ouzel or ousel Vii-zolX Species ( Turdus torquatus) of songbird in the thrush family, characterized by a white crescent on the breast. A black¬ ish bird, about 10 in. (25 cm) long, it breeds locally in uplands from Britain and Norway to the Middle East. The name was formerly applied to a closely related European black¬ bird ( T. merula). The dipper is often called water ouzel.
ovarian cancer Malignant tumour of the ovaries. Risk factors include early age of first menstrua¬ tion (before age 12), late onset of menopause (after age 52), absence of pregnancy, presence of specific genetic mutations, use of fertility drugs, and personal history of breast cancer. Symptoms such as abdomi¬ nal swelling, pelvic pressure or pain, and unusual vaginal bleeding often do not appear until ovarian cancer is advanced. Surgery, sometimes fol¬ lowed by chemotherapy or radiation therapy, is an effective treatment for most ovarian cancers.
Ring-ouzel (Turdus torquatus).
DRAWING BY JOHN P. O'NEILl/EB INC.
ovary Vo-vo-reX In zoology, the female reproductive organ (see repro¬ ductive system) that produces eggs and sex hormones (estrogen and proges¬ terone). Human females have two ovaries, almond-shaped organs about 1.5 in. (4 cm) long. They contain hollow balls of cells (follicles) that hold immature eggs. About 150,000-500,000 follicles usually are present at birth; by young adulthood, only about 34,000 remain. The number con¬ tinues to decrease until menopause, when the few remaining follicles decay and the ovaries shrink and produce far less estrogen. Only 300-400 fol¬ licles mature and release an egg, which develops into an embryo if fertil¬ ized or, if not, passes from the body with menstruation. In botany, an ovary is the enlarged base of a flower’s female organ (pistil). It contains ovules, which develop into seeds when fertilized, and matures into a fruit.
over-the-counter market Trading in stocks and bonds that does not take place on stock exchanges. Such trading occurs most often in the U.S., where requirements for listing stocks on the exchanges are strict. Sched¬ ules of fees for buying and selling securities are not fixed in the over-the- counter market, and dealers derive their profits from the markup of their selling price over the price they paid. Many bond issues and preferred- stock issues, including U.S. government bonds, are listed on the New York Stock Exchange but have their chief market over-the-counter. Other U.S. government securities, as well as state and municipal bonds, are traded over-the-counter exclusively. Institutional investors such as mutual funds often trade over-the-counter because they are given volume discounts not offered on the exchanges. The regulation of the over-the-counter market is carried out largely by the National Association of Securities Dealers,
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1426 I overpopulation ► owl
created by Congress in 1939 to establish rules of conduct and protect members and investors from abuses. See also NASDAQ.
overpopulation Situation in which the number of individuals of a given species exceeds the number that its environment can sustain. Pos¬ sible consequences are environmental deterioration, impaired quality of life, and a population crash (sudden reduction in numbers caused by high mortality and failure to produce viable offspring).
overtone In acoustics, a faint higher tone contained within almost any musical tone. A body producing a musical pitch—such as a taut string or a column of air within the tubular body of a wind instrument—vibrates not only as a unit but simultaneously also in sections, resulting in the presence of a series of overtones within the fundamental tone (i.e., the one identified as the actual pitch). Harmonics are a series of overtones resulting when the partial vibrations are of equal sections (e.g., halves, thirds, fourths). Partials are nonharmonic overtones—that is, tones the frequencies of which lie outside the harmonic series. Overtones contrib¬ ute greatly to the timbre of a given sound source, even though few listen¬ ers are aware of hearing any pitch except the fundamental. There are a few rare examples of the human voice creating overtones, notably in the chants of the Tibetan monks and the songs of the Tuvan throat singers. The latter can sometimes produce two overtones.
overture Musical introduction to a larger, often dramatic, work. Origi¬ nating with Claudio Monteverdi’s Orfeo (1607), overtures served as open¬ ings for operas. The large-scale two- or three-part “French overture” invented by Jean-Baptiste Lully (1658) for his operas and ballets was widely imitated for a century. The sinfonia, the standard Italian overture form in the late 17th and 18th centuries, was a principal precursor of the three- part sonata form and thus provided the model for the earliest symphonies, which consisted of three movements. In the 19th century, overtures inde¬ pendent of any larger work usually illustrated a literary or historical theme (see symphonic poem). Overtures to operettas and musicals have tradition¬ ally been medleys of their themes.
Ovett \o-'vet\, Steve in full Stephen Michael Ovett (b. Oct. 9, 1955, Brighton, Sussex, Eng.) British runner. He was the winner of gold (in the 800-m race) and bronze medals at the 1980 Olympic Games. In the course of his career, Ovett set six world records; however, his best- known races were those that pitted him against his countryman and rival Sebastian Coe.
Ovid Va-vid\ Latin Publius Ovidius Naso (b. March 20, 43 bc, Sulmo, Roman Empire—d. ad 17, Tomis, Moesia) Roman poet. A mem¬ ber of Rome’s knightly class, Ovid dutifully started an official career but soon abandoned it for poetry. His first work, The Loves, was an imme¬ diate success. It was followed by Epistles of the Heroines', The Art of Beauty', The Art of Love, one of his best-known works; and Remedies for Love, all reflecting the sophisticated, pleasure-seeking society in which he moved. He was a well-established poet when he undertook perhaps his greatest work. Metamorphoses, on legends of transformations of human beings into nonhuman forms by gods; and Fasti (“Calendar”), an account of the Roman year and its religious festivals. His verse had immense influence because of its imaginative interpretations of classical myth and its supreme technical accomplishment. For unclear reasons, in ad 8 Augus¬ tus banished him to Tomis on the Black Sea; despite Ovid’s many pleas, he was never allowed to return. He described his life in an autobiographi¬ cal poem in Sorrows. He was extensively read and imitated in the Renais¬ sance, and his influence was felt into modern times.
Oviedo \o-'vya-tho\ ancient Asturias City (pop., 2001: 201,154), capital of Asturias, northwestern Spain. Oviedo lies on a hill surrounded by mountains and a fertile plain. Founded as a monastery in ad 757, it became the capital of the kingdom of Asturias in 810. It was one of the few Spanish towns never conquered by the Moors and contains many medieval landmarks, including a 14th-century cathedral. The cathedral was badly damaged during the Spanish Civil War. Oviedo is the centre of a mining region that produces coal and iron.
Ovimbundu \,o-vim-'bun-du\ Bantu-speaking people of central Angola. Numbering about 4 million, the Ovimbundu provided the major popular support for Jonas M. Savimbi and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). They were formerly traders; today they farm, hunt, and raise livestock. About half the 22 Ovimbundu chief- doms were tributary to a larger chiefdom before Portuguese intervention in the 20th century.
ovum See egg
Owen, Robert (b. May 14, 1771, Newtown, Montgomeryshire, Wales—d. Nov. 17, 1858, Newtown) Welsh manufacturer and philanthro¬ pist. At his New Lanark cotton mills (Lanarkshire, Scot.), in partnership with Jeremy Bentham, he set up innovative social and industrial welfare programs, including improved housing and schools for young children. In A New View of Society (1813) he contended that character is wholly formed by one’s environment. By 1817 his work had evolved into ideas presaging socialism and the cooperative movement, ideas he would spend much of his life preaching. He sponsored several experimental utopian communities of “Owenites” in Britain and the U.S., including one at New Harmony, Ind. (1825-28)—where Owen lost some 80% of his fortune— all of which proved short-lived. He strongly supported early labour unions, but opposition and repression swiftly dissolved them, and it was two generations before socialism again influenced unionism. He was the father of Robert Dale Owen.
Owen, Robert Dale (b. Nov. 9, 1801, Glasgow, Scot.—d. June 24, 1877, Lake George, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. social reformer. In 1825 he emigrated with his father, Robert Owen, to establish a community at New Harmony, Ind. He edited the local newspaper, the New Harmony Gazette, until 1827, when he became associated with Fanny Wright. The two eventually settled in New York City, where Owen edited the Free Enquirer, and both were active in the Workingmen's Party. Owen returned to New Harmony in 1832. After serving in the Indiana legislature, he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives (1843-47), where he introduced a bill estab¬ lishing the Smithsonian Institution. He later served as U.S. minister to Italy (1855-58). A strong advocate of emancipation, he urged an end to slavery in an 1861 letter to Abraham Lincoln that was said to have influenced the president greatly.
Owen, Wilfred (b. March 18, 1893, Oswetry, Shropshire, Eng.—d. Nov. 4, 1918, France) British poet. Owen was already writing verse before he enlisted in the army in 1915, but the experience of trench warfare brought him to rapid maturity; the poignant poems he wrote after Janu¬ ary 1917 are full of anger at the cruelty and waste of war and pity for its victims. A week before the armistice, he died in action at age 25. His single volume of poems, published posthumously, is noted for its experi¬ ments in assonance. Benjamin Britten’s celebrated War Requiem (1962) is a setting of Owen’s poems.
Owens, Jesse orig. James Cleveland Owens (b. Sept. 12,1913, Oakville, Ala., U.S.—d. March 31,
1980, Phoenix, Ariz.) U.S. track- and-field athlete. At Ohio State Uni¬ versity in 1935, he broke or equaled four world track records in one day, setting a new long-jump record that would stand for 25 years. In the 1936 Olympics in Berlin he won four gold medals, tying the Olympic record in the 100-m run, breaking the Olym¬ pic record in the 200-m run, running the final segment for the world- record-breaking U.S. 400-m relay team, and breaking the listed world record for the long jump. This per¬ formance by an African American dramatically foiled Adolf Hitler’s intention to use the games to show Aryan racial superiority. For a time,
Owens held alone or shared the world records for all sprint distances rec¬ ognized by the International Amateur Athletic Federation.
owl Any bird of prey in the mostly nocturnal order Strigiformes, includ¬ ing typical owls (family Strigidae) and barn, bay, and grass owls (Tytonidae). Their virtually silent flight and protective (usually brown) coloration aid in capturing insects, birds, and small mammals. Owls have round, forward-looking eyes, a sharply hooked beak, and acute hearing and vision. They are 5-28 in. (13-70 cm) long. The feathers of some spe¬ cies form a disk framing the face or ear tufts that help locate prey by reflecting sound to the ears. Owls can turn their heads 180°; some spe¬ cies can turn as much as 270°. They nest in buildings, in trees, or on the ground. Typical owls occur worldwide except in Antarctica. See also HORNED OWL; SCREECH OWL; SNOWY OWL.
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
owlet moth ► oxidation-reduction I 1427
owlet moth See miller
ox Domesticated form of large bovid (species Bos taurus ) that once moved in herds across North America and Europe (where they have dis¬ appeared) and Asia and Africa (where some still exist in the wild). The docile castrated male is used as a draft animal in many countries. Oxen are used for food in some areas. The term is also applied to a castrated male of any cattle breed. See also aurochs, yak.
oxalic \ak-'sa-lik\ acid Colourless, crystalline, toxic carboxylic acid found in many plants, especially rhubarb, wood sorrel, and spinach. Because it forms soluble chelates with iron, some of the iron in these plants is not available nutritionally. However, this property makes it useful for removing blood and rust stains, cleaning metals other than iron, and flush¬ ing car radiators. Oxalic acid and its salts (oxalates) are used in many chemical processes.
oxalis \ak-'sa-l9s\ Any of about 850 species of small herbaceous plants that make up the genus Oxalis, native mostly to southern Africa and tropical and South America. Most members are familiar garden ornamen¬ tals. The name (Greek for “acid”) reflects the plant’s sharp acidic taste. The common wood sorrel ( O. acetosella ) of eastern North America and Britain is a small, stemless plant with cloverlike three-part leaves, whose leaflets fold back and droop at night. The flowers have five white, purple- veined petals. After the fruit splits open, the fleshy coat of the seed curls back elastically, ejecting the true seed.
oxbow lake Small lake located in a former meander loop of a river or stream channel. It is generally formed as a river cuts through a meander neck to shorten its course, blocks off the old channel, and then migrates away from the lake. If only one loop is cut off, the lake is crescent-shaped; if more than one loop is cut off, the lake is serpentine (winding). Even¬ tually, oxbow lakes silt up to form marshes and finally meander scars.
Oxenstierna (af Sodermore) Vuk-sen-.sher-naV Axel (Gustafsson), Count (b. June 16, 1583, Fano, near Uppsala, Swed.—d. Aug. 28, 1654, Stockholm) Swedish statesman. Born into a noble family, he became a member of the council of state and in 1612 was appointed chancellor by Gustav II Adolf. He worked with the king to stabilize administrative reforms. As a diplomat, he negotiated peace trea¬ ties with Denmark (1613) and Poland (1622). In the Thirty Years' War, he was appointed governor-general of Prussia (1626) and military com¬ mander in Germany (1631). He directed Swedish policy in Germany until 1636, when he returned to Sweden. As a regent during Queen Christina’s minority (1636-44), he effectively ruled the country.
oxeye daisy Garden perennial plant (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum) in the composite family. The compound flower has 15-30 white ray flow¬ ers surrounding a bright yellow disk flower, about 1-2 in. (2.5-5 cm) across. It grows about 2 ft (60 cm) high and has oblong, notched leaves and long petioles (leafstalks). Native to Europe and Asia, it has become a common wild plant in the U.S. See also daisy.
Oxford ancient Oxonia City and administrative district (pop., 2001: 134,248), county seat of Oxfordshire, England. Situated on the River Thames, the town is best known for the University of Oxford. First occu¬ pied in Saxon times as a fording point, it became a burg, built to defend the northern frontier of Wessex from Danish attack; it was first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle of ad 912. Little remains of the town’s Norman period of occupation. Oxford is generally known as the “City of Spires” because of its skyline of Gothic towers and steeples. Most of these 15th-17th-century buildings belong to the university. The city was the Royalist headquarters in the English Civil Wars. Its modem economy is varied and includes, in addition to educational services, printing and pub¬ lishing industries and automobile manufacturing.
Oxford, Earl of See Robert Harley
Oxford, Edward de Vere, 17th earl of orig. Edward de Vere
(b. April 12, 1550, Castle Hedingham, Essex, Eng.—d. June 24, 1604, Newington, Middlesex) English lyric poet. A brilliantly gifted linguist and one of the most dashing figures of his time, Oxford was also reckless, hot-tempered, and disastrously spendthrift. He was the patron of an act¬ ing company, Oxford’s Men, and possibly later of the Lord Chamberlain's Men (as hereditary Lord Great Chamberlain of England), as well as of such writers as John Lyly and Edmund Spenser. He wrote highly praised poems and plays in his earlier years, though none of the plays are known to have survived. A 1920 book by J. Thomas Looney made Oxford the
leading candidate, next to William Shakespeare himself, for the authorship of Shakespeare’s plays, a theory supported by the coincidence that Oxford’s literary output apparently ceased just before Shakespeare’s work began to appear. A major difficulty in the Oxfordian theory, however, is his death date (1604), because, according to standard chronology, 14 of Shakespeare’s plays, including many of the most important ones, were apparently written after that time. The debate, however, remained lively into the 21st century.
Oxford, Provisions of (1258) Plan of reform accepted by Henry III of England. On the verge of bankruptcy, Henry asked Parliament for a grant of revenue and agreed in return to a program of reform drafted by a royal commission. Regarded as England’s first written constitution, the Provisions placed the government under the direction of the king and a 15-member baronial council, provided for Parliament to meet three times a year, and reformed local administration. They were annulled by the Dictum of Kenilworth (1266).
Oxford, University of Autonomous university at Oxford, Oxford¬ shire, England. It was founded in the 12th century and modeled on the University of Paris, with initial faculties of theology, law, medicine, and the liberal arts. Of the earliest colleges. University College was founded in 1249, Balliol c. 1263, and Merton in 1264. Early scholars of note include Roger Bacon, John Duns Scotus, William of Ockham, and John Wycliffe. In the Renaissance, Desiderius Erasmus and St. Thomas More helped enhance its already considerable reputation. By then faculties of physical science, political science, and other fields had been added. The first women’s college. Lady Margaret Hall, was established in 1878. There are 32 other colleges and collegial institutions. Oxford houses the Bodlei¬ an Library and the Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology. Oxford University Press (1478) is the world’s oldest, largest, and most famous university publisher. Oxford has been associated with many of the great¬ est names in British history.
Oxford English Dictionary, The (OED) Definitive historical dic¬ tionary of the English language. It was conceived by London’s Philologi¬ cal Society in 1857, and sustained editorial work began in 1879 under James Murray. Published in 10 volumes between 1884 and 1928, it first appeared under its current name in 1933. Its definitions are arranged mostly in order of historical occurrence and illustrated with dated quo¬ tations from English-language literature and records. Its second edition was published in 20 volumes in 1989.
Oxford movement or Praetorian movement (1833^45) Move¬ ment within the Church of England that aimed to emphasize the church’s Catholic inheritance as a source of legitimacy and deeper spirituality. Its main intent was to defend the Church of England as a divine institution against the threats of liberal theology, rationalism, and government inter¬ ference. Though some in the movement (notably John Henry Newman and Henry E. Manning) ended up converting to Catholicism, most did not. Their concern for a higher standard of worship influenced not only the Church of England but also other British Protestant sects. The movement was also instrumental in the establishment of Anglican monasteries and convents.
Oxfordshire Vaks-fsrd-.shhA Administrative (pop., 2001: 605,492) and historic county, south-central England. It consists of two upland areas divided by a broad vale. Evidence of inhabitation dates from the Paleo¬ lithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic periods. Dorchester was an important Roman settlement; subsequent Saxon settlement was concentrated along the Thames River valley. The county saw action during the English Civil Wars. Oxfordshire’s economy is basically agricultural, with sheep farm¬ ing and wool production. Cowley, a suburb of the county seat of Oxford, is the major industrial centre.
oxidation-reduction or redox Any chemical reaction in which elec¬ trons are transferred. Addition of hydrogen or electrons is reduction, and removal of hydrogen or electrons is oxidation (originally applied to com¬ bination with oxygen but now including transfer of hydrogen or electrons). The processes always occur simultaneously: one substance is oxidized by the other, which it reduces. The conditions of the substances before and after are called oxidation states, to which numbers are given and with which calculations can be made. (Valence is a similar but not identical concept.) The chemical equation that describes the electron transfer can be written as two separate half reactions that can in theory be carried out in separate compartments of an electrolytic cell (see electrolysis), with electrons flowing through a wire connecting the two. Strong oxidizing
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
1428 I oxide ► Ozma
agents include fluorine, ozone, and oxygen itself; strong reducing agents include alkali metals such as sodium and lithium.
oxide Any of a large and important class of chemical compounds in which oxygen is combined with another element. Metal oxides contain a metal cation and the oxide anion (0 2 _ ); they typically react with water to form bases or with acids to form salts. Oxides of nonmetallic elements are volatile compounds in which a covalent bond joins the oxygen and the nonmetal; they react with water to form acids or with bases to form salts. A few substances (e.g., aluminum, zinc) form amphoteric oxides, which form salts with both acids and bases. Certain organic compounds form oxides in which the oxygen is covalently bonded to an atom of nitrogen (amine oxides), phosphorus (phosphine oxides), or sulfur (sulfoxides) in the organic molecule.
oxide mineral Any naturally occurring inorganic compound with a structure based on close-packed oxygen atoms in which smaller, posi¬ tively charged metal or other ions occur. Oxide minerals are common in all rock types, whether igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic.
Oxus River See Amu Darya
oxygen Gaseous chemical element, chemical symbol O, atomic number 8. It constitutes 21% (by volume) of air and more than 46% (by weight) of Earth’s crust, where it is the most plentiful element. It is a colourless, odourless, tasteless gas, occurring as the diatomic molecule 0 2 . In respi¬ ration, it is taken up by animals and some bacteria (and by plants in the dark), which give off carbon dioxide (C0 2 ). In photosynthesis, green plants assimilate carbon dioxide in the presence of sunlight and give off oxygen. The small amount of oxygen that dissolves in water is essential for the respiration of fish and other aquatic life. Oxygen takes part in combus¬ tion and in corrosion but does not itself burn. It has valence 2 in com¬ pounds; the most important is water. It forms oxides and is part of many other molecules and functional groups, including nitrate, sulfate, phosphate, and carbonate; alcohols, aldehydes, carboxylic acids, and ketones; and per¬ oxides. Obtained for industrial use by distillation of liquefied air, oxygen is used in steelmaking and other metallurgical processes and in the chemi¬ cal industry. Medical uses include respiratory therapy, incubators, and inhaled anesthetics. Oxygen is part of all gas mixtures for manned space¬ craft, scuba divers, workers in closed environments, and hyperbaric cham¬ bers. It is also used in rocket engines as an oxidizer (in liquefied form) and in water and waste treatment processes.
oxygen process, basic See basic oxygen process
Oxyrhynchus \,ak-si-Tiq-k3s\ Archaeological site, Egypt, on the west¬ ern bank of the Nile River. Many ancient papyri dating from 250 bc to ad 700 were discovered there in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The papyri, written mainly in Greek and Latin, contain both religious texts and masterpieces of Greek classical literature. Some of these texts, once considered lost, were by Pindar and Callimachus. The modem village of Al-Bahnasa is located on the site.
Oyo empire Yoruba state in present-day southwestern Nigeria that dominated the land between the Volta and Niger rivers in 1650-1750. Two waves of immigrants probably entered the area c. ad 700-1000, and the second wave formed a state at Oyo. This state became preeminent among Yoruba states because of its good trading position, natural resources, and industrious inhabitants. Though at first less powerful than its neighbours, by the end of the 16th century its ruler, Orompoto, had used trade-derived wealth to maintain a trained army. In the 18th century Oyo subjugated the Dahomey kingdom and had begun trading with European merchants at Dahomey’s ports. Oyo’s wealth increased, but Abiodun (r. c. 1770- 90) neglected the army and the pos¬ sibilities for territorial expansion, thus weakening central authority for his successor. Soon after 1800 Oyo was captured by Fuiani Muslims from Hausaland. See also Hausa.
oyster Any bivalve of two families,
Ostreidae (true oysters) or Avicul- idae (pearl oysters), found in temper¬ ate and warm coastal waters worldwide. Both valves (halves) have a rough, often dirty-gray outer
surface and a smooth white inner lining (nacre). The lower valve, which affixes to a surface, is nearly flat. The smaller upper valve is convex and has rougher edges. The oyster filters its food, minute organic particles, from the water. Cultivated as food, oysters are regarded as a delicacy. Pearls are the accumulation of nacre around a piece of foreign matter.
oyster plant See salsify
oystercatcher Any of about seven species (genus Haematopus, fam¬ ily Haematopodidae) of stout-bodied shorebirds inhabiting temperate and tropical seacoasts and inland waters in Europe, Asia, Africa, the Western Hemisphere, and Australia. Oystercatchers are 16-20 in. (40-50 cm) long, with thick pinkish legs; long pointed wings; and a long, flattened, wedge- shaped, orange-red bill. Their plumage varies from black-and-white, including a bold white wing patch, to entirely black. They attack mol- lusks as the tide ebbs, when the shells are exposed and still partially open.
Oz, Amos orig. Amos Klausner (b. May 4, 1939, Jerusalem, Israel) Israeli novelist, short-story writer, and essayist. A second-generation Israeli, Oz lived primarily on a kibbutz from the 1950s to the 1980s. He served in the Israeli Army (1957-60, 1967, and 1973) but later became a leading advocate of peace. His symbolic works—including Where the Jackals Howl, and Other Stories (1965); My Michael (1968), perhaps his best-known novel; and Black Box (1987)—reflect the conflicts in Israeli life.
Ozal \o-'zal\, Turgut (b. Oct. 13, 1927, Malatya, Tur.—d. April 17, 1993, Ankara) Prime minister (1983-89) and president (1989-93) of Tur¬ key. After studying electrical engineering, he oversaw Turkey’s electrifi¬ cation program in the 1950s and ’60s. After working as a World Bank economist for most of the 1970s, he was elected prime minister as head of his own Motherland Party in 1983 and was reelected in 1987. In 1989 he persuaded the parliament to make him president, a traditionally non¬ political position, and used the office to claim for Turkey an important role in the Persian Gulf War (1990-91).
Ozark Mountains or Ozark Plateau Heavily forested highlands, south-central U.S. Extending southwest from St. Louis to the Arkansas River, they occupy an area of about 50,000 sq mi (130,000 sq km) in Mis¬ souri, Arkansas, Illinois, and Kansas. Many of the highest peaks exceed 2,000 ft (600 m). Tourism is one of the region’s chief industries. Lake of the Ozarks provides power and recreational facilities. The name Ozark probably derives from the French trading post, Aux Arc, established in the area in the 1700s.
Ozarks, Lake of the Lake, south-central Missouri, U.S. One of the largest man-made lakes in the U.S., it is located in the scenic Ozark Moun¬ tains. It is about 125 mi (200 km) long, with an area of 93 sq mi (242 sq km). It is formed by the Bagnell Dam in the Osage River. The area of Lake of the Ozarks State Park has recreational fishing and water sport facilities and is a popular resort destination. Nearby are several limestone caverns.
Ozawa \o-'za-w3\, Seiji (b. Sept. 1, 1935, Hoten, Manchukuo) Manchurian-born Japanese-U.S. conductor. After initial conducting expe¬ rience in Japan and study at Tanglewood in the U.S., he went to Europe to study with Herbert von Karajan. He became assistant to Leonard Bern¬ stein at the New York Philharmonic (1961-65), then held posts in Chi¬ cago (1964-68), Toronto (1965-69), and San Francisco (1970-76) before becoming music director of the Boston Symphony Orchestra in 1973 (retired 2002). Noted for his energetic style and his sweeping perfor¬ mances of 19th-century Western symphonic works, he also had a distin¬ guished opera-conducting career in Europe.
Ozick \'o-zik\, Cynthia (b. April 17, 1928, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. novelist and short-story writer. She graduated from New York University and received an M.A. from Ohio State University. She wrote often on Jewish themes, and much of her work presents a struggle with the notion that artistic creation can be a hubristic attempt to rival the Creator. Among these works are Trust (1966), Leviathan (1982), The Messiah of Stock¬ holm (1987), The Shawl (1990), and The Puttermesser Papers (1997). Her essays have been collected in Art & Ardor (1983), Metaphor & Memory (1989), and Fame & Folly (1996).
Ozma, Project Attempt in 1960 to detect radio signals generated by hypothetical intelligent beings from planets of other stars. Frank D. Drake (bom 1930), director of the search, named the project for the princess of L. Frank Baum’s imaginary Oz. The search used a special receiver attached to a radio telescope at the U.S. National Radio Astronomy Observatory
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
ozone ► Ozu I 1429
at Green Bank, W.V. Some 150 hours of occasional observation over four months detected no recognizable signals. See also Drake equation, SETI.
ozone Pale blue gas (0 3 ) that is irritating, explosive, and toxic. Like ordinary oxygen gas (0 2 ), it contains oxygen atoms, but the bonding of three atoms per molecule gives it distinctive properties. It is formed in electrical discharges and accounts for the distinctive odour of the air after thunderstorms or near electrical equipment. Usually manufactured on the spot by passing an electric discharge through oxygen or air, it is used in water purification, deodorization, bleaching, and various chemical reac¬ tions that require a strong oxidizing agent (see oxidation-reduction). Small amounts that occur naturally in the stratospheric ozone layer absorb ultra¬ violet (UV) radiation that otherwise could severely damage living organ¬ isms. Near Earth’s surface, ozone contributes to air pollution, ozone produced by auto emissions in the presence of sunlight being a deleteri¬ ous component of smog, and also accelerates the deterioration of rubber.
ozone layer or ozonosphere Region in the upper atmosphere, about 6-30 mi (10-50 km) high, with significant concentrations of ozone, formed by the effect of solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation on oxygen and also present in trace quantities elsewhere in earth’s atmosphere. Ozone strongly absorbs solar UV radiation, causing atmospheric temperature to climb to about 30°F (0°C) at the top of the layer, and preventing much of this radiation from reaching earth’s surface, where it would injure many
living things. Chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, and some other air pollut¬ ants that diffuse into the ozone layer destroy ozone. In the mid-1980s, scientists discovered that a “hole”—an area where the ozone is up to 50% thinner than normal—develops periodically in the ozone layer above Ant¬ arctica. This severe regional depletion, explained as a natural seasonal depletion, appears to have been exacerbated by the effects of CFCs, and may have led to an increase in skin cancer caused by UV exposure. Restrictions on the manufacture and use of CFCs and other ozone- destroying pollutants were imposed in 1978.
Ozu \'o-zu\ Yasujiro (b. Dec. 15, 1903, Tokyo, Japan—d. Dec. 12, 1963, Tokyo) Japanese film director. He joined the Shochiku movie stu¬ dio as a cameraman in 1923 and directed his first film three years later. He originated the genre known as shomin-geki (“common-people’s drama”), which treated lower-middle-class Japanese family life, with films such as the silent comedies I Graduated, But... (1929) and I Was Born, But... (1932) and the sound drama The Toda Brother and His Sis¬ ters (1941). His later films, noted for their detailed character portrayals, pictorial beauty, and quiet, contemplative mood, include Late Spring (1949), Tokyo Story (1953), Early Spring (1956), Late Autumn (1960), The End of Summer (1961), and An Autumn Afternoon (1962). Ozu was considered the most typically Japanese of all directors and received more honours in his own country than did any other director.
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1430 I P-47 ► Pacific Ocean
P-47 or Thunderbolt Fighter and fighter-bomber aircraft used by Allied air forces in World War II. A single-seat, single-engine monoplane, it was developed in the U.S. to meet the need for a high-speed long-range fighter. First flown in 1941, it carried eight .50-caliber machine guns, had a maximum bomb load of 2,500 lbs (1,100 kg), and could carry ten 5-in. (127-mm) rockets beneath its wings. It had a maximum speed of 440 mph (700 kph) and a ceiling of 40,000 ft (12,000 m). More P-47s (15,683) were built for the Allied air services than any other fighter.
P-51 or Mustang Fighter aircraft of World War II. A single seat, single¬ engine monoplane produced for Britain’s RAF, it went into service in 1941 and later was adopted by the U.S. Army Air Force. The original P-51 had four .50-caliber and four .30-caliber machine guns and a camera for photoreconnaissance; its maximum speed was 390 mph (630 kph). The P-5 ID, a later model, had six .50-caliber machine guns and a maximum speed of 440 mph (700 kph). A superb long-range fighter, it played a sig¬ nificant part in defeating the German Luftwaffe.
p-n junction Electric contact in transistors and related devices between two different types of material calledp-type and n-type semiconductors. These materials are pure semi¬ conductor materials, such as silicon, to which impurities have been added. Materials of p- type contain “holes”
(vacancies formerly occupied by electrons) that behave like positively charged particles, whereas n-type materials con¬ tain free electrons. Electric current flows more easily across a p-n junction in one direction than in the other. If the posi¬ tive pole of a battery is connected to the p- side of the junction, and the negative pole to the n-side, charge flows across the junction. If the battery is connected in the opposite direction, very little charge can flow. The p-n junction forms the basis for computer chips, solar cells, and other electronic devices.
Paar, Jack (b. May 1, 1918, Canton, Ohio, U.S.—d. Jan. 27, 2004, Greenwich, Conn.) U.S. television talk-show host. He worked in radio in the late 1940s before hosting his first television show. Up to Paar , in 1952. As host of the late-night talk show Tonight , renamed The Jack Paar Show (1957-62), he established the now-standard format of celebrity inter¬ views, monologues, and variety skits and was noted for his witty conver¬ sation, high-strung mannerisms, and mercurial temper. He later hosted the weekly Jack Paar Program (1962-65).
Paasikivi \'pa-si-ki-ve\, Juho Kusti (b. Nov. 27, 1870, Tampere, Fin.—d. Dec. 14,1956, Helsinki) Finnish statesman. He served in the Finn¬ ish parliament (1907-13), as minister of finance (1908-09), and as inde¬ pendent Finland’s first prime minister in 1918. After World War I, he was prominent as a banker and businessman. As minister to Sweden (1936-39), he negotiated a treaty to end the Russo- Finnish War ( 1 940). After World War II, he served as Finland’s prime minister (1944-46) and later president (1946-56). While accepting the necessity of friendly relations with the Soviet Union, he was uncompromising in his defense of Finnish indepen¬ dence and resisted the growth of communist influence in Finland.
Pabst Ypapst\, G(eorg) W(ilhelm) (b. Aug. 27, 1885, Raudnice, Bohemia, Austria-Hungary—d. May 29, 1967, Vienna, Austria) German film director. He toured Europe as an actor from age 20 and was direct¬ ing plays by 1912. He later directed films in Berlin, beginning with The Treasure (1923) and continuing with The Joyless Street (1925), Secrets of a Soul (1926), and The Love of Jeanne Ney (1927). His masterpieces, Pandora’s Box (1929) and Diary of a Lost Girl (1929), both starred Lou¬ ise Brooks. Later films include Kameradschaft (1931) and The Threepenny Opera (1931). He moved to France in 1933 and to Austria after World War II. His films were among the most artistically successful of the 1920s, marked by social and political concerns and deep psychological insight.
PAC See political action committee
pacemaker Source of rhythmic electrical impulses that trigger heart contractions. In the heart’s electrical system, impulses generated at a natu¬ ral pacemaker are conducted to the atria and ventricles. Heart surgery or certain diseases can interrupt conduction (heart block), requiring use of a temporary or permanent artificial pacemaker. A small electrode attached to an electric generator outside the body is threaded through a vein into the heart. The generator, inserted beneath the skin, produces regular pulses of electric charge to maintain the heartbeat. Permanent pacemakers can also be implanted on the heart’s surface.
Pachacamac \pa-'cha-ka-,mak\ Site of a pre-Incan city, southeast of Lima, Peru. It has remains of a temple to the god Pachacamac, a later Incan Temple of the Sun, and the ruins of the surrounding city. The earlier temple and terraced adobe pyramid date from c. 200 bc to ad 600. The city was sacked by Spanish soldiers under Francisco Pizarro c. 1523 and is now occupied by the village of La Mamacoma.
Pachelbel \pak-'el-,bel,\ English Vpa-kol-.belX, Johann (baptized Sept. 1, 1653, Niimberg—d. March 3, 1706, Niimberg) German composer and organist. Conservative musically, he was friendly with Dietrich Bux¬ tehude and was the teacher of Johann Christoph Bach, who later gave les¬ sons to his younger brother Johann Sebastian Bach. Though he wrote a huge amount of music, of which his organ chorale variations and Magnificat settings are especially remarkable, he is principally known today for a single piece, the extremely popular Canon in D Major, which he may not have written.
Pacher Vpak-orX, Michael (b. c. 1435, County of Tirol—d. August 1498, Salzburg?, Archbishopric of Salzburg) Austrian painter and sculptor. His colossal altarpiece for the Pilgrimage Church of St. Wolfgang in Upper Austria (1479-81) is a masterpiece of late Gothic painting, sculpture, and architecture. The painted panels, with their deep architectural perspective and dramatic foreshortening, indicate a knowledge of Andrea Mantegna. The sculptural portions, with their intricate detail, bright polychrome, and sweeping draperies, show his attachment to northern traditions; and the architectural elements show an extravagant version of the late Gothic style. Pacher was one of the earliest artists to introduce the principles of Renaissance painting into German-speaking regions.
Pachuca in full Pachuca de Soto City (pop., 2000: 231,602), capi¬ tal of Hidalgo state, central Mexico. Founded in 1534, it was one of the first settlements in the Viceroyalty of New Spain. It lies in a rich mining area in the Sierra Madre Oriental, roughly 8,000 ft (2,400 m) above sea level. Its silver mines date from the 16th century, when the Mexican pro¬ cess of separating silver from the ore by amalgamation with mercury was perfected there. Industries include smelting works and metallic-ore reduc¬ tion plants.
Pacific, War of the (1879-83) Conflict involving Chile, Bolivia, and Peru over disputed territory on the mineral-rich Pacific coast. National boundaries in the region were not definitively established prior to the conflict, and in the 1870s Chile controlled nitrate fields claimed by Peru and Bolivia. When demand for nitrates rose, war broke out over the ter¬ ritory. Chile defeated both countries and took control of valuable mining areas in each; Bolivia lost its entire Pacific coast. A 1904 treaty gave Bolivia freedom of transit through Chilean territory, but Bolivia contin¬ ued to try to escape its landlocked status (see Chaco War). Peru foun¬ dered economically for decades after the war. A final accord between Peru and Chile was reached only in 1929 through U.S. mediation.
Pacific Coast Ranges See Coast Ranges
Pacific Islands, Trust Territory of the Former United Nations trust¬ eeship, administered by the U.S. from 1947 to 1986. It consisted of more than 2,000 islands scattered over about 3,000,000 sq mi (7,770,000 sq km) of the tropical western Pacific Ocean, north of the Equator. It cov¬ ered the region known as Micronesia and comprised three major island groups: the Marianas, the Carolines, and the Marshalls. The seat of gov¬ ernment was Saipan in the Northern Mariana Islands. In 1986 the U.S. declared the trust territory agreements no longer in effect. The Federated States of Micronesia and the Republic of the Marshall Islands became sovereign states, and the Northern Mariana Islands became a common¬ wealth of the U.S. The Republic of Palau became a sovereign state in
Pacific Ocean Body of salt water extending from the Antarctic region in the south to the Arctic circle in the north and lying between the con¬ tinents of Asia and Australia on the west and North and South America on the east. It occupies about one-third of the surface of the earth and is by far the largest of the world’s oceans. Its area, excluding adjacent seas, is approximately 63,800,000 sq mi (165,250,000 sq km), twice that of the Atlantic Ocean and more than the whole land area of the globe. Its mean depth is 14,040 ft (4,280 m). The western Pacific is noted for its many peripheral seas.
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Pacific Security Treaty ► Pagan I 1431
Pacific Security Treaty See ANZUS Pact Pacification of Ghent See Pacification of Ghent
pacifism Vpa-so-.fi-zomN The doctrine that war and violence as a means of settling disputes is morally wrong. The first genuinely pacifist move¬ ment was Buddhism, whose founder demanded from his followers absolute abstention from any act of violence against their fellow creatures. The ancient Greek conception of pacifism applied to individual conduct rather than to the actions of peoples or kingdoms. The Romans conceived of pax, or peace, as a covenant between states or kingdoms that creates a “just” situation based on mutual recognition. This judicial approach was applicable only to the “civilized world,” however. Though the spoken words of Jesus as recorded in the New Testament could be interpreted as a kind of pacifism (and in fact were so interpreted by many of his early followers), from the early 3rd century through the Middle Ages the Chris¬ tian church itself held that armies were necessary to combat nonbeliev¬ ers or demons. In the 17th and 18th centuries, much pacifist thinking was based on the idea that transferring power from sovereigns to the people would result in peace, because, it was claimed, wars were a product of sovereigns’ ambitions and pride. In the 19th and 20th centuries, pacifism inspired widespread interest in general disarmament and in the creation of international organizations for the peaceful resolution of disputes, such as the League of Nations and the United Nations. Pacifism as a national policy, rather than as a standard of individual conduct, has yet to satis¬ factorily address the problem of an aggressor that does not possess simi¬ lar moral scruples. Individual pacifism may lead one to become a conscientious objector. Historically important pacifists include Leo Tolstoy, Mohandas K. Gandhi, and Martin Luther King, Jr.
Pacino Xps-'che-noV Al(fredo James) (b. April 25, 1940, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. actor. He began his career as a stage actor, winning Tony Awards for Does a Tiger Wear a Necktie? (1969) and later for The Basic Training of Pavlo Hummel (1977). He played Michael Corleone in The Godfather (1972) and its sequels (1974, 1990). Known for his intense, explosive acting style, he also starred in Serpico (1973), Dog Day After¬ noon (1975), And Justice for All (1979), Scarface (1983), Scent of a Woman (1992, Academy Award), and Insomnia (2002).
pack rat See wood rat
Pact of Paris See Kellogg-Briand Pact
paddle tennis Game like tennis that is played with a rectangular paddle and a slow-bouncing rubber ball on a small court. Frank P. Beal introduced it on New York playgrounds in the early 1920s. National cham¬ pionship tournaments are still held in the U.S. See also platform tennis.
paddlefish Either of two species (family Polyodontidae) of archaic freshwater fishes with a paddlelike snout, wide mouth, smooth skin, and cartilaginous skeleton. It feeds with mouth gaping open, gill rakers strain¬ ing plankton from the water. The American paddlefish, or spoonbill ( Poly- odon spathula ), is greenish or gray and averages 40 lbs (18 kg); it lives in the open waters of the Mississippi basin. The other known species (Psephurus gladius ), inhabits the Chang (Yangtze) River basin. The flesh of both species resembles catfish; the roe can be made into caviar.
Paderewski \,pa-d9-'ref-ske\, Ignacy (Jan) (b. Nov. 18, 1860, Kurytowka, Podolia province, Russian Poland—d. June 29, 1941, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Polish pianist, composer, and statesman. After teaching at the Warsaw Conservatory (1878—83), when he wrote most of the pieces for which he is remembered (including Minuet in G ), he studied with The¬ odor Leschetizky in Vienna from 1884. His U.S. debut at Carnegie Hall (1891) was followed by a 117-concert North American tour, during which his pianism and dashingly Romantic image brought him a wild popular¬ ity. During World War I he worked for Polish independence; in 1919 he served briefly as the first premier of the new state, representing it at the Paris Peace Conference.
Padre Vpa-dre, 'pa-dra\ Island Barrier island, southern Texas, U.S. It is 113 mi (182 km) long and up to 3 mi (5 km) wide, lying along the Gulf Coast of Texas. It extends south from Corpus Christi to Port Isabel and is separated from the mainland by Laguna Madre. It contains a recreational preserve with a large variety of birdlife, excellent fishing, and a broad beach.
Padua Vpa-dyu-w9\ Italian Padova Vpa-do-va\ ancient Patavium City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 203,350), northern Italy. Legend holds that it was founded by the Trojan hero Antenor. First mentioned in 302 bc, it
prospered as a Roman city and was under Lombard rule in the 7th-8th centuries. A leading Italian commune in the 11th—13th centuries, control of Padua then passed to Venice from 1405 to 1797. Under Austrian rule (1815-66) the city was active in the Risorgimento (movement for Italian independence). Padua was heavily bombed in World War II but was rebuilt. Its historic buildings contain works by many artists, including Giotto, Titian, Donatello, and Mantegna. The University of Padua (1222), the second oldest in Italy (after Bologna), had Galileo among its teachers and Dante, Petrarch, and Tasso among its students. Padua’s botanical gar¬ den (1545) is the oldest in Europe. The city is now a commercial and industrial centre.
Paekche \'pak-,ch3\ One of three kingdoms into which Korea was divided before ad 660. It is traditionally said to have been founded in 18 bc by the legendary leader Onjo. In the 3rd century ad Paekche emerged as a fully developed kingdom, and by the 4th century it had extended its territory from the southwestern tip of the Korean peninsula to the whole Han River basin in central Korea. By then it was a centralized aristocratic state. Confucianism and Buddhism flourished, and Paekche’s visual arts revealed technical maturity and warm human qualities. In the 5th century it was pushed back south by the northern Korean kingdom of Koguryo, and in 660 it fell to an alliance of the southern Korean state of Silla and the Tang-dynasty China.
Paeonia \pe-'o-ne-o\ Ancient land, in what is now northern Greece, the Republic of Macedonia, and western Bulgaria. Paeonia originally included the whole Vardar River valley. The Paeonians were weakened by the Persian invasion of 490 bc, and the tribes living along the Stry- mon River fell under Thracian control. The growth of ancient Macedonia forced the remaining tribes north, and they were defeated by Philip II in 358 bc. It became part of the Roman province of Macedonia; by ad 400 the Paeonians had lost their identity and Paeonia was merely a geographic term.
Paestum Vpes-tom, 'pes-tomX Ancient city, southern Italy. Located on the Gulf of Salerno (the ancient Bay of Paestum), the city was founded in the 6th century bc by Greek colonists from Sybaris, who called it Posei- donia. It was taken by the Lucanians, an indigenous Italic people, in the 4th century bc. They ruled until 273 bc, when the city was captured by the Romans. Deserted after its sack by Muslim raiders in ad 871, the aban¬ doned site’s remains were discov¬ ered in the 18th century. It is known for its three Doric temples and its The Temple of Athena at Paestum city walls of travertine blocks. aunari/artresource, newvork
pagan Traditional designation of a
practitioner of classical polytheisms. The early Christians often used the term to refer to non-Christians who worshiped multiple deities. Christian missionaries frequently sought to stamp out pagan practices by building churches on the sites of pagan shrines or by associating Christian holi¬ days with pagan rituals (e.g., linking Christmas with the celebration of the winter solstice). The term pagan was also used to refer to non-Christian philosophers, and in the 20th century it was used to identify members of certain new religious movements. See Neo-paganism.
Pagan \ps-'gan\ Village, central Myanmar (Burma). Extending along the left bank of the Irrawaddy River, southwest of Mandalay, it was founded c. ad 849 and was the capi¬ tal of a powerful dynasty from the 11th to the 13th century. It was con¬ quered by the Mongols in 1287. As a centre of Buddhist learning, it is a pilgrimage destination and contains Buddhist shrines that have been restored and redecorated and are in current use. Ruins of other shrines
The Ananda temple, Pagan; its top portion, a restoration, was broken off in an earthquake in 1975
VAN BUCHER-PHOTO RESEARCHERS
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1432 I Paganini ► Paige
and pagodas cover a wide area. An earthquake in 1975 severely damaged more than half of the important structures and irreparably destroyed many of them. The village also has a school for lacquerware, for which the region is noted.
Paganini \,pa-g3-'ne-ne\, Niccolo (b. Oct. 27, 1782, Genoa, Repub¬ lic of Genoa—d. May 27, 1840,
Nice, France) Italian violinist and composer. A prodigy, he joined an orchestra by age nine. He toured Italy (1810-28), renowned as its greatest violin virtuoso. His long- deferred international tour (1830—
34) met with sensational success.
Paganini’s romantic personality and adventures created in his own day the legend of a Mephistophelean fig¬ ure. He greatly extended violin tech¬ nique, employing a wide use of harmonics, pizzicato effects, and new methods of fingering and even of tuning. His numerous composi¬ tions include 24 Caprices (1801-07) for solo violin, displaying the novel features of his technique, and six violin concertos.
Page, Alan (Cedric) (b. Aug. 7,
1945, Canton, Ohio, U.S.) U.S. grid¬ iron football player. He was an All- America defensive end for Notre Dame. Playing tackle for the Minnesota Vikings (1967-78), he became part of its legendary “Purple People Eat¬ ers” front line. In 1971 he became the first defensive player to win the NFL’s Most Valuable Player award. He earned a law degree in 1978 and continued playing with the Chicago Bears (to 1981) while engaging in private practice. He never missed a game in his 15-year career. In 1993 he was named to the Minnesota Supreme Court.
Page, Geraldine (b. Nov. 22, 1924, Kirksville, Mo., U.S.—d. June 13, 1987, New York, N.Y.) U.S. actress. She studied drama in Chicago and New York and won fame on Broadway as Alma Winemiller in Sum¬ mer and Smoke (1952; film, 1961). Noted for her intuitiveness and cre¬ ativity in capturing her often vulnerable, eccentric characters, she starred in The Rainmaker (1954-55), Separate Tables (1957-58), Strange Inter¬ lude (1963), and Agnes of God (1982). Her films include Hondo (1953), Sweet Bird of Youth (1962), and The Trip to Bountiful (1985, Academy Award). She won Emmy Awards for A Christmas Memory (1966) and The Thanksgiving Visitor (1968).
pageant \'pa-jont\ Large-scale, spectacular theatrical production or pro¬ cession. In the Middle Ages, a pageant was the wagon on which religious m plays such as mystery plays were performed. Because the plays were asso¬
ciated with ceremony and spectacle, the term came to refer to any extrava¬ gant dramatic event or colourful celebration. Pageants often serve to express the shared identity of a community or religious group. Secular pageants include coronations and royal weddings; other modern examples are seen in Mardi Gras and other carnival processions.
Paget Vpa-jotX, Sir James (b. Jan. 11, 1814, Great Yarmouth, Nor¬ folk, Eng.—d. Dec. 30, 1899, London) British surgeon and physiologist. In 1834 he discovered the parasite that causes trichinosis. He gave excel¬ lent descriptions of breast cancer, Paget disease of breast (an inflamma¬ tory cancerous condition around the nipple), and Paget disease of bone (1877). He was one of the first to recommend surgical removal of bone marrow tumours instead of amputation of the limb.
Paget disease of bone or osteitis \ l as-te-'it-os\ deformans Chronic bone disease of middle age. Named for James Paget, it is char¬ acterized by excessive bone destruction alternating with disordered bone construction (with dense, brittle bones and deformity that can compress internal structures). The long bones, vertebrae, pelvis, and skull are most often affected, more often in men. The risk of cancer, usually osteosar¬ coma, is high. Increased blood supply to the area of bone destruction may lead to heart or circulatory problems. Calcitonin (which regulates bone growth) and bisphosphonates (which block excessive bone breakdown) are drugs of treatment.
Pago Pago Npaq-o-'paq-o, 'pa-go-'pa-gcA Town and agglomeration of towns (pop., 2000: 4,278) that form the capital of American Samoa. Located on the shore of a deep inlet on the southern side of Tutuila Island in the South Pacific Ocean, it was selected in 1872 as the site of a U.S. Navy coaling station. An active naval base until 1951, it is now a regular port of call. Its airport, opened in 1964, has stimulated tourist traffic and modernization.
pagoda Towerlike, multistoried structure of stone, brick, or wood, usu¬ ally associated with a Buddhist temple complex and enshrining sacred relics. The pagoda evolved from the Indian stupa. The pagoda’s crowning ornament is bottle-shaped in Tibet and pyramidal or conical in Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos. In China, Korea, and Japan, a pagoda is a tall tower repeating a basic story unit in diminishing pro¬ portions. The stories may be circular, square, or polygonal. The pagoda form is intended mainly as a monu¬ ment and has very little usable inte¬ rior space.
Pahang \pa-'haq\ River River,
Malaysia, the longest on the Malay Peninsula. It rises in the Main Range and flows south and east to the South China Sea. It is 285 mi (459 km) long and navigable by boats for most of its length. Deforestation in the riv¬ er’s basin has led to heavy flooding during the monsoon season.
Pahari painting \po-'ha-re\ or Hill painting Style of miniature painting and book illustration that developed in the independent states of the Himalayan foothills in India c.
1690-1790. Combining the bold intensity of the Basohli school with the delicacy and lyricism of the Kangra school, Pahari painting is closely related to Rajasthani painting. It shares with the Rajput art of the north¬ ern Indian plains a preference for depicting legends of the cowherd god Krishna.
Pahlavi Vpa-b-.veV Mohammad Reza Shah (b. Oct. 26, 1919, Tehran, Iran—d. July 27, 1980, Cairo, Egypt) Shah of Iran (1941—79), noted for his pro-Western orientation and autocratic rule. After an edu¬ cation in Switzerland, he replaced his father, Reza Shah Pahlavi, as ruler when the latter was forced into exile by the British. His rule was marked by a power struggle with his premier, Mohammad Mosaddeq, who briefly succeeded in deposing him in 1953; covert intervention by British and U.S. intelligence services returned him to the throne the next year. His program of rapid modernization and oil-field development initially brought him popular support, but his autocratic style and suppression of dissent, along with corruption and the unequal distribution of Iran’s new oil wealth, increased opposition led by exiled cleric Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. In 1979 Pahlavi was forced into exile.
Pahlavi, Reza Shah (b. March 16, 1878, Alasht, Qajar Iran—d. July 26, 1944, Johannesburg, S.Af.) Shah of Iran (1926—41). An army officer, he rose through the ranks and in 1921 led a coup that overthrew the Qajar dynasty. He sought to bring order and end Iran’s political chaos and its domination by Britain and Soviet Russia following World War I (1914— 18). He constructed roads, schools, and hospitals, opened a university, and built the Trans-Iranian Railway. He emancipated women, nationalized several economic sectors, and reduced the clergy’s power. He often used repressive methods, which eventually cost him his popularity. During World War II (1939—45), fearing that Pahlavi might side with Germany, the U.S. and Britain occupied Iran. The Allies forced him to abdicate (1941) in favour of his son, Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi.
Pai River See Bai River
Paige, Satchel orig. Leroy Robert Paige (b. July 7, 1906?, Mobile, Ala., U.S.—d. June 8, 1982, Kansas City, Mo.) U.S. baseball
Paganini, etching by Luigi Calamatta after a drawing by J.-A.-D. Ingres,
1818
THE GRANGER COliECTION, NEW YORK CITY
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Paijanne ► painted turtle I 1433
pitcher. Paige earned legendary fame during his many years pitching in the Negro leagues for a myriad of teams that included the Birmingham Black Barons, the Pittsburgh Crawfords, the Kansas City Monarchs, and the New York Black Yankees. He also barnstormed in exhibition games and played in the Caribbean during the off season. He was about 42 years old when he was finally allowed to enter the major leagues in 1948, shortly after Jackie Robinson broke baseball’s race barrier. Joining the Cleveland Indians—the oldest player to make his debut in the major leagues—he helped that team win the World Series in his first season.
He retired after the 1953 season. A right-handed, loose-jointed “bean¬ pole,” standing 6 ft 4 in. (1.93 m),
Paige had considerable pitching speed and a comprehensive mastery of slow-breaking deliveries. He is reputed to have won 2,000 of a total of 2,500 games pitched during his nearly 30-year career. Among Paige’s many oft-quoted comments is the admonition “Don’t look back, something might be gaining on you.”
Paijanne Vpa-,ya-ne\, Lake Lake, southern Finland. It is 75 mi (121 km) long and 14 mi (23 km) wide. The lake contains thousands of islands. The lake system is drained southward to the Gulf of Finland by the Kymi River. The irregular shoreline is heavily forested and supports important timber operations that use the lake for transport. There are numerous vil¬ lages along the lakeshore and many private villas at the southern end of the lake.
Paik Vpak, 'plk\, Nam June (b. July 20, 1932, Seoul, Korea) Korean- born U.S. sculptor and video and performance artist. He studied music at the Universities of Tokyo and Munich and came to the U.S. in 1964. Inspired by Joseph Beuys and John Cage, he joined the Fluxus group. He is considered the father of video art. His sophisticated video displays, such as TV Buddha (1974), an installation with a Buddha contemplating him¬ self on television, were seen as uniquely appropriate to the Information Age, in which fascination with electronic media has replaced spirituality. Prolific in many media, he was honoured with many major retrospectives in the late 20th century.
pain Physical suffering associated with a bodily disorder (such as a dis¬ ease or injury) and accompanied by mental or emotional distress. Pain, in its simplest form, is a warning mechanism that helps protect an organ¬ ism by influencing it to withdraw from harmful stimuli (such as a pin¬ prick). In its more complex form, such as in the case of a chronic condition accompanied by depression or anxiety, it can be difficult to isolate and treat. Pain receptors, found in the skin and other tissues, are nerve fibres that react to mechanical, thermal, and chemical stimuli. Pain impulses enter the spinal cord and are transmitted to the brain stem and thalamus. The perception of pain is highly variable among individuals; it is influ¬ enced by previous experiences, cultural attitudes (including gender ste¬ reotypes), and genetic makeup. Medication, rest, and emotional support are the standard treatments. The most potent pain-relieving drugs are opium and morphine, followed by less-addictive substances and non-narcotic ANALGESICS Such as ASPIRIN and IBUPROFEN.
Paine, Robert Treat (b. March 11, 1731, Boston, Mass.—d. May 11, 1814, Boston, Mass., U.S.) U.S. jurist. A lawyer in his native Boston from 1757, he gained recognition as a prosecuting attorney in the murder trial of the British soldiers involved in the Boston Massacre. He was a mem¬ ber of the Continental Congress and a signer of the Declaration of Inde¬ pendence. He also served as Massachusetts’ first attorney general (1777— 90) and as a judge in the state supreme court (1790-1804).
Paine, Thomas (b. Jan. 29, 1737, Thetford, Norfolk, Eng.—d. June 8, 1809, New York, N.Y., U.S.) English-American writer and political pam- pleteer. After a series of professional failures in England, he met Benjamin Franklin, who advised him to immigrate to America. He arrived in Phila¬ delphia in 1774 and helped edit the Pennsylvania Magazine. In January 1776 he wrote Common Sense, a 50-page pamphlet eloquently advocat¬
ing independence; more than 500,000 copies were quickly sold, and it greatly strengthened the colo¬ nists’ resolve. As a volunteer aide to Gen. Nathanael Greene during the American Revolution he wrote his 16 “Crisis” papers (1776-83), each signed “Common Sense”; the first, beginning “These are the times that try men’s souls,” was read to the troops at Valley Forge on George Washington’s order. In 1787 Paine traveled to England and became involved in debate over the French Revolution; his The Rights of Man (1791-92) defended the revolution and espoused republicanism. Viewed as an attack on the monarchy, it was banned, and Paine was declared an outlaw in England. He then went to France, where he was elected to the National Convention (1792-93).
After he criticized the Reign of Ter¬ ror, he was imprisoned by Maximiuen Robespierre (1793-94). His The Age of Reason (1794, 1796), the first part of which was published while he was still in prison, earned him a reputation as an atheist, though it in fact espouses Deism. He returned to the U.S. in 1802; criticized for his Deist writings and little remembered for his service to the Revolution, he died in poverty.
Thomas Paine, detail of a portrait by John Wesley Jarvis; in the Thomas Paine Memorial House, New Rochelle, N.Y.
paint Decorative and protective coating commonly applied to rigid sur¬ faces as a liquid consisting of a pigment suspended in a vehicle, or binder. The vehicle, usually a resin dissolved in a solvent, dries to a tough film, binding the pigment to the surface. Paint was used for pictorial and deco¬ rative purposes in the caves of France and Spain as early as 15,000 bc.
paintbrush See Indian paintbrush
Painted Desert Region, north-central Arizona, U.S. It stretches about 150 mi (240 km) from the Grand Canyon to Petrified Forest National Park and has an area of about 7,500 sq mi (19,425 sq km). The name was first used in 1858 by a government explorer to describe the area’s brilliantly coloured rock surfaces, exposed by erosion. A large part of the desert lies within Navajo and Hopi Indian reservations. The Navajo peoples use the various sands for their ceremonial sand paintings.
painted lady Either of two spe¬ cies of butterflies in the genus Van¬ essa (family Nymphalidae): V. cardui of Africa and Europe or V. vir- giniensis of North and Central America. They have broad, elabo¬ rately patterned wings of reddish orange, brown, white, and blue. In spring, vast numbers of V. cardui travel thousands of miles across the Mediterranean from Africa to Europe. A few members of the sub¬ sequent generation travel south in late summer, but most perish in the northern winter. North American painted ladies travel in spring from northwestern Mexico to the Mojave Desert and sometimes as far as Canada. Their larvae eat plants in the aster family; V. cardui larvae eat thistles and stinging nettles.
American painted lady (Vanessa vir¬ gin iensis)
E.S. ROSS
Painted turtle (Chrysemys picta)
LEONARD LEE RUE III-THE NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCIETY COLLECTION/PHOTO RESEARCHERS
painted turtle Species ( Chryse¬ mys picta, family Emydidae) of brightly marked North American turtle found from southern Canada to northern Mexico. It has a smooth shell, 4-7 in. (10-18 cm) long, with
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
1434 I Painter ► Pakistan
red and yellow markings on its relatively flat, black or greenish brown upper shell. It usually lives in quiet, shallow bodies of fresh water, espe¬ cially those with thickly planted mud bottoms, feeding on plants, small animals, and some carrion. It often basks in large groups on logs and other objects. In many areas it hibernates.
Painter, Theophilus Shickel (b. Aug. 22,1889, Salem, Va., U.S.—d. Oct. 5, 1969, Fort Stockton, Texas) U.S. zoologist and cell biologist. He received his Ph.D. from Yale in 1913. He was the first to show that the unusually large chromosomes in the salivary glands of Drosophila were particularly well suited for studies of genes and chromosomes. In the early 1930s he published a drawing of a section of a Drosophila chromosome showing more than 150 bands, which for the first time allowed the pre¬ cise positions of genes to be determined.
painting Art consisting of representational, imaginative, or abstract designs produced by application of coloured paints to a two-dimensional, prepared, flat surface. The elements of design (i.e., line, colour, tone, tex¬ ture) are used in various ways to produce sensations of volume, space, movement, and light. The range of media (e.g., tempera, fresco, oil, water¬ colour, ink, gouache, encaustic, casein) and the choice of a particular form (e.g., mural, easel, panel, miniature, illuminated manuscript, scroll, screen, fan) combine to realize a unique visual image. Painting as an art form dates back to prehistoric cave paintings. The early cultural traditions of tribes, religions, guilds, royal courts, and states controlled the craft, form, imagery, and subject matter of painting and determined its function (e.g., ritualistic, devotional, decorative). Painters were considered skilled arti¬ sans rather than creative artists until eventually, in East Asia and Renais¬ sance Europe, the fine artist emerged with the social status of a scholar and courtier. Fine artists signed their work and decided its design and often its subject and imagery. Over time painters have increasingly gained the freedom to invent their own visual language and to experiment with new forms and unconventional materials and techniques. In the early 20th century painters began to experiment with nonrepresentational art in which formal qualities such as line, colour, and form were explored rather than subject matter. Throughout the century styles vacillated between representational and nonrepresentational painting. In the late 20th century some critics forecast the “death of painting” in the face of new media such as video and intallation art, yet talented new artists repeatedly brought painting back to the centre of artistic production.
pair production Formation of an electron and a positron from high- energy electromagnetic radiation traveling through matter, usually in the vicinity of an atomic nucleus. It is a direct conversion of radiant energy into matter in accordance with the equation E = me 2 , where E is the amount of energy, m is the mass, and c is the speed of light. It is one of the principal ways in which high-energy gamma rays are absorbed in mat¬ ter. The positrons quickly disappear by being reconverted into photons in the process of annihilation with other electrons. Pair production may sometimes refer to the formation of other particle/antiparticle pairs as well.
Paisiello X.pa-ez-'ye-loV, Giovanni (b. May 9, 1740, Taranto, King¬ dom of Naples—d. June 5, 1816, Naples) Italian composer. Trained in Naples, he served the Russian empress Catherine II as chapel master in St. Petersburg (1776-84), where he wrote many short operas. He had his first operatic success in Vienna in 1784 then returned to Naples to become dramatic composer to Ferdinand IV. In 1802 Paisiello was invited by Napoleon to work in Paris, but after two years he returned to Naples, where, despite changes in regime, he retained his court post until 1815. He composed more than 80 operas, including a very popular Barber of Seville (1782).
Paisley, Ian (Richard Kyle) (b. April 6, 1926, Armagh, County Armagh, N.Ire.) Protestant leader in Northern Ireland. After being ordained in the Reformed Presbyterian church (1946), he cofounded a new sect, the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster (1951), which soon grew to more than 30 churches. In the 1960s he became the voice of extreme Protestant opin¬ ion in the sectarian strife of Northern Ireland, opposed to any concessions to the Catholics. He led demonstrations throughout Northern Ireland and was repeatedly imprisoned for unlawful assembly. Elected to the House of Commons in 1970, he cofounded the Democratic Unionist Party in 1971 and also organized a paramilitary group of Protestant fighters called the Third Force. In 1998 he opposed the Good Friday Agreement, which called for power sharing between Roman Catholics and Protestants. He won a seat in the new Northern Ireland Assembly that the accord established, though
he continued to refuse to participate in negotiations with Sinn Fein, the political wing of the Irish Republican Army.
Paiute \'pl-,yut\ Either of two distinct American Indian groups living mostly in California, Nevada, Arizona, and Utah, U.S. Their languages belong to the Numic branch of the Uto-Aztecan family. Their name for themselves is Numa. The Southern Paiute occupied southern Utah, north¬ western Arizona, southern Nevada, and southwestern California. The Northern Paiute occupied east-central California, western Nevada, and eastern Oregon. Both groups were primarily food collectors who subsisted on wild plant foods supplemented by small game. They occupied tempo¬ rary brush shelters, used rabbit-skin clothing, and made baskets for food gathering. They were organized in loosely knit bands. Most Paiute were directed onto reservations in the 19th century; they number some 13,500. See also Ute; Wovoka.
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Pakistan officially Islamic Republic of Pakistan Country, south¬ ern Asia. Area: 307,374 sq mi (796,096 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 153,960,000. Capital: Islamabad. The population is a complex mix of
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
ARABIAN SEA
PAKISTAN
indigenous peoples who have been affected by successive waves of migrations of Ary¬ ans, Persians, Greeks, Pashtuns, Mughals, and Arabs. Languages: Urdu (official), Pun¬ jabi, Pashto, Sindhi, Balochi. Religions:
Islam (official; predominantly Sunni); also Christianity, Hinduism. Cur¬ rency: Pakistan rupee. Pakistan may be divided into four regions: the northern mountains, the Balochistan Plateau, the Indus Plain, and the desert areas. The Himalayan and Trans-Himalayan ranges form the great mountain areas of the northernmost part of the country; some of the high¬ est peaks are K2 and Nanga Parbat. The country has a developing mixed economy based largely on agriculture, light industries, and services. Remittances from Pakistanis working abroad are a major source of foreign exchange. Pakistan is a military-backed constitutional regime with two legislative houses; its chief of state is the president, assisted by the prime minister. The area has been inhabited since the 3rd millennium bc. From the 3rd century bc to the 2nd century ad, it was part of the Mauryan and Kushan kingdoms. The first Muslim conquests were in the 8th century ad. The British East India Co. subdued the reigning Mughal dynasty in 1757. During the period of British colonial rule, what is now (Muslim) Pakistan was part of (Hindu) India. The new state of Pakistan came into existence in 1947 by act of the British Parliament. The Kashmir region remained a disputed territory between Pakistan and India, with tensions resulting in military clashes and full-scale war in 1965. Civil war between East and West Pakistan in 1971 resulted in independence for Bangladesh (formerly East Pakistan) in 1972. Many Afghan refugees migrated to Pakistan dur¬ ing the Soviet-Afghan war in the 1980s and remained there during the Tal-
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
Pala bronze ► Paleocene Epoch I 1435
iban and post-Taliban periods. Pakistan elected Benazir Bhutto, the first woman to head a modern Islamic state, in 1988. She and her party were ousted in 1990, but she returned to power in 1993-97. Conditions became volatile during that period. Border flare-ups with India continued, and Pakistan conducted tests of nuclear weapons. Political conditions wors¬ ened, and the army carried out a coup in 1999.
Pala bronze See Eastern Indian bronze
palace Royal residence, and sometimes a seat of government or a reli¬ gious centre. The word derives from Rome’s Palatine Hill, where the emperors built their residences. The earliest known palaces are those of the Egyptian kings at Thebes, with an outer wall enclosing a labyrinth of rooms and courtyards. Other ancient cultures also built vast palaces (e.g., the Assyrian palaces at Nimrud, Khorsabad, and Nineveh; the Minoan palace at Knossos; and the Persian palaces at Persepolis and Susa). In Rome and Constantinople, palaces reached their peak as centres of power. In Western Europe after the Middle Ages, palaces tended to be single buildings. In Renaissance Italy every prince had his royal palace, usually with an internal court surrounded by an arcade. The court of the Pitti Pal¬ ace in Florence (1560) is an important example of Mannerist architecture. French palaces include the Louvre and Versailles; Spanish palaces include El Escorial and the Alhambra. In contrast to the typical Western format, East Asian palaces, such as the imperial palaces of Japan and those in Beijing’s Forbidden City, consist of many buildings (in these cases, low pavilions mostly of highly decorated wood construction) within vast walled gardens.
Palacky \'pa-lats-ke\, Frantisek (b. June 14, 1798, Hodslavice, Mora¬ via, Austrian Empire—d. May 26, 1876, Prague, Bohemia, Austria- Hungary) Czech historian and politician. His History of Bohemia (5 vol., 1836-67) made him the founder of modern Czech historiography. Sup¬ porting the concept of a federal Austria composed of nationalities with equal rights, he was chairman of the 1848 Prague Slavic congress to pro¬ mote Pan-Slavism. He was a deputy in the Austrian assembly from 1861. His ideas of liberal nationalism later strongly influenced Tomas Masaryk.
Palamas N.pa-la-'masX, Saint Gregory (b. Nov. 11/14, 1296, Constantinople—d. 1359, Thessalonica, Byzantine Empire) Eastern Orthodox priest. From 1332 he was the chief defender of the school of mysticism known as Hesychasm, which integrated repetitive prayer with bodily postures and controlled breathing. His Apology for the Holy Hesy- chasts (1338) is a justification for mystical experience that involves both soul and body; his Book of Holiness (1344) is the fundamental textbook of Byzantine mysticism. He was made bishop of Thessalonica in 1347, and in 1368 he was acclaimed a saint and named Father and Doctor of the Orthodox church.
palate \'pa-lst\ Roof of the mouth, separating the oral and nasal cavi¬ ties. The front two-thirds, the hard palate, is a plate of bone covered by mucous membrane. It gives the tongue a surface against which to make speech sounds and shape food during chewing and keeps pressures in the mouth from closing off the nasal passage. The flexible soft palate behind it is made of muscle and connective tissue and ends in the uvula, a fleshy projection. It rises to block the nasal cavity (see nose) and upper pharynx off from the mouth and lower pharynx for swallowing or to create a vacuum for drinking. Cleft palate, a congenital disorder involving a gap in the palate, can be corrected surgically.
Palatinate \p3-'la-t 3 n-3t\ German Pfalz \'pfalts\ Historical region, now part of Germany. The region was once under the jurisdiction of the counts palatine (secular princes), who in the 14th century became electors of the Holy Roman Empire. In the 16th and 17th centuries the Palatinate was a stronghold of Protestantism. It was divided into two parts: the Lower, or Rhenish, Palatinate, on both sides of the Rhine River in the area south of the Main River; and the Upper Palatinate, in northern Bavaria around Amberg and Regensburg. The boundaries of the Palatinate varied with the political and dynastic fortunes of the counts palatine.
Palau \p3-'lau\ officially Republic of Palau Island country, western Pacific Ocean. Area: 188 sq mi (488 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 21,100. Capital: Koror (acting); scheduled to move to the island of Babelthuap in 2006. The population is of mixed Malay, Melanesian, Fili¬ pino, and Polynesian ancestry. Languages: Palauan, Sonsorolese-Tobian, English (all official). Religion: Christianity (mostly Roman Catholic; also Protestant, other Christians). Currency: U.S. dollar. The islands of the Palau group are fertile, with mangrove swamps along the coasts, backed
by savanna and palms rising to rainforests in the hills. The major source of employment is government service. Subsistence farming and fishing are the main occupations in the rural areas. Palau is a republic with two legislative houses; its head of state and government is the president. The islands had been under nominal Spanish ownership when they were sold to Germany in 1899. They were seized by Japan in 1914 and taken by Allied forces in 1944 during World War II. Palau became part of the U.S. Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands in 1947 and became a sovereign state in 1994; the U.S. provides economic assistance and maintains a military presence in the islands.
Palawan \pa-'la-wan\ Island (pop., 2000: 713,539), southwestern Phil¬ ippines. It is long and narrow and extends northeast to southwest between the South China Sea and the Sulu Sea. It has a mountainous backbone that runs its entire length, with the highest peak at Mount Mantalingajan (6,839 ft [2,085 m]). The capital is Puerto Princesa. The similarity of Palawan’s vegetation with that of Borneo is explained by remnants of a Pleistocene Epoch land bridge that connected the two islands. A coastal plain sup¬ ports most of the population and is the main agricultural area of Palawan. Scattered settlement and shifting agriculture predominate, with rice as the main food crop. Oil drilling off the northern coast began in 1992.
pale District separated from the surrounding country by defined bound¬ aries or set apart by a distinctive administrative and legal system. In imperial Russia from the late 18th century, the Pale of Settlement was the area in which Jews were permitted to live. By the 19th century it included all of Russian Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Crimea, Bessarabia, and most of Ukraine. It ceased to exist during World War I, when Jews in great numbers fled to the interior, and it was abolished in 1917. The English maintained a pale in Ireland until the entire island was subjugated under Elizabeth I in the 16th century.
Palembang \,pa-lem-'bai]\ City (pop., 1995 est.: 1,283,100) and river port, Indonesia. It is located on both banks of the Musi River. It was the capital of a Buddhist kingdom from the 7th to the 14th century ad and was subsequently overthrown by the Hindu Majapahit empire. The Dutch East India Company established a trading post there and in 1659 built a fort. Palembang was occupied by the Japanese during World War II and was the capital of South Sumatra until that state was included in the Republic of Indonesia in 1950. The port is accessible to ocean traffic and conducts considerable trade with ports on the Malay Peninsula and in Thailand and China.
Palenque \pa-Teq-ka\ Ruined ancient Mayan city of the Late Classic period (c. ad 600-900) in what is now Chiapas state, Mexico. It is con¬ sidered the most beautiful of Mayan sites. The Palenque builders designed temple pyramids and palaces with mansard-style roofs and walls embel¬ lished with delicate stucco reliefs of rulers, gods, and ceremonies. The principal structure is the palace, a labyrinth of galleries with interior courts and a four-story square tower. The great Temple of the Inscriptions is noted for its hieroglyphics and a vast funerary crypt, filled with jade, that was discovered in 1952.
Paleo-Asiatic languages See Paleo-Siberian languages
Paleo \,pa-le-o\ -Siberian languages or Paleo-Asiatic lan¬ guages Group of four unrelated language families spoken in northeast¬ ern Asia. Believed to have covered much larger areas of Siberia and perhaps Manchuria in the past, they have lost ground to Uralic and Altaic languages and more recently to Russian (see Siberian peoples). Of the Yeniseian languages, the only survivors are Ket, spoken by fewer than 500 people, and the virtually extinct Yug. The two extant Yukaghir lan¬ guages (which are believed by some specialists to belong to the Uralic languages), North, or Tundra, Yukaghir and South, or Kolyma, Yukaghir, together have fewer than 100 speakers. The Chukotko-Kamchatkan (Luo- rawetlan) family includes Chukchi, with about 10,000 speakers in extreme northeastern Siberia; Koryak, with fewer than 5,000 speakers south of Chukchi; and Itelmen, spoken on the Kamchatka Peninsula by fewer than 100 people. The two Nivkh (Gilyak) varieties, Amur Nivkh and Sakhalin Nivkh, together have fewer than 1,000 speakers.
Paleocene \'pa-le-3-,sen\ Epoch or Palaeocene Epoch Earliest division of the Tertiary Period, from 65 to 54.8 million years ago. It pre¬ cedes the Eocene Epoch and follows the Cretaceous Period. The Paleocene was characterized by a generally warming climate, with little or no frost; seasonal variation probably consisted of alternating dry and wet seasons. By the Paleocene the dinosaurs and other reptilian groups that were domi-
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
1436 i paleodimatology ► Palestrina
nant during the Cretaceous had disappeared, and the epoch saw the rapid proliferation and evolution of mammals.
paleodimatology or palaeoclimatology Scientific study of the extended climatic conditions of past geologic ages. Paleoclimatologists seek to explain climate variations for all parts of the Earth during any given geologic period, beginning with the time of the Earth’s formation. The basic research data are drawn mainly from geology and paleobotany; speculative attempts at explanation have come largely from astronomy, atmospheric physics, meteorology, and geophysics.
paleogeography or palaeogeography Geography of selected portions of the Earth’s surface at specific times in the geologic past. The simplest kind of paleogeography is a map showing the locations of ancient lands and seas, but paleogeographic maps may also show the occurrence and distribution of fossil, plant, and animal communities; environments of sedimentation (e.g., deltas, reefs, deserts, or deep-sea basins); areas undergoing uplift and erosion or subsidence and deposition; and major climatic zones.
paleogeology or palaeogeology Geology of a region at any given time in the distant past. Paleogeologic reconstructions in map form show not only the ancient topography of a region but also the distribution of rocks beneath the surface and such structural features as faults and folds. Maps of this kind help investigators determine deformation events in a region, stream-drainage patterns now buried under layers of sediment, and the extent of ancient oceans and seas. They also provide a useful tool for petroleum geologists, enabling them to identify geologic structures where oil or natural gas may be trapped.
paleohydrology or palaeohydrology Scientific discipline con¬ cerned with hydrologic systems as they existed during previous periods of Earth history. Changing hydrologic conditions are inferred from the evidence of the alteration, deposition, and erosion in rocks. Paleohydrol¬ ogy also deals with the changes in animals and plants through geologic time that have been greatly influenced by hydrologic change.
Paleolithic X.pa-le-o-'li-thikX Period or Old Stone Age Ancient technological or cultural stage characterized by the use of rudimentary chipped stone tools. During the Lower Paleolithic (c. 2,500,000-200,000 years ago), simple pebble tools and crude stone choppers were made by the earliest humans. About 700,000 years ago, the first rough hand ax appeared; it was later refined and used with other tools in the Acheulean industry. A flake-tool tradition emerged in the Middle Paleolithic, as exem¬ plified by implements of the Mousterian industry. The Upper Paleolithic (40,000-10,000 bc) saw the emergence of more complex, specialized, and diverse regional stone-tool industries, such as the Aurignacian, Solutrean, and Magdalenian. The two principal forms of Paleolithic art are small sculptures—such as the so-called Venus figurines and various carved or shaped animal and other figures—and monumental paintings, incised designs, and reliefs on the walls of caves such as Altamira (in Spain) and Lascaux Grotto (in France). The end of the Paleolithic is marked by the emergence of the settled agricultural villages of the Neolithic Period.
paleomagnetism or palaeomagnetism or remanent mag¬ netism Permanent magnetism in rocks, resulting from the orientation of the Earth’s magnetic field at the time of rock formation in a past geologic age. It is a source of information for the paleomagnetic studies of polar WANDERING and PLATE TECTONICS.
paleontology or palaeontology Scientific study of life of the geo¬ logic past, involving analysis of plant and animal fossils preserved in rocks. It is concerned with all aspects of the biology of ancient life forms: their shape and structure, evolutionary patterns, taxonomic relationships with each other and with modern species, geographic distribution, and interre¬ lationships with the environment. Paleontology has played a key role in reconstructing the Earth’s history and has provided evidence to support the theory of evolution. Data from paleontologic studies have also aided petro¬ leum geologists in locating deposits of oil and natural gas, which are fre¬ quently associated with the remains of certain ancient life forms.
Paleozoic V.pa-le-o-'zo-ikV Era or Palaeozoic Era Major interval of geologic time, c. 543-248 million years ago. From the Greek for “ancient life,” it is the first era of the Phanerozoic Eon and is followed by the Mesozoic Era. It is divided into six periods: (from oldest to youngest) the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian. Dur¬ ing the early Paleozoic, much of North America was covered by a warm, shallow sea with many coral reefs. Fossils from this time include marine
invertebrates and primitive fish; the plants were predominantly algae, with some mosses and ferns. During the late Paleozoic, huge, swampy forest regions covered much of the northern continents. Plant and animal life flourished. Amphibians left the oceans to live on land, reptiles evolved as fully terrestrial life forms, and insect life began. Ferns grew to tree size, and precursors of the conifers appeared.
Palermo ancient Panormus City (pop., 2001: 686,722), seaport, and capital of Sicily. Located on the Bay of Palermo, the city was founded by Phoenician traders in the 8th century bc; it was later a Carthaginian settle¬ ment. It was taken by the Romans in 254 bc. Conquered by the Arab troops of the Aghlabid dynasty in 831, it flourished as a centre of trade with North Africa. Palermo was thus quite prosperous when it fell to the Norman adventurers Roger I and Robert Guiscard in 1072. The ensuing era of Nor¬ man rule (1072-1194) was Palermo’s golden age, particularly after the founding of the Norman kingdom of Sicily in 1130 by Roger II. In 1194 Germany’s Hohenstaufen ruler, Frederick II, took over. Palermo was con¬ quered by the French under Charles of Anjou in 1266, but Angevin oppres¬ sion was ended in 1282 by a popular uprising called the Sicilian Vespers. After 1412 the crown of Sicily was united with that of Aragon and sub¬ sequently with that of Spain. Palermo declined during this long period of Spanish rule. The city was taken by Italian patriot Giuseppe de Garibaldi in 1860 and made part of the kingdom of Italy. Heavily bombed during World War II, it was captured by Allied forces in 1943. Notable build¬ ings from the Norman and later periods include the cathedral that con¬ tains the tombs of Roger II and Frederick II. Palermo is Sicily’s chief port, and ship repair is an important industry.
Palestine biblical Canaan Region, at the eastern end of the Mediter¬ ranean Sea. It extends east to the Jordan River, north to the border between Israel and Lebanon, west to the Mediterranean, and south to the Negev desert, reaching the Gulf of Aqaba. The political status and geographic area designated by the term have changed considerably over the course of three millennia. The eastern boundary has been particularly fluid, often under¬ stood as lying east of the Jordan and extending at times to the edge of the Arabian Desert. A land of sharp contrasts, Palestine includes the Dead Sea, the lowest natural point of elevation on Earth, and mountain peaks higher than 2,000 ft (610 m) above sea level. In the 20th and 21st centuries it has been the object of conflicting claims by Jewish and Arab national move¬ ments. The region is sacred to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Settled since early prehistoric times, mainly by Semitic groups, it was occupied in biblical times by the kingdoms of Israel, Judah, and Judaea. It was subse¬ quently held by virtually every power of the Middle East, including the Assyrians, Persians, Romans, Byzantines, Crusaders, and Ottomans. It was governed by Britain under a League of Nations mandate from the end of World War I (1914-18) until 1948, when the State of Israel was proclaimed. Armies from Egypt, Transjordan, Syria, and Iraq attacked the next day. They were defeated by the Israeli army. See Israel, Jordan, West Bank, and Gaza Strip for the later history of the region.
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) Arabic Munazzamat al-Tahrir al-Filastmiyyah Umbrella political orga¬ nization representing the Palestinian people in their drive for a Palestin¬ ian state. It was formed in 1964 to centralize the leadership of various groups. After the Six-Day War of 1967, the PLO promoted a distinctively Palestinian agenda. In 1969 Yasir ‘Arafat, leader of Fatah, the PLO’s larg¬ est faction, became its chairman. From the late 1960s the PLO engaged in guerrilla attacks on Israel from bases in Jordan, from which it was expelled in 1971. PLO headquarters moved to Lebanon. In 1974 'Arafat advocated limiting PLO activity to direct attacks against Israel, and the Arab community recognized the PLO as the sole legitimate representa¬ tive of all Palestinians. It was admitted to the Arab League in 1976. In 1982 Israel invaded Lebanon and expelled PLO forces based there. In 1988 the PLO leadership, then based in Tunis, declared a Palestinian state and the following year elected 'Arafat its president. It also recognized Israel’s right to exist, though several militant factions dissented. In 1993 Israel recognized the PLO by signing an agreement with it granting Pal¬ estinian self-rule in parts of the West Bank and Gaza Strip. The PLO became an integral part of the Palestinian National Authority. See also Palestine; Lebanese civil war; Hamas; intifadah.
Palestinian Talmud See Talmud Palestrina See Praeneste
Palestrina \ 1 pa-b- , stre-n9\ / Giovanni Pierluigi da (b. c. 1525, Pal¬ estrina, near Rome—d. Feb. 2, 1594, Rome) Italian composer. He sang
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
Paley ► Palm Springs I 1437
in Rome as a choirboy, then worked as an organist in his nearby home¬ town of Palestrina. He was appointed director of the Vatican’s Cappella Giulia by Pope Julius II in 1551, and he later worked at the other great Roman churches. He worked for the d’Este family in Tivoli for four years but returned to the Cappella Giulia in 1571 and remained there the rest of his life. Pope Gregory XIII commissioned Palestrina to restore the plainchant (a traditional liturgical chant sung in unison) to a more authen¬ tic form. The task proved too great, and his editorial work gave way to a flow of creative music, including volumes of masses, motets, and mad¬ rigals. After his death, his superbly balanced and serene music was pro¬ claimed as a model for composers in the Roman Catholic church. The modern study of counterpoint dates from the codification of his practice in the 18th century.
Paley, Grace orig. Grace Goodside (b. Dec. 11, 1922, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. short-story writer and poet. Paley’s first languages were Russian and Yiddish, a circumstance that may have some bearing on her ability to vividly reproduce in her fiction a variety of accents and speech mannerisms. She was active in the opposition to the Vietnam War in the 1960s and continued her political activism after the war ended. Her sto¬ ries, compassionate and often comic explorations of family and neigh¬ bourhood life and of individuals struggling against loneliness, are collected in The Little Disturbances of Man (1959), Enormous Changes at the Last Minute (1974), and Later the Same Day (1985). Her poetry appears in Leaning Forward (1985) and Begin Again (1992).
Paley, William S(amuel) (b. Sept. 28, 1901, Chicago, Ill., U.S.—d. Oct. 26, 1990, New York, N.Y.) U.S. broadcaster. He worked in his fami¬ ly’s cigar business from 1922. His success at increasing sales through radio advertisements sparked his interest in the medium. He invested in a small radio network, Columbia Phonographic Broadcasting System, becoming its president in 1928 and rapidly adding member stations. He built CBS into one of the world’s leading radio and television networks, serving as president (1928-46) and chairman of the board (1946-90). He launched CBS News in 1933 and built its outstanding staff, including Edward R. Murrow.
Palgrave, Francis Turner (b. Sept. 28, 1824, Great Yarmouth, Nor¬ folk, Eng.—d. Oct. 24, 1897, London) English critic and poet. He spent many years in the civil service’s education department and taught poetry at Oxford. His Golden Treasury of English Songs and Lyrics (1861), a comprehensive, well-chosen, and carefully arranged lyric anthology, influenced the poetic taste of several generations and was important in popularizing the works of William Wordsworth.
Pali canon See Tripitaka
Pali \'pa-le\ language Middle Indo-Aryan language of the 5th century bc in which the most essential documents of Theravada Buddhism are written. Linguistically, Pali is a homogenization of the northern Middle Indo-Aryan dialects in which the Buddha’s teachings were orally recorded and transmitted. According to the tradition of Sri Lankan chronicles, the Theravada canon was first written down in the 1st century bc, though its oral transmission continued long afterward. No single script was ever developed for Pali; scribes used scripts of their own languages to copy canonical texts and commentaries (see Indic writing systems), and most extant palm-leaf manuscripts of Pali are of relatively recent date.
Palikir \,pa-le- , kir\ Capital (pop., 2000: 6,227) of the Federated States of Micronesia. It is located inland on the island of Pohnpei (or Ponape; pop., 2000: 34,486). Nearby is the coastal city of Kolonia (pop., 2000: 5,681), the island’s other large town.
Palissy\pa-le-'se\, Bernard (b. 1509, St. Avit, France—d. 1590, Paris) French potter and writer. Known for his decorated rustic ware, a type of earthenware covered with coloured lead glazes, he was appointed “inven¬ tor of rustic pottery to the king and the queen mother” in 1565. His pub¬ lic lectures on natural history, published in 1580, revealed him to be a writer and scientist and a pioneer of the scientific method. A Huguenot, he was imprisoned in 1588 in the Bastille, where he died.
Palladio \pa-'lad-yo\, Andrea orig. Andrea di Pietro della Gondola (b. Nov. 30, 1508, Padua, Republic of Venice—d. August 1580, Vicenza) Italian architect. While a young mason, he was noticed by an Italian scholar and soon found himself studying mathematics, music, philosophy, and Classical authors. From 1541 he made several trips to Rome to study ancient ruins. His first palace design, the Palazzo Civena (1540^46), was innovative for its use of an arcaded area behind the main
elevation, in imitation of a Roman forum. In his villas, Palladio tried to re-create the Roman villa based on ancient descriptions. His first, Villa Godi at Lonedo (c. 1540^-2), contained elements for which he is famous, including symmetrical wings and a walled court. His most widely copied villa was the Villa Rotonda (1550-51), near Vicenza. Palladio was the first to systematize the plan of a house and to use the ancient Greco- Roman temple front as a portico. His reconstruction of the Basilica (town hall) in Vicenza (begun 1549) employs a two-story arcade with a motif that came to be known as Palladian: rounded arches flanked by rectan¬ gular openings. His facades for San Francesco della Vigna (c. 1565), San Giorgio Maggiore (begun 1566), and II Redentore (begun 1576), all in Venice, became prototypes for attaching Classical temple fronts to basil¬ ican churches. Though Palladio absorbed contemporary Mannerist motifs, his plans and elevations always retained a repose and order not associ¬ ated with Mannerist architecture. His Four Books of Architecture was possibly the most influential architectural pattern book ever printed. His influence climaxed during the 18th-century Classical Revival; the result¬ ing Palladianism spread through Europe and the U.S.
palladium Metallic chemical element, one of the transition elements, chemical symbol Pd, atomic number 46. A precious, silver-white metal that resembles platinum chemically, it is extremely ductile and easily worked and can be beaten into thin leaf. It is an excellent catalyst for chemical reactions involving hydrogen and oxygen, such as the hydroge¬ nation of unsaturated organic compounds. Because it does not tarnish in air at ordinary temperatures, palladium and its alloys serve as substitutes for platinum in jewelry and in electrical contacts in telecommunications equipment. Small amounts of palladium alloyed with gold yield the best white gold. Palladium is used also in dental alloys. Because hydrogen passes rapidly through the metal at high temperatures, heated palladium tubes impervious to other gases function as semipermeable membranes and are used for hydrogen purification.
palm Any of about 2,800 species of flowering, subtropical trees, shrubs, and vines that make up the family Arecaceae (or Palmae). Many are economically important. Palms fur¬ nish food, shelter, clothing, timber, fuel, building materials, fibres, starch, oils, waxes, and wines for local populations in the tropics.
Many species have very limited ranges; some grow only on single islands. The fast growth and many by-products of palms make exploita¬ tion of the rainforest appealing to agribusiness. The usually tall, unbranched, columnar trunk is crowned by a tuft of large, pleated, fan- or feather-shaped leaves, with often prickly petioles (leafstalks), the bases of which remain after leaves drop, often covering the trunk. Trunk height and diameter, leaf length, and seed size vary greatly. Small flowers are produced in large clusters.
Among the most important palms are the sugar palm ( Arenga pinnata, or A. saccharifera), coconut palm, date palm, and cabbage palmetto.
palm PC Computer small enough to fit in a person’s palm. Palm PCs (also called palmtops, handheld computers, or personal data assistants) typically use pens instead of keyboards for data input. They have limited memory and lack built-in peripheral devices (e.g., disk drives and modems), though such devices can be plugged in through peripheral slots. They run a limited set of application programs, such as calendars, address books, and memo pads.
Palm Springs Resort city (pop., 2000: 42,807), southern California, U.S. It is located in the Coachella Valley. Originally known as Agua Cal- iente for its hot springs, it was a stagecoach stop by 1872. In 1884 John G. McCallum established the Palm Valley Colony there. Incorporated as a city in 1938, it developed into a glamorous desert resort and residential area, frequented by celebrities, including Hollywood stars. Nearby is Joshua Tree National Park.
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1438 I Palm Sunday ► Pamirs
Palm Sunday or Passion Sunday In Christianity, the first day of Holy Week and the Sunday before Easter, commemorating Jesus’ trium¬ phal entry into Jerusalem. It usually includes a procession of members of the congregation carrying palms, representing the palm branches the crowd scattered in front of Jesus as he rode into the city. The liturgy also includes readings recounting the suffering and death of Jesus. Palm Sun¬ day was celebrated in Jerusalem as early as the 4th century and in the West by the 8th century.
Palma (de Mallorca) City (pop., 2001: 333,801), capital of the Bale¬ aric Islands and of Majorca island, Spain. Palma lies on the southwestern coast of Majorca on Palma Bay in the western Mediterranean Sea. Romans conquered Majorca in 123 bc, and it was later ruled by Byzan¬ tines and Arabs before being taken by James I of Aragon in 1229. The city’s old sections have many notable homes built in the 16th and 18th centuries. Historic buildings include the Gothic cathedral and Bellver Castle. The economy is varied and includes tourism and light manufac¬ turing.
Palma, Arturo Alessandri See Arturo Alessandri Palma Palmas, Las See Las Palmas
Palme Vpal-moV (Sven) Olof (Joachim) (b. Jan. 30, 1927, Stock¬ holm, Swed.—d. Feb. 28, 1986, Stockholm) Swedish prime minister (1969-76, 1982-86). After studying in Sweden and the U.S., he was elected to the Swedish parliament (1958) and became a leader of the Swedish Social Democratic Workers’ Party. He served in ministerial posts from 1963 and became prime minister in 1969. A strong pacifist, he attacked U.S. policy in the Vietnam War and later acted as a UN special envoy to mediate in the Iran-Iraq War. After his reelection in 1982, he tried to reinstate socialist economic policies in Sweden. He was shot to death by an assassin in 1986; his murder remains unsolved.
Palmer, A(lexander) Mitchell (b. May 4, 1872, Moosehead, Pa., U.S.—d. May 11, 1936, Washington, D.C.) U.S. politician. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1909 to 1915 and helped secure the Democratic Party presidential nomination for Woodrow Wilson in 1912. Appointed U.S. attorney general (1919-21), Palmer used the espio¬ nage and sedition acts (1917, 1918) to attack political radicals, dissidents, and aliens in the “Red Scare” period following World War I. The government-led roundup of suspected communists became known as the “Palmer raids.” In 1920 he ran unsuccessfully for the presidential nomi¬ nation of the Democratic Party.
Palmer, Arnold (Daniel) (b. Sept. 10, 1929, Latrobe, Pa., U.S.) U.S. golfer. The son of a greenskeeper,
Palmer turned professional in 1954 after winning the U.S. Amateur championship. He was the first player to win the Masters Tournament four times (1958, 1960, 1962, 1964); his other major titles include the U.S.
Open (1960) and the British Open (1961-62). From 1954 through 1975 he won 61 tournaments. He won the PGA Senior Open in 1980 and 1981.
He was the first golfer to earn $1,000,000 in tournament prize money. His exciting play and ami¬ able personality won him wide popu¬ larity among fans, who became known as “Amie’s Army.” Palmer was also the first athlete to parlay success on the playing field into lucrative off-the-field contracts, and thus he paved the way for athletes who followed to earn substantial sums from endorsement contracts.
Palmer, Samuel (b. Jan. 27,
1805, London, Eng.—d. May 24,
1881, Redhill, Surrey) British painter and etcher. He began exhibiting conventional landscapes at the Royal Academy by 14. After converting to a personal form of High Angli¬ canism and discovering medieval art, he developed a visionary style, dis¬ playing a mystical but precise depiction of nature and an overflowing
religious intensity, united by a vivid re-creation of the pastoral conven¬ tions. In these works he was encouraged and influenced by William Blake. As his religious fervour faded after 1830, the precarious balance between realism and vision was lost.
Palmerston (of Palmerston), Henry John Temple, 3rd Vis¬ count known as Lord Palmerston (b. Oct. 20, 1784, Broadlands, Hampshire, Eng.—d. Oct. 18, 1865, Brocket Hall, Hertfordshire) English politician and prime minister (1855-58, 1859-65). He entered Parliament in 1807 as a Tory and served as secretary at war (1809-28). Associated with the Whig Party from 1830, he served many years as foreign secre¬ tary (1830-34, 1835^11, 1846-51) and supported British interests and liberal causes abroad. He played a key role in establishing the indepen¬ dence of Belgium (1830-31) and Greece (1832) and secured Turkey’s integrity against France (1840). Appointed prime minister in 1855, he brought an end to the Crimean War, approved the creation of the inde¬ pendent Kingdom of Italy, and supported a policy of neutrality in the American Civil War. Nicknamed “Pam,” he was a symbol of British nationalism and one of Britain’s most popular leaders.
palmetto \pal-'me-to\ or cabbage palmetto Tree ( Sabalpalmetto) of the palm family, occurring in the southeastern U.S. and the West Indies. Commonly grown for shade and as ornamentals along avenues, palmet¬ tos grow to about 80 ft (24 m) tall and have fan-shaped leaves. The water- resistant trunk is used as wharf piling. Mats and baskets are sometimes made from the leaves, and stiff brushes are made from the stems. The buds are edible. S. texana, a similar species, occurs in the southwestern U.S. and in Mexico.
palmistry Reading of an individual’s character and divination of the future by interpreting lines on the palm of the hand. Palmistry may have originated in ancient India, and it was probably from their original Indian home that the traditional fortune-telling of the Gypsies was derived. It was also practiced in China, Tibet, Persia, Mesopotamia, Egypt, and ancient Greece. In medieval Europe it was used to discover witches, who were thought to have pigmentation spots as signs of a pact with the devil. Though palmistry is still practiced, there is no known scientific basis for it.
Palmyra \pal-'ml-r3\ biblical Tadmor Ancient city, Syria, northeast of Damascus, at the modem city of Tadmur. Said to have been built by King Solomon, it became prominent in the 3rd century bc, when the Seleu- cid dynasty made the road through Palmyra one of the routes of east- west trade. Under Roman control by the reign of Tiberius, it briefly regained autonomy in the 3rd cen¬ tury ad under the Arab queen Zeno- bia. The main military station on the road that linked Damascus to the Euphrates River, it was conquered by the Muslims in 634. Inscriptions in the Aramaic language supply information on the city’s trade with India via the Persian Gulf and with Egypt, Rome, and Syria. Ancient ruins reveal the city’s plan.
Palomar Observatory Astronomical observatory on Mount Palo- mar, near San Diego, California, U.S., site of the famous Hale telescope, a reflecting telescope with a 200-in. (5-m) aperture that has proved instru¬ mental in cosmological research. Built in 1948 and named in honour of George Ellery Hale (1868-1938), it was the largest instrument of its kind for almost 30 years. Founded in 1948 by California Institute of Technol¬ ogy, the observatory was operated jointly with the Mount Wilson Obser¬ vatory as the Hale Observatories until 1980.
Palomino \,pa-b-'me-no\ Colour type of horse distinguished by its cream, yellow, or gold coat and a white or silver mane. It is popular in pleasure and parade classes. Palominos may conform to the breed types of several light breeds, including the Arabian horse and the American Quarter Horse.
palsy See cerebral palsy, paralysis
Pamirs \p3-'mirz\ High mountain region, Central Asia. Located mostly in Tajikistan, it also borders parts of Afghanistan, Pakistan, China, and Kyrgyzstan. It includes many peaks that are higher than 20,000 ft (6,100
Temple of Bel, Palmyra, Syria.
H. ROGER-VIOLLET
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
Pamlico Sound ► Pan-p'o I 1439
m) in elevation, as well as many glaciers. Its highest point, Imeni Ismail Samani (Communism) Peak, rises in the northwestern part of the range to an elevation of 24,590 ft (7,495 m). The region is sparsely populated, and almost all the inhabitants are Tajiks. It is a central mountain knot from which extend several great ranges, including the Karakorams and Hindu Kush.
Pamlico Vpam-li-.koV Sound Shallow body of water, eastern shore of North Carolina, U.S. It is separated from the Atlantic Ocean by the Outer Banks. It extends 80 mi (130 km) south from Roanoke Island and is 8-30 mi (13-48 km) wide. Numerous waterfowl nest along the coastal waters; there is some commercial fishing, especially for oysters.
Pampas, the Vast, grass-covered plain in South America extending west from the Atlantic coast to the Andean foothills, primarily in Argen¬ tina. The Argentine Pampas covers 295,000 sq mi (764,000 sq km) and slopes gradually downward from northwest to southeast. The western portion is dry and largely barren; the humid eastern portion is the nation’s economic heart. Herds of wild cattle and horses, introduced by the Span¬ iards and rounded up by Argentina’s famed gauchos, roamed the Pampas until the later 19th century, when the land was fenced into huge estan- cias (ranches). The region is prominent in Argentina’s gaucho literature and musical folklore.
pamphlet Unbound printed publication with a paper cover or no cover. Among the first printed materials, pamphlets were widely used in England, France, and Germany from the early 16th century, often for reli¬ gious or political propaganda; they sometimes rose to the level of litera¬ ture or philosophical discourse. In North America, pre-Revolutionary War agitation stimulated extensive pamphleteering; foremost among the writ¬ ers of political pamphlets was Thomas Paine. By the 20th century, the pamphlet was more often used for information than for controversy.
Pamplona Basque Iruna ancient Pompaelo City (pop., 2001: 183,964), capital of Navarra, northern Spain. According to tradition, it was founded in 75 bc by Pompey the Great as a military settlement. It was left almost derelict after Moorish and Frankish invasions in the 5th cen¬ tury ad. It was captured from the Moors by Charlemagne in 778 and became the capital of the kingdom of Navarra under Sancho III. In 1512 the armies of King Ferdinand of Aragon-Castile entered Pamplona, and the portion of Navarra south of the Pyrenees was incorporated into Spain. The citadel built by King Philip II of Spain in 1571 made it the most strongly fortified town of the north. In 1841 it became the capital of the new Navarra province. The chief tourist attraction is the Fiesta de San Fermfn (honouring its first bishop), which is celebrated with bullfights and the running of the bulls through the city streets. The fiesta is described in Ernest Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises.
Pan Greek fertility deity with a half-human, half-animal form. The Romans associated him with Faunus. Pan was usually said to be the son of Hermes. He was often represented as a vigorous and lustful figure with the horns, legs, and ears of a goat; in later art his human parts were more emphasized. Some Christian depictions of the Devil bear a striking resem¬ blance to Pan. Pan haunted the high hills, where he was chiefly concerned with flocks and herds. Like a shepherd, Pan was a piper, and he rested at noon. He could inspire irrational terror in humans, and the word panic comes from his name.
pan See playa
Pan-African movement Movement dedicated to establishing inde¬ pendence for African nations and cultivating unity among black people throughout the world. It originated in conferences held in London (1900, 1919, 1921, 1923) and other cities. W.E.B. Du Bois was a principal early leader. The important sixth Pan-African conference (Manchester, 1945) included Jomo Kenyatta and Kwame Nkrumah. The first truly intergovern¬ mental conference was held in Accra, Ghana, in 1958, where Patrice Lumumba was a key speaker. The Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC) was founded by Robert M. Sobukwe and others in South Africa in 1959 as a political alternative to the African National Congress, which was seen as contaminated by non-African influences. The founding of the Organiza¬ tion of African Unity (OAU; now the African Union) by Julius Nyerere and others in 1963 was a milestone, and the OAU soon became the most important Pan-Africanist organization.
Pan American (Sports) Games Quadrennial sports festival. The games, conceived in 1940 as an event for the nations of the Western Hemisphere, were first held in 1951. Patterned after the Olympic Games
and sanctioned by the International Olympic Committee, the games are conducted by the Pan American Sports Organization (PASO), or Orga¬ nization Deportiva Panamericana (ODEPA), headquartered in Mexico City. All major international sports and several more specialized events are included in the regular program. They are held the year preceding the Olympics, in various host cities.
Pan-American Highway International highway system connecting North and South America. Conceived in 1923 as a single route, the road grew to include a number of designated highways in participating coun¬ tries, including the Inter-American Highway from Nuevo Laredo, Mex., to Panama City, Pan. The whole system, extending from Alaska and Canada to Chile, Argentina, and Brazil, totals nearly 30,000 mi (48,000 km). Only some 240 miles (400 km) in the Panama-Colombia border area remain uncompleted.
Pan-American Union Organization formed in 1890 to promote coop¬ eration among the countries of Latin America and the U.S. It was estab¬ lished (as the International Union of American Republics) at the first Pan- American conference, which was called by U.S. secretary of state James Blaine in order to reach agreements on various common commercial and juridical problems among the countries of the Americas. In 1948 it was reconstituted as the Organization of American States.
Pan American World Airways, Inc. known as Pan Am Former U.S. airline. It was founded in 1927 by former World War I pilot Juan Trippe, who secured a contract to fly mail between Key West, Fla., and Havana. In 1929 Pan Am established passenger service to the Caribbean and Central America. It inaugurated the first transpacific flights (San Fran¬ cisco to Manila) in 1936, the first transatlantic flights (New York City to Lisbon) in 1939, and the first round-the-world flights in 1947, and it pio¬ neered commercial jet travel in the 1950s. Its business declined in the 1960s and ’70s, and its acquisition of National Airlines in 1980 failed to improve its position. In 1988 a bomb planted aboard a Pan Am 747 caused the airliner to crash near Lockerbie, Scot., killing 270 people. Despite selling its Asian and South Pacific routes to United Airlines and its trans¬ atlantic, European, and Middle Eastern routes to Delta Air Lines, it was forced to declare bankruptcy in 1991. In the late 1990s another group bought the rights to the Pan Am name and began operating flights as Pan American Airways.
Pan-Arabism Nationalist notion of cultural and political unity among Arab countries. Its origins lie in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when increased literacy led to a cultural and literary renaissance among Arabs of the Middle East. This contributed to political agitation and led to the independence of most Arab states from the Ottoman Empire (1918) and from the European powers (by the mid-20th century). An important event was the founding in 1943 of the Ba'th Party, which formed branches in several countries and became the ruling party in Syria and Iraq. Another was the founding of the Arab League in 1945. Pan-Arabism’s most char¬ ismatic and effective proponent was Egypt’s Gamal Abdel Nasser. After Nasser’s death, Syria’s Hafiz al-Assad, Iraq’s Saddam Hussein, and Libya’s Muammar al-Qaddafi tried to assume the mantle of Arab leadership.
Pan-Germanism Movement to politically unify all German-speaking people. The desire for German unification began in the early 19th century and was advanced by Ernst Arndt and other early nationalists. The Pan- German League was organized in 1894 by Ernst Hasse (1846-1908) to heighten German nationalist awareness, especially among German¬ speaking people outside Germany. The movement, which pressed for Ger¬ man expansion in Europe, gained support after World War I under the Weimar Republic and was actively promoted by Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. After Germany’s defeat in 1945 and the expulsion of Germans from formerly German areas of eastern Europe, the movement declined.
Pan Gu or P'an Ku Vpan-'gu\ In Chinese Daoist legend, the first man. He came forth from Chaos (an egg) with two horns, two tusks, and a hairy body. He used his knowledge of yin-yang to separate heaven and earth, set the Sun, Moon, stars, and planets in place, and divide the four seas. He also shaped the earth by chiseling out valleys and stacking up moun¬ tains. Another legend says that the universe derived from Pan Gu’s gigan¬ tic corpse. His eyes became the Sun and Moon, his blood formed rivers, his hair grew into trees and plants, and the human race sprang from para¬ sites that infested his body. In art, he is often shown as a dwarf clothed with leaves.
Pan-p'o See Banpo
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1440 I Pan-Slavism ► panchayat raj
Pan-Slavism Movement to unite Slav peoples of eastern and central Europe. It began in the early 19th century when Slav intellectuals stud¬ ied their common cultures. Political goals for Slavic unity increased in 1848, when a Slav congress organized by Frantisek PALACKy met in Prague to press for equal rights under Austrian rule. In the 1860s the movement became popular in Russia, to which Pan-Slavs looked for protection from Turkish and Austro-Hungarian rule; this led Russia and Serbia into wars against the Ottoman Empire in 1876-77. In the 20th century, nationalist rivalries among the Slav peoples prevented their effective collaboration.
Pan-Turkism Political movement of the late 19th and early 20th cen¬ turies, which had as its goal the political union of all Turkic-speaking peoples in the Ottoman Empire, Russia, China, Iran, and Afghanistan. The movement, which began among the Turks in the Crimea and on the Volga, initially sought to unite the Turks of the Ottoman and Russian empires against growing Russian domination. Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, the father of the Republic of Turkey, later de-emphasized Pan-Turkism, encouraging Turkish nationalism only within Turkey. See also Ismail Gasprinski; Enver Pasha; Young Turks.
Panaji \pa-'na-je\ or New Goa Town (pop., 2001 prelim.: 58,785), seaport, and capital of Goa, western India. It is on the Arabian Sea at the mouth of the Mandavi River. Panaji replaced Old Goa as the residence of the Portuguese viceroy in 1759 and as the capital of Portuguese India in 1843. It contains colonial houses and plazas and is a popular tourist attraction.
Panama officially Republic of Panama Country, Central America. It is bounded by the Caribbean Sea to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south. Area: 28,973 sq mi (75,040 sq km). Population (2005 est.):
indigenous Indian languages. Religion:
Christianity (predominantly Roman Catholic; also other Christians). Cur¬ rency: balboa. Panama consists of three distinct areas: the lowlands (“hot lands”; nearly nine-tenths of the country), the temperate lands, and the highlands (“cold lands”). It has a market economy based on services, mostly transportation, communications, and storage connected with the Panama Canal as well as international banking and tourism. It is a repub¬ lic with one legislative house; its head of state and government is the president, assisted by vice presidents. The land was inhabited by Indians when the Spanish arrived in 1501. The first successful Spanish settlement was founded by Vasco Nunez de Balboa in 1511. Panama was part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada until it declared its independence from Spain
in 1821 to join Colombia. In 1903 it revolted against Colombia and was recognized by the U.S., to whom it ceded the Canal Zone. The completed canal was opened in 1914; control of the canal passed to a joint U.S.- Panamanian commission in 1979. An invasion by U.S. troops in 1989 overthrew the de facto ruler, Gen. Manuel Noriega. In 1999 the country elected its first female president, Mireya Moscoso, and later that year the canal came under the full control of Panama.
Panama Canal Lock-type canal, Panama. Extending across the Isth¬ mus of Panama, it connects the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. It is about 50 mi (82 km) long from deepwater to deepwater, with an average depth of 43 ft (13 m). The width varies between 500 to 1,000 ft (150 to 300 m). In 1881 a French company began constructing the canal, but the enter¬ prise collapsed in 1889. Under a 1903 treaty Panama granted the U.S. the Panama Canal Zone and the rights to build and operate a canal. Work began in 1904; facing enormous obstacles, George Washington Goethals directed the construction from 1907, and the canal opened on Aug. 15, 1914. The canal enabled ships traveling between the two oceans to avoid the lengthy circumnavigation of South America and was a boon to world commerce. After disputes over sovereignty, a 1977 treaty provided for Panama to take control of the canal by 2000; it did so in 1999. Except for small craft, no vessel can pass through the canal under its own power. Ships are towed by electric locomotives, and it generally takes 15-20 hours to complete the passage (including waiting time). Sets of double locks enable ships to pass in opposite directions simultaneously.
Panama Canal Zone See Canal Zone
Panama City City (pop., 2000: 415,964), capital of Panama. Near the Pacific Ocean entrance of the Panama Canal, on the Bay of Panama, the site was originally an Indian fishing village. The old city was founded in 1519 but was completely destroyed by British buccaneer Henry Morgan in 1671. It was rebuilt in 1674 just west of the old site. In 1751 the area became part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada and later part of Colom¬ bia. It was the centre of the Panamanian revolt against Colombia in 1903, when it became the capital of Panama. After the canal opened in 1914, the city developed rapidly, becoming the commercial and transportation centre of the country. The economy depends largely on revenue from canal traffic and associated services.
Panathenaea \ I pan- l a-th3- , ne-o\ In Greek religion, an Athenian festi¬ val of great antiquity. Originally an annual event, it was eventually cel¬ ebrated every fourth year, probably in deliberate rivalry to the Olympic Games. It consisted of the sacrifices and rites proper to the season (mid- August) in the cult of Athena, the city’s protectress. Representatives of all the dependencies of Athens came to the Panathenaea. The great pro¬ cession, made up of the heroes of the Battle of Marathon, is the subject of the frieze of the Parthenon. The participants offered Athena an embroi¬ dered robe and sacrificed animals; there were also poetry recitations (later replaced by a musical contest) and athletic competitions.
Panay \p3-'nl\ Island (pop., 2000: 3,643,016), westernmost of the Visayan group, central Philippines. It is surrounded by the Sibuyan, Visayan, and Sulu seas, and the Guimaras Strait separates it from Negros island. Roughly triangular in shape, it has an area of 4,446 sq mi (11,515 sq km). A rugged, almost unpopulated mountain range parallels its west¬ ern coastline. Between the range and a hilly eastern portion, a densely populated, intensely farmed fertile plain extends north to south. The island’s chief city is Iloilo.
Panchatantra Vpon-cho-'ton-troX Sanskrit "Five Treatises" or
"Five Chapters" Collection of Indian beast fables written in Sanskrit that has had extensive circulation throughout the world. The original work, now lost, may have been written down between 100 bc and ad 500. A textbook for instructing three sons of a king, it contained aphorisms that glorify shrewdness and cleverness over altruism. As early as the 11th century one version reached Europe, where it was known as The Fables of Bidpai (for the narrator, an Indian sage).
panchayat \pon-'cha-y3t\ raj In India, government by the village council, or panchayat. When India gained its independence, it was stated that the government “should take steps to organize village panchayats .” The first panchayat was inaugurated in 1959 in Rajasthan, and in 1993 the panchayat institution was incorporated into the Indian Constitution. Their members are elected, and one-third of them are required to be women. Scheduled castes (formerly untouchables) and tribes are also guar-
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Panchen Lama ► Pankhurst I 1441
an teed representation in proportion to their population. Today the role and success of the panchayats are still the topic of heated discussion. See also Indian National Congress.
Panchen Lama Vpan-chon-'la-moX Any of the line of reincarnated lamas who head the Tashilhunpo Monastery in Tibet, traditionally second only to the Dalai Lama in spiritual authority in the dominant sect of Tibetan Buddhism. A Panchen Lama installed by the Chinese Nationalist govern¬ ment in 1949 later became an official under the Chinese communists. He remained in Tibet after the 14th Dalai Lama fled into exile in 1959 but was imprisoned in 1964 after criticizing the government. He was released in the late 1970s and died in 1989. The Dalai Lama and government sub¬ sequently chose different successors.
pancreas \'paq-kre-3s\ Compound gland functioning as both an exo¬ crine (secreting through a duct) and an endocrine (ductless) gland. It con¬ tinuously secretes pancreatic juice (containing water, bicarbonate, and enzymes needed to digest carbohydrates, fat, and protein) through the pancreatic duct to the duodenum. Scattered among the enzyme-producing cells are the islets of Langerhans, which secrete insulin and glucagon directly into the bloodstream. Disorders include inflammation (pancreati¬ tis), infections, tumours, and cysts. If more than 80-90% of the pancreas must be removed, the patient will need to take insulin and pancreatic extracts. See also diabetes mellitus; hypoglycemia.
pancreatic cancer Malignant tumour of the pancreas. Risk factors include smoking, a diet high in fat, exposure to certain industrial prod¬ ucts, and diseases such as diabetes and chronic pancreatitis. Pancreatic cancer is more common in men. Symptoms often do not appear until pan¬ creatic cancer is advanced; they include abdominal pain, unexplained weight loss, and difficulty digesting fatty foods. Surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or some combination of these may be used to treat the dis¬ ease.
pancreatitis Vpaq-kre-o-'tl-tosX Inflammation of the pancreas, associated with alcohol, trauma, or pancreatic-duct obstruction. Activated enzymes escaping into pancreatic tissues cause irritation and inflammation. If it does not subside, bleeding, tissue death and scarring, pus formation, and infection may occur. Symptoms include severe pain (worst when lying on the back), low fever, nausea, and hypertension. Acute cases are treated by controlling pain, preventing or relieving shock, inhibiting pancreatic-juice secretion (including eliminating oral intake of food), avoiding infection, and replacing lost fluids and salts. Chronic pancreatitis can destroy enough of the pancreas to cause pancreatic-juice deficiency and diabetes mellitus. Treatment may include a low-fat diet, avoiding overeating and alcohol, pancreatic extracts, and insulin.
panda or giant panda Species (Ailuropoda melanoleuca, family Ursidae) of white-and-black forest¬ dwelling carnivore, found in central China, that subsists almost exclu¬ sively on bamboo. Because they can¬ not digest cellulose, wild pandas (of which there are about 1,600) spend as much as 16 hours a day eating up to 40 lb (18 kg) of bamboo leaves, stems, and shoots to obtain needed nutrients. More than 120 individuals live in captivity, mostly in China.
Large males may attain 6 ft (1.8 m) in length and weigh more than 220 lb (100 kg); females are usually smaller. Giant pandas live alone except when breeding. They have a slow reproductive cycle and are difficult to breed in captivity.
panda, lesser or cat bear or bear cat Long-tailed nocturnal rac¬ coonlike carnivore (Ailurus julgens , family Procyonidae) that inhabits high mountain forests in the Himalayas and adjacent eastern Asia. It is 20-26 in. (50-65 cm) long, excluding the 12-20-in. (30-50-cm) bushy, faintly ringed tail. It weighs 6-10 lbs (3—4.5 kg) and has soft, thick, red¬ dish brown fur. The face is white, with a red-brown stripe from the eyes to the mouth. It eats plants, especially bamboo, and fruits and insects. Though an agile climber, it mostly feeds while on the ground.
Pandora In Greek mythology, the first woman. After Prometheus stole fire from heaven and bestowed it on mortals, Zeus decided to counteract this blessing and commissioned Hephaestus to fashion a woman out of
earth, upon whom the gods bestowed their choicest gifts. After marrying Prometheus’s brother, Pandora opened ajar containing all kinds of mis¬ ery and evil, which escaped and flew out over the earth. In one version, Hope alone remained inside, the lid having been shut before she could escape.
panegyric \,pa-n3-'jir-ik\ Eulogistic oration or laudatory discourse. The panegyric originally was a speech delivered at an ancient Greek general assembly (panegyris ), such as the Olympic and Panathenaic festivals. Speakers frequently advocated Hellenic unity by expounding on the former glories of Greek cities; hence the elaborate and flowery connota¬ tions of the term. Later Roman speakers praised and flattered eminent persons, especially emperors, in panegyrics. The form was also used in the European Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Baroque era.
Pangea \pan-'je-o\ or Pangaea Hypothetical protocontinent pro¬ posed by Alfred Wegener in 1912 as part of his theory of continental drift. Pangea (from Greek: pangaia, “all earth”) supposedly covered about half the Earth and was completely surrounded by a world ocean called Pan- thalassa. Late in the Triassic Period (248-206 million years ago), Pangea began to break apart. Its segments, Laurasia (composed of all the present- day northern continents) and Gondwana (the present-day southern con¬ tinents) gradually receded, resulting in the formation of the Atlantic Ocean.
Pangkor Engagement Vpaq-,k6r\ (1874) Treaty between the British government and Malay chiefs, named for the island where it was signed. In return for British backing in a complicated Perak succession dispute. Raja Abdullah accepted a British resident (adviser) with broad powers at his court, the first step in the establishment of British dominion over the Malay states.
pangolin Vparj-go-lonV or scaly anteater Any of about eight spe¬ cies of armoured placental mammals (genus Manis, order Pholidota) of tropical Asia and Africa. Scales formed of cemented hairs cover the upper body, legs, and tail. Pangolins are 2-6 ft (60-180 cm) long and weigh 10-60 lb (5-27 kg). They have a conical head, no teeth, a long tongue, short legs, and a long prehensile tail. Some are arboreal; terrestrial spe¬ cies live in burrows. Nocturnal animals, pangolins locate prey, mainly termites, by smell and rip open nests with their front claws. When threat¬ ened, the pangolin (Malayan for “rolling over”) curls up or emits an odor¬ iferous secretion. See also anteater; echidna.
panic In economics, a severe financial disturbance, such as widespread bank failures, feverish stock speculation followed by a market crash, or a climate of fear caused by economic crisis or anticipation of such a crisis. The term is applied only to the initial, violent stage of financial upheaval rather than the whole decline in the business cycle (see depression and reces¬ sion). Until the 19th century, economic fluctuations were largely con¬ nected with shortages of goods, market expansion, and speculation (as in the South Sea Bubble). Panics in the industrialized societies of the 19th— 20th centuries have reflected the increasing complexity of advanced economies. The Panic of 1857 in the U.S. had its seeds in the railroads’ defaulting on their bonds and in the decline in the value of railroad secu¬ rities; its effects were complex, including not only the closing of many banks but also severe unem¬ ployment in the U.S. and a money- market panic in Europe. The Panic of 1873, which began with financial cri¬ ses in Vienna and New York, marked the start of a long-term contraction in the world economy. The most infa¬ mous panic began with the U.S. stock-market crash of 1929 (see Great Depression).
Panjabi language See Punjabi
LANGUAGE
Pankhurst, Emmeline orig.
Emmeline Goulden (b. July 14,
1858, Manchester, Eng.—d. June 14,
1928, London) British feminist. In 1879 she married Richard Pankhurst (1834-98), author of Britain’s first
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1442 I Pannini ► pao-chia
women’s-suffrage bill and the Married Women’s Property Acts (1870, 1882). In 1889 she founded the Women’s Franchise League, which in 1894 secured for married women the right to vote in local elections. In 1903, after holding municipal offices in Manchester, she founded the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU). From 1912 she advocated extreme militancy, mainly in the form of arson, and was arrested 12 times in one year. Weeks before her death in 1928, Britain passed a bill to give voting rights to all women. Her daughter Christabel H. Pankhurst (1880- 1958)—later Dame Christabel—organized the militant tactics of the WSPU and directed actions that included hunger strikes and huge out¬ door rallies. She later became a religious evangelist and moved to the U.S.
Pannini \pan-'ne-ne\, Giovanni Paolo or Giovanni Paolo Panini (b. 1691, Piacenza, Duchy of Parma and Piacenza—d. 1765, Rome) Italian painter. After gaining fame for his fresco painting, he spe¬ cialized in Roman topography and became the foremost artist in that field in the 18th century. His real and imaginary views of ancient Roman ruins embody precise observation and tender nostalgia and combine elements of late classical Baroque art with incipient Romanticism. His work was popular both with tourists and his peers: he was admitted to the Academie Fran^aise in 1732 and became its professor of perspective.
Pannonia Province, Roman Empire, corresponding to modern western Hungary and parts of eastern Austria, Slovenia, and northern Serbia and Montenegro. The original inhabitants were mainly Illyrians, with some Celts in the western part. Conquered by Rome beginning in 35 bc, the people of Pannonia revolted in ad 6, posing the greatest threat to the empire since Hannibal’s invasion. Pannonia was split in ad 106, and Pan¬ nonia Superior became a centre of the Roman wars under Marcus Aure¬ lius. The Romans withdrew from the area after 395.
Panofsky \p9-'n6f-ske\, Erwin (b. March 30, 1892, Hannover, Ger.—d. March 14, 1968, Princeton, N.J., U.S.) German-born U.S. art historian. A professor at the University of Hamburg (1926-33), he fled Nazi Germany for the U.S. and in 1935 began teaching at Princeton’s Institute for Advanced Study. He gained prominence for his studies in iconography, the study of symbols and themes in works of art. His writ¬ ings are distinguished by their variety of subjects, critical penetration, erudition, and rich allusions to literature, philosophy, and history. Among his major works are the groundbreaking Studies in Iconology (1939), Albrecht Diirer (1943), and Early Netherlandish Painting (1953).
panorama Narrative scene or landscape painted to conform to a curved or flat background, which surrounds or is unrolled before the viewer. Popular in the late 18th and 19th centuries, it was an antecedent of the stereopticon and motion pictures. The true panorama is exhibited on the walls of a large cylinder, and the viewer stands on a platform in the cyl¬ inder’s centre and turns around to see all points of the horizon. The first panorama, a view of Edinburgh, was executed in 1788 by the Scottish painter Robert Barker (1739-1806). In the mid-19th century the rolled panorama became popular: a painting on canvas was wound between two poles and slowly unrolled behind a frame or revealed in sections.
panpipe or syrinx Wind instrument consisting of pipes of different lengths made of cane (less often wood, clay, or metal) arranged in a row. It is blown across the top, each pipe producing a different note. The panpipe dates from c. 2000 bc and is found worldwide, especially in east¬ ern Africa, South America, and Melanesia.
p'ansori Korean "story sing¬ ing" A form of sung folk narrative.
The form seems to have originated during the reign of Sukchong (1675-1720). Once a narrative performance that incorporated shamanistic chants, p ’ansori became a vehicle for treat¬ ing popular customs and everyday life. Six of the original 12 titles were revised by the master p’ansori writer Sin Chaehyo, of which five are still performed.
pansy Any of several popular cultivated violets (genus Viola). Pansies have been grown for so long under such diverse conditions with such striking variations in colour and form that their origin is uncertain. Prob¬ ably the garden pansy (V. wittrockiana) is a cultivated form of V. tricolor, a weed of European grainfields. Annuals or short-lived perennials, pan¬
sies grow 6-12 in. (15-30 cm) tall and have heart-shaped leaves at the base and oblong leaves growing from the stems. Velvety flowers occur in combinations of blue, yel¬ low, and white. The smaller, usually purple, wild pansy is also known as Johnny-jump-up, heartsease, and love-in-idleness.
pantheism Doctrine that the uni¬ verse is God and, conversely, that there is no god apart from the sub¬ stance, forces, and laws manifested in the universe. Pantheism character¬ izes many Buddhist and Hindu doc¬ trines and can be seen in such Hindu works as the Vedas and the Bhaga- vadgita. Numerous Greek philoso¬ phers contributed to the foundations of Western pantheism. In the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the tradi¬ tion was continued in Neoplatonism and Judeo-Christian mysticism. In the 17th century Benedict de Spinoza for¬ mulated the most thoroughly pantheistic philosophical system, arguing that God and Nature are merely two names for one reality.
Pantheon Building in Rome begun 27 bc, probably as an ordinary rect¬ angular Classical temple, and com¬ pletely rebuilt by Hadrian (c. ad 118- 128). It is remarkable for its size and design; the exact method of con¬ struction has never been determined.
A circular building of concrete faced with brick, it has a great concrete dome, 142 ft (43 m) in diameter, and a front porch of Corinthian columns with a triangular pediment. The vast space is lit solely by the 27-ft (8-m) oculus at the dome’s centre. The interior is lined with coloured marble, and the walls are marked by seven deep recesses screened by pairs of columns.
panther See cougar, leopard pantomime See mime and pantomime
pantothenic X.pan-to-'the-nik, .pan-to-'the-ndA acid Organic com¬ pound, essential in animal metabolism. The nature of the bound form was clarified through the discovery and synthesis (1947-50) of the compound pantetheine, which contains pantothenic acid combined with the com¬ pound thioethanolamine. Pantetheine is part of two larger compounds (coenzyme A and acyl-carrier protein) that promote a large number of metabolic reactions essential for the growth and well-being of animals. A dietary deficiency severe enough to lead to clear-cut disease has not been described in humans; however, when a person is severely malnour¬ ished, deficiency of the vitamin appears to contribute to the observed weakness and mental depression.
Panuco River Vpa-mi-.koN River, central Mexico. Rising in Hidalgo state and flowing northeast into the Gulf of Mexico below Tampico, it is about 100 mi (160 km) long and has considerable economic importance. It has served to drain Texcoco and other interior lakes via a system of tunnels and channels. Its waters are used to irrigate the fertile La Hua- steca lowlands, and its lower course is navigable.
panzer Vpan-zor, 'pant-s9r\ division (German panzer, “armoured”) Self-contained military unit of the German army, built around the capa¬ bilities of armoured vehicles. In World War II, it consisted of a tank bri¬ gade with four battalions; a motorized infantry brigade with four rifle battalions; an artillery regiment; and reconnaissance, antitank, and military-engineering battalions and service units. Germany had six pan¬ zer divisions in 1939 and 20 by 1941. It remains the principal offensive element of the German army.
pao-chia See baojia
Romanian panpipe; in the Horniman Museum, London
COURTESY OF THE HORNIMAN MUSEUM, LONDON
Pansy (Viola tricolor)
KITTY KOHOUT/ROOT RESOURCES
Pantheon, Rome, begun by Agrippa in 27 bc, completely rebuilt by Hadrian c. ad 118-c. 128.
FREDERICO ARBORIO MELLA
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
Paoli ► Papen I 1443
Paoli Vpau-leV Pasquale (b. April 26, 1725, Stretta di Morosaglia, Corsica—d. Feb. 5, 1807, London, Eng.) Corsican patriot. Son of Gia- cinto Paoli, who led the Corsicans against Genoa in 1735, he lived with his father in exile in Naples (1739-55). On his return, he overcame the Genoese faction and was elected to rule Corsica. He suppressed the ven¬ detta system, substituted order and justice, and instituted national schools. He continued the fight for independence, but after France invaded Cor¬ sica in 1769 he fled to England, where he lived until 1790. Recalled to Corsica as military commandant, he expelled the French with British naval support (1794) and offered the island’s sovereignty to England. He retired to England in 1795.
Paolo, Giovanni di See Giovanni di Paolo
Pap smear or Papanicolaou V.pap-s-'ne-ko-.laiA smear Sample of cells from the vagina and cervix of the uterus for laboratory staining and examination to detect genital herpes and early-stage cancer, especially of the cervix. Developed by the Greek-born U.S. physician George Nico¬ las Papanicolaou (1883-1962), this technique also can be applied to cells obtained from other surfaces.
papacy \'pa-pa-se\ System of central government of the Roman Catho¬ lic church. Bishops led the early church, the bishop of Rome being accorded special respect by the end of the 1st century ad in part because of the belief that St. Peter was the first bishop of that city. St. Cyprian chal¬ lenged that position of honour in the 3rd century, and in the 4th-5th cen¬ tury the power of the see of Constantinople rose to challenge that of Rome; the rivalry would culminate in the Schism of 1054 between the Eastern and Western churches. After the collapse of the Roman Empire, the papacy found protection under the wing of Charlemagne and his successors; in the 9th-10th century the German emperors controlled it. In 1059 Pope Nicholas II responded by vesting the right to name a new pope exclusively with the College of Cardinals. To establish the papacy’s supremacy in Christian society, Gregory VII excommunicated Henry IV of Germany for disobedience to papal commands and decreed that civil rulers could not invest churchmen with temporal power (see Investiture Controversy). In the next centuries, the papacy developed into one of the most important and influential institutions in Europe, and Urban II, Innocent HI. and Gre¬ gory IX were among the most significant popes of the period. The world¬ liness and corruption of the papal court that emerged at the same time and the “Babylonian Captivity” of the papacy at Avignon (see Avignon papacy) led to the Western Schism and eventually to the Reformation. The Council of Trent inaugurated the Counter-Reformation. In the 19th century the papacy lost its remaining temporal powers when the Papal States were incorporated into the new Kingdom of Italy. It maintained a conservative religious position, proclaiming infallibility in doctrinal matters and espousing the idea that the pope is the absolute ruler of the church. The Second Vatican Council gave the bishops, clergy, and laity more voice. See also Roman Catholicism.
Papago Vpa-p9-,go\ or Tohono O'odham North American Indian people linving mostly in a region straddling the U.S.-Mexico border. Their language belongs to the Uto-Aztecan language stock. They rejected the name Papago, from a Piman word papahvi-o-otam meaning “bean eat¬ ers,” in the 1980s; they call themselves Tohono O’odham, meaning “Desert People.” Closely related to the Pima, they probably descend from ancient Hohokam peoples. On their traditional territory, vast stretches of desert regions of Arizona, U.S., and northern Sonora, Mex., the Papago practiced food gathering and flash-flood farming. Because of the wide dispersal of their fields, their largest viable political unit was a group of temporarily related villages. They had less contact with whites than other Indian groups and have retained elements of their traditional culture. They number some 15,000.
Papal Curia See Roman Curia
papal infallibility In Roman Catholicism, the doctrine that the pope, acting as supreme teacher and under certain conditions, as when he speaks ex cathedra (“from the chair”), cannot err when he teaches in matters of faith or morals. It is based on the belief that the church, entrusted with the teaching mission of Jesus, will be guided by the Holy Spirit in remain¬ ing faithful to that teaching. The First Vatican Council (1869-70) stated the conditions under which a pope may be said to have spoken infallibly: he must intend to demand irrevocable assent from the entire church in some aspect of faith or morals. The doctrine remains a major obstacle to ecumenical endeavours and is the subject of controversy even among Roman Catholic theologians.
Papal Inquisition See Inquisition
Papal States Italian Stati Pontifici Vsta-te-pon-'te-fe-che\ Territo¬ ries of central Italy over which the pope had sovereignty from 756 to 1870. The extent of the territory and the degree of papal control varied over the centuries. As early as the 4th century, the popes had acquired consider¬ able property around Rome (called the Patrimony of St. Peter). From the 5th century, with the breakdown of Roman imperial authority in the West, the popes’ influence in central Italy increased as the people of the area relied on them for protection against the barbarian invasions. When the Lombards threatened to take over the whole peninsula in the 750s, Pope Stephen II (or III) appealed for aid to the Frankish ruler Pippin III (the Short). On intervening, Pippin “restored” the lands of central Italy to the Roman see, ignoring the claim of the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire to sovereignty there. This Donation of Pippin (754) provided the basis for the papal claim to temporal power. More land was gained when the papacy acquired the duchy of Benevento in 1077, and Popes Innocent III and Julius II further expanded the papal domain. The rise of communes and rule by local families weakened papal authority in the towns, and by the 16th century the papal territory was one of a number of petty Italian states. They were an obstacle to Italian unity until 1870, when Rome was taken by Italian forces and became the capital of Italy. In 1929 the Lateran Treaty settled the pope’s relation to the Italian state and set up an independent city-state (see Vatican City).
Papandreou V.pa-pan-'dra-iA, Andreas (Georgios) (b. Feb. 5, 1919, Chios, Greece—d. June 23, 1996, Ekali, near Athens) Greek edu¬ cator and prime minister (1981-89, 1993-96). Son of Georgios Papan¬ dreou, he taught at the University of California, Berkeley (1955-63), then returned to Greece when his father became premier (1963) and was elected to the Greek parliament. After the military coup in 1967 he went into exile. He returned in 1974 to form the left-wing Panhellenic Social¬ ist Movement (Pasok). The party gained a majority in 1981, and Papan¬ dreou became premier. He promoted generous social-welfare programs, but his government was weakened by financial scandals and mounting budget deficits, and he resigned in 1989 but remained the leader of Pasok. He again became prime minister in 1993, but ill health forced him to retire in 1996.
Papandreou, Georgios (b. Feb. 13, 1888, Kalentzi, Greece—d. Nov. 1, 1968, Athens) Greek prime minister (1944, 1963, 1964-65). He began his political career as a liberal in 1915 and served as minister of education (1929-33). In 1935 he founded the Democratic Socialist Party, then went into exile. He briefly headed a coalition government in 1944, then held ministerial posts (1946-52). He merged his party with the Lib¬ eral Party and formed the Centre Union in 1961. As prime minister in 1964 he introduced far-reaching social reforms, but he was dismissed by the king in 1965. After the military coup in 1967, he was jailed briefly with his son, Andreas Papandreou.
papaw or pawpaw Vpa-,p6\ Deciduous tree or shrub (Asimina tri¬ loba) of the custard apple family, native to the eastern and midwestem U.S. It can grow to 40 ft (12 m) tall and has pointed, broadly oblong, droop¬ ing leaves up to 12 in. (30 cm) long. The purple flowers bloom with a foul odour before the leaves emerge in spring. The edible fruit looks like a stubby banana; its skin turns black as it ripens. Handling papaw fruits produces a skin reaction in allergic individuals. The name is also some¬ times applied to the papaya.
papaya \p9-'pI-3\ Large palmlike plant (Carica papaya; family Cari- caceae), cultivated throughout the tropics and warm subtropics, and its succulent juicy fruit. A popular breakfast fruit in many countries, it is also used in salads, pies, sherbets, juices, and confections. The juice of the unripe fruit contain an enzyme that is useful in various remedies for indi¬ gestion and in meat tenderizers.
Papeete \,pa-pa-'a-ta\ Seaport (pop., 1996: 25,353), capital of French Polynesia. It is located on the northwestern coast of Tahiti. A tropical city with tall palms and exotic flowers, it is one of the largest urban and com¬ mercial centres in the South Pacific. By 1829 its excellent harbour made it a place of trade and a port of call for whalers. In 1880 it was annexed by the French, and it became a commune in 1890. It is a major tourist base and a centre for Pacific Rim trade.
Papen Vpa-p9n\, Franz von (b. Oct. 29, 1879, Werl, Ger.—d. May 2, 1969, Obersasbach, W.Ger.) German politician. He served as military attache in Washington, D.C. (1913-15), but was recalled on espionage
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
1444 I paper ► Papua New Guinea
charges. A monarchist member of the German Reichstag (1921-32), he was chosen chancellor in 1932, but he was soon ousted by Kurt von Schleicher. In revenge, Papen per¬ suaded Paul von Hindenburg to appoint Adolf Hitler as chancellor and himself as vice chancellor.
Papen resigned in 1934 when he was unable to restrain the Nazis’ push for power. As ambassador to Austria (1934-38), he worked for Austria’s annexation to Germany. He was ambassador to Turkey (1939-44).
Arrested in 1945, he was tried and acquitted at the NOrnberg trials; sen¬ tenced to prison by a German court as a Nazi, he was released on appeal in 1949.
paper Matted or felted sheet, usu¬ ally made of cellulose fibres, formed on a wire screen from water suspen¬ sion. Source materials include wood pulp, rags, and recycled paper. The fibres are separated (by processes that may be mechanical, chemical, or both) and wetted to produce paper pulp, or stock. The pulp is filtered on a woven screen to form a sheet of fibre, which is pressed and compacted to squeeze out most of the water. The remaining water is removed by evaporation, and the dry sheet is further compressed and often (depend¬ ing on the intended use) coated or infused with other substances. Types of paper in common use include bond paper, book paper, bristol (or bris- tol board), groundwood and newsprint, kraft paper, paperboard, and sani¬ tary paper (for towels, napkins, etc.). See also calendering; Fourdrinier MACHINE; KRAFT PROCESS.
paper birch Ornamental, shade, and timber tree (Betula papyrifera) of the birch family, native to northern and central North America. Also called canoe birch, silver birch, or white birch, it is one of the best-known birches. The smooth, varicolored or white bark of young trees peels hori¬ zontally in thin sheets, which once were used as writing surfaces as well as for roofing, canoes, and shoes. The water-impervious bark, which bums even when wet, is a boon to campers and hikers.
paper chromatography (PC) Type of chromatography using filter paper or other special paper as the stationary phase. Spots of sample and reference materials are applied, usually as liquids, near one edge (or cor¬ ner, for two-dimensional PC) of the paper. The edge of the paper is dipped in a solvent, which travels along it by capillarity, moving the components of the sample at rates depending on their relative solubilities in the sol¬ vent. In two-dimensional PC, the paper is then turned 90° and the new edge dipped in a different solvent. The components of the sample mix¬ ture, visible as separated spots, are identified by comparing the distances they have traveled with those of the known reference materials. PC is especially useful for complex mixtures of amino acids, peptides, carbohy¬ drates, steroids, and many other organic compounds and inorganic ions.
paper folding Japanese origami Art of folding objects out of paper without cutting, pasting, or decorating. Its early history is unknown, but it seems to have developed from the older art of folding cloth. Origami has reached its greatest development in Japan, with hundreds of traditional folds and an extensive literature dealing with the art. There are two types of Japanese folds: figures used in ceremonial etiquette, and objects such as animals, flowers, furniture, and human figures. Some objects have amusing action features; best known is the bird that flaps its wings when its tail is pulled. Paper folding has also flourished in Spain, South America, and Germany.
Paphlagonia Ancient district, northern Anatolia, on the Black Sea. A mountainous country, one of the oldest in Anatolia, it submitted to Alex¬ ander the Great in 333 bc. In the 3rd-2nd century bc it was gradually absorbed by the Pontic kingdom on its eastern border. In 65 bc the coastal districts, including the capital, Sinope, were attached to Roman Bithynia. The area was incorporated into the Roman province of Galatia in c. 6 bc; the interior regions were left under native rulers. It was part of the Byz¬ antine Empire, and all but its coastal regions were lost to invading Turk¬ ish peoples after the Battle of Manzikert (1071).
papillomavirus X.pa-po-'lo-mo-.vI-rosX Any of a group of viRUSes that cause warts and other harmless tumours in humans. More than 100 dis¬ tinct types are known. Different types are responsible for warts of the hands, plantar warts (of the feet), and throat warts. Genital warts are caused by other types, which are spread by sexual intercourse. Some types of papillomaviruses that cause genital infections have been linked with various cancerous tumours, especially cervical cancers; their presence can be detected through a Pap smear.
papillon \,pa-pe-'yo n \ Breed of toy dog known from the 16th century, when it was called a dwarf spaniel. A favorite of Marie-Antoinette, it appeared in paintings by Old Masters. It acquired its name (French for “butterfly”) in the late 19th century, when a variety with large, flaring ears became fashionable. Another variety has drooping ears. A slender, grace¬ ful dog with a plumed tail, it stands 11 in. (28 cm) or less and weighs up to 11 lbs (5 kg). The soft, full coat is usually white, with darker patches.
Papineau \pa-pe-'no\, Louis Joseph (b. Oct. 7, 1786, Montreal, Que.—d. Sept. 23, 1871, Montebello, Que., Can.) Canadian politician. He was elected to the legislative assembly of Lower Canada (now Quebec) in 1808 and became its speaker in 1815. A leader of the French-Canadian Party, he opposed the British-dominated government of Lower Canada. In 1834 he helped draft the 92 Resolutions, a statement of French- Canadian demands and grievances. When the British governor rejected the resolutions, hostilities broke out. Papineau escaped to the U.S. and then to France, where he lived from 1839 to 1844. He returned to Canada under an amnesty in 1844 and served in the Canadian House of Com¬ mons from 1848 to 1854, though he never regained his leadership of the French-Canadians.
Papp, Joseph orig. Joseph Papirofsky (b. June 22, 1921, Brook¬ lyn, N.Y., U.S.—d. Oct. 31, 1991, New York, N.Y.) U.S. theatrical pro¬ ducer and director. He studied acting and directing and worked as a stage manager for CBS television. In 1954 he founded the New York Shakes¬ peare Festival, which gave free performances of Shakespeare’s plays in city parks. He produced and directed most of the plays; in 1962 the Dela- corte Theatre in Central Park was built as the company’s permanent home. In 1967 he founded the New York Shakespeare Festival Public Theatre, which concentrated on contemporary and experimental dramas. Several productions traveled to Broadway, including Hair (1967) and A Chorus Line (1975). Papp remained one of Off-Broadway’ s most active produc¬ ers into the 1980s. He served as artistic director of the Shakespeare Fes¬ tival and the Public Theatre until his death.
Papua formerly Irian Jaya Province (pop., 2000 prelim.: 2,220,934), Indonesia. It includes the western half of the island of New Guinea and its offshore islands and the Schouten and Raja Ampat island groups. The Maoke Mountains rise to 16,503 ft (5,030 m) at Puncak Jaya. First sighted by the Portuguese in 1511, Papua was claimed by the Dutch in 1828. It was transferred to Indonesia in 1963 and was made a province in 1969, with its capital at Jayapura. Rebels led a separatist movement there in the late 1990s, and Papua achieved greater autonomy in 2001.
Papua New Guinea Vpa-pyu-w3...'gi-ne\ officially Independent State of Papua New Guinea Island country, southwestern Pacific Ocean. Area: 178,704 sq mi (462,840 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 5,887,000. Capital: Port Moresby. Most of the people are Papuan (four- fifths) and Melanesian; ethnic minorities are Polynesian, Chinese, and European. Languages: English (official), Tok Pisin, Motu, indigenous lan¬ guages. Religions: Christianity (Protestant, Roman Catholic); also tradi¬ tional beliefs. Currency: kina. The island of New Guinea constitutes about seven-eighths of the total land area of Papua New Guinea; the country also includes Bougainville Island and the Bismarck Archipelago. The New Guinea terrain ranges from swampy lowland plains in the south and north to high central mountains (the highlands) in the northwest and southeast. Much of the land is covered with tropical rainforest. Some of the outly¬ ing islands are volcanic. The country has a developing mixed economy based largely on subsistence agriculture and the export of minerals. It is a constitutional monarchy with one legislative house; its chief of state is the British monarch represented by the governor-general, and the head of government is the prime minister. The area has been inhabited since pre¬ historic times, and farming has been practiced since c. 7000 bc. The Por¬ tuguese sighted the coast in 1511, and the first European landing was about 1526-27. The first European colony was founded in 1793 by the British. In 1828 the Dutch claimed the western half as part of the Dutch East Indies. In 1884 Britain annexed the southeastern part and Germany
Papen
CAMERA PRESS
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Papuan languages ► Paraguana Peninsula I 1445
'140°
'150°
0°
Equator
NINIGO
GROUP
ADMIRALTY ISLANDS ^
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