Britannica Concise 2005

Jin Vjin\ dynasty or Chin dynasty First of two major Chinese dynasties to bear the name Jin. The dynasty had two distinct phases: the Western Jin (ad 265-317) and the Eastern Jin (ad 317^420). The latter is considered one of the Six Dynasties that ruled China between the fall of the Han (ad 220) and the establishment of the Sui (581). China was reunited under Sima Yan (Ssu-ma Yen), first of the Jin emperors, but after his death the empire rapidly crumbled. The XlONGNU nomads of the north overran the Jin capital of Luoyang and later defeated the Jin again at Chang'AN. For the next two centuries China was divided into two soci¬ eties, northern (plagued by barbarian invasions) and southern. The East¬ ern Jin, founded by another Sima prince at Nanjing, suffered revolts, court intrigues, and frontier wars, but also saw the flourishing of Buddhism in China and the birth of China’s first great painter, Gu Kaizhi (344-4067). See also Juchen dynasty.

Jina See Tirthankara

Jinan \'je-'nan\ or Chi-nan conventional Tsinan City (pop., 2003 est.: 2,345,969), capital of Shandong province, eastern China. It dates to the Zhou dynasty (c. llth-3rd century bc) and earlier and has been an admin¬ istrative centre since the 8th century bc. Nearby Mount Tai was one of China’s greatest holy mountains; many Buddhist cave temples were built in the hills south of the city in the 4th-7th centuries ad. It was made the capital of Shandong under the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). Opened to for¬ eign commerce in 1904, it developed further after becoming a railroad junction in 1912. It is now a major administrative and industrial centre and Shandong’s chief cultural centre, with agricultural, medical, and engi¬ neering colleges and a large university (1926).

jingxi or ching-hsi, also called Beijing opera or Peking opera Chinese "opera of the capital" Traditional Chinese theatre, origi¬ nally devised in 1790 as part of the Qianlong emperor’s birthday celebra¬ tion. Highly conventionalized and symbolic, it combines orchestral music, speech, song, dance, and acrobatics. The performers enact dramas based on historical epics, legend, and myth. The characters’ roles and social ranks are conveyed through elaborate costumes and stylized makeup. The actor Mei Lanfang brought its influence to the West through his tours of Russia and the U.S. in the 1930s. Jingxi traditionally employed an all¬ male cast with female impersonators, but in the late 20th century it expanded its scope to admit female actors.

jinja In the Shinto religion, a place where a god is enshrined or to which it is summoned. Originally rural sites of great natural beauty, jinja now include urban shrines. They vary in size from small roadside places of prayer to large building complexes such as the Grand Ise Shrine. There are more than 97,000 such shrines in Japan.

Jinnah, Mohammed Ali (b. Dec. 25, 1876, Karachi, India—d. Sept. 11, 1948, Karachi, Pak.) Indian Muslim politician, founder and first governor-general of Pakistan (1947-48). He was educated in Bombay (now Mumbai) and London, where he became a lawyer at age 19. After returning to India, he practiced law and was elected to India’s Imperial Legislative Council in 1910. Committed to home rule for India and to maintaining Hindu-Muslim unity, he joined the Muslim League in 1913 and worked to ensure its collaboration with the Indian National Congress. He was opposed to Mohandas K. Gandhi’s noncooperation movement and withdrew from the Congress. In the late 1920s and early ’30s, he was seen as too moderate by some Muslims but too Muslim by the Congress Party. From 1937, when the Congress Party refused to form coalition governments with the Muslim League in the provinces, Jinnah began to work for the partitioning of India and on creating a Muslim state. Paki¬ stan emerged as an independent country in 1947, and Jinnah became its first head of state. He died in 1948, revered as the father of the nation.

jinni or genie plural jinn In Arabic mythology, any of the supernatu¬ ral spirits less powerful than angels or devils. Evil spirits of air or fire, they could take animal or human form and could dwell in inanimate objects or under the earth. They had the bodily needs of human beings and could be killed but were otherwise free of physical restraints. Jinn delighted in punishing humans for any harm done to them, but people who knew the proper magical procedure could exploit them to their own advantage. The jinn were popular subjects for folklore, notably in the tale of Aladdin in The Thousand and One Nights.

Jinsha River, or Kinsha River or Chin-sha River \'jin-'sha\ River, China. The westernmost major headwater stream of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang), it rises in western Qinghai province south of the Kun¬ lun Mountains, and flows south to form the western border of Sichuan province for some 250 mi (400 km). It then flows into Yunnan province, and swings northeast to join the Min River at Yibin and form the Yangtze.

jito Vje-to\ In feudal Japan, a land steward appointed by the central mili¬ tary government to each of the estates ( shoen ) into which the countryside was divided. The jito collected taxes and maintained the peace; he was also entitled to a portion of the taxes collected. The position, created by Minamoto Yoritomo in 1184, came to be hereditary. As time went by, the jito came to have closer ties with local leaders than with the central gov¬ ernment, which contributed to the weakening of the Kamakura shogunate (see Kamakura period).

jitterbug Dance variation of the two-step in which couples swing, bal¬ ance, and twirl in standardized patterns to syncopated music in 4 A time. It originated in the U.S. in the mid 1930s and became internationally

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Jiulong ► Joffre I 989

popular in the 1940s. It originally included acrobatic lifts and swings, but it became modified in ballroom versions. Its step patterns varied and could include the lindy hop and the jive.

Jiulong See Kowloon

jiva Vje-vo\ In Jainism, the soul or living spirit. Jivas are believed to be eternal and infinite in number. Many are bound to earthly existence by karma that requires them to move through the cycle of rebirth in succes¬ sive bodies. Eventually a jiva may obtain release, whereupon a replace¬ ment is promoted from the lowest class of jivas, the tiny invisible souls called nigodas that fill the whole space of the world.

Jizah Xal-'je-zoX, Al- or Giza Vge-zo\ City (pop., 1996: 2,221,868), Upper Egypt. Located on the western bank of the Nile River, it is a sub¬ urb of Cairo. A noted entertainment district, it is also the centre of Egypt’s motion-picture industry. Rising 5 mi (8 km) west of the city are the Great Sphinx and the Pyramids of Giza (see pyramid), built during Egypt’s 4th dynasty (c. 2613-c. 2494 bc).

jizya or jizyah \'jiz-yo\ Poll tax that early Islamic rulers demanded from their non-Muslim subjects. This tax applied especially to followers of Judaism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism, who were tolerated in the practice of their religion because they were “peoples of the book.” Origi¬ nally intended to be used for charitable purposes, the revenues from the jizya were paid into the private treasuries of rulers, and the Ottoman sul¬ tans used the proceeds to pay military expenses. Many converted to Islam in order to escape the tax.

Joachim \,yo-a-'kem\, Joseph (b. June 28, 1831, Kittsee, near Press- burg, Austria-Hungary—d. Aug. 15, 1907, Berlin, German Empire) Austro-Hungarian violinist. A prodigy, he began study as a child in Pest, continuing later in Vienna and Leipzig, where he was associated with Felix Mendelssohn. He was concertmaster at Weimar under Franz Liszt (1850- 52), but their tastes in music diverged radically. He became close to Johannes Brahms, who sought Joachim’s advice about his violin concerto. Joachim wrote cadenzas that are still used for a number of concertos. As the longtime head of Berlin’s Hochschule (1868-1905), he developed it into a first-rank conservatory.

Joachim of Fiore \yo-'a-kem...'fyo-ra\ (b. c. 1130/35, Celico, Kingdom of Naples—d. 1201/02, Fiore) Italian mystic, theologian, and philosopher of history. After a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, he became a Cistercian monk, and by 1177 he was abbot at Corazzo, Sicily. He retired into the mountains to follow a contemplative life in 1191, and in 1196 he founded the order of San Giovanni in Fiore. His Book of Harmony of the New and Old Testaments outlined a theory of history and traced correspondences in the Old and New Testaments. In his Exposition of the Apocalypse he exam¬ ined the symbols of the Antichrist, and in Psaltery of Ten Strings he expounded his doctrine of the Holy Trinity. A man of vivid imagination, he was both acclaimed as a prophet and denounced as a heretic.

Joan I or Joanna I Italian Giovanna (b. 1326—d. May 22, 1382, Lucania, Kingdom of Naples) Countess of Provence and queen of Naples (1343-82). She belonged to the house of Anjou, and her marriage to the brother of the king of Hungary was intended to reconcile Hungarian and Angevin claims on Naples. Suspected of her husband’s murder, she fled to Avignon (1348). She sold Avignon to the papacy in return for being cleared of the crime, then went back to Naples in 1352. She recognized the antipope Clement VII in 1378, and Pope Urban VI crowned Charles of Durazzo king of Naples in 1381. When Charles captured Naples, he imprisoned Joan and had her killed.

Joan, Pope Legendary female pontiff who supposedly reigned, as Pope John VIII, for about 25 months from 855 to 858. The tale held that she was an Englishwoman who fell in love with a Benedictine monk, dis¬ guised herself as a man, and joined his order. After acquiring great learn¬ ing she moved to Rome, where she became cardinal and then pope. In the earliest version of the story, she was pregnant at the time of her election and gave birth during the procession to the Lateran, whereupon she was dragged out of Rome and stoned to death. The legend, regarded as fact until the 17th century, has since been proved to be apocryphal.

Joan of Arc, Saint French Jeanne d'Arc \zhan-'dark\ (b. c. 1412, Domremy, Bar, Fr.—d. May 30, 1431, Rouen; canonized May 16, 1920; feast day May 30) French military heroine. She was a peasant girl who from an early age believed she heard the voices of Sts. Michael, Cathe¬ rine, and Margaret. When she was about 16, her voices began urging her

to aid France’s Dauphin (crown prince) and save France from the English attempt at conquest in the Hundred Years' War. Dressed in men’s clothes, she visited the Dauphin and convinced him, his advisers, and the church authorities to support her. With her inspiring conviction, she rallied the French troops and raised the English siege of Orleans in 1429. She soon defeated the English again at Patay. The Dauphin was crowned king at Reims as Charles VII, with Joan beside him. Her siege of Paris was unsuc¬ cessful, and in 1430 she was captured by the Burgundians and sold to the English. Abandoned by Charles, she was turned over to the ecclesiastical court at Rouen, controlled by French clerics who supported the English, and tried for witchcraft and heresy (1431). She fiercely defended herself but finally recanted and was sentenced to life imprisonment; when she again asserted that she had been divinely inspired, she was burned at the stake. She was not canonized until 1920.

Job Vjob\ Central character of the Book of Job in the Old Testament, known for his faithfulness to God despite his many afflictions. At the beginning. Job is a wealthy man with a large family. Satan challenges God to allow him to take away Job’s blessings as a test of his faith. Soon Job is desolate, covered with boils, his wealth gone and his family dead. Three friends arrive to comfort him; he disputes with them, denying he has done anything to deserve this misery but maintaining his faith in God. At the end, in a confrontation with God, the power and mystery of the deity are memorably reasserted, but the problem of why the innocent suf¬ fer is left unresolved. The book dates from the 6th-4th century bc.

Jobim \zho-'bi n \, Antonio Carlos (b. Jan. 25, 1927, Rio de Janeiro, Braz.—d. Dec. 8, 1994, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Brazilian songwriter and composer. He performed on guitar and piano in Rio de Janeiro clubs before becoming music director of Odeon Records. In 1959 he and Luis Bonfa composed the score for the film Black Orpheus, and his worldwide success soon followed. He transformed samba music into bossa nova (“new wrinkle” or “new wave”), a fusion of understated samba pulse (quiet percussion, unamplified guitars playing subtly complex rhythms), gentle singing, and the melodic and sophisticated harmonies of cool jazz; the style found a long-lasting niche in popular music. He collaborated with Frank Sinatra, Stan Getz, and Astrud Gilberto, and he also composed clas¬ sical works and film scores. His more than 400 songs include “One-Note Samba,” “Meditation,” and “The Girl from Ipanema.”

Jobs, Steven Paul (b. Feb. 24, 1955, San Francisco, Cal., U.S.) U.S. businessman. Adopted in infancy, he grew up in Los Altos. He dropped out of Reed College and went to work for Atari Corp. designing video games. In 1976 he cofounded (with Stephen Wozniak) Apple Computer, Inc. The first Apple computer, created when Jobs was only 21, changed the public’s idea of a computer from a huge machine for scientific use to a home appliance that could be used by anyone. Apple’s Macintosh com¬ puter, which appeared in 1984, introduced a graphical user interface and mouse technology that became the standard for all applications interfaces. In 1980 Apple became a public corporation, and Jobs became the com¬ pany’s chairman. Management conflicts led him to leave Apple in 1985 to form NeXT Computer Inc., but he returned to Apple in 1996 and became CEO in 1997. The striking new iMac computer (1998) revived the company’s flagging fortunes.

Jocho \'j6-,cho\ (d. 1057, Japan) Japanese Buddhist sculptor. The son and pupil of a sculptor, he worked primarily for the Fujiwara family. He was awarded unprecedented honours for sculptures executed for Kyoto’s Hojo Temple and for the Fujiwara family temple in Nara. He was instru¬ mental in improving the social standing of Buddhist sculptors by orga¬ nizing a guild, and he perfected the so-called kiyoseho, or joined-wood technique. His only extant work is a carved Amida (Buddha) figure (c. 1053) in the Byodo Temple at Uji.

Joel Second of the 12 Minor Prophets in the Hebrew scriptures, author of the book of Joel. (His prophecy is part of a larger book, The Twelve, in the Jewish canon.) He lived sometime during the period of the Second Temple of Jerusalem (516 bc-ad 70), but nothing is known of his life. He opens his prophecy by describing a plague of locusts, an allegory of the disasters to come upon a faithless people. His message is simple: salva¬ tion will come to Judah only when the people truly turn to Yahweh. The end of the book looks forward to the final days, when all Israel will share in the knowledge of God.

Joffre VzhofrA, Joseph (-Jacques-Cesaire) (b. Jan. 12, 1852, Rivesaltes, France—d. Jan. 3, 1931, Paris) French commander in chief on the Western Front in World War I. He was responsible for the calamitous

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990 I Joffrey ► John III Ducas Vatatzes

campaign with which the French army began operations in 1914 against Germany, but he shifted his forces and created a new French army under his direct command that won a great victory in the First Battle of the Marne (1914). As commander in chief (1915-16), he ordered the French armies to burst through the German positions, at ruinous cost.

His prestige waned, and, because of the lack of French preparation for the Battle of Verdun (1916), he was stripped of his direct command and resigned. He was created a marshal of France in 1916.

Joffrey, Robert orig. Abdullah Jaffa Bey Khan (b. Dec. 24,

1930, Seattle, Wash., U.S.—d.

March 25, 1988, New York, N.Y.)

U.S. dancer and choreographer, founder-director of the Joffrey Bal¬ let. He was the son of an Afghan father and an Italian-born mother. He studied dance in Seattle and later in New York, opened a ballet school in 1953, and in 1954 formed the first of several groups. In 1956 he founded the Robert Joffrey (later simply Joffrey) Ballet with Gerald Arpino (b. 1928). The company gained inter¬ national fame and toured widely. In 1965 it became affiliated with the New York City Center. Joffrey’s ballets include Persephone (1952), Astarte (1967), Remembrances (1973), and Postcards (1980). After Jof¬ frey’s death, Arpino became director; in 1995 he moved the company to Chicago, renaming it the Joffrey Ballet of Chicago.

Jogan \'j6-,gan\ style Japanese sculptural style of the early Heian period, seen primarily but not exclusively in Buddhist sculptures. The massive figures, carved from single blocks of wood, are columnar, erect, and sym¬ metrical and have large round faces, large lips, wide noses, and wide eyes, almost geometrically simplified. The drapery, composed of alternating series of small and large waves, is its most distinguishing feature. The technique was first seen on the drapery of the colossal image of the Bud¬ dha at Barman, Afg.; Chinese and Japanese pilgrims brought back holy images and used them as prototypes for their own sacred images.

jogging Aerobic exercise involving running at an easy pace. Jogging (1967) by Bill Bowerman and W.E. Harris boosted jogging’s popularity for fitness, weight loss, and stress relief. Many medical authorities endorse jogging, but others warn of risks to feet, shins, knees, and backs. Jogging only every other day, warming up properly, and using well-designed shoes and proper technique can reduce risks.

Johanan ben Zakkai yjo-'ha-non-ben-'za-ka-.lV (fl. 1st century ad) Palestinian Jewish sage. A leading representative of the Pharisees, he helped preserve and develop Judaism in the years after the destruction of the Second Temple of Jerusalem (ad 70). He is said to have been smuggled out of the besieged city in a coffin and to have visited the Roman camp and persuaded the future emperor Vespasian to allow him to set up an academy at Jamnia near the Judaean coast. He established an authorita¬ tive rabbinic body there and was revered as a great teacher and scholar.

Johannesburg City (pop., 2001: metro, area, 3,225,810), northeastern South Africa. The capital of Gauteng province and one of the country’s largest cities, it bestrides a highland region called the Witwatersrand. It was founded in 1886 after the discovery of gold nearby and was occu¬ pied by the British during the South African War in 1900. It was a legally segregated city until 1991; non whites were restricted to living in outly¬ ing areas called townships, including Soweto. Greater Johannesburg extends more than 600 sq mi (1,600 sq km) and includes more than 500 suburbs and townships. It is a leading industrial and financial centre. Its cultural and educational institutions include the Johannesburg Art Gal¬ lery, the Civic Theatre, the University of the Witwatersrand, and the Uni¬ versity of Johannesburg.

Johannsen, Wilhelm Ludvig (b. Feb. 3, 1857, Copenhagen, Den.—d. Nov. 11, 1927, Copenhagen) Danish botanist and geneticist. He supported Hugo de Vries’s discovery that variation in genotype can occur by mutation; the new character, while independent of natural selection in

its initial occurrence, is then subject to natural selection. Johannsen’s Ele¬ ments of Heredity (1909) became an influential text, and his terms phe¬ notype and genotype are now a part of the language of genetics.

Johansson, (Per) Christian (b. May 20, 1817, Stockholm, Swed.—d. 1903, St. Petersburg, Russia) Swedish-born ballet dancer and teacher. Johansson trained under August Bournonville. He was engaged at the Imperial Russian Ballet in 1841. In his prime his innate nobility and grace were unsurpassed. In 1860 he turned his attention to teaching at the Imperial Ballet School. Over the next four decades he brought a new pol¬ ish to the Russian style, providing it with a firm base in the French method that he had learned from Bournonville.

John known as John Lackland (b. Dec. 24, 1167, Oxford, Eng.—d. Oct. 18/19, 1216, Newark, Nottinghamshire) King of England (1199— 1216). The youngest son of Henry II, he joined his brother Richard (later Richard I) in a rebellion against Henry (1189). John became lord of Ire¬ land, and, when Richard was imprisoned in Germany on his way back from the Third Crusade, he tried to seize control of England (1193). On Richard’s return, John was banished (1194), but the two were later rec¬ onciled. Crowned king in 1199, John lost Normandy (1204) and most of his other French lands in a war with Philip II (Philip Augustus). After Inno¬ cent III excommunicated him for refusing to recognize Stephen Langton as archbishop of Canterbury, John was obliged to declare England a fief of the Holy See (1213). He launched a military campaign against France in 1214 but made no lasting gains. His heavy taxes and aggressive assertion of feudal privileges led to the outbreak of civil war (1215). The barons forced him to sign the Magna Carta, but the civil war continued until his death.

John or John de Balliol (b. c. 1250—d. April 1313, Chateau Gal- liard, Normandy, Fr.) King of Scotland (1292-96). He was one of 13 claimants to the throne but won by primogeniture. John paid homage to Edward 1 of England but soon refused his request for military aid in Gas¬ cony and instead signed a treaty with the French. When Edward invaded Gascony in 1296, the Scots raided northern England. Within months Edward* s army had captured strategic castles in Scotland, and John was forced to resign his kingdom to Edward. He was held in the Tower of London until 1299.

John I Portuguese Joao known as John of Aviz \a-'vezh\ (b. April 11, 1357, Lisbon—d. Aug. 14, 1433, Lisbon) King of Portugal (1385— 1433) and founder of the Aviz dynasty. The illegitimate son of Pedro I, he was elected king in 1385 despite the rivalry of Castilian candidates. He fought off a Castilian invasion (1385) and preserved Portugal’s inde¬ pendence. He made an alliance with England (1386), but a joint invasion of Leon was unsuccessful. John signed a 10-year truce with Castile in 1389, but frontier warfare was intermittent until 1411. He and his sons (including the youngest, later Henry the Navigator) captured Ceuta in Morocco in 1415, thus beginning the era of Portuguese expansion.

John II French Jean known as John the Good (b. April 16, 1319, near Le Mans, France—d. April 8, 1364, London, Eng.) King of France (1350-64). At odds with England and Navarre, he tried to make peace with the Navarrese king Charles II, then had him imprisoned in 1356. Edward the Black Prince, son of Edward III of England, led an invasion of southern France, defeating and capturing John at the Battle of Poitiers (1356). John was forced to sign the treaties of Bretigny and Calais (1360), which fixed an extravagant ransom and surrendered most of southwest¬ ern France to the English. See also Hundred Years' War.

John II Comnenus \kam-'ne-nos\ (b. Sept. 13, 1087—d. April 8,1143) Byzantine emperor (1118—43). The son of Alexius I Comnenus, he made it his mission to reconquer Byzantine territory lost to the Arabs, Turks, and Crusaders. He cancelled Venetian trading privileges in the empire but was forced to restore them after the Venetians launched a fleet to retaliate against him. John allied himself with the German emperor against Roger II of Sicily (1130). He reconquered Cilicia (1137) and won homage from Antioch, but he failed to defeat the Syrian Turks.

John III Ducas Vatatzes Vdyu-kos-vo-'tat-sezV (b. c. 1193—d. Nov. 3, 1254, Nymphaion) Emperor of Nicaea (1222-54). He succeeded The¬ odore I Lascaris and defeated rivals for the imperial throne in 1223. Two years later he triumphed over Latin forces loyal to his rivals and gained control of Asia Minor. He allied with Ivan Asen II against Epirus (1230) and besieged Constantinople (1235), prompting Asen to go to war with him (1235-37). He acquired territory in Bulgaria (1241) and Epirus

Joffre, detail of a portrait by H. Jac- quier, 1915

H. ROGER-VIOLLET

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

John III Sobieski ► John Maurice of Nassau I 991

(1242) and supported a cultural revival from his capital at Nicaea, pav¬ ing the way for the eventual reestablishment of the Byzantine Empire. Venerated by his people, he was canonized in the Eastern church.

John III Sobieski \sob-'ya-ske\ Polish Jan Sobieski (b. Aug. 17, 1629, Olesko, Pol.—d. June 17,

1696, Wilanow) Elective king of Poland (1674-96). Named com¬ mander in chief of the Polish army (1668), he distinguished himself by victories over the Cossacks and Turks. His reputation was so great that he was elected king in preference to the Habsburgs’ candidate. In 1683 he concluded a treaty with Emperor Leopold I against the Ottoman Turks.

When a Turkish army approached Vienna later that year, he rushed there with troops, took command of the entire relief force, and achieved a brilliant victory, briefly restoring the kingdom of Poland-Lithuania to greatness for the last time. He was unsuccessful in a Hungarian cam¬ paign (1683-91) to liberate Moldavia and Walachia from Ottoman rule.

Later rebellion within his own family, with nobles fighting each other rather than the Turks, led finally to Poland’s downfall in the 18th century.

John V Palaeologus \,pa-le-'a-l3-g3s\ (b. June 18, 1332,

Didymoteichon—d. Feb. 16, 1391, Constantinople) Byzantine emperor (1341-91). The son of Andronicus III Palaeologus, he inherited the throne at age nine; John VI Cantacuzenus served as his regent and coemperor (1347-54). After the Ottoman Turks gained control of Galliopoli and threatened Constantinople, John V appealed to the West for help, propos¬ ing to end the schism between the Byzantine and Latin churches. Impov¬ erished by war, he was detained as a debtor when he visited Venice (1369). In 1371 he was forced to recognize Turkish overlords, who later helped him to regain the throne (1379) after he was deposed by his son.

John VI Cantacuzenus \ l kan-t3-kyu- , ze-nos\ (b. c. 1292—d. June 15, 1383, Mistra, Byzantine Empire) Byzantine emperor (1347-54). As chief adviser (1328-41) to Andronicus III Paiaeologus, he directed both domes¬ tic and foreign policy. He fought to serve as regent for the young John V Palaeologus, triumphing over John’s mother, Anna of Savoy, only by enlisting Turkish aid. From 1347 he ruled as coemperor with John V, but in 1354 he crowned his own son coemperor. With Venetian aid, John V then forced him to abdicate, and Cantacuzenus retired to a monastery, where he wrote his memoirs.

John VIII Palaeologus \,pa-le-'a-l3-g9s\ (b. Dec. 17/18, 1392—d. Oct. 31, 1448, Constantinople) Byzantine emperor (1421-48). The son of Manuel II Palaeologus, he was crowned coemperor with his father in 1408 and took effective control of the empire in 1421. He became sole emperor after his father’s death in 1425. Of the diminished and fragmented empire, he ruled only Constantinople and the surrounding area. The city was besieged by the Ottoman Turks (1422), and, when Thessaloniki fell to Turkish forces (1430), John appealed to the West for help. He united the Byzantine and Latin churches (1439), but joint efforts against the Turks failed, and the Byzantines refused to submit to the pope. John died amid intrigues over succession.

John XXII orig. Jacques Duese (b. Cahors, France—d. Dec. 4,1334, Avignon) Second Avignon pope (1316-34). The successor to Clement V, he established the papal court at Avignon on a permanent basis (see Avi¬ gnon papacy). He condemned the Spiritual Franciscans’ interpretation of the poverty of Christ and his Apostles and upheld papal authority over imperial elections against the opposition of the emperor, Louis IV. When John excommunicated Louis, the emperor retaliated by declaring him deposed (1328) and sponsoring the election of an antipope. John’s views on the beatific vision provoked accusations of heresy (1331-32). He is remembered for centralizing church administration and adding to the body of canon law.

John XXIII orig. Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli (b. Nov. 25, 1881, Sotto il Monte, Italy—d. June 3, 1963, Rome; beatified Sept. 3, 2000; feast day October 11) Pope (1958-63). He studied theology in Rome, was

ordained a priest in 1904, and held a variety of church offices. In 1944 he was named papal nuncio to newly liberated France, where he success¬ fully revived sympathy for the Vati¬ can. Made a cardinal in 1953, he was elected pope after the death of Pius XII (1939-58). Because of his advanced age, he was expected to be little more than a caretaker in the office, but instead he became the major reform¬ ing pope of the century. Eager to lead the church into the modem era, he called the Second Vatican Council in 1962, inviting Eastern Orthodox and Protestant observers to join Catholic delegates. He also sought to repair relations with the Jews. The council went on to make major reforms in Catholic liturgy and administration, though John died before its conclusion. An energetic advocate of world peace, he was one of the most popular popes in history. In 2000 he was beatified by John Paul II (1978-2005).

John, Augustus (Edwin) (b. Jan. 4, 1878, Tenby, Pembrokeshire, Wales—d. Oct. 31, 1961, Fordingbridge, Hampshire, Eng.) Welsh painter, portraitist, muralist, and draftsman. By the age of 20 he had won a repu¬ tation for his brilliant drawing technique. A colourful personality, he roamed Britain, living with Roma and learning their customs and lan¬ guage; the painting Encampment on Dartmoor (1906) is based on these experiences. He is best known for his portraits of leading European per¬ sonalities, including those of James Joyce and George Bernard Shaw.

John, Sir Elton (Hercules) orig. Reginald Kenneth Dwight (b.

March 25, 1947, Pinner, Middlesex, Eng.) British rock singer, pianist, and songwriter. He played piano by ear as a child, winning a scholarship to the Royal Academy of Music at age 11. In the late 1960s he began a suc¬ cessful partnership with lyricist Bernie Taupin (b. 1950) that would pro¬ duce hit albums such as Goodbye Yellow Brick Road (1973) and songs such as “Rocket Man,” “Bennie and the Jets,” and “Philadelphia Free¬ dom.” The two returned with more hits in the early 1980s, including “I Guess That’s Why They Call It the Blues.” In 1997 John performed a new version of “Candle in the Wind” (1973) at the funeral of his friend Diana, princess of Wales; his recording immediately became the best¬ selling single of all time.

John, Saint See Saint John the Apostle

John Birch Society Organization founded in 1958 by Robert H. Welch, Jr. (1899-1985), a retired American candymaker, to combat com¬ munism and promote ultraconservative causes. It was named for an American missionary and army intelligence officer killed by Chinese Communists in 1945, considered by the society the first hero of the Cold War. Its membership reached more than 70,000 in the 1960s. Its many publications warned of communist infiltration of the U.S. government and called for the impeachment of officials such as Earl Warren. The New American is the organization’s biweekly magazine.

John Damascene, Saint See Saint John of Damascus

John Day Fossil Beds National Monument National monument, north-central Oregon, U.S. With an area of 14,014 acres (5,676 hectares), it is located along the John Day River (named after a Virginian scout of the 1811 Astor overland expedition). Fossils more than 30 million years old provide a paleontological record of five epochs of the Cenozoic Era.

John de Balliol See John (Scotland)

John Lackland See John (England)

John Maurice of Nassau Dutch Johan Maurits van Nassau

(b. June 17, 1604, Dillenburg, Nassau—d. Dec. 20, 1679, Cleves, Bran¬ denburg) Dutch colonial governor and military commander. He fought after 1621 in the campaigns of his cousin Frederick Henry, prince of Orange, against Spain. As colonial governor in Brazil, recently conquered from Por¬ tugal, he secured control of vast areas for the Dutch West India Company in 1636-44, bringing the Dutch empire in Latin America to the peak of its power. He also sponsored the seizure of Angola (1641) and of several key

John III Sobieski, engraving by Carel Allardt.

COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM; PHOTOGRAPH, J.R. FREEMAN & CO. LTD.

John XXIII, 1963

KEYSTONE

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

992 I John of Aviz ► Johns Hopkins University

ports on the western African coast to supply slaves for Brazilian planta¬ tions, and he led a Dutch army in 1665 in the Anglo-Dutch Wars.

John of Aviz See John I (Portugal)

John of Brienne \bre-'en\ (b. c. 1170—d. March 1237, Constantino¬ ple) Count of Brienne (in northeastern France) and later titular king of Jerusalem (1210-25) and Latin emperor of Constantinople (1231-37). The penniless younger son of a French count, he married the queen of the Crusader state of Jerusalem, with the support of Phillip II, and after her death became regent for their infant daughter. He arranged a truce with Egypt (1212) and participated in the unsuccessful Fifth Crusade. In 1228 he became regent and coemperor of Constantinople, and he was crowned emperor three years later. He fended off attacks by Ivan Asen II and John III Ducas Vatatzes.

John of Damascus, Saint or Saint John Damascene (b. c. 675, Damascus—d. Dec. 4, 749, near Jerusalem; Western feast day December 4) Monk and theological doctor of the Greek and Latin churches. He spent his entire life under Muslim rule. As a writer of hymns and theology, he had great influence in the Eastern and Western churches, especially through Exposition of the Orthodox Faith, a summary of the teachings of the Greek Fathers. He also wrote against the Iconoclasts (see iconoclasm).

John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster (b. March 1340, Ghent—d. Feb. 3, 1399, London, Eng.) English prince, the fourth son of Edward III. John’s additional name, “Gaunt” (a corruption of the name of his birth¬ place, Ghent), was not used after he was three years old; it became the popularly accepted form of his name, however, through its use in William Shakespeare’s play Richard II. John served as a commander in the Hun¬ dred Years’ War against France, then returned to become an important influence in his father’s last years as king and in the reign of his nephew Richard II. Through his first wife, John acquired the duchy of Lancaster in 1362, and he was the immediate ancestor of the three 15th-century monarchs of the house of Lancaster: Henry IV, Henry V, and Henry VI.

John of Paris or Jean de Paris Vzha n -d3-pa-'re\ or John the Deaf or John Quidort \ke-'dor\ (b. c. 1255, Paris, France—d. Sept. 22, 1306, Bordeaux, Gascony) Dominican monk and disciple of St. Thomas Aquinas. A lecturer at the University of Paris, he wrote on the separation of church and state and the limits of papal authority. His controversial view on the nature of the Eucharist was censured, and he was sentenced to perpetual silence; he died before his appeal could be decided.

John of Salisbury \'s6lz-,ber-e\ (b. 1115/20, Salisbury, Wiltshire, Eng.—d. Oct. 25, 1180, Chartres, France) English prelate and scholar. A noted Latinist who studied with Peter Abelard and other important theolo¬ gians in Paris, John was a leading figure in the renaissance of the 12th cen¬ tury. He served as secretary to Theobald and St. Thomas Becket, archbishops of Canterbury. He wrote Historiapontificalis (c. 1163) and the Policraticus and the Metalogicon (both 1159) His defense of Becket and of ecclesias¬ tical liberties led Henry II to exile him to France (1163). He returned to England after the reconciliation of Henry and Becket and was in Canter¬ bury Cathedral when Becket was assassinated. He later wrote a hagiogra¬ phy of Becket and promoted the cult of the murdered archbishop. As bishop of Chartres (from 1176), he was active in the third Lateran Council.

John of the Cross, Saint Spanish San Juan de la Cruz orig. Juan de Yepes y Alvarez (b. June 24, 1542, Fontiveros, Spain—d. Dec. 14, 1591, Ubeda; canonized 1726; feast day December 14) Spanish mystic, poet, Doctor of the Church, and reformer of monasticism. He became a Carmelite monk at Medina del Campo and was ordained a priest in 1567. Joining St. Teresa of Avila in her effort to restore the Carmelites to their original austerity, he cofounded the Discalced Carmelite order in 1568. He opened the first Discalced Carmelite monastery at Duruelo a year later, but reform caused friction within the order and led to his imprisonment at Toledo. He escaped in 1578 and later won high office in the order. In his great mystical poetry, including “The Dark Night of the Soul,” he traced the steps of the soul’s ascent to union with God.

John o'Groat's Village, Scotland. Near Dunnet Head, it was settled in 1793 by John de Groat and his two brothers. It was once considered Brit¬ ain’s most northerly point, giving rise to the expression “from Land's End to John o’Groat’s.”

John Paul II orig. Karol Wojtyfa (b. May 18, 1920, Wadowice, Pol.—d. April 2, 2005, Vatican City) Pope (1978-2005), the bishop of Rome and head of the Roman Catholic church, the first non-Italian pope in

455 years and the first ever from a Slavic country. He studied for the priesthood at an underground semi¬ nary in Krakow during World War II and was ordained in 1946. He earned a doctorate in philosophy in Rome (1948) and returned home to serve in a parish, earning a second doctorate (also 1948), in sacred theology, from the Jagiellonian University. He became archbishop of Krakow in 1964 and cardinal in 1967. Elected pope after the 33-day pontificate of John Paul I (b. 1912—-d. 1978), he became known for his energy, cha¬ risma, and intellect as well as for his conservative theological views and fervent anticommunism. In 1981 John Paul was shot in St. Peter’s Square by a Turkish gunman, but he recovered, resumed his work, and forgave his would-be assassin. His trips abroad attracted some of the largest crowds ever assembled. His non¬ violent activism spurred movements that contributed to the peaceful dis¬ solution of the Soviet Union in 1991. He championed economic and political justice in developing nations. In naming 44 cardinals from five continents (February 2001), John Paul reached out to cultures around the world. He also canonized more saints, from more parts of the world, than had any other pope. His ecumenical efforts, including meetings with Jew¬ ish, Muslim, and Eastern Orthodox religious leaders, were widely praised, but he often drew criticism for his traditionalist views on issues of gender and sexuality. Although afflicted with Parkinson disease since the early 1990s, John Paul remained active and made a historic trip to Jerusalem in March 2000, during which he sought to improve relations between the Roman Catholic church and Jews.

John the Apostle, Saint or St. John the Evangelist or St. John the Divine (fl. 1st century ad) One of the original Twelve Apostles of Jesus, traditionally credited with writing the fourth Gospel and three New Testament epistles. The book of Revelation was also traditionally assigned to him. His father was a Galilean fisherman. John and his brother James (see St. James) were among the first disciples called by Jesus, and John appears to have held a position of authority in the early church after the resurrection. Later accounts of his life are based on legend. He is said to have died in Ephesus, and his tomb became a site of pilgrimage. John’s Gospel, unlike the other three, presents a well-developed theological point of view, on a level with the letters of St. Paul. After a prologue in which he identifies God with the Word (Logos), he offers selected episodes from Jesus’ life and ministry. His explications of theological issues such as the significance of the Son of God greatly influenced the development of Christian doctrine.

John the Baptist, Saint (b. 1st century ad) Jewish prophet revered in Christianity as the forerunner of Jesus. Sources for his life are the four Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, and the historian Josephus. His mother, Elizabeth, was perhaps a relative of Mary; his father was the priest Zecha- riah. As a young man John lived in the Judaean desert, either as a hermit or as part of a Jewish monastic community such as the Essenes. He attracted much public notice c. ad 28 as a prophet in the Jordan Valley. He preached the imminent wrathful judgment of God and called on his hearers to repent and be baptized. Jesus himself came to be baptized by John and shortly afterward began his own mission. John was imprisoned for criticizing the illegal marriage of Herod Antipas and was executed after Herod’s stepdaughter, Salome, demanded his head as a reward for danc¬ ing for the king’s guests.

John the Deaf See John of Paris John the Good See John II (France)

Johns Hopkins University Private university in Baltimore, Mary¬ land, U.S. It was founded as a graduate school in 1876 through an endow¬ ment supplied by the Baltimore merchant Johns Hopkins (1795-1873). It became coeducational after a group of women, in 1893, provided funds for the creation of a medical school. Today its school of medicine and the affiliated Johns Hopkins Hospital constitute one of the nation’s leading

John Paul II, 1979.

LOCHON-FRANCOLON-SIMON/GAMMA-LIAISON

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Johns ► Johnson, J. I 993

medical research centres. Besides medicine, the university has schools of arts and sciences, engineering, public health, nursing, music, international studies, and continuing education.

Johns, Jasper (b. May 15, 1930, Augusta, Ga., U.S.) U.S. painter, sculptor, and printmaker. He began his career as a commercial artist, pro¬ ducing displays for New York City shop windows. In 1958 he had his first one-man exhibition, a rousing success. The paintings Johns went on to produce depict commonplace, two-dimensional subjects such as flags, targets, maps, numbers, and letters of the alphabet. He was able to raise these objects to the level of icons through his paint handling and manipu¬ lation of surface texture, which he obtained through the encaustic tech¬ nique. In their willful and ironic banality and their rejection of emotional expression, these early works were a radical departure from the then- dominant Abstract Expressionist style. Johns’s unabashed depiction of com¬ monplace emblems and objects was emulated by many Pop art artists. From 1961 he began to attach real objects to his canvases. In the 1970s he produced paintings composed of clusters of parallel lines that he called “crosshatchings”; in the 1980s he experimented with figuration.

Johnson, Andrew (b. Dec. 29, 1808, Raleigh, N.C., U.S.—d. July 31, 1875, near Carter Station, Tenn.)

17th president of the U.S. (1865-69).

Born in poverty, he never attended school, and he taught himself to read and write. After a short apprentice¬ ship as a tailor, he moved with his family to Greeneville, Tenn., where he opened his own tailor shop.

Before he was 21 he organized a workingman’s party. Elected to the state legislature (1835^-3), he became a spokesman for small farm¬ ers. He then served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1843-53) and as governor of Tennessee (1853-57).

Elected to the U.S. Senate (1857—

62), he opposed antislavery agita¬ tion, but, in 1860, after the election of Pres. Abraham Lincoln, he vehe¬ mently rejected Southern secession, a position he maintained even after Tennessee seceded in 1861. During the American Civil War he was the only Southern senator who refused to join the Confederacy. In 1862 he was appointed military governor of Tennessee, then under Union control. In 1864 he was selected to run for vice president with President Lincoln; he assumed the presidency after Lincoln’s assassination. During Recon¬ struction he favoured a moderate policy of readmitting former Confeder¬ ate states to the Union with few provisions for reform or civil rights for freedmen. In 1867, Johnson’s vetoes of legislation to establish a Freed- men's Bureau and other civil rights measures angered moderate as well as Radical Repubucans; in response, they united to pass the Tenure of Office Act (1867), which forbade the president from removing civil officers without senatorial consent. In 1868, in defiance of the act, Johnson dis¬ missed secretary of war Edwin M. Stanton, an ally of the Radicals. The House then voted to impeach the president—the first such occurrence in U.S. history. In the subsequent Senate trial, the charges proved weak, and the necessary two-thirds vote needed for conviction failed by one vote. Johnson remained in office until 1869, but he had lost the ability to lead. He returned to Tennessee, where he won reelection to the Senate shortly before he died.

Johnson \'yon-s6n\, Eyvind (b. July 29, 1900, Svartbjornsbyn, near Boden, Swed.—d. Aug. 25, 1976, Stockholm) Swedish novelist. He endured a grim boyhood of hard labour. His early novels evince feelings of frustration; Bobinack (1932) is an expose of the machinations of mod¬ ern capitalism, and Rain at Daybreak (1933) is an attack on modern office drudgery. Return to Ithaca (1946) and The Days of His Grace ( 1960) have been widely translated. Johnson’s working-class novels experimented with new forms and techniques; they also introduced new themes to Swed¬ ish literature. He shared the 1974 Nobel Prize for Literature with Harry Martinson.

Johnson, Frank (Minis), Jr. (b. Oct. 30, 1918, Halyeville, Ala.—d. July 23, 1999, Montgomery, Ala.) U.S. judge. After graduating at the top of his law-school class at the University of Alabama in 1943, he joined

the army, becoming an infantry lieutenant. After the war he returned to Alabama to practice law. Appointed to the federal district court for middle Alabama in 1955, he became widely known for his decisions in support of the civil rights movement. In 1955 he voted with the majority to strike down the bus-segregation law challenged by Rosa Parks, and in 1965 he issued the order that allowed Martin Luther King, Jr., to lead a historic civil rights march from Selma to Montgomery. He also ordered the desegre¬ gation of various public facilities in Alabama, and he was the first fed¬ eral judge to dictate legislative reapportionment. He served on the U.S. District Court of Appeals from 1979 to 1992. In 1995 he received the Presidential Medal of Freedom.

Johnson, Jack in full John Arthur Johnson (b. Mar. 31, 1878, Galveston, Tex., U.S.—d. June 10,

1946, Raleigh, N.C.) U.S. boxer, the first black to hold the title for the heavyweight championship of the world. Johnson’s career was marked from the beginning by racial dis¬ crimination; until his match with Tommy Burns, he had a difficult time getting fights. Johnson won the heavyweight crown in 1908 by knocking out Burns and kept it until 1915, when he was knocked out by Jess Willard in 26 rounds. At the height of his career, Johnson was excoriated by the press for having twice married white women, and he further offended white supremacists by knocking out former champion James J. Jeffries, who was induced to come out of retirement as a “Great White Hope.” In 1912 Johnson was convicted of violating the Mann Act for transporting his wife-to-be across state lines before their marriage. He was sentenced to a year in prison and was released on bond; he fled to Canada, made his way to Europe, and was a fugitive for seven years. He defended the championship three times in Paris before agreeing to fight Willard in Havana, Cuba. Some observers thought that Johnson, mistak¬ enly believing that the charge against him would be dropped if he yielded the championship to a white man, deliberately lost to Willard. Johnson surrendered to U.S. authorities in 1920 to serve a one-year sentence. From 1897 to 1928, Johnson had 114 bouts, winning 80, 45 by knockouts.

Johnson, James P(rice) (b. Feb. 1, 1894, New Brunswick, N.J., U.S.—d. Nov. 17, 1955, New York, N.Y.) U.S. pianist and composer, a chief figure in the transition of ragtime to jazz. Johnson was performing in saloons and at parties in New York City’s African American commu¬ nity while still in his teens. He created the stride piano technique, a devel¬ opment of ragtime that used two-beat left-hand rhythms to accompany wide-ranging right-hand lines, in pieces such as “Carolina Shout” and “Harlem Strut.” He composed and orchestrated music for stage revues, including Keep Shufflin’ (1928) with his student Fats Waller. His songs include “The Charleston” (largely responsible for the 1920s dance craze) and “Old Fashioned Love”; his large-scale works include the Harlem Symphony (1932).

Johnson, James Weldon (b. June 17, 1871, Jacksonville, Fla., U.S.—d. June 26, 1938, Wiscasset, Maine) U.S. writer. He practiced law in Florida before moving with his brother, the composer J. Rosamond Johnson (1873-1954), to New York; there the two collaborated on some 200 songs for the Broadway stage. Johnson held diplomatic posts in Ven¬ ezuela and Nicaragua and served as executive secretary of the NAACP (1920-30). From 1930 he taught at Fisk University. His writings include the novel Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man (1912), Fifty Years and Other Poems (1917), and his best-known work, God’s Trombones (1927), a group of dialect sermons in verse. The brothers collaborated on the pio¬ neering anthologies Book of American Negro Poetry (1922) and Ameri¬ can Negro Spirituals (1925, 1926). Their most famous original song, “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” became an anthem of the civil rights movement.

Johnson Vjan-son\, John H(arold) (b. Jan. 19, 1918, Arkansas City, Ark., U.S.—d. Aug. 8, 2005, Chicago, Ill.) U.S. magazine and book pub¬ lisher. He moved to Chicago with his family and became a journalist. In 1942 he introduced Negro Digest , a periodical for blacks. Three years later he launched Ebony, a magazine he modeled on Life ; by 2004 it had a cir¬ culation of some 1.7 million. Through Johnson PLiblishing Co., he also published black-oriented books and other magazines, and he later moved into radio broadcasting, insurance, and cosmetics manufacturing.

£ St

Jack Johnson

UPI COMPIX

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

994 I Johnson, L. ► Johnson, W.

Johnson, Lyndon B(aines) (b. Aug. 27, 1908, Gillespie county, Texas, U.S.—d. Jan. 22, 1973, San Antonio, Texas) 36th president of the U.S. (1963-69). He taught school in Houston, Texas, before going to Washington, D.C., in 1932 as a congressional aide. In Washington he was befriended by Sam Rayburn, speaker of the House of Representatives, and his political career blossomed. He won a seat in the U.S. House (1937— 49) as a supporter of the New Deal, which was under conservative attack. His loyalty impressed Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt, who made Johnson his protege. He won election to the U.S. Senate in 1949 in a vicious cam¬ paign that involved fraud on both sides. As Democratic whip (1951-55) and majority leader (1955-61), he developed a talent for consensus build¬ ing through methods both tactful and ruthless. He was largely responsible for passage of the civil rights bills of 1957 and 1960, the first in the 20th century. In 1960 he was elected vice president under John F. Kennedy; he became president after Kennedy’s assassination in 1963. In his first few months in office he won passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the most comprehensive and far-reaching legislation of its kind in American his¬ tory. Later that year he announced his Great Society program of social- welfare and civil rights legislation. His attention to domestic matters, however, was diverted by the country’s escalating involvement in the Vietnam War (see Gulf of Tonkin Resolution), which provoked large stu¬ dent demonstrations and other protests, beginning in the late 1960s. Mean¬ while, discontent and alienation among the young and racial minorities increased as the promises of the Great Society failed to materialize. By 1967 Johnson’s popularity had declined steeply, and in early 1968 he announced that he would not seek reelection. He retired to his Texas ranch.

Johnson, Magic orig. Earvin Johnson, Jr. (b. Aug. 14, 1959, Lansing, Mich., U.S.) U.S. basketball player. He led Michigan State Uni¬ versity to the collegiate championship in 1979 and led the NBA Los Angeles Lakers to five championships in the 1980s. Standing 6 ft 9 in. (2.06 m) tall, he was exceptionally tall for a point guard and was able to use his size to rebound and score inside. However, he was best known for his creative passing and expert floor leadership. He was named Most Valuable Player three times (1987, 1989, 1990). He retired after being diagnosed with HIV in 1991, though he returned to the Lakers for brief stints as a player and as a coach.

Johnson, Michael (Duane) (b. Sept. 13, 1967, Dallas, Texas, U.S.) U.S. sprinter. For much of the 1990s he was virtually unbeaten in the 200-m and 400-m races. He shared an Olympic gold medal in 1992 on the world-record-setting 4 x 400-m relay team, and at the 1996 Olympics he became the first man to win gold medals in both the 200 m and 400 m, setting a world record of 19.32 seconds in the 200 m. In 1999 he set a new world record of 43.18 seconds in the 400 m. In the 2000 Olym¬ pics he again won two gold medals.

Johnson, Philip C(ortelyou) (b. July 8, 1906, Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.—d. January 25, 2005, New Canaan, Conn.) U.S. architect and critic. He studied philosophy and architec¬ ture at Harvard University. As coau¬ thor of The International Style:

Architecture Since 1922 (1932) and director of the architecture depart¬ ment (1932-34, 1946-54) at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, he did much to familiarize Americans with modern European architecture. He gained fame with his own Glass House (1949), which struck a balance between the influ¬ ence of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (later his collaborator on the Seagram Building) and Classical allusion. His style took a striking turn with the AT&T headquarters, New York (1984), a controversial postmodern¬ ist landmark. In 1979 Johnson became the first recipient of the Pritzker Architecture Prize.

Johnson, Rafer (Lewis) (b.

Aug. 18, 1935, Hillsboro, Texas,

U.S.) U.S. decathlete. While a stu¬ dent at UCLA, he won the decathlon gold medal at the 1955 Pan-

American Games. At the 1960 Olympic Games he became the first Afri¬ can American athlete to carry the U.S. flag in the Olympic procession, and he captured the decathlon gold medalby narrowly defeating his UCLA teammate, Yang Chuan-kwang of Taiwan.

Johnson, Richard M(entor) (b. 1780, near Louisville, Va., U.S.—d. Nov. 19, 1850, Frankfort, Ky.) U.S. politician. He practiced law in Ken¬ tucky before being elected to the U.S. House of Representatives (1807— 19, 1829-37). As a colonel in the War of 1 812, he was wounded in the Battle of the Thames, where he reputedly killed Tecumseh. He returned to his congressional seat and later was elected to the Senate (1819-29). He was a loyal supporter of Pres. Andrew Jackson, who chose him as Martin Van Buren’s running mate in the 1836 election. None of the four vice- presidential candidates won an electoral-vote majority, and the outcome was decided by the Senate, the only such occurrence in U.S. history. Johnson served one term in the office.

Johnson, Robert (b. c. 1911, Hazlehurst, Miss., U.S.—d. Aug. 16, 1938, near Greenwood, Miss.) U.S. blues guitarist, singer, and songwriter. Born to a sharecropping family, he learned harmonica and guitar, prob¬ ably influenced by personal contact with Delta bluesmen such as Eddie “Son” House and Charley Patton. He traveled widely throughout the South and as far north as Chicago and New York City, playing at house parties, juke joints, and lumber camps. In 1936-37 he recorded songs by House and others, as well as originals such as “Me and the Devil Blues,” “Hellhound on My Trail,” and “Love in Vain.” He is said to have died, at age 27, after drinking strychnine-laced whiskey (possibly the work of a jealous husband) in a juke joint. His eerie falsetto and masterly slide gui¬ tar influenced many later blues and rock musicians.

Johnson, Robert Wood (b. Feb. 15, 1845, Carbondale, Pa., U.S.—d. Feb. 7, 1910, New Brunswick, N.J.) U.S. manufacturer. He began his career as a pharmacist and drug broker. In 1885 he founded medical sup¬ ply company Johnson & Johnson with his brothers, and he served as its president until his death. An early proponent of the teachings of Joseph Lister, Johnson worked to make his products as germ-free as possible, and the firm’s high-quality and inexpensive medical supplies, including anti¬ septic bandages and dressings, proved of great value to surgery. The Rob¬ ert Wood Johnson Foundation is a major philanthropic institution.

Johnson, Samuel known as Dr. Johnson (b. Sept. 18, 1709, Lichfield, Staffordshire, Eng.—d. Dec. 13, 1784, London) British man of letters, one of the outstanding figures of 18th-century England. The son of a poor bookseller, he briefly attended Oxford University. He moved to London after the failure of a school he and his wife had started. He wrote for periodicals and was hired to catalog the great library of the earl of Oxford. In 1755, after eight years of labour, he produced his monumen¬ tal Dictionary of the English Language (1755), the first great English dic¬ tionary, which brought him fame. He continued to write for such periodicals as The Gentleman’s Magazine and The Universal Chronicle , and he almost single-handedly wrote and edited the biweekly The Ram¬ bler (1750-52). He also wrote plays, none of which succeeded on the stage. In 1765 he produced a critical edition of William Shakespeare with a famous preface that did much to establish Shakespeare as the centre of the literary canon. His travel writings include A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland (1775). His Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets, 10 vol. (1779-81), was a significant critical work. A brilliant conversa¬ tionalist, he helped found the Literary Club (c. 1763), which became famous for its members of distinction, including David Garrick, Edmund Burke, Oliver Goldsmith, and Joshua Reynolds. His aphorisms helped make him one of the most frequently quoted of English writers. The biography of Johnson written by his contemporary James Boswell is one of the most admired biographies of all time.

Johnson, Virginia See William Masters and Virginia E(shelman) Johnson

Johnson, Walter (Perry) (b. Nov. 6, 1887, Humboldt, Kan., U.S.—d. Dec. 10, 1946, Washington, D.C.) U.S. baseball pitcher. Johnson had perhaps the greatest fastball in the history of the game. A right-handed thrower with a sidearm delivery who batted right as well, Johnson pitched for the Washington Senators of the American League from 1907 through 1927. He holds the all-time record for most shutouts (110), ranks second to Cy Young in wins (416), and established the record for his time for most strikeouts (3,508; broken in 1983). After his playing career, he became a manager with the Senators and later with the Cleveland Indi¬ ans. See photograph on opposite page.

Rafer Johnson, putting the shot in the Olympic decathlon, 1960

AP/WIDE WORLD PHOTOS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Johnson, W. ► Jolliet I 995

Johnson, Sir William, 1st Baronet (b. 1715, Smithtown, County Meath, Ire.—d. July 11, 1774, near Johnstown, N.Y.) British colonial official. In 1737 he emigrated from Ireland and settled in New York’s Mohawk Valley. He purchased his first tract of land two years later, thus beginning the acquisitions that eventually made him one of the largest landholders and wealthiest settlers in British America. He fostered friendly relations with the Indians; his ties with them were further cemented when, following the death of his first wife, he married succes¬ sively two Mohawk women. In 1746 he was appointed colonel of the Iro¬ quois Confederacy. In the French and Indian War he defeated French forces at Lake George, N.Y. (1755), and captured Fort Niagara (1759). He was appointed superintendent of the Six Iroquois Nations (1756-74), helped subdue the Indian uprising called Pontiac’s War (1763-64), and negoti¬ ated the first Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1768).

Johnston, Joseph E(ggleston) (b. Feb. 3,1807, near Farmville, Va., U.S.—d. March 21, 1891, Washington, D.C.) U.S. Army officer. He gradu¬ ated from West Point and served in the Mexican War. At the start of the American Civil War he resigned his commission to serve the Confederacy. Appointed brigadier general, he won the first Confederate victory at the Battle of Bull Run. He was promoted to general but remained at odds with Confederate Pres. Jefferson Davis. He defended Richmond in the Penin¬ sular Campaign and was badly wounded at the Battle of Fair Oaks (1862). In 1863 he was sent to conduct the Vicksburg Campaign. His order to evacuate the city was countermanded by Davis, but Johnston was blamed for the city’s fall. As commander of the Army of the Tennessee, he avoided defeat as the Union advanced toward Atlanta, Ga., but he was removed from command for failing to defeat the invaders. Restored to duty in 1865, he was forced to surrender to William T. Sherman.

Johnstown Flood Disastrous flood (1889) in the town of Johnstown, Pa., U.S. Johnstown lies at the confluence of the Conemaugh River and Stony Creek; at the time of the flood it was a leading U.S. steelmaking centre. At 3:10 pm on May 31, the South Fork Dam, a poorly maintained earthfill dam holding a major upstream reservoir, collapsed after heavy rains, sending a wall of water rushing down the Conemaugh Valley at speeds of 20-40 mph (30-60 kph). A 30-ft (9-m) wall of water smashed into Johnstown at 4:07 pm, killing 2,209 people.

Johore \j9-'hor\ Strait Northern arm of the Singapore Strait between the Republic of Singapore and the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula. It is 30 mi (50 km) long and 0.75-3 mi (1.2-5 km) wide. Its eastern por¬ tion has a deepwater access channel to Changi naval base on Singapore’s northeastern coast. During World War II it was the scene of heavy fight¬ ing in 1942, when the Japanese were driving to conquer Singapore. A causeway now links Singapore to the Malaysian mainland.

joint In geology, a brittle fracture surface in rocks along which little or no displacement has occurred. Present in nearly all surface rocks, joints extend in various directions, generally more vertical than horizontal. Joints may have smooth, clean surfaces, or they may be scarred by slick- ensides, or striations. Jointing does not extend very far into the Earth’s crust, because at about 7.5 mi (12 km) even rigid rocks tend to flow plas¬ tically in response to stress.

joint Structure connecting two or more bones. Most joints, including

synovial (fluid-containing) joints and those between vertebrae, which incorporate a disk, can move. Immovable joints include the sutures of the skull (see fontanel). Ligaments connect the bones of a joint, but muscles keep them in place. Joint dis¬ orders include various forms of arthritis, injuries (e.g., sprains, frac¬ tures, and DISLOCATIONS), CONGENITAL disorders, and vitamin deficiencies. See illustration above.

joints and joinery In architec¬ ture, the connection of construction materials. All joints are carefully detailed by the architect with concern for strength, movement, penetration by the elements, and incompatibili¬ ties. The term joinery refers espe¬ cially to carpentry. Common types of

acetabulum

fibrous capsule

cavity of joint

synovial

membranes

cartilage

head of femur

ligament of head of femur

synovial membranes

transverse ligament of acetabulum

fibrous capsule

zona orbicularis

Section through a hip joint. The hip joint, a synovial joint, is of the ball-and-socket type, the head of the femur articulating with the cup-shaped acetabulum. The joint cavity is enclosed by a fibrous capsule lined with a type of connective tissue (syn¬ ovial membrane) that produces a fluid (synovial fluid) which lubricates the cartilage-covered opposing surfaces of bone. The fibrous capsule is made up of internal circular fibres (zona orbicularis) and external longitudinal fibres, strength¬ ened by ligaments, and covered by muscles.

© MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

joints include the dovetail, used for interlocking two flat members at right angles, as in the sides of a drawer; the doweled joint, in which doweling is employed for mechanical strength; and the mortise and tenon, in which a projecting piece fits into a groove, used to join a horizontal member with the vertical member of a frame. See illustration on following page.

Joinville \zhwa n -'vel\, Jean, sire de (b. c. 1224, Joinville, Champagne—d. Dec. 24, 1317, Joinville) French chronicler. A member of the lesser nobility of Champagne, Joinville became friends with Louis IX while taking part in the Seventh Crusade (1248-54). His famous His- toire de Saint Louis, completed c. 1309, is a prose chronicle that provides a supreme account of that Crusade, including vivid descriptions of the financial hardships, the dangers of sea voyages, the ravages of disease, the confusion and lack of discipline in the Crusading army, and Muslim customs. On his return he was made seneschal of Champagne and divided his time between the royal court and his fief of Joinville.

Joliba River See Niger River

Joliot-Curie \zh6l-y6-km-'re\, (Jean-) Frederic orig. Jean- Frederic Joliot (b. March 19, 1900, Paris, France—d. Aug. 14, 1958, Arcouest) French physical chemist. In 1926 he married Irene Curie (1900- 58), daughter of Pierre and Marie Curie; he would eventually append her name to his. In 1932 he first observed production of an electron-positron pair. Frederic and Irene are remembered for their discovery of new radio¬ active isotopes prepared artificially, for which they were jointly awarded a 1935 Nobel Prize. Frederic served in the Resistance during World War II and became a member of the Communist Party; in the postwar years he served as the highest government official in the realm of atomic energy but was dismissed for his political beliefs. From 1946 to 1956 Irene directed the Radium Institute, where she had first worked in 1918; Frederic succeeded her in the post. Both died of conditions caused by their long exposure to radioactivity.

Jolliet \zh6l-'ya\, Louis (b. before Sept. 21, 1645, probably Beaupre, near Quebec—d. after May 1700, Quebec province) French Canadian explorer and cartographer. He led an expedition in the Great Lakes region in 1669. In 1672 he was commissioned by the governor of New France to explore the Mississippi in the company of Jacques Marquette and five others. In 1673 the party set out in birchbark canoes across Lake Michi¬ gan, following the Fox and Wisconsin rivers to the Mississippi, then down the Mississippi to its confluence with the Arkansas. They concluded that the river flowed south to the Gulf of Mexico and not, as hoped, into the Pacific Ocean. After their return, Jolliet explored areas of Hudson Bay and the Labrador coast.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

996 I Jolson ► Jones, D.

Some common woodworking joints. The dado joint is made by inserting the end of one piece into a rectangular groove (dado) in another. The rabbet joint involves joining pieces along a channel or notch (rabbet) along an edge of one or both members. The miter joint is formed by butting two ends cut at an angle. The finger joint is used to lengthen a board by interlacing fingerlike projections. The mortise- and-tenon joint is made by inserting a projection (tenon) on one piece into a notch or hole (mortise) in the other. The dovetail joint consists of one or more fan-shaped tenons fitting tightly into corresponding mortises.

© MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

Jolson, Al orig. Asa Yoelson (b. May 26, 1886, Srednike, Russia—d. Oct. 23, 1950, San Francisco, Calif., U.S.) Russian-born U.S. singer, song¬ writer, and blackface comedian. Jolson’s family arrived in the U.S. in 1893 and settled in Washington, D.C., where Jolson made his first stage appearance in 1899, performing in vaudeville before joining a minstrel troupe (see minstrel show) in 1909. In New York City he was featured in musicals such as La Belle Paree (1911), Honeymoon Express (1913), and Big Boy (1925). In Sinbad (1918) he transformed the unsuccessful George Gershwin song “Swanee” into his trademark number. In Bombo (1921) he introduced “My Mammy,” “Toot, Toot, Tootsie,” and “California, Here I Come.” In 1927 he starred in The Jazz Singer, the first feature film with synchronized speech as well as music and sound effects. His later films include The Singing Fool (1928), Mammy (1930), and Swanee River

(1940).

Jomini ^zho-mo-'neV, (Antoine-) Henri, baron de (b. March 6, 1779, Payeme, Switz.—d. March 24, 1869, Passey, France) Swiss-French general and military theorist. After a volunteer stint with the French army (1798-1800), he wrote his Treatise on Grand Military Operations, 5 vol. (1805). He was appointed staff colonel in 1805 by Napoleon I, who had read his book. He was created a baron after the Treaties of Tilsit (1807). He rose to the post of chief of staff, but unjust treatment by his superiors prompted him to resign (1813), and thereafter he fought for France’s enemy, Russia. Of his numerous later works on military history and strat¬ egy, the best known are Principles of Strategy (1818) and Summary of the Art of War (1838). He was the first to fix divisions between strategy, tac¬ tics, and logistics, and his systematic attempt to define the principles of warfare made him a founder of modern military thought.

Jomon \'j6-,man\ culture (c. 7500-c. 250 bc) Mesolithic culture char¬ acterized by pottery decorated with cord patterns (jomon). Jomon artifacts

have been found from Hokkaido to the Ryukyu Islands. The Jomon people lived in sunken pit dwellings and subsisted primarily by hunting, fishing, and gathering. They used chipped-stone and later polished-stone tools and made clothing of bark. Though their pottery was technically primitive, it demonstrated diverse forms and imaginative designs and decorations. Many contemporary Ainu believe themselves to be descended from the Jomon people. See also Yayoi culture.

Jonah (fl.c. 785 bc) One of the 12 Minor Prophets in the Old Testament, whose story is told in the book of Jonah. (His narrative is part of a larger book, The Twelve, in the Jewish canon, and he is first mentioned in the book of Kings.) God orders Jonah to prophesy against the wickedness of Nineveh, but Jonah refuses to believe that the people of this hated foreign city deserve salvation, and he sails away on a ship in the opposite direc¬ tion. When a great storm threatens to destroy the ship, he confesses his fault and asks the crew to throw him overboard. A great fish swallows him, but he prays for deliverance and the fish spews him out on dry ground. He goes on to Nineveh and preaches God’s message; its sinful people repent and are saved by God. Jonah is angered over the salvation of the Ninevites and hopes that the city will be destroyed, for which God rebukes him. The book, which opposes the narrow Jewish nationalism of the time, was probably written in the 5th or 4th century bc.

Jonathan In the Hebrew scriptures, the eldest son of King Saul and friend of David. A warrior in the Israelite army, he is first mentioned as victor over the Philistines at Geba. After David joined Saul’s household, he and Jonathan became close friends. Saul became jealous of David’s popularity and sought to kill him, but Jonathan prevented him. When the two met for the last time, they planned that David would be the next king of Israel and Jonathan his prime minister, but Saul and Jonathan were killed in battle at Mount Gilboa.

Jones, Bill T. orig. William Tass Jones (b. Feb. 15, 1952, Bunnell, Fla., U.S.) U.S. dancer and choreographer. He trained in dance and the¬ atre at the State University of New York, Binghamton. In 1982, with his companion, Amie Zane (1948—88), he cofounded the Bill T. Jones/Arnie Zane Dance Co. All his performances have been in works he has choreo¬ graphed alone or with a collaborator; they include Runner Dreams (1978) and Open Spaces (1980). His works often make explicit reference to social issues; his controversial Still/Here (1995) deals with the sufferings caused by HIV, with which Jones is infected and which was the cause of Zane’s death.

Jones, Bobby in full Robert Tyre Jones, Jr. (b. March 17, 1902, Atlanta, Ga., U.S.—d. Dec. 18,1971,

Atlanta) U.S. golfer. Jones won 13 major championships between 1923 and 1930, a feat unequaled until 1973. In 1930 he became the first golfer to achieve the grand-slam of his time—the British and U.S. Open and Amateur championships—after which he retired from competitive golf at the age of 28, having never become a professional. Jones helped establish the Masters Tournament, one of the four major tournaments that make up the modem grand-slam of golf (the other three being the British Open, the U.S. Open, and the PGA Championship).

Jones, Chuck in full Charles Martin Jones (b. Sept. 21, 1912,

Spokane, Wash., U.S.—d. Feb. 22,

2002, Corona del Mar, Calif.) U.S. animator. He became a cartoonist for Warner Brothers (1933-62), where he helped develop characters such as Bugs Bunny, Road Runner, and Wile E. Coyote. Three of his cartoon films, noted for their speed and action, won Academy Awards. He was head of animation for MGM in the 1960s, then formed his own company and directed animated features such as The Phantom Tollbooth (1971) and specials for television. Jones received an Academy Award for lifetime achievement in 1996.

Jones, Deacon orig. David Jones (b. Dec. 9, 1939, Eatonville, Fla., U.S.) U.S. football player. He stood 6 ft 5 in. (1.96 m) tall and weighed

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Jones, E. ► Jones, W. I 997

250 lbs (113 kg) and could run the 100-yard dash in 9.7 seconds. He excelled at tackling the quarterback behind the line of scrimmage (for which he coined the term sack). As a defensive end for the Los Angeles Rams (1961-71), he was regarded as one of the sport’s premier defense- men and was named All-NFL six consecutive times (1965-70). He later played for the San Diego Chargers (1972-73) and Washington Redskins

(1974).

Jones, (Alfred) Ernest (b. Jan. 1, 1879, Rhosfelyn, Glamorgan, Wales—d. Feb. 11, 1958, London, Eng.) Welsh psychoanalyst. After he became a member of London’s Royal College of Physicians, his interest gradually shifted to psychiatry. With Carl Gustav Jung he organized the first psychoanalytic conference (Salzburg, 1908), where he met Sigmund Freud. Jones was instrumental in introducing psychoanalysis to Britain and North America; in 1919 he founded the British Psycho-Analytical Insti¬ tute, and in 1920 he founded the International Journal of Psycho- Analysis, which he edited until 1939. After the Nazi takeover of Austria, he helped the ailing Freud and his family to escape to London. His biog¬ raphy of Freud, entitled The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud (3 vol., 1953-57), was for many years the standard biography.

Jones, George (Glenn) (b. Sept. 12, 1931, Saratoga, Texas, U.S.) U.S. country music singer and songwriter. He was born to an impover¬ ished family, which moved to Beaumont, Texas, when he was 11 years old. He sang on the streets as a youngster, and he began recording in the early 1950s. His first hit, “Why, Baby, Why” (1955), was followed by “She Thinks I Still Care,” “He Stopped Loving Her Today,” and many others. In 1957 he joined the Grand Ole Opry. He continued to have hits into the 1980s, including many with his former wife Tammy Wynette. His rocky personal life and career only increased his fans’ enduring affection.

Jones, Inigo (b. July 15, 1573, Smithfield, London, Eng.—d. June 21, 1652, London) British painter, architect, and designer. The son of a cloth- worker, he studied painting in Italy and attracted the patronage of the king of Denmark, for whom he apparently designed two palaces before return¬ ing to England. Beginning in 1605, he designed the scenes and costumes for masques by Ben Jonson and others. From 1615 to 1642, he was the King’s Surveyor of Works. His first important undertaking was the Queen’s House at Greenwich (begun 1616), England’s first Palladian- style building. His greatest achievement, the Banqueting House at White¬ hall (1619-22), consists of one great raised chamber with colonnades set against the walls, which support a flat, beamed ceiling. For his design for Covent Garden (1630), London’s first square, Jones is credited with the introduction of town planning in England.

Jones, James Earl (b. Jan. 17, 1931, Arkabutla, Miss., U.S.) U.S. actor. He studied acting in New York City and made his Broadway debut in 1957. He was praised for his performance in Othello (1964) and in roles with the New York Shakespeare Festival (1961-73). He starred as the black boxer in The Great White Hope (1969, Tony Award; film, 1970). After returning to Broadway in Paul Robeson (1978) and Fences (1985, Tony Award), he starred in the television series Paris (1979-80) and Gab¬ riel’s Fire (1990-91, Emmy Award). He has appeared in numerous films; his sonorous voice lent gravity to the character of Darth Vader in Star Wars (1977) and its sequels and to the Mufasa role in The Lion King

(1994).

Jones, Jennifer orig. Phyllis Isley (b. March 2, 1919, Tulsa, Okla., U.S.) U.S. film actress. She played leads in minor films from 1939 before coming to the notice of David O. Selznick, who cast her in The Song of Bernadette (1943, Academy Award). Selznick continued to choose her roles, and she starred in such films as Love Letters (1945), Duel in the Sun (1946), and Love Is a Many-Splendored Thing (1955). She married Selznick in 1949 and appeared in films into the 1960s.

Jones, Jim orig. James Warren Jones (b. May 13, 1931, near Lynn, Ind., U.S.—d. Nov. 18, 1978, Jonestown, Guyana) U.S. leader of a New Religous Movement. He became a preacher in Indianapolis. He estab¬ lished the People’s Temple, which was affiliated with the Disciples of Christ and opposed racism and poverty. The group moved to San Fran¬ cisco in 1971. Accused of defrauding church members, Jones led his group to Guyana in 1977 and set up the agricultural commune of Jonestown, using threats and force to control his followers. In 1978 U.S. Congress¬ man Leo Ryan went to Jonestown to investigate allegations against Jones. Ryan and four others were killed when they reached the airport to return to the U.S. In the aftermath, most of the Jonestown residents, in a mass

rite of murder-suicide, were shot or poisoned; Jones died of a gunshot wound. The death toll was 913, including many children.

Jones, John Paul orig. John Paul (b. July 6, 1747, Kirkbean, Kirk¬ cudbright, Scot.—d. July 18, 1792,

Paris, France) American naval hero.

He went to sea at age 12 and became a ship’s master at age 21. He joined his brother in Virginia in 1775. When the American Revolution began, he joined the new Continental Navy under Esek Hopkins. In 1776 he sailed the Providence along the Atlantic coast, capturing eight British ships and sinking eight more. Appointed by Congress to the newly built Ranger, he made a spectacular cruise through St. George’s Channel and the Irish Sea (1777-78), where he took a number of prizes. In 1779 he commanded the Bonhomme Richard and intercepted a merchant fleet.

Though outgunned by an escort ship, the Serapis, he forced its surrender after a fierce battle, answering its challenge to surrender with “I have not yet begun to fight!” His ship sank soon after, and he sailed two British prizes to the Netherlands. In 1790 he retired, in ill health, to France.

Jones, Mary Harris orig. Mary Harris known as Mother Jones

(b. May 1, 1830, Cork, Ire.—d. Nov. 30, 1930, Silver Spring, Md., U.S.) Irish-born U.S. labour organizer. She was brought to the U.S. as a child in 1835. In 1867 she lost her children and husband (an ironworker) in a yellow-fever epidemic in Memphis, Tenn.; four years later she lost all her possessions in the great Chicago fire. She turned for assistance to the Knights of Labor, which led to her becoming a highly visible figure in the U.S. labour movement. She traveled across the country, organizing for the United Mine Workers and supporting strikes wherever they were being held. At 93 she was still working among striking coal miners in West Vir¬ ginia. She actively supported legislation to prohibit child labour. She was a founder of the Social Democratic Party (1898) and the Industrial Work¬ ers of the World (1905). Her autobiography was published in 1925. She died at the age of 100 and was buried in the Union Miners’ Cemetery in Mount Olive, Ill.

Jones, Quincy orig. Quincy Delight Jones, Jr. (b. March 14, 1933, Chicago, Ill., U.S.) U.S. composer, bandleader, and producer. Jones joined a combo with his friend Ray Charles in his early teens, and he later studied music in Seattle and Boston. In the early 1950s he played trum¬ pet with Lionel Hampton. He became an arranger for Dizzy Gillespie and oth¬ ers and ultimately formed his own big band and worked with figures such as Count Basie, Sarah Vaughan, and Dinah Washington. In the early 1960s he began writing scores for films, including Walk Don’t Run (1966), In Cold Blood (1967), and The Color Purple (1985). Beginning in the mid- 1970s he principally worked as a producer, and among his projects were enormously successful albums for Michael Jackson and Frank Sinatra. By the early 21st century, Jones had won more than 25 Grammy Awards. He also founded the music magazine Vibe and the record label Qwest.

Jones, Spike orig. Lindley Armstrong Jones (b. Dec. 14, 1911, Long Beach, Calif., U.S.—d. May 1, 1965, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. bandleader known for his novelty recordings. Jones played drums in radio bands in the late 1930s and soon became known for adding anarchically comical sounds such as car horns, cowbells, and anvils to his percussion. In 1942 he formed Spike Jones and His City Slickers, and the band soon had a hit recording with “Der Fuehrer’s Face.” Jones’s comic hits con¬ tinued into the 1950s, when he also had his own TV show. Later switch¬ ing from comedy to Dixieland, the band continued to record into the 1960s.

Jones, Sir William (b. Sept. 28, 1746, London, Eng.—d. April 27, 1794, Calcutta) British orientalist, linguist, and jurist. He completed an authoritative Grammar of the Persian Language in 1771. For financial reasons he then turned to the study and practice of law. His Moallakat, a translation of seven famous Arabic odes, was published in 1782, and the following year he was knighted and sailed for Calcutta (now Kolkata) as judge of the Supreme Court. He founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal

John Paul Jones, portrait by Charles Willson Peale, 1781.

COURTESY OF THE INDEPENDENCE NATIONAL HISTORICAL PARK COLLECTION, PHILADELPHIA

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

998 I jongleur ► Jordan

to encourage Asian studies and published scholarly works on Hindu and Muslim law. His proposition (1786) that there was a common source for languages ranging from Celtic to Sanskrit led to recognition of the Indo- European LANGUAGE family.

jongleur \zho n -'gloer,\ English \'jaq-glor\ Professional storyteller or pub¬ lic entertainer in medieval France. His roles included those of musician, juggler, acrobat, and reciter of literary works. Jongleurs performed in mar¬ ketplaces on public holidays, in abbeys, and in castles of nobles, who some¬ times retained them in permanent employment. Jongleurs were most important in the 13th century; in the 14th century, the various facets of their role were taken over by other performers. See also goliard; trouvere.

jonquil Popular garden flower ( Narcissus jonquilla ), a Mediterranean perennial bulbous herb of the amaryllis family. Bearing long linear leaves, it is widely cultivated for its yellow or white, fragrant, short-tubed, clus¬ tered flowers. An oil from jonquil flowers is used in perfumes. See also NARCISSUS.

Jonson, Ben(jamin) (b. June 11?, 1572, London, Eng.—d. Aug. 6, 1637, London) British playwright, poet, and critic. After learning stage¬ craft as a strolling player, he wrote plays for Philip Henslowe’s theatres. In 1598 his comedy Every Man in His Humour established his reputation. He wrote several masques for the court of James I and created the “anti¬ masque” to precede the masque proper. His classic plays Volpone (1605- 06), The Alchemist (1610), and Bartholomew Fair (1614) use satire to expose the follies and vices of his age, attacking greed, charlatanism, and religious hypocrisy as well as mocking the fools who fall victim to them. Regarded as the era’s leading dramatist after William Shakespeare, Jonson influenced later playwrights, notably in the dramatic characterization of Restoration comedies (see Restoration literature). He was also a lyric poet whose works include two famous elegies for his son and daughter.

Jonturkler See Young Turks

had a flourishing studio with many students. After the death of Peter Paul Rubens, to whose Baroque style he was indebted, he became the leading painter in Flanders. His paintings, crowded with robust figures, are noted for strong contrasts of light and shade and an air of sensual vitality bor¬ dering on coarseness. He also produced religious paintings and portraits. His most important commissions were two enormous murals for the royal residence called the Huis ten Bosch, near The Hague. His later works tend to be mediocre and were frequently executed by assistants.

The King Drinks, oil painting by Jacob Jordaens, 1638; in the Royal Museums of Fine Arts, Brussels.

COURTESY OF THE MUSEES ROYAUX DES BEAUX-ARTS, BRUSSELS; PHOTOGRAPH, PHOTO SASKIA, NORTH AMHERST, MASS.

Jooss Vyos\, Kurt (b. Jan. 12, 1901, Wasseralfingen, Ger.—d. May 22, 1979, Heilbronn, W.Ger.) German dancer, teacher, and choreographer.

After studying dance with Rudolf Laban (1920-24), he established a school and company. He became bal¬ let master at the Essen Opera House in 1930, where he choreographed his signature ballet, The Green Table (1932). He moved his school and company to England in 1934, and his renamed Ballets Jooss toured world¬ wide until disbanding in 1947. He returned in 1949 to Essen, where he continued to choreograph works that combined ballet and modern dance in an Expressionist style.

Joplin, Jams (Lyn) (b. Jan. 19,

1943, Port Arthur, Texas, U.S.—d.

Oct. 4, 1970, Los Angeles, Calif.)

U.S. rock and blues singer. Born to a middle-class family, she ran away from home at age 17 and began singing in Austin, Texas, and later in Los Angeles. She joined the band Big Brother and the Holding Company in San Francisco in 1966 and soon became famous for her raw, powerful, emotional blues style. The album Cheap Thrills (1968) contains some of her best-known recordings. After leaving the band, she continued to record hit songs, including “Me and Bobby McGee.” She died from an overdose of heroin at age 27.

Joplin, Scott (b. Nov. 24, 1868, Bowie county, Texas, U.S.—d. April 1, 1917, New York, N.Y.) U.S. pianist and composer, the outstanding exponent of ragtime music. Joplin was a classically trained pianist and composer. His compositions, including “Maple Leaf Rag” (1899), rag¬ time’s first hit, and “The Entertainer” (1902), show an acute logic that transcends the sometimes mechanical dimension of the genre. He also wrote a ballet and two operas, including Treemonisha (1911), as well as several didactic works. He suffered a nervous collapse in 1911 and was institutionalized in 1916.

Jordaens Yy6r-,dans\, Jacob (b. May 19, 1593, Antwerp, Spanish Netherlands—d. Oct. 18, 1678, Antwerp) Flemish painter active in Ant¬ werp. He was admitted to the painters’ guild in 1615 and by the 1620s

Jordan officially Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan Country, Middle East, southwestern Asia, lying east of the Jordan River. Jordan has 16 miles (26 km) of coastline on the Gulf of Aqaba. Area: 34,495 sq mi (89,342 sq

km). Population (2005 est.): 5,389,000.

Capital: Amman. The vast majority of the population are Arabs, about one-third of whom are Palestinian Arabs who fled to Jor¬ dan from neighbouring Israel and the West

Bank as a result of the Arab-Israeli wars. Language: Arabic (official). Reli¬ gion: Islam (official; predominantly Sunni). Currency: Jordan dinar. Four- fifths of the country is desert; less than one-tenth of the land is arable. The

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Jordan ► Josephine I 999

highest point of elevation, Mount Ramm (5,755 ft [1,754 ml), rises in the uplands region on the east bank of the Jordan River. The Jordan Valley region contains the Dead Sea. Jordan’s economy is based largely on manu¬ facturing and services (including tourism); exports include phosphate, pot¬ ash, pharmaceuticals, fruits and vegetables, and fertilizers. Jordan is a constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses; the head of state and government is the king, assisted by the prime minister. Jordan shares much of its history with Israel, since both occupy parts of the area known his¬ torically as Palestine. Much of present-day Jordan was once part of the king¬ dom of Israel under David and Solomon (c. 1000 bc). It fell to the Seleucids in 330 bc and to Muslim Arabs in the 7th century ad. The Crusaders extended the kingdom of Jerusalem east of the Jordan River in 1099. The region became part of the Ottoman Empire during the 16th century. In 1920 the area comprising Jordan (then known as Transjordan) was established within the British mandate of Palestine. Britain recognized Transjordan’s partial independence in 1923, although the British mandate did not end until 1948. In 1950, after the end of hostilities with the new State of Israel, Jordan annexed the West Bank and east Jerusalem, administering the terri¬ tory until Israel gained control of it in the Six-Day War of 1967. In 1970-71 Jordan was wracked by fighting between the government and guerrillas of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), a struggle that ended with the PLO being expelled from Jordan. In 1988 King Hussein renounced all Jor¬ danian claims to the West Bank in favour of the PLO. In 1994 Jordan and Israel signed a full peace agreement.

Jordan, Barbara C(harline) (b. Feb. 21, 1936, Houston, Texas, U.S.—d. Jan. 17, 1996, Austin, Texas) U.S. lawyer and politician. She earned a law degree from Boston University in 1959, served in the Texas state senate (1966-72), and then won election to the U.S. House of Rep¬ resentatives (1973-79), becoming the first African American congress- woman to be elected from the Deep South. She became a national figure in 1974, when she participated in televised hearings of the House Judi¬ ciary Committee on the possible impeachment of Pres. Richard Nixon. Her keynote address at the 1976 Democratic National Convention confirmed her reputation as a commanding and articulate public speaker. She retired from the House to teach at the University of Texas.

Jordan, David Starr (b. Jan. 19, 1851, near Gainesville, N.Y., U.S.—d. Sept. 19, 1931, Stanford, Calif.) U.S. educator and ichthyolo¬ gist. He studied at Cornell University and taught at universities in Indi¬ ana until 1885, when he became president of Indiana University. In 1891 he became the first president of Stanford University, and served until 1913. His extensive field trips led to his naming 1,085 genera and more than 2,500 species of fishes. He was coauthor (with B.W. Evermann) of The Fishes of North and Middle America (1896-1900) and author of Manual of the Vertebrates of the Northern United States (13 editions, 1876-1929). He devoted his later career mainly to the cause of interna¬ tional peace, acting as chief director of the World Peace Foundation.

Jordan, Michael (Jeffrey) (b. Feb. 17, 1963, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. basketball player. As a freshman in 1982, he helped the University of North Carolina win the collegiate national championship. Drafted by the Chicago Bulls in 1984, he won 10 scoring titles and 5 Most Valuable Player awards while leading the Bulls to six championships (1991-93, 1996-98). He was also part of the 1984 and 1992 U.S. Olympic basketball teams that won gold medals. He retired briefly in 1993, hoping to play professional baseball, but returned to the Bulls in 1995. He retired again in 1999, but, after a stint as an owner and general manager of the Washington Wizards, Jordan returned to play for that team in 2001. Known as “Air Jordan” for his exceptional leaping ability, he combined acrobatic play with a fierce competitive spirit and was considered among the game’s greatest players. His success on the court and in the business world made him one of the most popular and recognized athletes of all time.

Jordan River River, Middle East. It rises in Syria, flows through the Lake Tiberias (Sea of Galilee), and then receives its main tributary, the Yarmuk River. It drains into the Dead Sea at 1,312 ft (400 m) below sea level after a total course of 223 mi (360 km). In Christianity it is known as the place where John the Baptist baptized Jesus.

joruri See bunraku

Jose Bonifacio See Jose Bonifacio de Andrada e Silva

Joseph In the Old Testament, the son of the patriarch Jacob and his wife, Rachel. He was favoured by his father, and his brothers became bitterly jealous when he was given a resplendent “coat of many colors” (literally,

coat with flowing sleeves). They sold him into slavery in Egypt, telling Jacob he had been killed by a wild beast. In Egypt Joseph gained favour with the pharaoh and rose to high office, owing to his ability to interpret dreams, and his acquisition of grain supplies enabled Egypt to withstand a famine. When famine forced Jacob to send his sons to Egypt to buy grain, the family was reconciled with Joseph and settled there. The story of Joseph, told in Genesis 37-50, depicts the preservation of Israel and begins the history of the Israelites in Egypt that is continued in Exodus.

Joseph II (b. March 13, 1741, Vienna—d. Feb. 20, 1790, Vienna) Holy Roman emperor (1765-90). He suc¬ ceeded his father, Francis I, and ini¬ tially coruled with his mother, Maria Theresa (1765-80). After his mother’s death he tried to continue her work of reform. Considered a practicioner of “enlightened despotism,” he abol¬ ished serfdom, established religious equality before the law, granted free¬ dom of the press, and emancipated the Jews. He came into conflict with the Roman Catholic church by attempting to impose state controls over it, and traditional countries such as the Austrian Netherlands and Hun¬ gary resisted his far-reaching reforms. His foreign policies were generally failures; he tried to exchange the Austrian Netherlands for Bavaria but was stopped by Prus¬ sia. An alliance with Catherine II of Russia engaged Austrian troops in a war with Turkey, but Joseph had to return home to head off revolutionary unrest in Hungary and the Austrian Netherlands.

Joseph, Chief (b. c. 1840, Wallowa Valley, Ore.Terr.—d. Sept. 21, 1904, Colville Reservation, Wash., U.S.) Nez Perce chief. In 1877 the U.S. attempted to force the Nez Perce to move to a reservation in Idaho. Chief Joseph at first agreed but later decided instead to lead his followers on a trek to Canada. During the three-month, 1,000-mile journey, he outma- neuvered and outfought federal troops, and his humane conduct won the admiration of many whites. His group was finally surrounded near the Canadian border and subsequently removed to Indian Territory (Okla¬ homa). In 1885 they were relocated to a reservation in Washington.

Joseph, Father orig. Francois-Joseph le Clerc du Tremblay

(b. Nov. 4, 1577, Paris, France—d. Dec. 18, 1638, Rueil) French mystic and religious reformer. He joined the Capuchins in 1599. His fervent ambition to convert European Protestants to Roman Catholicism coin¬ cided with cardinal de Richelieu’s plans for French domination of Europe, and he became Richelieu’s secretary in 1611. He became known as the “Gray Eminence” (for his gray Capuchin cloak), and his close collabo¬ ration with Richelieu (the “Red Eminence”) gave him powers akin to those of a foreign minister, especially during Richelieu’s campaign to finance France’s participation in the Thirty Years' War, which Joseph’s policies did much to bring about.

Joseph, Saint (fl. 1st century ad, Nazareth, Galilee region of Pales¬ tine; principle feast day March 19; Feast of St. Joseph the Worker May 1) In the New Testament, the husband of Mary and the earthly father of Jesus. Descended from the house of David, he was a carpenter in Naza¬ reth. Betrothed to Mary when he found her already pregnant, an angel appeared to him in a vision and told him the expected child was the son of God. He and Mary journeyed to Bethlehem to be counted in the Roman census, and while they were there the child was born. The last mention of Joseph occurs in the Gospel of Luke, when he and Mary take the 12-year-old Jesus to Jerusalem.

Joseph Bonaparte Gulf Inlet of the Timor Sea, northern Australia. It spans 225 mi (360 km) east to west, and it indents the Australian coast for 100 mi (160 km). Entered by a Dutch navigator in 1644, it was vis¬ ited in 1803 by Nicolas Baudin, a Frenchman who named it after Napo¬ leon’s brother Joseph Bonaparte.

Josephine orig. Marie-Josephe-Rose Tascher de la Pagerie

(b. June 23, 1763, Trois Ilets, Mart.—d. May 29, 1814, Malmaison,

Joseph II, Holy Roman emperor, detail of a painting by Pompeo Batoni, 1769; in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

COURTESY OF THE KUNSTHISTORISCHES MUSEUM, VIENNA

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1000 I Josephson ► jousting

France) Consort of Napoleon and empress of the French. She married an army officer, Alexandre, vicomte de Beauharnais, in 1779. He was guillotined during the French Revo¬ lution, and Josephine was impris¬ oned briefly. A leader of Paris society, she married Napoleon in a civil ceremony in 1796. She was an indifferent and extravagant wife, but during the Consulate she used her social position to advance her hus¬ band’s political fortunes. After he became emperor (1804), she per¬ suaded him to marry her again, with religious rites. She proved unable to give him a son, and in 1810 he arranged for their marriage to be nul¬ lified so that he could make a politi¬ cally convenient marriage with Marie-Louise.

Josephson, Brian D(avid) (b. Jan. 4, 1940, Cardiff, Wales) British physicist. He received a Ph.D. from the University of Cambridge and began building on earlier work done by Leo Esaki of IBM and Ivar Giae- ver (b. 1929) of General Electric. For his discovery of what is now called the Josephson effect in superconductivity, he shared a Nobel Prize with Esaki and Giaever in 1973. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1970 and was named a professor at Cambridge in 1974.

Josephson effect Flow of electric current between two pieces of superconducting material (see superconductivity) separated by a thin layer of insulating material. This flow was predicted by the British physicist Brian Josephson in 1962, based on the BCS theory (see John Bardeen). According to Josephson, pairs of electrons can move from one supercon¬ ductor to the other across the insulating layer (tunneling). The locus of this action is called a Josephson junction. The Josephson current flows only if no battery is connected across the two conductors. A major appli¬ cation of this discovery is in superfast switching devices used in comput¬ ers, which can be 100 times faster than ordinary semiconducting circuits.

Josephus Vjo-'se-fssV Flavius orig. Joseph Ben Matthias (b. ad

37/38, Jerusalem—d. c. 100, Rome) Jewish priest, scholar, and historian. Born of a priestly family, Josephus joined the Pharisees. While on a dip¬ lomatic mission he was impressed by the culture and sophistication of Rome, and in the Jewish revolt of ad 66-70 he eventually attached him¬ self to the Roman cause. Favoured in the courts of emperors Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian, he wrote valuable historical works. His History of the Jewish War (79) is the principal source on the revolt and includes much on Roman tactics and strategy. The Antiquities of the Jews (93), his great¬ est work, traces Judaism from creation up to the revolt. Against Apion defends Judaism against Hellenism.

Joshua Leader of the Israelite tribes after the death of Moses. Accord¬ ing to the biblical book of Joshua, Joshua led the people of Israel west¬ ward across the Jordan River to invade Canaan. Under his leadership the Israelites conquered the Canaanites and gained control of the Promised Land. The book begins by recounting the battles, including the famous demolition of the walls of Jericho. Joshua then divides Canaan among the 12 tribes of Israel, makes his farewell speech, and dies. The book was compiled much later than the events described, perhaps during the Baby¬ lonian Exile in the 6th century bc.

Joshua Tree National Park National park, southeastern California, U.S. Situated on the border between the Mojave and Colorado deserts, it has an area of 1,241 sq mi (3,214 sq km). It was designated a national monument in 1936 and a national park in 1994. It is noted for its variety of desert plant life, including the Joshua tree, creosote bush, and Mojave yucca. Its fauna include coyotes, bobcats, and tarantulas.

Josiah \jo-'sI-3\ (b. c. 640 bc —d. 609 bc) King of Judah and religious reformer. He became king at age 8 after the assassination of his father, Amon. As the Assyrian empire crumbled, Judah gained a measure of independence, and in 621 bc Josiah began a program of national renewal. He drove out foreign cults, abolished local sanctuaries, and centred the worship of Yahweh in the Temple of Jerusalem. As his reforms were under way, parts of the book of Deuteronomy were discovered in the Temple,

giving added impetus to his efforts to revive observance of Mosaic law. Josiah hoped to reunify Judah and Israel, but he was killed in a battle against the Egyptians.

Jospin, Lionel (b. July 12, 1937, Meduon, France) French Socialist Party politician who served as the country’s prime minister (1997-2002). He was educated at the elite Ecole Nationale d’Administration. He joined the foreign service and later taught economics at the University Institute of Technology of Paris-Sceaux. He was elected to the National Assem¬ bly in 1977 and later was appointed head of the party by Pres. Francois Mitterrand. He served as minister of education and narrowly lost the presi¬ dential election in 1995 to Jacques Chirac. After the Socialists and their allies won a majority in the National Assembly in 1997, he was appointed prime minister by Chirac. He resigned in 2002 after an unsuccessful presi¬ dential bid.

Josquin des Prez \zh6s-'ka n -de-'pra\ (b. c. 1445, Conde-sur-l’Escaut?, Burgundian Hainaut—d. Aug. 27,

1521, Conde-sur-l’Escaut) Northern French composer. Perhaps a student of Johannes Ockeghem, he spent his life working as a singer, moving from post to post in Italy, including the Milan Cathedral (1459-72) and the Papal Chapel (1486-94), before returning to Conde in 1504, where he would spend the rest of his life. Jos¬ quin was able to balance complexity of imitative counterpoint with an inexhaustible melodic gift. He left over 60 motets (including Absalon, fill mi), some 18 complete masses (including Missa Pange lingua), and many superb secular songs in the chordal “Italian” style (including “El grillo”). The first music printer, Ottaviano Petrucci, devoted an entire vol¬ ume to Josquin’s works, an honour accorded to no other composer. His posthumous reputation, as attested by Martin Luther and others, was the greatest of any composer up to his time, and his works were closely imi¬ tated throughout the 16th century.

Jotunheim \'yo-t 3 n-,ham\ Mountains Mountain range, south-central Norway. It is the highest range in Scandinavia and extends 80 mi (130 km); its tallest peaks are Glitter Mountain (8,045 ft [2,452 m]) and Galdhp Mountain (8,100 ft [2,470 m]). The mountains are mentioned in early Norse sagas, but they were not fully explored until the early 19th century.

Joule VjiilV James (Prescott) (b. Dec. 24, 1818, Salford, Lancash¬ ire, Eng.—d. Oct. 11, 1889, Sale, Cheshire) English physicist. After study¬ ing under John Dalton, in 1840 he described “Joule’s law,” which stated that the heat produced in a wire by an electric current is proportional to the product of the resistance of the wire and the square of the current. In 1843 he published his value for the amount of work required to produce a unit of heat, called the mechanical equivalent of heat, and established that heat is a form of energy. He established that the various forms of energy are basically the same and can be changed from one into another, a discovery that formed the basis of the law of conservation of energy, the first law of thermodynamics. In his honour, the value of the mechani¬ cal equivalent of heat is usually represented by the letter J, and a stan¬ dard unit of work is called the joule.

journalism Collection, preparation, and distribution of news and related commentary and feature materials through media such as pam¬ phlets, newsletters, newspapers, magazines, radio, film, television, and books. The term was originally applied to the reportage of current events in printed form, specifically newspapers, but in the late 20th century it came to include electronic media as well. It is sometimes used to refer to writing characterized by a direct presentation of facts or description of events without an attempt at interpretation. Colleges and universities con¬ fer degrees in journalism and sponsor research in related fields such as media studies and journalism ethics.

jousting Medieval Western European mock battle between two horse¬ men who charged at each other with leveled lances in an attempt to unseat the other. It probably originated in France in the 11th century, superseding the melee, in which mock battles were held between two bodies of armed horsemen, and it flourished in much of Europe in the 12th—15th century.

Josephine, detail of an oil painting by Francois Gerard; in the Musee National de Malmaison, Paris.

GIRAUDON/ART RESOURCE, NEW YORK

Josquin des Prez, drawing by Joris van der Straeten, 16th century.

THE BETTMANN ARCHIVE

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Jove ► Juarez I 1001

Though the lances were blunted, knights were often seriously wounded or killed. Tournaments were mounted only by royalty and nobility; ladies of the court would sponsor individual knights, for whom jousting became a ritual of courtly love. Characterized by striking panoply and pageantry, jousting tournaments represented the preeminent display of chivalry.

Jove See Jupiter

Joyce, James (Augustine Aloysius) (b. Feb. 2, 1882, Dublin, Ire.—d. Jan. 13, 1941, Zurich,

Switz.) Irish novelist. Educated at a Jesuit school (though he soon rejected Catholicism) and at Univer¬ sity College, Dublin, he decided early to become a writer. In 1902 he moved to Paris, which would become his principal home after years spent in Trieste and Zurich. His life was difficult, marked by financial troubles, chronic eye diseases that occasionally left him totally blind, censorship problems, and his daugh¬ ter Lucia’s mental illness. The remarkable story collection The Dubliners (1914) and the autobio¬ graphical novel Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916), his early prose volumes, were powerful examples of his gift for storytelling and his great intelligence. With financial help from friends and sup¬ porters, including Ezra Pound, Sylvia Beach (1887-1962), and Harriet Shaw Weaver (1876-1961), he spent seven years writing Ulysses (1922), the controversial masterpiece (ini¬ tially banned in the U.S. and Britain) now widely regarded by many as the greatest English-language novel of the 20th century. It embodies a highly experimental use of language and exploration of such new liter¬ ary methods as interior monologue and stream-of-consciousness narrative. He spent 17 years on his final work, the extraordinary Finnegans Wake (1939), famous for its complex and demanding linguistic virtuosity.

Joyner, Florence Griffith See Florence Griffith Joyner

Joyner-Kersee, Jackie orig. Jacqueline Joyner (b. March 3, 1962, East St. Louis, Ill., U.S.) U.S. athlete. She won four consecutive National Junior Heptathlon championships and starred in basketball and track and field at UCLA. In 1986 she became the first heptathlon com¬ petitor ever to score 7,000 points. She broke that barrier six times, four times establishing a new world record. She won heptathlon gold medals at the 1988 and 1992 Olympics, becoming the first heptathlete ever to achieve consecutive Olympic wins. Her best events were the long jump (world record, 1987; Olympic gold medal, 1988), 100-m hurdles, 200-m run, and high jump. Many consider her to be the finest female athlete in history.

JPEG \'ja-,peg\ in full Joint Photographic Experts Group Stan¬ dard computer file format for storing graphic images in a compressed form for general use. JPEG images are compressed using a mathematical algo¬ rithm. A variety of encoding processes can be used, depending on whether the user’s goal is the highest quality of image (lossless) or smallest file size (lossy). The JPEG and GIF formats are the most commonly used graphics formats on the Internet for lossy and lossless data compression, respectively.

JPMorgan Chase & Co. U.S. financial services corporation. Formed in 2000 by the merger of investment bank J.P. Morgan and consumer bank Chase Manhattan Corp., the resulting firm ranked as one of the largest financial services companies in the U.S. The company increased its hold¬ ings by purchasing Bank One in 2004.

Juan Carlos I (b. Jan. 5, 1938, Rome, Italy) King of Spain from 1975. The grandson of Alfonso XIII, he lived in exile until 1947. After Francisco Franco abolished the republic and declared Spain a representative mon¬ archy, he prepared Juan Carlos for his future role, paying particular atten¬ tion to his military education. In 1969 Juan Carlos was designated prince; he acceded to the Spanish throne two days after Franco’s death. Although he had sworn loyalty to Franco’s National Movement, he proved to be

relatively liberal and helped restore parliamentary democracy. In 1981 he deflated a potential military coup and preserved the democracy. He became the first Spanish king to visit the Americas and was the first crowned monarch to make an official visit to China. Throughout his ten¬ ure as king, he traveled abroad on many goodwill missions and was very popular at home.

Juan de Austria X.hwan-tha-'aus-tre-aN (b. Feb. 24, 1547,

Regensburg—d. Oct. 1, 1578, Bouges, near Namur, Spanish Netherlands) Illegitimate son of Emperor Charles V and half brother of Philip II. After Charles’s death, Philip gave him the name Don Juan de Austria (1559). He served as a Spanish military commander, and in 1571 he was appointed head of naval forces of the Holy League against the Ottoman Turks, achieving victory in the Battle of Lepanto. In 1576 he was appointed governor-general of the Netherlands, then in open revolt against Spanish authority. When his attempts at diplomacy failed, he resumed the war.

Juan de Fuca Strait V.hwan-do-'fyli-koV Strait, North Pacific Ocean. Located between the Olympic Peninsula of Washington, U.S., and Cana¬ da’s Vancouver Island, it is 11-17 mi (18-27 km) wide and 80-100 mi (130-160 km) long. It is named for a Greek who sailed in the service of Spain and who may have visited the passage in 1592. It is used by ships bound for Vancouver and Seattle. Settlements along its banks include Vic¬ toria, B.C., and Port Angeles, Wash.

Juan Fernandez Islands Island group, South Pacific Ocean. Located 400 mi (650 km) west of Chile, it consists of two islands and an islet. They were discovered in 1563 by Spanish navigator Juan Fernandez. In 1704 Alexander Selkirk, a Scottish seaman, was stranded there alone until 1709; his adventures are believed to have inspired Daniel Defoe’s Robin¬ son Crusoe. Possessions of Chile since the early 19th century, they have often been used as penal settlements.

Juan Jose \,hwan-ho-'sa\ de Austria (b. April 7, 1629, Madrid, Spain—d. Sept. 17, 1679, Madrid) Spanish nobleman, the most famous of the illegitimate children of Philip IV. He served as a military commander from 1647, and in 1651 he led the royal forces besieging Barcelona. He served as governor of the Netherlands (1656-58). After 1665 he played an active part in the political intrigues surrounding the new king, his half brother Charles II, and he served as Charles’s chief minister (1677-79).

Juarez or Ciudad Juarez V.syu-'thath-'hwar-.esV City (pop., 2000: 1,187,275), northern Chihuahua state, Mexico. Located on the Rio Grande opposite El Paso, Texas, it was formerly known as El Paso del Norte and was renamed in 1888 for Mexico’s national hero, Benito Juarez, who head¬ quartered there in 1865. Today it is an important border city and functions as the marketing centre for a cotton-growing area. The city has grown greatly since the 1970s because of the increase in the number of export- oriented assembly plants (maquiladoras) located there. It contains the Guadalupe mission (1662).

Juarez \'hwar-3s\, Benito (Pablo) (b. March 21, 1806, San Pablo Guelatao, Oaxaca, Mex.—d. July 18,

1872, Mexico City) National hero and president (1861-72) of Mexico.

A Zapotec Indian, Juarez initially studied for the priesthood but later took a law degree and became a leg¬ islator, a judge, and a cabinet minis¬ ter. He led La Reforma, a liberal political and social revolution in Mexico, and, when liberal forces gained control of the national gov¬ ernment in 1855, he was able to implement his ideas. In 1857 he was elected head of the Supreme Court, which, under a new constitution, placed him first in the order of presi¬ dential succession. In 1858 a coup by conservative forces sent Mexico’s president into exile, but Juarez suc¬ ceeded him and headed a liberal gov¬ ernment that opposed the regime installed by the conservatives. After three years of civil war, the liberals prevailed. Juarez was elected presi¬ dent in 1861 and twice reelected. Early in his first term, the French under Napoleon III invaded and occupied Mexico, putting Maximilian of Austria in power in 1864. When Napoleon later withdrew his troops, Juarez

James Joyce, photograph by Gisele Freund, 1939.

GISELE FREUND

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1002 I Jubayl ► Judd

defeated Maximilian’s armies and had him executed in 1867. Juarez’s final years were marred by a loss of popular support and by personal trag¬ edy. He died in office.

Jubayl See Byblos

Jubba River \'ju-ba\ River, Somalia. Originating in southern Ethiopia, it flows south 545 mi (875 km) to the Indian Ocean just north of Kis- maayo, one of Somalia’s three main ports. It is the only river in the region that is reliably navigable.

Juchen dynasty Vzhii-'jenN or Jin dynasty (1115-1234) Dynasty that ruled an empire formed by the Tungus Juchen tribes of Manchuria. It covered much of Inner Asia and all of northern China. Like the Liao, an earlier Inner Asian dynasty, the Juchen maintained a Chinese-style bureaucracy to rule over the southern part of their conquests and a tribal state to rule in Inner Asia. Very conscious of preserving their ethnic iden¬ tity, they maintained their language, developed their own script, and banned Chinese clothes and customs from their army.

Judaea or Judea \ju-'de-3\ Southern division of ancient Palestine suc¬ cessively under Persian, Greek, and Roman rule. It was bounded on the north by Samaria and on the west by the Mediterranan Sea. It succeeded the Hebrew kingdom of Judah, which was destroyed by the Babylonians. The revived kingdom of Judaea was established by the Maccabees, who resisted the suppression of Judaism under foreign rule. Family disputes led to Roman intervention in 63 bc. Under Roman control, Herod (the Great) was made king of Judaea in 37 bc. After Herod’s death the coun¬ try was ruled alternately by his descendants (see Herod Antipas; Herod Agrippa I) and by Roman procurators. As a result of the Jewish revolt in ad 66, the city of Jerusalem was destroyed (ad 70). The name Judaea is used by Israelis to describe approximately the same area in the modem West Bank territory.

Judah One of the 12 tribes of Israel, descended from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The tribe of Judah entered Canaan with the other Israelites after the escape from Egypt and settled in the region south of Jerusalem. It even¬ tually became the most powerful tribe, producing the kings David and Solomon, and it was prophesied that the Messiah would come from among its members. After the 10 northern tribes were dispersed by the Assyrian conquest of 721 bc, the tribes of Judah and Benjamin were left as the sole inheritors of the Mosaic covenant. Judah flourished until 586 bc, when it was overrun by the Babylonians and many of its people were carried into exile. Cyrus II allowed them to return in 538 bc, and the Temple of Jerusalem was rebuilt. The history of Judah from that time forward is the history of the Jews and Judaism. The kingdom of Judah was succeeded by Judaea.

Judah ben Samuel (d. 1217) Jewish mystic and scholar. He was a member of the Kalonymos family, which provided medieval Germany with many Jewish mystics and spiritual leaders. Around 1195 he settled in Regensburg, where he founded a yeshiva and gathered disciples such as Eleazar ben Judah of Worms. He was the founder of 12th-century German Hasidism, an ultrapious movement not directly related to 18th-century Hasidism. Book of the Pious , a compilation of the writings of Judah, his father, and Eleazar of Worms, offers a detailed manual of conduct for obser¬ vant Jews; it is one of the most important documents of medieval Judaism.

Judah ha-Nasi Vjii-ds-.ha-na-'seX (b. ad 135—d. c. 220) Palestinian Jewish scholar. A descendant of the great sage Hillel, he was patriarch of the Jewish community in Palestine and head of its Sanhedrin, and he became an important figure in early rabbinic Judaism. He spent over 50 years studying the oral law and is said to have compiled it into six sec¬ tions divided by subject matter, thus creating the Mishna. His exact role in the Mishna’s redaction is not known; other scholars such as Meir and Akiba ben Joseph were probably also involved.

Judaism Vjti-ds-.i-zsm, 'jii-de-.i-zomX Religious beliefs and practices of the Jews. One of the three great monotheistic world religions, Judaism began as the faith of the ancient Hebrews, and its sacred text is the Hebrew Bible, particularly the Torah. Fundamental to Judaism is the belief that the people of Israel are God’s chosen people, who must serve as a light for other nations. God made a covenant first with Abraham and then renewed it with Isaac, Jacob, and Moses. The worship of Yahweh (God) was cen¬ tred in Jerusalem from the time of David. The destruction of the First Temple of Jerusalem by the Babylonians (586 bce) and the subsequent exile of the Jews led to hopes for national restoration under the leadership of a Messiah. The Jews were later allowed to return by the Persians, but an unsuccessful rebellion against Roman rule led to the destruction of the

Second Temple in 70 ce and the Jews’ dispersal throughout the world in the Jewish Diaspora. Rabbinic Judaism emerged to replace the beliefs and practices associated with the Temple at Jerusalem, as the Jews carried on their culture and religion through a tradition of scholarship and strict observance. The great body of oral law and commentaries were commit¬ ted to writing in the Talmud and Mishna. The religion was maintained despite severe persecutions by many nations.

Two branches of Judaism emerged in the Middle Ages: the Sephardic, centred in Spain and culturally linked with the Babylonian Jews; and the Ashkenazic, centred in France and Germany and linked with the Jewish culture of Palestine and Rome. Elements of mysticism also appeared, nota¬ bly the esoteric writings of the Kabbala and, in the 18th century, the move¬ ment known as Hasidism. The 18th century was also the time of the Jewish Enlightenment (Haskala). Conservative and Reform Judaism emerged in 19th-century Germany as an effort to modify the strictness of Orthodox Judaism. By the end of the 19th century Zionism had appeared as an out¬ growth of reform. European Judaism suffered terribly during the Holo¬ caust, when millions were put to death by the Nazis, and the rising flow of Jewish emigrants to Palestine led to the declaration of the State of Israel in 1948. In the early 21st century there were nearly 15 million Jews worldwide.

Jewish Festivals

Tishri (Sept.-Oct.)

1-2

Rosh Hashanah (New Year)

3

Fast of Gedaliah

10

Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement)

15-21

Sukkot (Tabernacles)

22

Shemini Atzereth (Eighth Day of Solemn Assembly)

23

Simhath Torah (Rejoicing of the Law)

Kislev (Nov.-Dee.)

25

Hanukkah (Festival of Lights) begins

Tebet (Dec-Jan.)

2 or 3

Hanukkah ends

10

Fast

Shebat (Jan.-Feb.)

15

New Year for Trees

Adar (Feb.-Mar.)

13

Fast of Esther

14-15

Purim (Feast of Lots)

Second Adar (Adar Sheni) or Veadar (intercalated month); Adar holidays fall in

Veadar during leap years.

Nisan (Mar.-Apr.)

15-22

Pesach (Passover)

lyar (Apr.-May)

5

Israel Independence Day

18

Lag b'Omer (33rd Day of the Omer Counting)

Sivan (May-June)

6-7

Shabuoth (Feast of Weeks, or Pentecost)

Tammuz (June-July)

17

Fast

Ab (July-Aug.)

9

Fast

Judas Iscariot (d. c. ad 30) Disciple who betrayed Jesus. He was one of the original 12 disciples. Judas made a deal with the Jewish authori¬ ties to betray Jesus into their custody; in return for 30 pieces of silver, he brought the armed guard to the Garden of Gethsemane and identified Jesus with a kiss. He later regretted his deed and committed suicide; according to Matthew 27, he returned the money to the priests before hanging him¬ self. His surname may mean “man of Kerioth,” or it may link him to the Sicarii, a band of radical Jewish terrorists.

Judas Maccabaeus V.ma-ko-'be-osV (d. 161/160 bc) Leader of a Jew¬ ish rebellion against the Syrians. The son of an aged priest who took to the mountains in rebellion when Antiochus IV Ephiphanes tried to impose the Greek religion on the Jews, Judas became leader of the rebels on his father’s death and won a series of victories over the Syrians in 166-164 bc. In 166 he purified the Temple of Jerusalem, an event celebrated at Hanukkah. On Antiochus’s death in 164, the Seleucids offered the Jews freedom of worship, but Judas continued the war, hoping to gain politi¬ cal freedom. He was killed soon thereafter, but his brothers carried on the struggle. The history of the dynasty is told in the two books of Macca¬ bees in the Apocrypha.

Judd, Donald (b. June 3, 1928, Excelsior Springs, Mo., U.S.—d. Feb. 12, 1994, New York, N.Y.) U.S. sculptor. He studied at Columbia Uni¬ versity and the Art Students League. He had his first one-man exhibition in 1957. In 1959 he began writing reviews for Art News and Arts Maga¬ zine. In 1960-62 he made the transition from painting to sculpture and became a leading exponent of Minimalism. Much of his work consists of simple cubes or other geometric units that stand on the floor or are can¬ tilevered from the wall, often in stacks or horizontal progressions. His

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Judea ► Julian I 1003

materials included painted steel, Plexiglas, iron, wood, and concrete. In the 1970s he began to fill the land around his studio in Marfa, Texas, with large-scale sculptures; this area is now a museum.

Judea See Judaea

judge Public official vested with the authority to hear, determine, and preside over legal matters brought in court. In jury cases, the judge pre¬ sides over the selection of the panel and instructs it concerning pertinent law. The judge may also rule on motions made before or during a trial. In the U.S., judges are elected or appointed. Most federal judges are appointed for life by the president with the advice and consent of the Sen¬ ate. The highest-ranking judge in the U.S. legal system is the chief justice of the Supreme Court. See also judgment, judiciary, magistrate's court, Mis¬ souri Plan.

judgment In law, a formal decision or determination on a matter or case by a court. Judgments are classified as in personam , in rem, and quasi in rem. A judgment in personam determines the rights and liabilities of a particular person. A judgment in rem affects the status of a particular thing (e.g., an item of property). The designation quasi in rem describes a judg¬ ment in which a person’s property is subject to court control to satisfy a claim against the person. The court has at its disposal the power to pun¬ ish for contempt any party that does not adhere to its orders. See also appeal; DECLARATORY JUDGMENT; DEMURRER.

Judgment, Day of In Christianity, the final judgment of God on all people at the end of history. It will occur at the second coming of Christ, when the dead are resurrected. It is especially important in millennialist denominations (see millennialism). In Islam, the Day of Judgment is described in the Quran and the Hadith. Religions that include reincarna¬ tion (e.g., Hinduism) lack a Day of Judgment; the determination of how an individual is to be reborn being a particular judgment on the merit of the life just lived (see karma).

judgment tale See dilemma tale

judicial review Examination by a country’s courts of the actions of the legislative, executive, and administrative branches of government to ensure that those actions conform to the provisions of the constitution. Actions that do not conform are unconstitutional and therefore null and void. The practice is usually considered to have begun with the ruling by the Supreme Court of the United States in Marbury v. Madison (1803). Sev¬ eral constitutions drafted in Europe and Asia after World War II incorpo¬ rated judicial review. Especially subject to scrutiny in the U.S. have been actions bearing on civil rights (or civil liberty), due process of law, equal protection under the law, freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and rights of privacy. See also checks and balances.

judiciary Branch of government in which judicial power is vested. The principal work of any judiciary is the adjudication of disputes or contro¬ versies. Regulations govern what parties are allowed before a judicial assembly, or court, what evidence will be admitted, what trial procedure will be followed, and what types of judgments may be rendered. Typically present in court are the presiding judge, the parties to the matter (sometimes called litigants), the lawyers representing the parties, and other individuals including witnesses, clerks, bailiffs, and jurors when the proceeding involves a jury. Though the courts’ stated function is to administer justice according to rules enacted by the legislative branch, courts also unavoid¬ ably make law. In deciding, for example, how legislative provisions are to be applied to specific cases, the courts in effect make law by laying down rules for future cases; this is known as the doctrine of precedent. In some jurisdictions, courts have the power of judicial review, enabling them to declare unconstitutional legislation or acts of the executive.

Judith Legendary Jewish heroine, the central character in the Book of Judith in the Apocrypha. (The book is excluded from the Hebrew Bible.) A beautiful Jewish widow whose city is besieged by the Assyrians under their general, Holofemes, Judith leaves the city in pretended flight and foretells victory to Holofernes. Invited into his tent, she cuts off his head as he lies in a drunken sleep, and the Jews defeat the leaderless Assyri¬ ans. Probably fictional, the story may have been written in the 2nd cen¬ tury bc, after the end of the Maccabean revolt.

judo Martial art that emphasizes the use of quick movement and lever¬ age to throw an opponent. Its techniques are generally intended to turn an opponent’s force to one’s own advantage rather than to oppose it directly. The opponent must be thrown cleanly, pinned, or mastered

through the application of pressure to arm joints or the neck. Judo is now practiced primarily as sport. It became an Olympic sport in 1964; wom¬ en’s judo was added in 1992. The sport evolved out of jujitsu in late-19th- century Japan.

juge d'instruction \'zhmzh-da n -strLek-syo n \ French "judge of in¬ quiry" In France, a magistrate responsible for conducting the investi¬ gative hearing that precedes a criminal trial. In this hearing the major evidence is presented, witnesses are heard, and depositions are taken. If at the end of the hearing the magistrate is not convinced that the evidence of guilt is sufficient to warrant a trial, no trial occurs. This process differs from the grand jury hearing in the Anglo-American system.

Jugendstil Vyti-gont-.shtelX Artistic style that arose near the end of the 19th century in Germany and Austria. Its name was derived from the Munich magazine Die Jugend (“Youth”), founded in 1896, which featured Art Nouveau designs. Its early phase, primarily floral in character, was rooted in English Art Nouveau and Japanese prints; a more abstract phase emerged after 1900. Primarily a style in architecture and the decorative arts, it also included the great Austrian painter Gustav Klimt.

juggler Entertainer who keeps several plates, knives, balls, or other objects in the air at once by tossing and catching them. The art of jug¬ gling has been practiced since antiquity. Through the 18th century jug¬ glers performed at fairs and marketplaces, and in the 19th century they found larger audiences in ciRCUSes and music halls. In these training grounds the art advanced in technical perfection, producing outstanding perform¬ ers such as Enrico Rastelli, who could juggle 10 balls. Modern jugglers introduced variations such as performing while blindfolded on horseback, on a high wire, or on a unicycle.

Jugurtha \ju-'g9r-th3\ (b. c. 160 bc —d. 104, Rome) Ruler of the North African kingdom of Numidia under the Romans (118-105 bc). After the death of his uncle Micipsa, then ruler of Numidia, Jugurtha shared rule with his two cousins. He had one killed and captured the capital city of the other. Rome intervened with troops, which Jugurtha successfully out¬ witted until he was captured in 105 bc. See also Gaius Marius; Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix.

Juilliard \'ju-le-,ard\ School Internationally renowned school of the performing arts in New York, New York, U.S. It has its roots in the Insti¬ tute of Musical Art (founded 1905) and a graduate school (1924) founded through an endowment from the financier Augustus D. Juilliard (1840- 1919). It is now the professional educational arm of the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts. It offers bachelor’s degrees in music, dance, and drama and postgraduate degrees in music. The Juilliard String Quartet (founded 1946) was important to the development of chamber music in the U.S.

jujitsu \ju-'jit-sii\ Martial art that employs holds, throws, and paralyz¬ ing blows to subdue or disable an opponent. It evolved among the samu¬ rai warrior class in Japan from about the 17th century. A ruthless form of fighting, its techniques included the use of hard or tough parts of the body (e.g., knuckles, fists, elbows, and knees) against an enemy’s vulnerable points. Jujitsu declined in the mid-19th century, but many of its concepts and methods were incorporated into judo, karate, and aikido.

Julia (b. 39 bc —d. ad 14, Rhegium) Only child of Augustus. She wed Marcellus, who died in 23 bc, then Agrippa (21), Augustus’s chief lieuten¬ ant. Their two eldest sons were adopted by Augustus (17) and became his heirs. When Agrippa died (12 bc), Augustus’s second wife persuaded him to favour her sons (his stepsons), Tiberius and Drusus, as heirs. Augustus forced Tiberius to divorce his wife and marry Julia (11 bc). The unhappy Julia became promiscuous, and Tiberius went into self-imposed exile. When Augustus discovered Julia’s behaviour, he banished her to an island off Campania (2 bc), then to Rhegium. On becoming emperor, Tiberius withheld her allowance, and she starved to death.

Julian or Julian the Apostate Latin Julianus Apostata orig. Flavius Claudius Julianus (b. ad 331/332, Constantinople—d. June 26/27, 363, Ctesiphon, Mesopotamia) Roman emperor (361-363), noted scholar and military leader. The nephew of Constantine I, he was raised a Christian but converted to mystical paganism. As caesar (subemperor) in the west, he restored the Rhine frontier and was proclaimed Augustus (senior emperor) by his armies. Though Constantius II initially objected to Julian as his successor, he accepted him on his deathbed (361). As emperor Julian proclaimed freedom of worship for pagans and Christians in 361; he nevertheless promoted paganism over Christianity, against

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1004 I Julian ► June beetle

which he committed acts of violence and persecution. He introduced aus¬ terity to government, reducing impe¬ rial staff and overhauling imperial finances. To reassert Roman power in the east he attacked Persia; the effort failed, and he was killed in a retreat near Baghdad.

Julian, George Washing¬ ton) (b. May 5, 1817, Wayne county, Ind., U.S.—d. July 7, 1899,

Irvington, Ind.) U.S. politician. He was admitted to the bar in 1840 and practiced law in several Indiana towns. By the mid-1840s he was a Whig member of the Indiana state legislature and a frequent author of antislavery newspaper articles.

Elected to the U.S. House of Repre¬ sentatives as a member of the Free Soil Party in 1848, he was that par¬ ty’s vice-presidential candidate in 1852. In 1856 he helped form the Republican Party. Again serving in the House (1861-71), he played an important role in making emancipation a Northern war aim in the American Civil War. In 1867 he helped prepare articles of impeachment against Pres. Andrew Johnson. He later wrote books and articles on reform causes, including women’s suffrage.

Julian Alps Range of the eastern Alps. It extends southeast from the Car- nic Alps in northeastern Italy to the city of Ljubljana, Slvn. The highest peak is Triglav (9,396 ft [2,864 m]), also the highest point in Slovenia.

Julian of Norwich or Juliana of Norwich (b. 1342, probably Norwich, Norfolk, Eng.—d. after 1416) English mystic. After being healed of a serious illness (1373), she wrote two accounts of her visions; her Revelations of Divine Love is remarkable for its clarity, beauty, and profundity. She spent her later life as a recluse in Norwich.

Juliana (Louise Emma Marie Wilhelmina) (b. April 30, 1909, The Hague, Netherlands—d. March 20, 2004, Baarn) Queen of The Neth¬ erlands (1948-80). During World War II she took refuge in Ottawa while her husband. Prince Bernhard, remained with Queen Wilhelmina’ s govern¬ ment, which had relocated to London. Returning to The Netherlands in 1945, Juliana acted as regent during her mother’s illness and became queen when Wilhelmina abdicated. In 1980 she abdicated in favour of her daughter Beatrix.

Julio-Claudian dynasty (ad 14-68) Successors of Augustus, the first Roman emperor: Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. It was a loosely defined set of kin relations rather than a direct bloodline. Tiberius’s rule was competent, with notable accomplishments, but it ended in cruel tyr¬ anny. The insane Caligula was wild and capricious. Under Claudius, Rome experienced marked development. Under Nero the empire pros¬ pered, but he was given to excesses, and his reign ended amid rebellion and civil war.

Julius II orig. Giuliano della Rovere (b. Dec. 5, 1443, Albisola, republic of Genoa—d. Feb. 21, 1513, Rome) Pope (1503-13). The nephew of Sixtus IV, he fled Rome in 1494 to escape assassination by Alexander VI. Elected pope in 1503, Julius set out to restore the Papal States, subjugating Perugia and Bologna (1508) and defeating Venice (1509) with the aid of the League of Cambrai. His first effort to expel the French from northern Italy failed, but a popular revolt drove them out in 1512, and Parma and Piacenza were added to the Papal States. The great¬ est art patron of all the popes, Julius was a close friend of Michelangelo, from whom he commissioned the sculpture of Moses and the paintings in the Sistine Chapel. He also commissioned Raphael’s Vatican frescoes.

Julius Caesar See Julius Caesar

July Days (1917) Period in the Russian Revolution of 1917 during which Petrograd workers and soldiers staged armed demonstrations against the provisional government that resulted in a temporary decline of Bolshevik influence and in the formation of a new provisional government headed by Aleksandr Kerensky. To undermine Bolshevik popularity, the govern¬ ment produced evidence that Vladimir Ilich Lenin had ties with the German government. The public reacted against the Bolsheviks, Lenin fled to Fin¬

land, and Leon Trotsky and other leaders were jailed. The reorganized gov¬ ernment was overthrown by the Bolsheviks in October.

July Plot or Rastenburg Assassination Plot Abortive attempt on July 20, 1944, by German military leaders to assassinate Adolf Hitler, seize control of the government, and seek more favourable peace terms from the Allies. According to plan, Col. Claus von Stauffenberg (1907- 44) left a bomb in a briefcase in a conference room at the field headquar¬ ters at Rastenburg, East Prussia, where Hitler was meeting with top military aides. But the briefcase was pushed behind a table support, and Hitler survived the blast with minor injuries. Meanwhile, the other con¬ spirators in Berlin failed to act. The chief conspirators, including Stauffen¬ berg, Gen. Ludwig Beck, Gen. Erwin Rommel, and other top officers, were promptly shot or forced to commit suicide. In subsequent days, Hitler’s police rounded up about 200 conspirators, who were shot, hanged, or viciously strangled.

July Revolution (1830) Insurrection that brought Louis-Philippe to the throne of France. It was precipitated on July 26 by Charles X’s publica¬ tion of restrictive ordinances contrary to the spirit of the Charter of 1814. Demonstrations were followed by three days of fighting (July 27-29), Charles’s abdication, and the proclamation of Louis-Philippe as king. The bourgeoisie secured a political and social ascendancy that was to charac¬ terize the subsequent July Monarchy.

jump rope or skip rope Children’s game in which players hold a rope (jump rope) at each end and twirl it in a circle, while one or more players jump over it each time it reaches its lowest point. Dating from the 19th century, it is traditionally a girl’s sidewalk or playground game that usually involves the chanting of a counting rhyme (e.g., “One, two, touch my shoe”). There are many types of jumps, including single, double, and backward; in “double Dutch,” two ropes are twirled simultaneously in opposite directions. Single-rope jumping, or rope skipping, is popular with boxers to develop the lungs and legs and improve coordination and footwork.

JunaycJ Xju-'nldV Shaykh (b. 1430, Iranian Azerbaijan?—d. March 4, 1460, near the Kura River) Fourth head of the Safavid order of Sufi mys¬ tics. He became head of the order on his father’s death in 1447 and set out to turn a society known for piety and learning into a political force. The arming of his followers led to a conflict with Jahan Shah (died 1467), ruler of Iranian Azerbaijan, and resulted in the expulsion of Junayd and his followers from Ardabll, the traditional centre of the Safavid order, in 1448. He continued his military adventurism in the lands of present-day Syria and Turkey and was finally killed in battle against a force of Chris¬ tian Circassians. His policies were carried on by his son, Haydar, and eventually culminated in the found¬ ing of the Safavid dynasty under Junayd’s grandson, Isma'Tl I, assuring the dominance of ShT'ite Islam in Iran.

junco Any of several species of finchlike birds (genus Junco , family Fringillidae), about 6 in. (15 cm) long, of Canada and the U.S. Juncos are usually a shade of gray; they have white outer tail feathers that are flashed in flight to the accompani¬ ment of snapping or twittering calls.

They are common winter birds.

Their favored habitat is mixed or coniferous forest, though they are often found in fields, thickets, and city parks.

June beetle or May beetle or June bug Any insect of the genus Phyllophaga, belonging to a widely distributed, plant-feeding scarab beetle subfamily (Melolonthinae).

These red-brown beetles commonly appeal* in the Northern Hemisphere on warm spring evenings and are attracted to lights. Heavy-bodied, they are 0.5-1 in. (1.2-2.5 cm) long and have shiny wing covers. They feed on foliage and flowers at night,

Julian the Apostate, detail of a marble statue; in the Louvre, Paris

GIRAUDON/ART RESOURCE, NEW YORK

Dark-eyed junco (Junco hyemalis)

STEVE AND DAVE MASLOWSKI

/III

L

June beetle [Phyllophaga rugosa).

HARRY ROGERS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

June Days ► Jupiter I 1005

sometimes causing considerable damage. The larvae live in the soil, and can destroy crops and kill lawns and pastures by severing the grasses from their roots; they are considered excellent fish bait.

June Days (June 23-26, 1848) In French history, a brief and bloody civil uprising in Paris in the early days of the Second Republic. The new government instituted numerous radical reforms, but the new assembly, composed mainly of moderate and conservative candidates, was deter¬ mined to cut costs and end risky experiments such as public works pro¬ grams to provide for the unemployed. Thousands of Parisian workers— suddenly cut off from the state payroll—were joined by radical sympathizers and took to the streets in spontaneous protest. The assem¬ bly gave Gen. Louis- Eugene Cavaignac authority to suppress the uprising, and he brought up artillery against the protesters’ barricades. At least 1,500 rebels were killed, 12,000 were arrested, and many were exiled to Algeria. See also Revolutions of 1848.

Juneau \'jii-no\ City (pop., 2000: 30,711), capital of Alaska, U.S. Located in southeastern Alaska, it was settled in 1880 when Joe Juneau and Richard Harris discovered gold nearby. Mining was important until the Alaska-Juneau gold mine closed in 1944. Juneau was made the state capital in 1959. Fishing, forestry, and government activities are important, as is tourism. In 1970 Juneau merged with Douglas, on an island across the channel, to form the largest U.S. city in area (3,108 sq mi [8,050 sq km]).

Jung VyuqV Carl (Gustav) (b. July 26, 1875, Kesswil, Switz.—d. June 6, 1961, Kusnacht) Swiss psychiatrist. As a youth he read widely in philosophy and theology. After taking his medical degree (1902), he worked in Zurich with Eugen Bleuler on studies of mental illness. From this research emerged Jung’s notion of the complex, or cluster of emo¬ tionally charged (and largely unconscious) associations. Between 1907 and 1912 he was Sigmund Freud’s close collaborator and most likely suc¬ cessor, but he broke with Freud over the latter’s insistence on the sexual basis of neuroses. In the succeeding years Jung founded the field of ana¬ lytic psychology, a response to Freud’s psychoanalysis. Jung advanced the concepts of the introvert and extravert personality, archetypes, and the collective unconscious (the pool of human experience passed from gen¬ eration to generation). He went on to formulate new psychotherapeutic techniques designed to reacquaint the person with his unique “myth” or place in the collective unconscious, as expressed in dream and imagina¬ tion. Sometimes dismissed as disguised religion and criticized for its lack of verifiability, Jung’s perspective nonetheless remains influential in reli¬ gion and literature as well as psychiatry. His important works include The Psychology of the Unconscious (1912; revised as Symbols of Transfor¬ mation), Psychological Types (1921), Psychology and Religion (1938), and Memories, Dreams, Reflections (1962).

jungle fowl Any of four species of Asian birds (genus Gallus) that dif¬ fer from other species in the pheasant family in having, in the male, a fleshy comb, lobed wattles hanging below the bill, and a high-arched tail. The red jungle fowl is the ancestor of the chicken. The cock has shining silky plumage, red on the head and back and green-black elsewhere; the hen is rusty brown with speckled neck and minimal comb.

junior college or community college Educational institution that provides up to two years of COLLEGE-Ievel academic, technical, and voca¬ tional instruction with emphasis on career preparation. Roots of the jun¬ ior college may be traced to the Chautauqua movement and other adult- education programs created after the American Civil War. The first junior college opened in Joliet, Ill., in 1901. The vast majority of junior colleges are publicly supported; called community colleges, they offer a variety of flexible programs that are often nontraditional in style and content. They have pioneered in offering part-time study, evening sessions, instruction by television, weekend workshops, and other services for members of their communities. Students rarely live on campus. Graduates of junior or community colleges ordinarily earn an associate’s degree. They then transfer to a four-year college or enter the workforce. See also con¬ tinuing EDUCATION.

juniper Any of about 60-70 spe¬ cies of aromatic evergreen trees or shrubs that make up the genus Juni- perus of the CYPRESS family, found throughout the Northern Hemi¬ sphere. Juvenile leaves are needle¬

like; mature leaves are awl-shaped, spreading, and arranged in pairs or in whorls of three. Common juniper (7. communis ) is a sprawling shrub whose fragrant, spicy-smelling berries are used to flavour foods and alco¬ holic beverages, particularly gin. The fragrant wood of eastern red cedar (7. virginiana ) is made into cabinets, fence posts, and pencils. 7. horizon¬ talis is a popular U.S. ornamental creeping juniper, and wood of the Mediterranean Phoenician juniper (7. phoenicea ) is burned as incense.

junk Classic Chinese sailing vessel of ancient unknown origin, still in wide use. High-sterned, with a pro¬ jecting bow, the junk carries up to five masts on which are set square sails consisting of panels of linen or matting flattened by bamboo strips.

Each sail can be spread or closed at a pull, like a Venetian blind. The massive rudder takes the place of a keel. Chinese junks were sailing to Indonesian and Indian waters by the early Middle Ages.

junk bond Bond paying a high yield but also presenting greater risk than comparable securities. Junk bonds can be identified through the lower grades assigned by rating ser¬ vices (e.g., BBB instead of AAA for the highest quality bonds). Because the possibility of default is great, junk bonds are usually considered too risky for investment by the large institutional investors (savings and loan associations, pension funds, insurance companies, and mutual funds) that provide U.S. corporations with much of their investment capital. Junk bonds are often issued by smaller, newer companies.

Juno In Roman religion, the chief goddess and female counterpart of Jupi¬ ter. She was identified with the Greek goddess Hera. With Jupiter and Minerva she was a member of the Capitoline triad of deities tradi¬ tionally introduced into Rome by the Etruscans. She was connected with all aspects of the lives of women, particularly marriage. Individual¬ ized, she became a female guardian spirit; as every man had his genius, so every woman had her juno. Her temple in Rome eventually housed the Roman mint, and she was invoked as the savior of the state.

Her sacred bird was the peacock.

Jupiter or Jove Chief god of ancient Rome and Italy. Like his Greek counterpart, Zeus, he was wor¬ shiped as a sky god. With Juno and Minerva he was a member of the triad of deities traditionally believed to have been introduced into Rome by the Etruscans. Jupiter was associ¬ ated with treaties, alliances, and oaths; he was the protecting deity of the republic and later of the reigning emperor. His oldest temple was on the Capitoline Hill in Rome. He was worshiped on the summits of hills throughout Italy, and all places struck by lightning became his prop¬ erty. His sacred tree was the oak.

Jupiter Fifth planet from the Sun, the largest nonstellar object in the solar system. It has 318 times the mass and more than 1,400 times the volume of Earth. Its enormous mass gives it nearly 2.5 times the gravity of Earth (measured at the top of Jupiter’s atmosphere), and it exerts strong effects on other members of the solar system. It is responsible for the Kirkwood gaps in the asteroid belt and changes in the orbits of comets; it may act as

Modern junk with traditional matting sails and a European-type jib

BBC HULTON PICTURE LIBRARY

Juno, classical sculpture; in the Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples

AUNARI-ART RESOURCE

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1006 I Jupiter Dolichenus ► Justin Martyr

a “sweeper,” pulling in bodies that might otherwise collide with other planets. Jupiter has more than 60 moons (see Galilean satellite) and a dif¬ fuse ring system discovered in 1979 by the Voyager spacecraft. The planet is a gas giant, composed mainly of hydrogen and helium in proportions near those of the Sun, which it orbits every 11.9 years at an average dis¬ tance of 483 million mi (778 million km). Its rapid rotation (9 hr 55.5 min) acts on electric currents to give it the largest magnetic field of any of the planets and causes intense storms, including one that has lasted hundreds of years (the Great Red Spot). Little is known of its interior, but it is presumed to have a deep layer of metallic hydrogen and a dense core. Its central temperature is estimated to be 45,000 °F (25,000 °C); it radi¬ ates twice as much heat as it receives from the Sun, probably largely heat left over from its formation.

Jupiter Dolichenus \,do-li-'ka-n3s\ God of a Roman mystery cult. He was originally a Hittite-Hurrian god of fertility and thunder worshiped at Doliche in Anatolia. He also became identified with the Zoroastrian god Ahura Mazda as a lord of the universe. Returning legions carried his cult to Rome, where it became popular in the 2nd-3rd century ad. In Roman mystery religion he was believed to control military success and safety. He was usually represented standing on a bull holding a double ax and thun¬ derbolt.

Jura Mountains Mountain range, central Europe. It extends 225 mi (360 km) along the boundary of France and Switzerland. Its highest peak is Mount Neige, some 5,650 ft (1,700 m) high, located in France. Its western slopes are the source of the Doubs and Ain rivers in France.

Jurassic Period Interval of geologic time, 206-144 million years ago, that is one of the three major divisions of the Mesozoic Era, preceded by the Triassic Period and followed by the Cretaceous. During the Jurassic, Pangea began to break up into the present-day continents. Marine inver¬ tebrates flourished, and large reptiles dominated many marine habitats. On land, ferns. Mosses, cycads, and conifers thrived, some developing flowerlike structures in place of cones. The dinosaurs rose to supremacy on land, and by the end of the Jurassic the largest species had evolved. Archaeopteryx, the first primitive bird, appeared before the end of the period. Early mammals, tiny shrewlike creatures that appeared near the close of the preceding Triassic, managed to survive and evolve.

Jurchen dynasty See Juchen dynasty

jurisdiction Authority of a court to hear and determine cases. This authority is constitutionally based. Examples of judicial jurisdiction are: appellate jurisdiction, in which a superior court has power to correct legal errors made in a lower court; concurrent jurisdiction, in which a suit might be brought to any of two or more courts; and federal jurisdiction. A court may also have authority to operate within a certain territory. Summary jurisdiction, in which a magistrate or judge has power to conduct pro¬ ceedings resulting in a conviction without jury trial, is limited in the U.S. to petty offenses.

jurisprudence Science or philosophy of law. Jurisprudence may be divided into three branches: analytical, sociological, and theoretical. The analytical branch articulates axioms, defines terms, and prescribes the methods that best enable one to view the legal order as an internally con¬ sistent, logical system. The sociological branch examines the actual effects of the law within society and the influence of social phenomena on the sub¬ stantive and procedural aspects of law. The theoretical branch evaluates and criticizes law in terms of the ideals or goals postulated for it.

jury In law, a body of individuals selected and sworn to inquire into a question of fact and to render a verdict according to the evidence. Juries may deal with questions of law in addition to questions of fact, though federal juries in the U.S. are usually limited to dealing with questions of fact. The modem jury can vary in size depending on the proceeding but usually has either 6 or 12 members. By U.S. law, federal grand juries and petit juries must be “selected at random from a fair cross-section of the community in the district or division wherein the court convenes.” State jury selection varies somewhat. The Supreme Court of the United States has stated in a series of decisions that a jury is to be composed of “peers and equals” and that systematic exclusion from a jury of a particular class of people (e.g., on the basis of sex, skin colour, or ancestry) violates the equal-protection clause of the 14th Amendment to the Constitution of the United States and the defendant’s right to a jury trial. A defendant is not, however, entitled to a jury of any particular composition. See also grand jury; petit jury; voir dire.

just-in-time manufacturing (JIT) Production-control system, developed by Toyota Motor Corp. and imported to the West, that has revolutionized manufacturing methods in some industries. By relying on daily deliveries of most supplies, it eliminates waste due to overproduc¬ tion and lowers warehousing costs. Supplies are closely monitored and quickly altered to meet changing demands, and small and accurate resup¬ ply deliveries must be made just as they are needed. Because there are no spares, the components must be free of defects. Plants wholly dedi¬ cated to the JIT concept require a logistics staff to schedule production, balancing product demand with plant capacity and availability of inputs. JIT has worked most effectively for large automobile manufacturers, which may have several thousand suppliers feeding parts into 100 facto¬ ries that assemble components for 20 assembly lines.

just war theory Set of conditions under which a resort to war is mor¬ ally legitimate (jus ad bellum ); also, rules for the moral conduct of war (jus in bello ). Among the proposed conditions for the just resort to war are that the cause be just (e.g., self-defense against an attack or the threat of imminent attack), that the authority undertaking the war be competent, that all peaceful alternatives be exhausted, and that there be a reasonable hope of success. Two of the most important conditions for the just con¬ duct of war are that the force used be “proportional” to the just cause the war is supposed to serve (in the sense that the evil created by the war must not outweigh the good represented by the just cause) and that mili¬ tary personnel be discriminated from innocents (noncombatant civilians), who may not be killed. The concept of just war was developed in the early Christian church; it was discussed by St. Augustine in the 4th cen¬ tury and was still accepted by Hugo Grotius in the 17th century. Interest in the concept thereafter declined, though it was revived in the 20th cen¬ tury in connection with the development of nuclear weapons (the use of which, according to some, would violate the conditions of proportional¬ ity and discrimination) and the advent of “humanitarian intervention” to put an end to acts of genocide and other crimes committed within the borders of a single state.

justice In philosophy, the concept of a proper proportion between a per¬ son’s deserts (what is merited) and the good and bad things that befall or are allotted to him or her. Aristotle’s discussion of the virtue of justice has been the starting point for almost all Western accounts. For him, the key element of justice is treating like cases alike, an idea that has set later thinkers the task of working out which similarities (need, desert, talent) are relevant. Aristotle distinguishes between justice in the distribution of wealth or other goods (distributive justice) and justice in reparation, as, for example, in punishing someone for a wrong he has done (retributive justice). The notion of justice is also essential in that of the just state, a central concept in political philosophy. See also law.

justice of the peace In Anglo-American legal systems, a local mag¬ istrate empowered chiefly to administer justice in minor cases. In the U.S., justices of the peace are elected or appointed and hear minor civil mat¬ ters and petty criminal cases. They may also officiate at weddings, issue arrest warrants, deal with traffic offenses, and hold inquests.

justification In Christian theology, the passage of an individual from sin to a state of grace. Some theologians use the term to refer to the act of God in extending grace to the sinner, while others use it to define the change in the condition of a sinner who has received grace. St. Paul used the term to explain how people moved from sin to grace through the death and resurrection of Jesus and not through any human effort. St. Augustine saw it as an act of God that makes sinners righteous, while Martin Luther stressed justification through faith alone.

Justin II (d. Oct. 4, 578) Byzantine emperor (565-78). He tolerated the Monophysite heresy until 571, then began to persecute its followers. Despite an alliance with the Franks, Justin lost parts of Italy to the Lombards after 568. He also suffered defeats at the hands of the Avars, to whom he promised to pay tribute (574), and the Western Turks, who seized lands in the Crimea. He invaded Persia in 572, but the Persians repulsed his army and invaded Byzantine territory, capturing Dara in 573. He became insane, and his general Tiberius (his adopted son) was effective ruler of the empire after 574.

Justin Martyr, Saint (b. c. 100, Flavia Neapolis, Palestine—d. c. 165, Rome; feast day June 1) Early Christian Apologist and theologian. A pagan bom in Palestine, he studied philosophy before becoming a Chris¬ tian in 132, probably at Ephesus. He then spent years as an itinerant preacher and teacher. One of the earliest Christian Apologists, he was the

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Justinian I ► juvenile court I 1007

first to blend Greek philosophy and Christian doctrine. He wrote two Apologies addressed to Roman emperors, which asserted that Christian faith can be in harmony with human reason and that Christianity is a purer form of the truth glimpsed in pagan philosophy. In his Dialogue with Try- pho he tried to prove the truth of Christianity to a scholarly Jew named Trypho. While living in Rome, he was denounced as subversive and con¬ demned to death.

Justinian I orig. Petrus Sabbatius (b. 483, Tauresium, Dardania—d. Nov. 14, 565, Con¬ stantinople) Byzantine emperor (527-565). Determined to regain former Roman provinces lost to bar¬ barian invaders, Justinian conquered the Vandals in northern Africa in 534 and enjoyed an initial victory over the Ostrogoths in Italy in 540. War with the Goths, however, lasted another two decades and brought great devastation before Justinian gained control of the whole of Italy in 562 . He was unable to prevent Bulgars, Slavs, Huns, and Avars from carrying out raids along the empire’s northern frontier. He also carried on an intermittent war with Persia until 561. He reorganized the imperial government and commis¬ sioned the reform and codification of the great body of Roman law known as the Code of Justinian. His efforts to root out corruption triggered a revolt in Constantinople in 532 that nearly toppled his government; his wife, Theodora, helped him put down the revolt. Like all Roman emperors, Jus¬ tinian was an active builder, and his many public works projects included the reconstruction of cities and the construction of the church of Hagia Sophia, one of the finest and most famous buildings in the world.

Justinian, Code of Collections of laws and legal interpretations devel¬ oped under the sponsorship of the Byzantine emperor Justinian I from 529 to 565. Strictly speaking, they did not constitute a new legal code. Rather, Justinian’s committees of jurists provided basically two reference works that contained collections of past laws and extracts of the opinions of the great Roman jurists. Also included were an elementary outline of the law and a collection of Justinian’s new laws.

jute Either of two herbaceous annuals ( Corchorus capsularis and C. oli- torius, in the linden family), or their fibre. The plants grow 10-12 ft (3^4

m) high and have long, serrated, tapered, light green leaves and small yel¬ low flowers. Jute has been grown and processed in the Bengal area of India and Bangladesh since ancient times. Its biggest use is in burlap sacks and bags, which are used to ship and store many agricultural products. High-quality jute cloths are used as backing for tufted carpets and hooked rugs. Coarser jute fibres are made into twines, rough cordage, and door¬ mats.

Jutland Danish Jylland Vyue-JanV Peninsula, northern Europe. Form¬ ing the Danish mainland and the German state of Schleswig-Holstein, it is bounded to the west and north by the North Sea. Politically, its name applies only to the mainland of Denmark. It has an area of 11 ,496 sq mi (29,775 sq km) and is divided into several administrative regions. In World War I, the Battle of Jutland was fought off its coast.

Jutland, Battle of (May 31-June 1, 1916) Only major encounter between the British and German fleets in World War I, fought in the Skagerrak, an arm of the North Sea off the coast of Jutland (Denmark). The battle came to an indecisive end, and both sides claimed victory. Ger¬ many destroyed and crippled more ships and men, but Britain retained control of the North Sea. The tactics of the British admiral John R. Jelli- coe were criticized at the time, but his strategic victory left the German high-seas fleet ineffective for the rest of the war.

Juvenal Vjii-vs-naA orig. Decimus Junius Juvenalis (b. c. ad

55—d. 130) Roman poet. He is believed to have been born into a wealthy family, to have become an army officer, and to have grown embittered by his failure to receive a promotion. He is chiefly known for his 16 Satires, indignant attacks on human brutality and folly, particularly the corruption of Roman society under Domitian and his more humane successors Nerva, Trajan, and Hadrian. Juvenal’s verses are technically fine, vivid, and often ruthless, and they have been admired and imitated since the 5th century. Many of his phrases and epigrams (“bread and circuses,” “who will guard the guards themselves?” etc.) have entered common parlance.

juvenile court Special court handling problems of delinquent, neglected, or abused children. Two types of cases are processed by a juvenile court: civil matters, often concerning care of an abandoned or impoverished child, and criminal matters, arising from antisocial behav¬ iour by the child. Most statutes provide that all persons under a given age (often 18 years) must first be processed by the juvenile court, which can then, at its discretion, assign the case to an ordinary court. Before the cre¬ ation of the first juvenile court, in Chicago in 1899, and the subsequent creation of other such courts in the United States and other countries (e.g., Canada in 1908; England in 1908; France in 1912; Russia in 1918; Poland in 1919; Japan in 1922; and Germany in 1923), juveniles were tried in the same courts as adults.

Justinian I, detail of a mosaic, 6th cen¬ tury; in the Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna

AUNARI-GIRAUDON FROM ART RESOURCE

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1008 I K2 ► kachina

K2 or Dapsang \,dap-'sang\ Mountain in the Karakoram Range. The world’s second highest peak, it reaches 28,251 ft (8,611 m); it lies partly in China and partly in the Pakistani-administered portion of the Kashmir region. It was discovered and measured in 1856 by Col. T.G. Montgom¬ erie and was given the symbol K2 because it was the second peak mea¬ sured in the Karakoram Range. In 1954 the Italians Achille Compagnoni and Lino Lacedelli became the first climbers to reach its summit.

Ka'bah Most sacred Muslim shrine, located near the centre of the Great Mosque in Mecca. All Muslims face toward it in their daily prayers. The cube-shaped structure, made of gray stone and marble, has its corners roughly oriented to the points of the compass; the interior contains only pillars and silver and gold lamps. Pilgrims to Mecca walk around the Ka'bah seven times and on its eastern side touch the Black Stone of Mecca, which may date from the pre-Islamic religion of the Arabs. Tradition holds that the Ka'bah was built by Abraham and Ishmael. In 630 Muhammad purged the place of its pagan idols and rededicated it to Islam.

Kabalega National Park \,ka-ba-Ta-ga\ National park, northwestern Uganda. Established in 1952, it occupies 1,483 sq mi (3,840 sq km) of rolling grass¬ land. Its central feature is the Kabalega Falls on the lower Victoria Nile River. The falls are about 20 ft (6 m) wide and drop 130 ft (40 m) in the first of three cascades.

Kabbala or Cabbala \ka-'ba-b\ Jewish mysticism as it developed in the 12th century and after. Essen¬ tially an oral tradition, it laid claim to secret wis¬ dom of the unwritten Torah communicated by God to Adam and Moses. It provided Jews with a direct approach to God, a notion regarded as heretical and pantheistic by Orthodox Judaism. A major text was the 12th-century Book of Brightness, which introduced the doctrine of transmigration of souls to Judaism and provided Kabbala with extensive mythical symbolism. In 13th-century Spain the tradition included the Book of the Image, which asserted that each cycle of history had its own Torah, and the Book of Splendour, which dealt with the mys¬ tery of creation. In the 16th century the centre of Kabbala was Safed, Galilee, where it was based on the esoteric teachings of the greatest of all Kabbalists, Isaac ben Solomon Luria. The doctrines of Lurianic Kab¬ bala, which called for Jews to achieve a cosmic restoration (Hebrew: tiqquri) through an intense mystical life and an unceasing struggle against evil, were influential in the development of modern Hasidism.

Kabila Xks-'be-loV Laurent (Desire) (b. 1939, Jadotville, Belgian Congo—d. Jan. 18?, 2001, en route to Harare, Zimb.) Rebel leader and president (1997-2001) of Congo (Kinshasa). He attended schools abroad, including military school in China, before participating in several Marxist-inspired uprisings in Zaire in the 1960s and ’70s. He later became a trader in precious minerals and ivory. In the Rwandan civil war, Kabila collaborated with Paul Kagame in attacking Hutu guerrilla groups in Zaire as well as Zairean government forces. His troops ousted Mobutu Sese Seko in 1997, and Kabila proclaimed himself president and renamed the coun¬ try. His repressive policies soon led to a new and larger war, in which many African states sent troops and aid to both sides. His assassination was apparently engineered by his own officers; his son Joseph (b. 1971) succeeded him.

Kabir \ko-'bir\ (b. 1440, Varanasi, Jaunpur, India—d. 1518, Maghar) Indian mystic and poet. A weaver who lived in Benares, he preached the essential oneness of all religions and was critical of both Hinduism and Islam for meaningless rites and mindless repetition. From Hinduism he accepted the ideas of reincarnation and the law of karma but rejected idolatry, asceticism, and the caste system. From Islam he accepted the idea of one God and the equality of all men. Revered by both Hindus and Muslims, he is also considered a forerunner of Sikhism, and some of his poetry was incorporated into the Adi Granth. His ideas led to the found¬ ing of several sects, including the Kabir Panth, which regards Kabir as its principal guru or as a divinity.

kabuki \ka-'bii-ke\ Popular Japanese entertainment that combines music, dance, and mime in highly stylized performances. The word is written using three Japanese characters —ka (“song”), bu (“dance”), and ki (“skill”). Kabuki dates from the end of the 16th century, when it devel¬ oped from the nobility’s NO theatre and became the theatre of townspeople.

In its early years it had a licentious reputation, its actors often being pros¬ titutes; women and young boys were consequently forbidden to perform, and kabuki is today performed by an adult all-male cast. Its texts, unlike no texts, are easily understood by its audience. The lyrical but fast-moving and acrobatic plays, noted for their spectacular staging, elaborate cos¬ tumes, and striking makeup in place of masks, are vehicles in which the actors demonstrate a wide range of skills. Kabuki employs two musical ensembles, one onstage and the other offstage. It shares much of its rep¬ ertoire with bunraku, a traditional puppet theatre.

Kabul \'ka-bol\ City (pop., 1993 est.: 700,000), capital of Afghanistan. Located on the Kabul River in a valley strategically located between moun¬ tain passes, it has existed for some 3,500 years. It became the capital of the Mughal dynasty in the 16th century, and it remained under Mughal rule until 1738, when it was captured by the Iranian con¬ queror Nadir Shah. Kabul has been the capital of Afghanistan since 1776. When the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979, it established a military command in Kabul. After the Soviet withdrawal in 1989, factional fighting among Afghan guerrillas con¬ tinued intermittently and the city suffered widespread destruction. In 1996 the Taliban captured Kabul and imposed an austere form of Islamic rule. The city began to recover from years of vio¬ lence only when the Taliban government was overthrown in

Kabul River River in eastern Afghanistan and north¬ western Pakistan. Rising west of the city of Kabul, it flows east into Pakistan and, after a course of 435 mi (700 km), joins the Indus River northwest of Islamabad. The Kabul River valley is a natural route for travel between Afghanistan and Paki¬ stan; Alexander the Great used it to invade India in the 4th century bc. For much of its course, the river is tapped for irrigation.

Kabyle \k9-'bil\ Berber people of northeastern Algeria. Most are Mus¬ lim, though a few are Christian. They are predominantly agricultural, growing grains and olives and herding goats. Village government is run by an assembly of adult males. Villages are divided into clans, and the society is organized into classes. The current population is about 2.5 to 3 million.

Kachchh, Rann of or Rann of Kutch VkochX Large salt marsh, west-central India and southern Pakistan. The northern portion. Great Rann, occupies an area of 7,000 sq mi (18,000 sq km) in Gujarat state, India. The eastern section, Little Rann, occupies 2,000 sq mi (5,100 sq km) of Gujarat. Originally an extension of the Arabian Sea, it has been closed off by centuries of silt¬ ing. A 1965 dispute between India and Pakistan over the boundary line of Great Rann ended when an inter¬ national tribunal awarded about 10% of the border area to Pakistan and the remainder to India.

Kachin \ka-'chin\ Any member of a group of tribal peoples occupying parts of northeastern Myanmar and contiguous areas of India (Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland) and China (Yunnan). Numbering more than 700,000, they speak a variety of lan¬ guages of the Tibeto-Burman group of Sino-Tibetan languages. Tradi¬ tional Kachin society largely sub¬ sisted on the shifting cultivation of hill rice, supplemented by the pro¬ ceeds of banditry and feudal warfare.

The traditional Kachin religion is a form of animistic ancestor cult entailing animal sacrifice.

kachina Vko-'che-noX Ancestral spirit of the Pueblo Indians. There are more than 500 of these spirits, who

Hopi kachina of laqan, or squirrel spirit, c. 1950; in the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, New York City

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Kaczynski ► Kagera River I 1009

act as intermediaries between humans and the gods. Each tribe has its own kachinas, which are believed to reside with a tribe for half of each year. They can be seen by the community if men properly perform a ritual while wearing kachina masks. The spirit depicted on the mask is thought to be actually present with the performer, temporarily transforming him. Kachinas are also represented by small wooden dolls, carved and deco¬ rated by the men of the tribe.

Kaczynski \k3-'zin-ske\, Theodore known as the Unabomber (b.

May 22, 1942, Evergreen Park, Ill., U.S.) U.S. criminal. He attended Har¬ vard University and earned a doctorate in mathematics from the Univer¬ sity of Michigan. He taught at the University of Califomia-Berkeley (1967-69) then abruptly left for rural Montana, where he lived in a tiny, isolated shack. Over a period of 17 years, he sent mail bombs to people he perceived as enemies of humanity, most of them professors and researchers in science and technology, killing 3 people and injuring 23. His manifesto excoriating industrial society was published widely in 1995. Arrested in 1996 on a tip from his younger brother, he was sen¬ tenced to life in prison.

Kadar \'ka-,dar\ Janos orig. Czermanik Janos (b. May 26, 1912, Fiume, Hung.—d. July 6, 1989, Budapest) Premier of Hungary (1956— 58, 1961-65) and first secretary (1956-88) of Hungary’s Communist Party. He joined the then-illegal Communist Party in 1931 and entered the Hungarian Politburo in 1945. In 1950 he came into conflict with the Stalinists and was expelled from the party and jailed (1951-53). Reha¬ bilitated in 1954, he joined the short-lived government of Nagy Imre. After Soviet troops took over the country in 1956, Kadar formed a new government with Soviet backing and quelled a popular revolt. He later convinced the Soviet Union to withdraw its troops and allow Hungary a modicum of internal independence.

Kadare, Ismail (b. Jan. 28, 1936, Gjirokaster, Alb.) Albanian novelist and poet. The son of a post-office worker, Kadare became a journalist. Unhappy with the political environment in Albania, he eventually made his home in Paris. Among his better-known works are the novels The General of the Dead Army (1963), about post-World War II Albania, and The Castle (1970), which explores Albanian nationalism. The stories in Elegy for Kosovo (1999) concern a 14th-century battle between Balkan leaders and the Ottoman Empire. He was the only Albanian writer to have an international following in the 20th century.

Kaddish Vka-dish\ Jewish doxology (hymn of praise to God) that is usually recited in Aramaic at the end of principal sections of all synagogue services. Originally recited in the rabbinical academies, it later became a regular feature of the synagogue service. The prayer expresses, in addi¬ tion to the praise of God, the plea for the speedy realization of the mes¬ sianic age. The prayer’s association with the arrival of the messiah and the resurrection of the dead led to its becoming the prayer of mourners. There are four other forms of the Kaddish used in worship services.