Britannica Concise 2005

Eshnunna \esh-'n3n-3\ or Tell Asmar V.tel-'as-morN Ancient city ruins, eastern Iraq. Occupied before 3000 bc, it was, during the 3rd dynasty of Ur, the seat of an ensi (governor). After the collapse of Ur, it became independent but was later conquered by Hammurabi. Stone tablets found near Babylon, called the “Laws of Eshnunna,” predate the Code of Hammurabi by about two generations and help show the development of ancient law. After Hammurabi’s time it fell into decline. Sumerian arti¬ facts from the site include stone statuettes dating from the 3rd millennium bc. See photo opposite.

Eskimo or Inuit Vi-nu-W9t\ Group of peoples who, with the closely related Aleut, constitute the native population of the Arctic and subarctic regions of Greenland, Alaska (U.S.), Canada, and far eastern Siberia (Rus¬ sia). Self-designations include such names as Inuit, Inupiat, Yupik, and Alutiit, each being a more or less local variant meaning “the people.” The name Eskimo, first applied by Europeans, may derive from a Montagnais word for snowshoes; it is favoured by Arctic peoples in Alaska, while those in Canada and Greenland prefer Inuit. The Eskimo are of Asian ori¬ gin, like the American Indians, but they are distinguishable from the latter by their climatic adaptations, the presence of the B blood type, and their languages (Eskimo-Aleut), all of which suggest that they are of distinctive origin. Traditional Eskimo culture was totally adapted to an extremely cold, snow- and ice-bound environment in which vegetable foods were

Statuettes found at Tell Asmar, Early Dynastic II (c. 2775-c. 2650 bc); in the Orien¬ tal Institute, the University of Chicago

COURTESY OF THE ORIENTAL INSTITUTE, THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

almost nonexistent and caribou, fish, and marine mammals were the major food source. Harpoons and one-person kayaks or larger umiaks were used for hunting on the sea. Clothing was fashioned of caribou furs and seal¬ skins. Snow-block IGLOOS or semisubterranean sod and stone houses were used in winter, while in summer animal-skin tents were erected. Dogsleds were the basic means of land transport. Religion centred on shamanism and the unseen world of spirits. By the late 20th century, snowmobiles and rifles had replaced dogsleds and harpoons. Many Eskimo have aban¬ doned their nomadic hunting pursuits and moved into northern towns and cities. Some have formed cooperatives to market their handicrafts and other wares. The Eskimo (Inuit, Inupiat, Yupik, etc.) peoples number some

177,000.

Eskimo-Aleut \,al-e-'ut\ languages Family of languages spoken in Greenland, Canada, Alaska, U.S., and eastern Siberia by the Eskimo and Aleut peoples. Aleut, distantly related to the Eskimo languages, consists of eastern and western dialects; today both are spoken by fewer than 400 people. The Eskimo languages have two subgroups: Yupik (five lan¬ guages), spoken on the Chukchi Peninsula in Siberia and in southwest¬ ern Alaska; and Inupiaq-Inuktitut, a continuum of dialects spoken across arctic Alaska and Canada to the coasts of Labrador and Greenland. Yupik languages are spoken today by about 13,000 people, while Inupiaq- Inuktitut has more than 100,000 speakers, nearly half of whom speak Greenlandic Inuktitut.

Eskimo dog Breed of hunting and sled dog found near the Arctic Circle. It is believed by some to be repre¬ sentative of a pure breed 25,000- 50,000 years old and by others to be descended from the wolf. It is pow¬ erfully built and big-boned, and it stands about 20-25 in. (51-64 cm) tall and weighs 65-85 lb (30-39 kg).

Its long, waterproof outer coat, which varies in colour, covers a thick, woolly undercoat. See also SPITZ.

esophagus \i-'sa-f9-g9s\ Muscu¬ lar tube that conveys food by peristal¬ sis from the pharynx to the stomach.

Both ends are closed off by sphincters (muscular constrictions), which relax to let food through and close to keep it from backing up. Disorders include ulceration and bleeding, heartburn from stomach acid, achalasia (failure of one or both sphincters to open), and muscle spasms. Sclero¬ derma may involve the esophagus.

ESP See extrasensory perception