classical standards in both French and English literature.

boiler Apparatus for converting a liquid to vapour. A boiler consists of a furnace in which fuel is burned, surfaces to transmit heat from the com¬ bustion products to the water (or other liquid), and a space where steam (or vapour) can form and collect. A conventional boiler burns a fossil fuel or waste fuel; a nuclear reactor may instead supply the heat. There are two types of conventional steam boiler. In a fire-tube boiler, the water surrounds the steel tubes through which hot gases from the furnace flow; easy to install and operate, fire-tube boilers are widely used to heat build¬ ings and to provide power for factory processes, as well as in steam loco¬ motives. In a water-tube boiler, the water is inside tubes, with the hot furnace gases circulating outside the tubes; water-tube boilers, which pro¬ duce more and hotter steam, are used in ships and factories. The largest are found in the central-station power plants of public utilities; other large units are used in steel mills, paper mills, oil refineries, and chemical plants. See also steam engine.

boiling Cooking of food by immersion in water, stock, or other liquid heated to its boiling point. Boiling is used to cook meats, vegetables, and some grain foods (pasta, for example). Scalding, accomplished by heat¬ ing to about 185 °F (85 °C), is commonly used to prepare milk to be used as an ingredient in various dishes. At just above the scalding temperature, fish and eggs may be poached. At the simmering point, just below that of boiling, soups, stews, and pot roasts may be prepared. Many foods, espe¬ cially vegetables, are steamed in a rack placed above boiling water.

boiling point Temperature at which a liquid is converted to vapour when heated. At the boiling point, addition of heat results in the transfor¬ mation of the liquid into its vapour without an increase in temperature. A liquid’s boiling point varies according to the liquid’s characteristics and the applied pressure. Water at standard atmospheric pressure, or sea level, boils at 212 °F (100 °C), while ethanol boils at about 172 °F (78 °C). At higher altitudes, boiling points are lower and foods can take longer to cook; pressure cookers can be used to increase the pressure so that the boiling point is raised.

Bois, W.E.B. Du See W.E.B. Du Bois

Boise \'boi-ze\ City (pop., 2000: 185,787), capital of Idaho, U.S. The largest city in the state, it lies on the Boise River. Following the 1862 gold rush to the river basin. Fort Boise was established in 1863, and a community developed to provide services for the mines. It became the capital of Idaho Territory in 1864, and of the state in 1890. Agricultural expansion and the growth of the lumber industry contributed to its rapid growth. Boise is the headquarters of the Boise National Forest.

Resurrection, panel painting by the Master of Wittingau, c. 1380-90; in the National Gallery, Prague.

GIRAUDON/ART RESOURCE, NEW YORK

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Boito ► Bolivia I 243

Boito Vbo-e-toV Arrigo orig. Enrico Giuseppe Giovanni Boito

(b. Feb. 24, 1842, Padua, Lombardy-Venetia—d. June 10, 1918, Milan, Italy) Italian composer and librettist. As a composer, he is remembered for his opera Mefistofele (1868). He wrote the text for Giuseppe Verdi’s Inno delle nazioni (1862) and revised the libretto for his Simon Boccanegra (1881), tasks that led to his writing the celebrated texts for Verdi’s mas- terworks Otello (1887) and Falstajf { 1893). He was also the librettist of Amilcare Ponchielli’s La Gioconda (1876). His own opera Nerone was left unfinished at his death.

Bojador V.bo-jo-'dorX, Cape Cape, West Africa. It extends into the Atlantic Ocean off Western Sahara south of the Canary Islands. After 1434 the Portuguese began exploiting the region, particularly for slaves. Later the area was disputed by Spain and Portugal; Spain finally gained con¬ trol in 1860 and annexed it in 1884. After Spain’s withdrawal from West¬ ern Sahara in 1976, Morocco claimed the cape, garrisoned troops there, and made the area a province.

BojanglesSee Bill Robinson

Bok, Edward (William) (b. Oct. 9, 1863, Den Helder, Neth.—d. Jan. 9, 1930, Lake Wales, Fla., U.S.)

Dutch-bom U.S. editor. Raised in a poor immigrant family in Brooklyn,

N.Y., Bok pursued a career in book and magazine publishing. As editor of the Ladies’ Home Journal (1889—

1919) he devised departments to inform women on diverse subjects and led campaigns for public health and beautification. His decision to stop accepting patent-medicine advertising helped bring about the Pure Food and Drug Act (1906). He also broke the taboo against the printed mention of venereal disease.

His last years were devoted to work¬ ing for civic improvement and world peace. He wrote a notable autobiog¬ raphy, The Americanization of Edward Bok (1920, Pulitzer Prize).

bok choy or Chinese mustard

Brassica chinensis, one of two types of Chinese cabbage. It has glossy dark green leaves and thick, crisp white stalks in a loose head. Its yellow¬ flowering centre is especially prized. See also brassica; mustard family.

Bokassa \bo-'kas-3\, Jean-Bedel or Bokassa I (b. Feb. 22, 1921, Bobangui [Central African Republic]—d. Nov. 3, 1996, Bangui, Central African Republic) President of the Central African Republic (1966-77) and self-proclaimed emperor of the Central African Empire (1977-79). Son of a village chief, Bokassa joined the French army in 1939 and later received the Croix de Guerre for his service in Indochina. In 1961 he returned to head the army of the newly independent Central African Republic; five years later he overthrew the president, his cousin David Dacko. In 1977 he had himself crowned emperor. When he was found to have participated in the massacre of 100 schoolchildren and was accused of cannibalism, French paratroops removed him in a coup and reestab¬ lished the republic. Bokassa settled in Cote d’Ivoire. He was sentenced to death in absentia in 1980, but his death sentence was later commuted.

Bokhara See Bukhara

Bokn Fjord \ , biik- 3 n- , fyord\ Inlet of the North Sea, southwestern Nor¬ way. It is about 28 mi (45 km) long and 12 mi (20 km) wide. Its branches include other fjords, and it is dotted by many islands and islets. The major settlement along the fjord is Stavanger, a centre for offshore oil drilling.

Boleyn, Anne See Anne Boleyn

Bolingbroke Vba-liq-.briikV Henry Saint John, 1 st Viscount (b.

Sept. 16,1678, probably Wiltshire, Eng.—d. Dec. 12,1751, Battersea, near London) British politician. After entering Parliament in 1701, he became a prominent Tory in the reign of Queen Anne, serving as secretary of war (1704-08) and of state (1710-15). He was dismissed from office by George I and, fearing impeachment because of his intrigues with the Jacobites, he fled to France in 1715. He returned to England in 1725 and became the centre of a literary circle that included Jonathan Swift, Alexander Pope, and

Edward Bok, photograph by Pirie Mac¬ Donald, 1909.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

John Gay. He waged an influential propaganda campaign in opposition to the Whigs and their leader, Robert Walpole, and also wrote several historical and philosophical works, including The Idea of a Patriot King (published secretly by Pope in 1744 and as a corrected version in 1749).

The Liberator (b. July 24,

Bolivar \bo-'le-var\, Simon known 1783, Caracas, New Granada—d.

Dec. 17, 1830, near Santa Maria,

Colombia) South American soldier and statesman who led the revolu¬ tions against Spanish rule in New Granada (now Colombia, Venezu¬ ela, and Ecuador), Peru, and Upper Peru (now Bolivia). The son of a Venezuelan aristocrat, Bolivar received a European education.

Influenced by European rationalism, he joined Venezuela’s independence movement and became a prominent political and military leader. The revolutionaries expelled Venezuela’s Spanish governor (1810) and declared the nation’s independence in 1811. The young republic was defeated by the Spanish in 1814, and Bolivar went into exile. In 1819 he undertook a daring attack on New Granada, leading some 2,500 men over routes considered impassable. Taking the Spanish by surprise, he defeated them quickly. With the help of Antonio Sucre, he secured the indepen¬ dence of Ecuador in 1822. He completed Jose de San Martin’s revolution¬ ary work in Peru, freeing that country in 1824. On Bolivar’s orders, Sucre liberated Upper Peru (1825). As president of both Colombia (1821-30) and Peru (1823-29), Bolivar oversaw the creation in 1826 of a league of Hispanic American states, but the new states soon began warring among themselves. Less successful at ruling countries than at liberating them, Bolivar exiled himself and died on his way to Europe.

Simon Bolivar, detail of an engraving by C.G. Childs.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

Bolivar \bo-'le-var\ Peak or Pico Bolivar or La Columna Moun¬ tain, Venezuela. It is located in Sierra Nevada National Park. Rising 16,427 ft (5,007 m), it is the highest mountain in the Cordillera de Mer¬ ida (a northeastern spur of the Andes Mountains) and in Venezuela.

Bolivia officially Republic of Bolivia Country, west-central South America. Area: 424,164 sq mi (1,098,581 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 8,858,000. Capitals: La Paz (administrative), Sucre (judicial). The popu¬ lation consists of three principal groups: Indians, largely Aymara and Que- chua; mestizos; and descendants of Europeans. Languages: Spanish, Aymara, Quechua (all official). Religions: Christianity (predominantly Roman Catholic [official]; also Protestant); also vestiges of pre- Columbian religion. Currency: boliviano. Bolivia may be divided into three major regions. The southwestern highlands, or Altiplano, where Lake Titicaca is located, extends through southwestern Bolivia. It is enclosed by the second region, the western and eastern branches of the Andes Mountains. Much of the eastern branch is heavily forested terrain, with many deep river valleys; the western branch is a high plateau bordered by volcanoes, including the country’s highest peak, Mount Sajama, which rises to 21,463 ft (6,542 m). The third region is a lowland area that com¬ prises the northern and eastern two-thirds of the country; its rivers include the Guapore, Mamore, Beni, and upper Pilcomayo. Bolivia has a develop¬ ing mixed economy based on the production of natural gas and agricul¬ tural foodstuffs. It is a republic with two legislative houses; its head of state and government is the president. The Bolivian highlands were the location of the advanced Tiwanaku culture in the 7th—11th centuries and, with its passing, became the home of the Aymara, an Indian group con¬ quered by the Inca in the 15th century. The Inca were overrun by the invading Spanish conquistadorcs under Francisco Pizarro in the 1530s. By 1600 Spain had established the cities of Charcas (now Sucre), La Paz, Santa Cruz, and what would become Cochabamba and had begun to exploit the silver wealth of Potosf. Bolivia flourished in the 17th century, and for a time Potosf was the largest city in the Americas. By the end of the cen¬ tury, the mineral wealth had been depleted. Talk of independence began as early as 1809, but not until 1825 were Spanish forces finally defeated. Bolivia shrank in size when it lost Atacama province to Chile in 1884 at the end of the War of the Pacific and again when it lost most of Gran Chaco to Paraguay in 1938 as a result of the Chaco War. One of South

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

244 I Boll ► Bolshoi Ballet

America’s poorest countries, Bolivia was plagued by governmental instability for much of the 20th century. Social and eco¬ nomic tension continued in the early 21st century, fueled by resistance to govern¬ ment efforts to eradicate the growth of coca (from which the narcotic cocaine is derived), by unrest among Bolivia’s Indians, and by disagree¬ ments over how to exploit the country’s vast natural gas reserves.

Boll VbcelX, Heinrich (Theodor) (b. Dec. 21, 1917, Cologne, Ger.—d. July 16, 1985, near Bonn, W.Ger.) German writer. As a soldier in World War II he fought on several fronts, a central experience in the develop¬ ment of his antiwar, nonconformist views. His ironic novels on the tra¬ vails of German life during and after the war captured the changing psychology of the German nation. He became a leading voice of the Ger¬ man left. Among his works are Acquainted with the Night (1953), Bil¬ liards at Half-Past Nine (1959), The Clown (1963), Group Portrait with Lady (1971), and The Lost Honor ofKatharina Blum (1974). He won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1972.

boll weevil Vbol-'we-volV Small beetle ( Anthonomus grandis) found almost everywhere cotton is culti¬ vated. It is the most serious cotton pest in North America. Adults vary in size according to how much food they received as larvae, but they average about 0.25 in. (6 mm) long, including the long, curved snout. In the spring adults deposit eggs in cot¬ ton buds or fruit. After hatching, the larvae live within the cotton boll, destroying the seeds and surrounding fibres. Because the larvae and pupae remain inside the cotton bolls, they cannot be killed with insecticides.

The boll weevil destroys an estimated three to five million bales of cot¬ ton annually.

bollworm Vbol-.wormX Any larva of various moth species, including the pink bollworm (family Gelechiidae) and some Heliothis species (fam¬ ily Noctuidae; see corn earworm). Bollworms attack com, tomatoes, cot¬ ton, peas, alfalfa, beans, soybeans, flax, peanuts, and other commercial crops. They can be controlled by natural parasites, early crop planting, trap crops, and insecticides.

Bollywood Indian moviemaking industry that began in Bombay (now Mumbai) in the 1930s and developed into an enormous film empire. Bom¬

Boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis)

HARRY ROGERS

bay Talkies, launched in 1934 by Himansu Rai, spearheaded the growth of Indian cinema. Throughout the years, several classic genres emerged from Bollywood: the historical epic, notably Mughal-e-azam (1960; “The Great Mughal”); the curry western, such as Sholay (1975; “The Embers”); the courtesan film, such as Pakeezah (1972; “Pure Heart”), which high¬ lights stunning cinematography and sensual dance choreography; and the mythological movie, represented by Jai Santoshi Maa (1975; “Hail San- toshi Maa”). Star actors, rather than the films themselves, have accounted for most box-office success. Standard features of Bollywood films include formulaic story lines, expertly choreographed fight scenes, spectacular song-and-dance routines, emotion-charged melodrama, and larger-than- life heroes. At the beginning of the 21st century, Bollywood produced as many as 1,000 feature films annually, and international audiences began to develop among Asians in the U.K. and the U.S.

Bologna \bo-'lo-ny9\ City (pop., 2004 est.: 373,539), capital of Emilia- Romagna region, northern Italy. Located north of Florence, it lies at the northern foot of the Apennines. Originally the Etruscan town of Felsina, it became a Roman military colony c. 190 bc. It was subject to the Byz¬ antine exarchate of Ravenna from the 6th century ad. It became a free commune in the 12th century. Incorporated into the Papal States in 1506, it was the scene of the crowning of Charles V in 1530. After a brief period of French occupation, it was restored to the Papal States in 1815, and in 1860 it was united to the Kingdom of Italy. The University of Bologna is among Europe’s oldest. The city is a road and rail centre for traffic between northern and southern Italy. It is the site of excellent medieval and Renaissance architecture and is famous for its cuisine. Locally, it was governed by leftists in the second half of the 20th century.

Bologna, Giovanni da See Giambologna

Bologna, University of Oldest university in Europe, founded in Bologna, Italy, in 1088. It became in the 12th—13th centuries the princi¬ pal centre for studies in civil and canon law, and it served as a model for the organization of universities throughout Europe. Its faculties of medi¬ cine and philosophy were formed c. 1200. The faculty of science was developed in the 17th century. In the 18th century women were admitted as students and teachers. The modern university includes faculties of law, political science, economics, letters and philosophy, natural sciences, agri¬ culture, medicine, and engineering.

Bolognese school V.bo-lo-'nez, .bo-lo-'nyezN Works produced and theories expounded by the Academy of the Progressives, founded in Bolo¬ gna c. 1582 by Lodovico, Agostino, and Annibale Carracci. In reaction against Mannerism, they advocated drawing directly from life. Among their leading students were Domenichino and Guido Reni. Their clear, simple pictures accorded well with the artistic demands of the Counter- Reformation, which wanted works of art to be immediately comprehen¬ sible. What began as a regional movement became one of the most influential forces in 17th-century art.

Bolshevik \ , bol-sho- l vik\ (Russian: “member of the majority”) Member of the wing of the Russian Social-Democratic Workers' Party led by Vladimir Ilich Lenin that seized control in the Russian Revolution of 1917. The group arose in 1903 when Lenin’s followers insisted that party membership be restricted to professional or full-time revolutionaries. Though they joined with their rivals, the Mensheviks (“members of the minority”), in the Rus¬ sian Revolution of 1905, the two groups later split, and in 1912 Lenin formed his own party. Its appeal grew among urban workers and soldiers during World War I. The Bolshevik consolidation of power after 1917 became one prototype of totalitarianism; the other was fascism of Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler. See also Communist Party, Leninism.

Bolshoi Theatre complex in Moscow where concerts, opera, ballet, and dramatic works are presented. The institution (whose name means “Large”) dates back to 1776, when Catherine II licensed a company to give all theatrical performances in Moscow; its scope soon expanded to include opera and dance as well as drama. The original complex was built in 1825; it was rebuilt after a fire in 1853. The performing companies have changed over time, but the institution and the rebuilt edifice have survived.

Bolshoi Ballet \b6l-'shoi\ Leading ballet company of Russia, noted for elaborate productions of 19th-century classical ballets. The company was formed in 1776 and took the name of its home, Moscow’s Bolshoi The¬ atre, in 1825. Its influential choreographers included Marius Petipa, Carlo Blasis, and Aleksandr Gorsky. Yuri Grigorovich was artistic director from 1964 to 1995. Its many successful tours have introduced its outstanding

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

bolt ► Bonaparte I 245

dancers, including Yekaterina Geltzer, Vasily Tikhomirov, Galina Ulanova, and Maya Plisetskaya, to audiences worldwide.

bolt Mechanical fastener, usually used with a nut, for connecting two or more parts. Bolted joints can be readily disassembled and reassembled; hence bolts or screw fasteners are used more than other types of mechanical fastener. A bolt consists of a head and a cylindrical body with screw threads along a portion of its length. Nuts have internal (or female) threads to match those of the bolt. Washers are often used to prevent loosening and crushing.

bolt action Type of breech mechanism that was key to developing an effective repeating rifle. It combines the firing pin, a spring, and an extrac¬ tor, all housed in or attached to the bolt. A projecting handle with a round knob moves the bolt back and forth. As the bolt is thrust forward, it pushes a cartridge into the chamber and cocks the piece. The trigger releases the spring-driven firing pin inside the bolt. After firing, the extractor on the head of the bolt removes the spent cartridge and ejects it. The bolt then moves a new cartridge from the magazine.

Bolton, Guy (Reginald) (b. Nov. 23, 1884, Broxboume, Hertford¬ shire, Eng.—d. Sept. 5, 1979, London) British-born U.S. playwright and librettist. The son of American parents, Bolton studied architecture before he began writing plays. His first play appeared on Broadway in 1911, but it was not until he began contributing to Broadway musicals that his fame spread. In collaboration with P.G. Wodehouse and others, he wrote doz¬ ens of scripts scored by composers such as Jerome Kern {Oh, Boy!, 1917), George Gershwin {Lady, Be Good!, 1924; Girl Crazy, 1930), and Cole Porter {Anything Goes, 1934).

Boltzmann \'bolts-,man\, Ludwig (Eduard) (b. Feb. 20, 1844, Vienna, Austria—d. Sept. 5, 1906, Duino, Italy) Austrian physicist. He obtained his doctorate from the University of Vienna and thereafter taught at several German and Austrian universities. He was one of the first Euro¬ pean scientists to recognize the importance of James Clerk Maxwell’s elec¬ tromagnetic theory. He explained the second law of thermodynamics by applying the laws of mechanics and the theory of probability to the motions of atoms, and he is remembered as the developer of statistical mechanics. His work was widely attacked and misunderstood; subject to depression after 1900, he eventually committed suicide. Shortly after his death, his conclusions were finally supported by discoveries in atomic physics and by recognition that phenomena such as Brownian motion could be explained only by statistical mechanics.

Boltzmann constant Ratio of the universal gas constant (see gas laws) to Avogadro's number. It has a value of 1.380662 x 10 -23 joules per kelvin. Named after Ludwig Boltzmann, it is a fundamental constant of physics, occurring in nearly every statistical formulation of both classi¬ cal and quantum physics.

bomb In volcanology, any unconsolidated volcanic material that has a diameter greater than 1.25 in. (32 mm). Bombs form from clots of wholly or partly liquid lava ejected during a volcanic explosion; they solidify and become rounded during flight. The final shape is determined by the ini¬ tial size, viscosity, and flight velocity of the magma.

Bombay See Mumbai

bomber Military aircraft designed to drop bombs on surface targets. Aerial bombardment can be traced to the Italo-Turkish War (1911), in which an Italian pilot dropped grenades on two Turkish targets. In World War I Zeppelins and large two- to four-engined biplanes were used as stra¬ tegic bombers. In the 1930s small dive bombers were developed; they caused great destruction and panic in the Spanish Civil War and early in World War II. The latter conflict saw further development of heavy stra¬ tegic bombers, which were used to destroy targets in the enemy’s home territory; meanwhile, smaller fighter-bombers supported ground troops on the battlefield. After the war, jet-propelled long-range bombers carrying nuclear bombs were important to Cold War strategy, and they also dropped conventional bombs during the Vietnam War, the Persian Gulf War, and the Afghan conflicts. Efforts to evade increasingly sophisticated electronic early-warning systems have culminated in the development of U.S. stealth bombers, but cheaper and smaller jet fighter-bombers, equipped with elec¬ tronic sensors and guided “smart” bombs, have proved effective in con¬ flicts ranging from the Balkans to the Middle East.

Bombon, Lake See Lake Taal

Bomu River \'bo-mu\ River, central Africa. Flowing west, it forms the boundary between northern Congo and southern Central African Repub¬

lic (where it is called the Mbomou). It flows in a wide 500-mi (800-km) curve through savannas to join the Uele River and form the Ubangi.

Bon Vpce n \ Indigenous religion of Tibet. It was originally concerned with magical propitiation of demonic forces, and its practices included blood sacrifices. It later developed a cult of divine kingship (with kings regarded as manifestations of the sky divinity), reformulated in Tibetan Buddhism as the reincarnation of LAMAS. Bon’s order of oracular priests had their coun¬ terpart in Buddhist soothsayers, and its gods of air, earth, and underworld in the lesser Tibetan Buddhist deities. Though its religious supremacy ended in the 8th century, Bon survives in many aspects of Tibetan Bud¬ dhism and as a living religion on Tibet’s northern and eastern frontiers.

Bon \'bon\ Popular annual festival in Japan, usually observed July 13-15, in honor of the spirits of deceased family members and of all the dead. As at the New Year festival, the dead are believed to return to their birth¬ places. Memorial stones are cleaned, dances performed, and paper lan¬ terns and fires are lit to welcome the dead and to bid them farewell when their visit ends.

Bon, Gustave Le See Gustave Le Bon

Bon Marche \bo n -mar-'sha\ French "Good Buy" Paris department store. It was founded as a small shop in the early 19th century, and by c. 1865 it had become the world’s first true department store. Its 1876 build¬ ing was designed by Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel (1832-1923). It is unrelated to the Bon Marche chain of department stores in the northwestern U.S.

Bona Dea \,bo-n9-'da-3\ In Roman religion, the deity of fruitfulness, both in the earth and in women. The dedication day of her temple on the Aventine was May 1. Her temple was cared for and attended only by women, though inscriptions show that there was a public side to her wor¬ ship in which men could participate.

Bonaparte, (Marie-Annonciade-) Caroline (b. March 25, 1782, Ajaccio, Corsica—d. May 18, 1839, Florence) Queen of Naples (1808— 15). The youngest sister of Napoleon, she married Joachim Murat in 1800. Her ambitious nature was partially responsible for her husband’s becom¬ ing king of Naples, among other achievements. Her relations with Napo¬ leon became strained as she associated herself with Murat’s shifting allegiances in 1814-15, which led to his execution. Caroline then took refuge in Trieste and became countess de Lipona.

Bonaparte, Jerome (b. Nov. 15, 1784, Ajaccio, Corsica—d. June 24, 1860, Villegenis, France) French nobleman. He was the youngest brother of Napoleon, from whom he became estranged after marrying a U.S. resi¬ dent (1803) without Napoleon’s consent; he later allowed his marriage to be annulled. Napoleon then married Jerome to Princess Catherine of Wurttemberg and made him king of Westphalia (1807-13). He served in the Russian campaign of 1812 and at the Battle of Waterloo. After Napo¬ leon’s fall, he lived in Florence; after the rise of his nephew, Napoleon III, he returned to France to become a marshal of France and president of the Senate.

Bonaparte, Joseph (b. Jan. 7, 1768, Corte, Corsica—d. July 28, 1844, Florence, Tuscany, Italy) French lawyer, diplomat, and soldier. Elder brother of Napoleon, he served during Napoleon’s reign as king of Naples (1806-08), where he abolished feudalism, reformed the monastic orders, and reorganized the judicial, financial, and educational systems. He was named king of Spain in 1808, but his attempts at reform there were less successful. In 1813 he abdicated and returned to France. After Napoleon’s defeat at Waterloo, Joseph lived in the U.S. (1815-32) and later settled in Italy.

Bonaparte, Louis (b. Sept. 2, 1778, Ajaccio, Corsica—d. July 25, 1846, Livorno, Italy) French nobleman and soldier. A brother of Napoleon, he accompanied Napoleon on the Italian campaign of 1796-97 and was his aide-de-camp in Egypt (1798-99). At Napoleon’s insistence, he mar¬ ried Hortense de Beauharnais in 1802, but the union proved unhappy and did not last. Proclaimed king of Holland in 1806, he was criticized by Napoleon for being too easy on his subjects. His unwillingness to join the Continental System led him into conflict with Napoleon, and in 1810 he fled his kingdom and eventually settled in Italy. Napoleon III was his son.

Bonaparte, Lucien (b. May 21, 1775, Ajaccio, Corsica—d. June 29, 1840, Viterbo, Italy) French nobleman and politician. A brother of Napo¬ leon, he became president of the Council of Five Hundred, and he helped Napoleon seize power in the Coup of 18-19 Brumaire. Lucien’ s belief that Napoleon’s ambition jeopardized the cause of democracy led to strained