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Santa Clara

’jSiwM Ba < Gfande • Sm'ritus • Moro " . .. ■ /j^yCfenraegos H • Ciego de Avila

Nueva"

Gerdnii ,’••• "" of Pigs

ISLA DE LA JUVENTUD

Camagiiey * Nuevitas Gulf of >iPuerto Padre

LasTunas^ ) Holguin Santa r.rii7 * •

GREAT

INAGUA

Moa

Baracoa

cayman islands » w(U.K.)

George Town

CARIBBEAN SEA

delSur Bayamo # Mayan Manzanillo* .Santiago.

Pico Turquinode Cuba Guantanamo

6,560 ft. Guantanamo

Bay ^

NAVASSA ISLAND (U.S.)

HAITI

Kingston

HONDURAS

gambling, caused the economy to prosper.

Inequalities in the distribution of wealth persisted, however, as did political corrup¬ tion. In 1958-59 the communist revolu¬ tionary Fidel Castro overthrew its longtime dictator Fulgencio Batista and established a socialist state aligned with the Soviet Union, abolishing capitalism and nationalizing foreign-owned enterprises. Relations with the U.S. deteriorated, reaching a low point with the 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion and the 1962 Cuban missile crisis. In 1980 about 125,000 Cubans, includ¬ ing many officially labeled “undesirables,” were shipped to the U.S. in the so-called Mariel Boat Lift. When communism collapsed in the U.S.S.R., Cuba lost important financial backing, and its economy suffered greatly. The economy gradually began improving in the 1990s with the encouragement of tourism and the legalization of small businesses and private employment, though diplomatic relations with the U.S. were not resumed.

Cuban missile crisis (1962) Major confrontation between the U.S. and the Soviet Union over the presence of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba. In October 1962 a U.S. spy plane detected a ballistic missile on a launch¬ ing site in Cuba. Pres. John F. Kennedy placed a naval blockade around the island, and for several days the U.S. and the Soviet Union hovered on the brink of war. Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev finally agreed to remove the missiles in return for a secret commitment from the U.S. to withdraw its own missiles from Turkey and to never invade Cuba. The incident increased tensions during the Cold War and fueled the nuclear arms race between the two countries. See also Fidel Castro.

Cubango River See Okavango River

Cubism Movement in the visual arts created by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque in Paris between 1907 and 1914. They were later joined by Juan Gris, Fernand Leger, Robert Delaunay, and others. The name derives from a review that described Braque’s work as images composed of cubes. Picasso’s Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907) signaled the new style, which was inspired by African sculpture and the later paintings of Paul Cezanne. Cub¬ ist work emphasized the flat, two-dimensional, fragmented surface of the picture plane, rejecting perspective, foreshortening, modeling, and chiar¬ oscuro in favour of geometric forms. The work made in this style from 1910 to 1912 is often referred to as Analytical Cubism. Paintings executed during this period show the breaking down, or analysis, of form. Artists favoured right-angle and straight-line construction and colour schemes that were nearly monochromatic. After 1912 the phase known as Synthetic Cubism began. Works from this phase emphasize the combination, or syn¬ thesis, of forms in the picture. Colour assumes a strong role in the work; shapes, while remaining fragmented and flat, are larger and more decora-

492 I cuckoo ► cultivation

tive; and collage is often used. Many subsequent 20th-century avant-garde movements were influenced by the experimentation of the Cubists.

cuckoo Any of some 138 species of tree-dwelling and terrestrial birds of the family Cuculidae. They are found worldwide in temperate and tropical regions but are most diverse in the Old World tropics. New World species are sometimes classified as a separate family (Coccyzidae) and include the roadrunner. Cuckoos range from 6.5 to 36 in. (16 to 90 cm) long. Most are drab gray, but a few are partially or completely brightly coloured or iridescent. Aside from the European cuckoo’s familiar two- note call, cuckoos are best known for their habit of brood parasitism (see cowbird); their eggs resemble those of the host species (egg mimicry), and the adult cuckoo removes one or more host eggs to ensure that the substitution is not detected. The newly hatched cuckoo may also eject eggs or nestlings.

cucumber Creeping plant ( Cucu- mis sativus), of the gourd family (Cucurbitaceae), or its oblong fruit, for which it is widely cultivated. It probably originated in northern India. The plant is a tender annual with a rough, succulent, trailing stem and hairy leaves with pointed lobes; the stem bears branched tendrils by which the plant can suspend itself. The food value of the fruit is low, but its delicate flavour makes it a popular vegetable for salads and relishes.

cucumber beetle Any of several leaf beetles (genus Diabrotica) that are important pests. They are greenish yellow, marked with black spots or stripes, and 0.1-0.5 in. (2.5-11 mm) long. The striped cucumber beetle and spotted cucumber beetle both feed on garden plants, and their larvae feed on the roots.

Cudworth, Ralph (b. 1617, Aler, Somerset, Eng.—d. June 26, 1688, Cambridge) English theologian and philosopher. Reared as a Puritan, he eventually adopted Nonconformist views such as the notion that church government and religious practice should be individual rather than authoritarian. He became a leader of the Cambridge Platonists. In ethics, his outstanding work is A Treatise Concerning Eternal and Immutable Morality (1731), which was directed against Puritan Calvinism, the the¬ ology of Rene Descartes, and the attempt by Thomas Hobbes to reduce morality to obedience to civil authority. He stressed the natural good or evil inherent in an event or act, in contrast to the Calvinist-Cartesian notion of divine law. “Things are what they are,” he wrote, “not by Will but by Nature.” See also intuitionism; voluntarism.

Cuellar, Javier Perez de See Javier Perez de Cuellar

Cuernavaca \,kwer-n3-'va-k3\ City (pop., 2000: 327,162), capital of Morelos state, south-central Mexico. As the capital city of the Tlahuica Indians, it was known as Cuauhnahuac. The name was changed (c. 1521) when it was taken by Hernan Cortes; his palace, now the Morelos State House (decorated with murals by painter Diego Rivera), is located there. Nearby are pre-Columbian ruins. A favourite retreat of the emperor Max¬ imilian, the area is still popular with tourists. The University of Morelos was established there in 1953.

Cuiaba \ 1 kii-y3-'ba\ River or Cuyaba River River, Brazil. Rising in central Mato Grosso state, it flows 300 mi (480 km) southwest to join the Sao Lourengo River. These two rivers’ combined courses enter the Para¬ guay River north of Corumba. Gold deposits are found in the Cuiaba’s headwaters.

Cukierman, Yizhak See Itzhak Zuckerman

Cukor Vkyu-korN, George (Dewey) (b. July 7, 1899, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Jan. 24, 1983, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. film director. He directed plays on Broadway before going to Hollywood in 1929. His first film. Tarnished Lady (1931), was followed by the acclaimed Little Women

(1933), David Copperfield (1935), The Philadelphia Story (1940), and Gaslight (1944). He directed several comedies starring Katharine Hepburn and Spencer Tracy, including Adam’s Rib (1949) and Pat and Mike (1952). He was noted for his skill in working with actors, particularly women. Among his other memorable films are Dinner at Eight (1933), The Women (1939), A Star Is Born (1954), and My Fair Lady (1964, Academy Award).

Culiacan X.kul-ys-'kanV City (pop., 2000: 540,823), capital of Sinaloa state, western Mexico. Located on the Culiacan River, it was founded on the site of an Indian settlement in 1531 and played an important role in early colonial days as a base for Spanish expeditions. An elaborate irri¬ gation system in the valley provides for a variety of crops, including com, sugarcane, tobacco, and fruits and vegetables. It is the seat of the Uni¬ versity of Sinaloa (1873).

Cullen, Countee orig. Countee Porter (b. May 30, 1903, Louis¬ ville, Ky.?, U.S.—d. Jan. 9, 1946, New York, N.Y.) U.S. poet of the Har¬ lem Renaissance. Reared in New York City, he was unofficially adopted at age 15 by a minister. He won a city wide poetry contest and later attended New York and Harvard universities, winning academic honours. His first collection of poems, Color (1925), received critical acclaim while he was still in college. Copper Sun (1927) was criticized in the black community for not giving enough attention to the issue of race. He taught in the city’s public schools from 1934 until his death.

Cullen, William (b. April 15, 1710, Hamilton, Lanarkshire, Scot.—d. Feb. 5, 1790, Kirknewton, near Edinburgh) Scottish physician and pro¬ fessor. One of the first to teach in English rather than Latin, he was cel¬ ebrated for his clinical lectures, which he gave in the infirmary from his own notes instead of a text. He taught that life was a function of nervous energy and that muscle was a continuation of nerve. His influential clas¬ sification of disease included febrile diseases, nervous diseases, diseases produced by bad bodily habits, and local diseases.

Cullinan Vko-lo-nonV diamond Largest gem diamond ever discov¬ ered. It weighed about 3,106 carats in rough form when it was found in 1905 at the Premier mine in Transvaal, S.Af. Named for Sir Thomas Cull¬ inan, who had discovered the mine, the colourless stone was purchased by the Transvaal government and presented to Britain’s King Edward VII. It was cut into 9 large stones and about 100 smaller ones, all flawless; they are now part of the British crown jewels.

Culloden \k3-'la-d 3 n. Battle of (April 16, 1746) Last battle of the “Forty-five Rebellion,” which took place on a moor near Inverness, Scot. The Jacobites, under Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, were defeated by British forces under the duke of Cumberland. Some 1,000 of the Young Pretender’s army of 5,000 were killed by the 9,000 Redcoats, who lost only 50 men. The battle, which lasted only 40 minutes, marked the end of any serious attempt to restore the house of Stuart to the British throne.

Culpeper's Rebellion (1677-79) Popular uprising in the Albemarle section of Carolina to protest the British Navigation Acts, which denied the colonists free markets. Led by John Culpeper and George Durant, the rebels imprisoned the deputy governor (and customs collector) and other officials. They convened a legislature, chose Culpeper as governor, and ran the colony for two years. Culpeper was removed by the colony’s pro¬ prietors and tried for treason but never punished.

cult Collective veneration or worship (e.g., the cult of the saints— meaning collective veneration of the saints—in Roman Catholicism). In the West, the term has come to be used for groups that are perceived to have deviated from normative religions in belief and practice. They typi¬ cally have a charismatic leader and attract followers who are in some way disenfranchised from the mainstream of society. Cults as thus defined are often viewed as foreign or dangerous.

cultivar Vkol-to-.varX Any variety of a plant, originating through clon¬ ing or hybridization (see clone, hybrid), known only in cultivation. In asexually propagated plants, a cultivar is a clone considered valuable enough to have its own name; in sexually propagated plants, a cultivar is a pure line (for self-pollinated plants) or, for cross-pollinated plants, a population that is genetically distinguishable.

cultivation Loosening and breaking up (tilling) of the soil. The soil around existing plants is cultivated (by hand using a hoe, or by machine using a cultivator) to destroy weeds and promote growth by increasing soil aeration and water infiltration. Soil being prepared for the planting of a crop is cultivated by a harrow or plow.

Cuckoo (Cuculus).

GRAEME CHAPMAN/ARDEA LONDON

Cultivation System ► Cumbria I 493

Cultivation System or Culture System Revenue system in the Dutch East Indies (modem Indonesia) that forced farmers to pay revenue to The Netherlands in the form of export crops or compulsory labour. The system was introduced in 1830 by the colonial governor-general Johannes van den Bosch. In theory, it required that villagers set aside one-fifth of their land to grow export crops (e.g., coffee, sugar) for the government and that landless peasants work for one-fifth of the year on government fields. In fact, much more land and time were required, and the system proved burdensome. Though roundly criticized in the mid-1850s, the sys¬ tem was not abolished until 1870.

cultural anthropology Branch of anthropology that deals with the study of culture. The discipline uses the methods, concepts, and data of archaeology, ethnography, folklore, linguistics, and related fields in its descriptions and analyses of the diverse peoples of the world. Called social anthropology in Britain, its field of research was until the mid 20th century largely restricted to the small-scale (or “primitive”), non-Western societies that first began to be identified during the age of discovery. Today the field extends to all forms of human association, from village commu¬ nities to corporate cultures to urban gangs. Two key perspectives used are those of holism (understanding society as a complex, interactive whole) and cultural relativism (the appreciation of cultural phenomena within their own context). Areas of study traditionally include social structure, law, politics, religion, magic, art, and technology.

Cultural Revolution officially Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (1966-76) Upheaval launched by Mao Zedong to renew the spirit of revolution in China. Mao feared urban social stratification in a society as traditionally elitist as China and also believed that programs instituted to correct for the failed Great Leap Forward showed that his col¬ leagues lacked commitment to the revolution. He organized China’s urban youths into groups called the Red Guards, shut down China’s schools, and encouraged the Red Guards to attack all traditional values and “bourgeois things.” They soon splintered into zealous rival groups, and in 1968 Mao sent millions of them to the rural hinterland, bringing some order to the cities. Within the government, a coalition of Mao’s associates fought with more moderate elements, many of whom were purged, were verbally attacked, were physically abused, and subsequently died; leaders Liu Shao- qi and Lin Biao both died under mysterious circumstances. From 1973 to Mao’s death in 1976, politics shifted between the hard-line Gang of Four and the moderates headed by Zhou Enlai and Deng Xiaoping. After Mao’s death the Cultural Revolution was brought to a close. By that time, nearly three million party members and countless wrongfully purged citizens awaited reinstatement. The Cultural Revolution subsequently was repu¬ diated in China. See also Jiang Qing.

cultural studies Interdisciplinary field concerned with the role of social institutions in the shaping of culture. Originally identified with the Center for Contemporary Cultural Studies at the University of Birming¬ ham (founded 1964) and with such scholars as Richard Hoggart, Stuart Hall, and Raymond Williams, today cultural studies is recognized as a discipline or area of concentration in many academic institutions and has had broad influence in sociology, anthropology, historiography, literary criticism, philosophy, and art criticism. Among its central concerns are the place of race (or ethnicity), class, and gender in the production of cultural knowledge.

culture Integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behaviour that is both a result of and integral to the human capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations. Culture thus consists of language, ideas, beliefs, customs, taboos, codes, institutions, tools, techniques, works of art, rituals, ceremonies, and symbols. It has played a crucial role in human evolution, allowing human beings to adapt the environment to their own purposes rather than depend solely on natural selection to achieve adaptive success. Every human society has its own particular culture, or sociocultural system. Variation among cultures is attributable to such factors as differing physical habitats and resources; the range of possibilities inherent in areas such as language, ritual, and social organization; and historical phenomena such as the development of links with other cultures. An individual’s attitudes, values, ideals, and beliefs are greatly influenced by the culture (or cultures) in which he or she lives. Culture change takes place as a result of ecological, socioeco¬ nomic, political, religious, or other fundamental factors affecting a soci¬ ety. See also culture contact; sociocultural evolution.

culture, pure See pure culture

culture contact Contact between peoples with different cultures, usu¬ ally leading to change in one or both systems. Forms of culture contact traditionally include acculturation, assimilation, and amalgamation. Acculturation is the process of change in material culture, traditional practices, and beliefs that occurs when one group interferes in the cultural system of another, directly or indirectly challenging the latter to adapt to the ways of the former. Such change has characterized most political con¬ quests and expansions over the centuries. Assimilation is the process whereby individuals or groups of differing ethnicity are absorbed into the dominant culture of a society—though not always completely. In the U.S. millions of European immigrants became assimilated within two or three generations; factors included the upheaval of overseas relocation, the influences of the public school system, and other forces in American life. Amalgamation (or hybridization) occurs when a society becomes ethni¬ cally mixed in a way that represents a synthesis rather than the elimina¬ tion or absorption of one group by another. In Mexico, for example, Spanish and Indian cultures became increasingly amalgamated over cen¬ turies of contact.

culture hero Mythological figure who secures for humanity the attributes of culture either in cooperation with or in opposition to the gods. The culture hero is often an animal or trickster figure, the most common motif being the animal who steals fire from the gods for the benefit of humans. In other stories the culture hero is human and must overcome the opposition of animals. In still others, the culture hero must travel to an inaccessible place to reach a life-giving or healing tree or other plant; supernatural animals may assist or obstruct him. See also Prometheus.

Culture System See Cultivation System

Cumae \'kyu-me\ Ancient city west of Naples, Italy. Probably the old¬ est Greek mainland colony in the West, it was home to the Cumaean Sibyl, whose cavern still exists. Founded c. 750 bc by Greeks from Chalcis, it came to control much of the Campanian plain. Taken by the Samnites in the 5th century bc, it was subjugated by Rome in 338 bc. Under the empire it became a quiet country town. It was destroyed in ad 1205. Remains of fortifications and graves from all these periods have been found through¬ out the area.

Cumberland Gap National Historical Park National historical park, Tennessee, U.S. Created in 1940 to preserve the Cumberland Gap, a natural pass at 1,640 ft (500 m) through the Cumberland Plateau, it includes the Wilderness Road, blazed by Daniel Boone, which became the main artery that opened the Northwest Territory. The park covers 32 sq mi (83 sq km).

Cumberland Plateau Tableland in the U.S. that forms the western section of the Appalachian Mountains and a part of the Allegheny Plateau. It extends southwest for 450 mi (725 km) from southern West Virginia to northeastern Alabama, averages 50 mi (80 km) in width, and is 2,000- 4,145 ft (600-1,263 m) high. The roughest and highest portion is a nar¬ row ridge about 140 mi (225 km) long that forms its eastern margin in eastern Kentucky and northeastern Tennessee; the name Cumberland Mountains is generally applied to this area, which includes the Cumber¬ land Gap National Historical Park. The plateau has large deposits of coal, limestone, and sandstone.

Cumberland River River, Kentucky and Tennessee, U.S. It rises in southeastern Kentucky and flows west, looping through northern Tennes¬ see before returning north to join the Ohio River after a course of 687 mi (1,106 km). It drops 92 ft (28 m) at Cumberland (or Great) Falls, the site of a state park. A series of lakes on the Cumberland were developed as part of the Tennessee Valley Authority system. Wolf Creek Dam (1952) cre¬ ated Lake Cumberland, which extends to the base of Cumberland Falls.

Cumberland Sound Inlet of Davis Strait, Nunavut, Canada. Indent¬ ing the southeastern coast of Baffin Island, it is 170 mi (270 km) long and 100 mi (160 km) wide. John Davis, an English navigator, sailed into the sound in 1585 in search of the Northwest Passage. By the late 19th cen¬ tury the area was noted for whaling. The Anglican church established missions early in the 20th century at settlements along its shores.

Cumbria Administrative county (pop., 2001: 487,607), northwestern England. Extending along the Irish Sea coast from Morecambe Bay to Solway Firth, it includes the famous Lake District. It was established in 1974, with its seat at Carlisle. Human occupation dates from the Neolithic Period. The Romans constructed several roads, a series of forts, and the great complex of Hadrian's Wall. After the mid-10th century, northern

494 I cumin ► cupellafion

Cumbria alternated between Scottish and English rule until it was taken by the English in 1157. Lead, silver, and iron ore have been mined in the district since the 12th century.

cumin Vko-mon, 'kyii-monV Small, slender annual herb ( Cuminum cym- inum ) of the carrot family (Apiaceae). It is cultivated in the Mediterra¬ nean region, India, China, and Mexico. Its seeds, which are actually dried fruits, are used in many spice mixtures such as chili and curry powders. Cumin is especially popular in Asian, North African, and Latin American cuisines. Its oil is used in perfumes, for flavouring liquors, and for medici¬ nal purposes.

Cummings, E(dward) E(stlin) (b. Oct. 14, 1894, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.—d. Sept. 3, 1962, North Conway, N.H.) U.S. poet and painter. Cum¬ mings attended Harvard University. His experience in World War I of being held in a detention camp because of a censor’s error gave rise to his first prose book, The Enormous Room (1922). His first book of poems. Tulips and Chimneys (1923), was followed by 11 more. Cummings’s poetry, rooted in New England traditions of dissent and self-reliance, attracted attention for its lack of capitalization, eccentric punctuation and phrasing, and often childlike playfulness, which won it a wide readership. His Norton lectures at Harvard were published as i: six nonlectures (1953).

Cuna Vkii-noN Chibchan-speaking Indian people who once occupied the central region of what is now Panama and the neighbouring San Bias Islands and who still survive in marginal areas. In the 16th century they lived in federated villages under chiefs who wielded considerable power. They had a hierarchical society and enslaved prisoners of war. Today they live in small villages and depend on agriculture, which is supplemented by hunting and fishing, for subsistence.

Cunard \kyu-'nard\, Sir Samuel, 1st Baronet (b. Nov. 21, 1787, Halifax, Nova Scotia—d. April 28, 1865, Kensington, London, Eng.) Canadian-British merchant and shipowner. He became prosperous in com¬ merce and began laying plans in 1830 to establish mail service between England and North America. He went to England in 1838 and in 1839 cofounded the British and North American Royal Mail Steam Packet Co., known as the Cunard Line. In 1840, four Cunard liners began the first regular service across the Atlantic Ocean.

cuneiform law \ l kyu-'ne-3- 1 f6rm\ Body of laws revealed by docu¬ ments written in cuneiform script (see cuneiform writing). It includes the laws of the Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Elamites, Hurrians, Kas- sites, and Hittites. Unlike modern legal codes, these ancient codes do not systematically treat all the rules applicable to a given area of law; rather, they treat a variety of matters but often ignore many highly important rules simply because such rules were so grounded in custom that they went unquestioned. The most important of the ancient codes is the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi.

cuneiform \kyu- , ne-9- l form\ writing System of writing employed in ancient times to write a number of languages of the Middle East. The original and primary writing material for cuneiform texts was a damp clay tablet, into which the scribe would press a wedge-shaped stroke with a

original

pictograph

pictograph position in later cuneiform

early

Babylonian

Assyrian

original or derived meaning

bird

fish

❖

sun,

day

•T?

to plow, to till

Examples illustrating the evolution of cuneiform writing.

reed stylus. A configuration of such impressions constituted a character, or sign. Proto-cuneiform signs dating from c. 3200-3000 bc were drawn rather than impressed and were largely pictographic (see pictography), though these features were lost as the script evolved. A single cuneiform sign could be a logogram (an arbitrary representation of a word) or a syl- labogram (a representation of the sound of a syllable). The first language to be written in cuneiform was Sumerian (see Sumer). Akkadian began to be written in cuneiform c. 2350 bc. Later the script was adapted to other South Asian languages. Cuneiform was slowly displaced in the first mil¬ lennium bc by the rise of Aramaic, written in an alphabet script of Phoe¬ nician origin. Knowledge of the value of cuneiform signs was lost until the mid-19th century, when European scholars deciphered the script.

Cunene \ku-'na-n3\ River or Kunene River River, southwestern Angola. It flows south to enter the northern Kalahari Desert. Forming part of the boundary between Angola and Namibia, it passes through the Namib Desert before emptying into the Atlantic Ocean after a total course of 700 mi (1,125 km).

Cunningham, Imogen (b. April 12, 1883, Portland, Ore., U.S.—d. June 24, 1976, San Francisco, Calif.)

U.S. photographer. She began taking pictures in 1901; her earliest prints imitated contemporary academic painting. She opened a portrait stu¬ dio in Seattle, Wash., in 1910 and soon established a national reputa¬ tion as a portrait photographer.

Encouraged by Edward Weston, she exhibited her plant photographs in San Francisco, where she would work for the remainder of her career.

In 1932 she joined the West Coast photographers known as Group/.64.

Later in her career she taught at the San Francisco Art Institute.

Cunningham, Merce (b. April 16, 1919, Centralia, Wash., U.S.)

U.S. avant-garde dancer and chore¬ ographer. In 1939 he joined Martha Graham’s company, where he created roles in several of her works. As an independent choreographer in 1945- 52, he began his long collaboration with the composer John Cage. In 1952 Cunningham formed his own company, developing his interest in isolated movement and “choreogra¬ phy by chance.” His Suite by Chance (1952) was the first dance performed to an electronic score. Other works include The Seasons (1947), Sum- merspace (1958), and Locale (1980).

Cuno Vku-no\, Wilhelm (Carl Josef) (b. July 2, 1876, Suhl,

Ger.—d. Jan. 3, 1933, Aumiihle)

German politician and business leader. After serving in government positions from 1907, in 1918 he became general director of the Hamburg-American Line, the largest German shipping concern. He served as chancellor of the Weimar Republic (1922-23), enjoying the strong support of German business and industry but failing to readjust war reparations or halt inflation. During the Ruhr occupation he urged a national policy of passive resistance, which ulti¬ mately overtaxed the economy. Obliged to resign, he returned to Hamburg-American and again served as chairman (1926-33).

cupellation \,kyu-p3-'la-sh3n\ Separation of gold or silver from impu¬ rities by melting the impure metal in a cupel (a flat, porous dish made of a refractory material) and directing a blast of hot air on it in a special furnace. The impurities, including lead, copper, tin, and other unwanted metals, are oxidized and partly vaporized and partly absorbed into the pores of the cupel.

Two Callas, by Imogen Cunningham, c.

IMOGEN CUNNINGHAM

Merce Cunningham, 1970.

JACK MITCHELL

Cupid ► Curley I 495

Cupid Ancient Roman god of love in all its varieties, identified with the Greek Eros. Cupid was the son of Mercury and Venus. He was usually represented as a winged infant who carried a bow and quiver of arrows, which he shot at humans to inflict wounds that inspired love or passion.

He was also sometimes depicted as a beautiful youth. Though generally considered beneficent, he could be mischievous in matchmaking, often at his mother’s behest.

Curacao X.kur-o-'so, .kyur-o-'saiA Largest island (pop., 2000 est.:

143,387) of the Netherlands Antilles.

It is located in the Caribbean Sea north of the coast of Venezuela;

Willemstad is its chief town. It occu¬ pies 171 sq mi (444 sq km) and has the best natural harbour in the West Indies. First visited by Europeans in 1499, it was settled by the Spanish in 1527; Sephardic Jews from Portugal migrated there in the 1500s, originat¬ ing the oldest continuously inhabited Jewish community in the Western Hemisphere. The Dutch West India Co. gained control of the island in 1634. It was awarded to The Netherlands by the 1815 Treaty of Paris. Internal self-government was granted in 1954. Products include oranges, Curasao liqueur, and aloes. The chief industry is the refining of oil from Venezuela; tourism is of growing importance.

curare \kyu-'rar-e\ Organic compound, an alkaloid that occurs in vari¬ ous tropical American plants (mostly of the genus Strychnos) and causes paralysis. Crude preparations have long been used by native people as an arrow poison. It relaxes skeletal muscle by competing with acetylcholine at nerve endings. A purified form is used in anesthesiology to prevent any movement of patients during surgery. Small amounts bring profound relaxation, with prompt recovery and few complications.

curassow Vkyur-o-.soX Any of numerous tropical American bird spe¬ cies (family Cracidae); strictly defined, one of 7-12 species in which the male is glossy black and has a curled crest of feathers and a brightly coloured bill ornament. The smaller female is brownish and unorna¬ mented. Curassows have delicious flesh and are hunted as game. Large species (measuring up to nearly 40 in. 1100 cm] long) include the great curassow (Crax rubra), found from Mexico to Ecuador; the helmeted curassow {Pauxipauxi), of the Venezuelan and Colombian mountains; and the critically endangered razor-billed curassow (C. mitu ), of the Amazon.

curia Vkyur-e-sX In medieval Europe, a court, or a group of persons who attended a ruler at a given time for social, political, or judicial purposes. The ruler and curia made policy decisions (as on war, treaties, finances, church relations), and under a powerful ruler the curia often became active as a court of law. Indeed, curiae became so loaded down with judicial work that they were gradually forced to delegate it to special groups of judges. In England the Curia Regis (King’s Court) began at the time of the Norman Conquest (1066) and lasted to about the end of the 13th cen¬ tury. It was the germ from which the higher courts of law, the Privy Council, and the cabinet were to spring. See also Roman Curia.

Curia, Papal See Roman Curia

Curia, Roman See Roman Curia

Curie, Frederic Joliot- See Frederic Joliot-Curie

Curie \kyur-'e\, Marie orig. Maria Sktodowska (b. Nov. 7, 1867, Warsaw, Pol., Russian Empire—d. July 4, 1934, near Sallanches, France) Polish-born French physical chemist. She studied at the Sorbonne (from 1891). Seeking the presence of radioactivity —recently discovered by Henri Becquerel in uranium—in other matter, she found it in thorium. In 1895 she married fellow physicist Pierre Curie (1859-1906). Together they dis¬ covered the elements polonium (which Marie named after her native Poland) and radium, and they distinguished alpha, beta, and gamma radia¬ tion. For their work on radioactivity (a term she coined), the Curies shared the 1903 Nobel Prize for Physics with Becquerel. Marie thus became the

Cupid, classical statue; in the Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples

AUNARI—ART RESOURCE/EB INC.

first woman to receive a Nobel Prize.

After Pierre’s death, Marie was appointed to his professorship and became the first woman to teach at the Sorbonne. In 1911 she won a Nobel Prize for Chemistry for dis¬ covering polonium and isolating pure radium, becoming the first per¬ son to win two Nobel Prizes. She died of leukemia caused by her long exposure to radioactivity. In 1995 she became the first woman whose own achievements earned her the honour of having her ashes enshrined in the Pantheon in Paris.

See also Frederic Joliot-Curie.

Curitiba V.kur-o-'te-boV City (pop.,

2002 est.: city, 1,644,600; metro, area, 2,866,000), capital of Parana state, southern Brazil. It lies about 3,000 ft (900 m) above sea level in the Brazilian Highlands near the headwaters of the Iguazu River.

Founded in 1654 as a gold-mining camp, it became the state capital in 1854. From the early 19th century it received many European settlers, and immigration continued during the 20th century with the arrival of newcomers from Syria and Japan. It is a modern commercial centre. Its cathedral (1894) was inspired by that of Barcelona, Spain.

curl In mathematics, a differential operator that can be applied to a vector- valued function (or vector field) in order to measure its degree of local spinning. It consists of a combination of the function’s first partial deriva¬ tives. One of the more common forms for expressing it is:

Marie Curie.

THE GRANGER COLLECTION, NEW YORK CITY

curl v = /1

0v 3

dtj

d.v I

dvi \

By /

in which v is the vector field (v 3 , v 2 , v 3 ), and v lf v 2 , v 3 are functions of the variables x, y, and z, and i, j, and k are unit vectors in the positive x, y, and z directions, respectively. In fluid mechanics, the curl of the fluid velocity field (i.e., vector velocity field of the fluid itself) is called the vorticity or the rotation because it measures the field’s degree of rotation around a given point.

curlew Any of eight species (genus Numenius) of shorebirds having a sickle-shaped bill that curves downward at the tip, a streaked, gray or brown body, and a long neck and legs. Curlews breed inland in temper¬ ate and subarctic regions of the Northern Hemisphere and migrate far south. They eat insects and seeds during migration but feed on worms and fiddler crabs while wintering on marshes and coastal mudflats. The east¬ ern curlew is the largest species (24 in., or 60 cm, long); the common, or Eurasian, curlew, almost as large, is the largest European shorebird. The Eskimo curlew is now virtually extinct.

Curley, James Michael (b. Nov. 20, 1874, Boston, Mass., U.S.—d. Nov. 12, 1958, Boston) U.S. politician. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1911-14). As Boston’s mayor (1914-18, 1922-26, 1930-34, 1947-50), he dominated the city’s politics for 50 years. He owed much of his success to serving the needs of Irish immigrants in exchange for votes. He centralized the powers of patronage in his own hands and distributed public works jobs so as to retain the loyalty and support of his working-class electoral base. As mayor, he brought the city close to bankruptcy by spending enormous sums on parks and hospitals to satisfy his various constituencies. Unable to win a seat in the Massa¬ chusetts delegation to the 1932 Democratic convention, Curley contrived by means he never explained to be elected a delegate from Puerto Rico. As governor of Massachusetts (1935-37), he spent New Deal funds lav¬ ishly on roads, bridges, and other public works programs. He won a seat in the House of Representatives in 1942 and was reelected two years later. His last mayoral term included five months in prison following a convic¬ tion for mail fraud; Pres. Harry Truman secured his release and later granted him a full pardon. His colourful career inspired Edwin O’Connor’s novel The Last Hurrah (1956). His autobiography, I’d Do It Again, was published in 1957.

496 I curling ► Curtis Institute of Music

curling Game in which two teams of four players each slide a round stone by means of a gooseneck handle on the top over a 138-ft (42-m) stretch of ice toward a target circle. The object is to deliver the stone clos¬ est to the centre (called the house). Each player delivers two stones, which average 40 lbs (18.1 kg) apiece, often applying a curl to the stone’s tra¬ jectory. The player’s teammates use a broom to sweep the ice ahead of the oncoming stone in order to facilitate a longer slide or to adjust the arc of the curl. Blocking and knocking out an opponent’s stones are impor¬ tant strategies of the sport. Curling originated in Scotland in the early 16th century. World championships have been held since 1959 and are usually dominated by Canadians and Scandinavians. In 1998 curling became a medal sport in the Winter Olympic Games.

The British women's curling team competing in the final match at the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah.

ROBERTO SCHMIDT-AFP/GETTY IMAGES

currant Any shrub of at least 100 species in the genus Ribes, in the gooseberry family, native to temper¬ ate climates of the Northern Hemi¬ sphere and western South America.

The Rocky Mountains are especially rich in species. The flavorful, juicy red or black berries are used chiefly in jams and jellies. Black currants are used in lozenges and for flavor¬ ing, and are occasionally fermented.

Currants are extremely high in vita¬ min C and also supply calcium, phosphorus, and iron. The name cur¬ rant is also given to a seedless raisin frequently used in cooking.

currency In industrialized nations, the portion of the national money sup¬ ply (consisting of banknotes and government-issued paper money and coins) that does not require endorsement to serve as a medium of exchange. Since the abandonment of the gold standard, governments have not been obli¬ gated to repay the holders of currency in any form of precious metal. Con¬ sequently, the volume of currency has been determined by the actions of the government or central bank and not by the supply of precious metals. In less-developed societies, or in times of economic scarcity, items such as livestock or tobacco (cigarettes) may serve as currency. See also coinage.

current, density See density current current, electric See electric current

Currie, Sir Arthur William (b. Dec. 5, 1875, Napperton, Ont., Can.—d. Nov. 30, 1933, Montreal, Que.) Canadian military leader. He was a businessman in Victoria, B.C., before enlisting in the militia. Given command of a battalion in 1914, he won distinction in several battles of World War I; within three years he was promoted to lieutenant general and given command of the four divisions of the Canadian Corps. After the war he served as the first general in the Canadian army. In 1920 he became principal and vice chancellor of McGill University.

Currier and Ives partnership q/ Nathaniel Currier and James Merritt Ives (respectively b. March 27, 1813, Roxbury, Mass., U.S.—d. Nov. 20, 1888, New York, N.Y.; b. March 5, 1824, New York City—d. Jan. 3, 1895, Rye, N.Y.) U.S. lithographers. Currier served apprentice¬ ships in Boston and Philadelphia before he set up in business in New York City in 1835. He hired Ives as a bookkeeper and made him his partner in 1857. Currier and Ives greatly increased the public demand for graphic images by publishing fine-quality, black-and-white and hand-coloured lithographs (see lithography) depicting disasters, political satire, views of city life, outdoor country scenes, and sentimental domestic scenes. They established outlets across the country and in London. Between 1840 and 1890 they published more than 7,000 titles. The firm continued under their sons until 1907.

curry (from Tamil kari, “sauce”) Dish or sauce in Indian cuisine. It is seasoned with a mixture of spices often including turmeric, cumin, corian¬ der, ginger, as well as garlic and chiles. Some of the curry spices are known for their antiseptic and preservative properties. Curries have been a part of South Asian cookery since antiquity. The primarily vegetarian curries of southern India are the most pungent. Those of northern India, where lamb and poultry are eaten, generally avoid hot or pungent ingre¬ dients.

curtain Panel of decorative fabric hung to regulate the admission of light at a window and to prevent drafts. Curtains made of a heavy material, arranged to fall in ornamental folds to the floor, are called draperies. Mosaics from the 2nd-6th century show curtains suspended from rods spanning arches. From the Middle Ages to the 19th century, curtains ranged in style from simple to ornamented; beds were often curtained on all sides. In the 20th century, synthetic fabrics and mechanical devices for opening and closing curtains simplified their installation and use.

curtain wall Nonbearing wall of glass, metal, or masonry attached to a building’s exterior structural frame. After World War II, low energy costs gave impetus to the concept of the tall building as a glass prism, an idea originally put forth by Le Corbusier and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe in their visionary projects of the 1920s. The UN’s Secretariat Building (1949), with its green-tinted glass walls, helped set a worldwide standard for sky¬ scrapers.

Curtis, Charles Gordon (b. Jan. 25, 1860, Kansas Territory, U.S.—d. Feb. 8, 1936, Washington, D.C.) U.S. inventor. An associate of Thomas Alva Edison, Curtis patented the Curtis steam turbine in 1896. Its principles are still used in large ocean liners and other naval vessels; General Elec¬ tric Co. has used it worldwide in its power installations. Curtis is also credited with inventing the first U.S. gas turbine, held many patents for diesel-engine improvements, and helped develop propulsion mechanisms for naval torpedoes.

Curtis, Cyrus (Herman Kotzschmar) (b. June 18, 1850, Portland, Maine, U.S.—d. June 7, 1933, Wyncote, Pa.) U.S. publisher. Curtis began publishing a local weekly in Portland. When fire destroyed his plant, he moved to Boston; there he published The People’s Ledger magazine, which he continued after his move to Philadelphia in 1876. In 1879 he founded The Tribune and Farmer, from the women’s section of which he formed the Ladies' Home Journal. In 1890 he organized the Curtis Pub¬ lishing Co. Later acquisitions included The Saturday Evening Post (1897) and several newspapers. His daughter Mary Louise (1876-1970) founded the Curtis Institute of Music and named it for her father.

Curtis, Tony orig. Bernard Schwartz (b. June 3, 1925, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. film actor. He appeared on Broadway before going to Hollywood in 1949. He acted in adventure films, becoming known for his pretty face and his Bronx accent, then earned acclaim for his roles in Sweet Smell of Success (1957) and The Defiant Ones (1958). His success in Billy Wilder’s Some Like It Hot (1959) was followed by roles in other light comedies in the 1960s. He continued to perform onstage and in films into the 21st century.

Curtis Cup Golf trophy awarded since 1932 to the winner of a biennial amateur women’s match played between teams from Britain and the U.S. Teams consist of six players, two alternates, and a captain. The cup was donated by Harriot and Margaret Curtis, amateur golf champions of the early 20th century. Teams play six 18-hole foursomes and 12 18-hole singles matches.

Curtis Institute of Music Conservatory of music in Philadelphia, Pa., U.S. It was founded in 1924 by Mary Louise Curtis Bok (1876-1970),

Currant [Ribes)

WALTER CHANDOHA

Curtiss ► custard apple I 497

wife of the editor Edward Bok, and named for her father, the inventor Charles Gordon Curtis. Her endowment was adequate to assure scholar¬ ships for gifted students throughout the world. Many eminent musicians have served on its faculty, including Wanda Landowska, Bohusav Mar- tinu, and Rudolf Serkin. Graduates include Samuel Barber, Leonard Bernstein, and Gian Carlo Menotti.

Curtiss, Glenn (Hammond) (b. May 21, 1878, Hammondsport, N.Y., U.S.—d. July 23, 1930, Buffalo, N.Y.) U.S. aviation pioneer. He initially built engines for motorcycles. In 1904 he built a motor for a diri¬ gible, and in 1908 he flew an experimental plane to win the first public U.S. flight of 1 km (0.6 mi). In 1911 he built the first practical seapane and was awarded the first contract to build airplanes for the U.S. Navy. His factories later supplied planes to Britain and Russia as well. His best- known plane was the JN-4, or “Jenny,” a trainer widely used in World War I and later by barnstormers. His company later merged with the Wright Company to become the Curtiss-Wright Corporation.

Curtiz \'kur-tis\, Michael orig. Mihaly Kertesz (b. Dec. 24, 1888, Budapest, Hung.—d. April 10, 1962, Hollywood, Calif., U.S.) Hungarian- U.S. film director. He directed films in Hungary and elsewhere in Europe before he was invited to Hollywood by Warner Brothers in 1926. He directed more than 100 Warner Brothers films, including adventure mov¬ ies with Errol Flynn such as Captain Blood (1935), The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938), and The Sea Hawk (1940). His many other notable films include Yankee Doodle Dandy (1942), the hugely successful Cas¬ ablanca (1942, Academy Award), Mildred Pierce (1945), and White Christmas (1954).

curvature Measure of the rate of change of direction of a curved line or surface at any point. In general, it is the reciprocal of the radius of the circle or sphere of best fit to the curve or surface at that point. This notion of best fit derives from the principle that only one circle can be drawn though any three points not on the same line. The radius of curvature at the middle point is approximately equal to the radius of that one circle. This calculation becomes more exact the closer the points are. The pre¬ cise value is found using a limit. Because a straight line can be thought of as an arc of a circle of infinite radius, its curvature is zero.

curve In mathematics, an abstract term used to describe the path of a continuously moving point (see continuity). Such a path is usually gen¬ erated by an equation. The word can also apply to a straight line or to a series of line segments linked end to end. A closed curve is a path that repeats itself, and thus encloses one or more regions. Simple examples include circles, ellipses, and polygons. Open curves such as parabolas, hyper¬ boas, and spirals have infinite length.

Curzon Vkor-zYA (of Kedleston), George Nathaniel Curzon, Marquess or Lord Curzon (b. Jan. 11, 1859, Kedleston Hall, Der¬ byshire, Eng.—d. March 20, 1925, London) British viceroy of India (1898-1905) and foreign secretary (1919-24). Eldest son of a baron, he studied at Oxford and entered Parliament in 1886. A world tour left him with an infatuation for Asia, and in 1891 he became undersecretary of state for India; he was named viceroy in 1898. There he reduced taxes and ordered immediate punishment of any Briton who ill-treated Indian nationals. He presided over the unpopular Partition of Bengal and resigned after a clash with Lord Kitchener. He later served in the cabinets of H.H. Asquith and David Lloyd George.

Curzon Line Demarcation line between Poland and Soviet Russia. The British foreign secretary. Lord Curzon, proposed it as a possible armistice line in the Russo-Polish War of 1919-20. His plan was not accepted, and the final peace treaty (1921) provided Poland with almost 52,000 sq mi (135,000 sq km) of land east of the line. With the outbreak of World War II, the Soviet Union revived the line, claiming all the territory east of it. In 1945 a Soviet-Polish treaty officially designated a line almost identi¬ cal to the Curzon Line as their mutual border.

Cush or Kush Ancient country, Nubia region of the Nile River valley. In the 2nd millennium bc it was subject to Egypt. In the 8th century bc Cushite King Piye invaded and conquered Egypt. It was ruled from 719 bc by Piye’s brother Shabaka, who also invaded Egypt and set up the 25th dynasty; he subsequently made Memphis his capital. In the mid-7th cen¬ tury bc the Cushite kingdom’s capital was transferred to Meroe, where the Cushites ruled for another 1,000 years.

Cushing syndrome Disorder named for Harvey Williams Cushing, caused by adrenal cortex overactivity. If caused by a pituitary gland

tumour, it is called Cushing disease. Symptoms include obesity of the trunk and face (“moon face”), muscle wasting, high blood pressure, easy bruising, osteoporosis, diabetes mellitus, and fat between the shoulders (“buffalo hump”). Excess glucocorticoid hormones, whether produced by the adrenal gland or given as drugs, cause the symptoms, which are treated by surgery, radiation, cortisol-blocking drugs, or ending of glucocorticoid treatment. Cortisol treatment may be necessary after surgery.

Cushing, Caleb (b. Jan. 17, 1800, Salisbury, Mass., U.S.—d. Jan. 2, 1879, Newburyport, Mass.) U.S. lawyer and diplomat. After serving in the U.S. House of Representatives (1835-43), he was appointed U.S. commissioner to China (1843—45). In that office he negotiated the Treaty of Wanghia (1844), which opened five Chinese ports to U.S. trade and established the principle of extraterritoriality. He later served as U.S. attorney general (1853-57), U.S. counsel at the Geneva Conference (1871-72) for the settlement of the Aabama caims, and minister to Spain

(1874-77).

Cushing \'kush-iq\, Harvey Williams (b. April 8, 1869, Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.—d. Oct. 7, 1939, New Haven, Conn.) U.S. surgeon. He taught principally at Harvard University and became known as the leading neu¬ rosurgeon of the early 20th century, developing many procedures and techniques still basic to brain surgery and greatly reducing its mortality rate. The leading expert in the diagnosis and treatment of intracranial tumours, he was also the first to ascribe to pituitary gland malfunction what is now known as Cushing syndrome. He wrote numerous scientific works, including The Life of Sir William Osier (1925, Pulitzer Prize).

Cushman, Charlotte (Saunders) (b. July 23, 1816, Boston, Mass., U.S.—d. Feb. 18, 1876, Boston)

U.S. actress. She made her opera debut in Boston at age 19, but her singing voice soon failed and she turned to acting. In 1837 she first played her most popular role, Meg Merrilies in Guy Mannering, and she became the first native-born U.S. theatre star. From 1842 she managed a theatre in Philadelphia, where she starred with William Macready in Macbeth. In 1854-55 she toured England to great acclaim. Noted for her powerful emotional reach, she portrayed Lady Macbeth and male roles such as Romeo and Hamlet.

cusk or torsk Long-bodied food fish {Brosme brosme ) of the cod fam¬ ily, found along the bottom of deep offshore waters on either side of the North Atlantic Ocean. It is a small- scaled fish with a large mouth and a barbel (fleshy feeler) on its chin. It has one dorsal and one anal fin, both long and both connected to the rounded tail. It may grow to a length of 3-3.5 ft (90-110 cm). It varies from yellowish or brownish to a slaty colour and, when young, may be vertically barred with yellow.

cusp In architecture, the intersection of lobed or scalloped forms, par¬ ticularly in arches (cusped arches) and tracery. Thus the three lobes of a trefoil (cloverleaf form) are separated by three cusps. Cusped forms appear in early Islamic work and were especially common in the Moorish architecture of North Africa and Spain. The form was adopted wholeheartedly by European Gothic ARCHITECTURE.

custard apple Any of various Annona species of shrubs or small trees of the family Annonaceae, native to the New World tropics and Florida. The family is the largest in the magnolia order and contains approximately 1,100 species of plants in 122 genera. Many species in the family are valuable for their large, pulpy fruits. Others are valued

Charlotte Cushman as Meg Merrilies in Guy Mannering.

COURTESY OF THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

Custard apple (Annona reticulata).

WALTER DAWN

498 I Custer > Cuyp

for their timber, and still others as ornamentals. Leaves and wood are often fragrant. The fruit is a berry. The small, tropical American custard apple (Annonci reticulata) bears fruits with reddish-yellow, sweetish, custard¬ like flesh. Other species include the sweetsop (A. squamosa ) and the sour- sop (A. muricata ). Bark, leaves, and roots of many species are important in folk medicine.

Custer, George Armstrong (b. Dec. 5, 1839, New Rumley, Ohio, U.S.—d. June 25, 1876, Little Bighorn River, Montana Territory) U.S. cavalry officer. He graduated from West Point and at age 23 became a brigadier general. His vigorous pursuit of Confederate troops under Gen. Robert E. Lee in retreat from Richmond hastened Lee’s surrender in 1865. In 1874 he led U.S. troops to investigate rumours of gold in South Dako¬ ta’s Black Hills, a sacred Indian hunting ground. The resulting gold rush led to hostile encounters with the Indians. In 1876 the 36-year-old Custer commanded one of two columns of a planned attack against Indians camped near Montana’s Little Bighorn River. He rashly decided to attack without the other column, and in the Battle of the Little Bighorn he and all his troops were killed.

custom In law, long-established practice common to many or to a par¬ ticular place or institution and generally recognized as having the force of law. In England during the Anglo-Saxon period, local customs formed most laws affecting family rights, ownership and inheritance, contracts, and violence between individuals. The Norman conquerors granted the validity of customary law, adapting it to their feudal system. In the 13th and 14th centuries, English law was given statutory authority under the crown, making the “customs of the realm” England’s common law. See also culture; folklore; myth; taboo.

customs duty See tariff

customs union Trade agreement by which a group of countries charges a common set of tariffs to the rest of the world while allowing free trade among themselves. It is a partial form of economic integration, interme¬ diate between free-trade zones, which allow mutual free trade but lack a common tariff system, and common markets, which both utilize common tariffs and allow free movement of resources including capital and labour between members. Well-known customs unions include the Zollverein, a 19th-century organization formed by several German states under Prus¬ sian leadership, and the European Union, which passed through a customs- union stage on the path to fuller economic integration. See also European Community; General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade; North American Free Trade Agreement; World Trade Organization.

Custoza \ku-'st6t-s3\, Battles of Two attempts at Custoza, Italy, to end Austrian control over northern Italy. In the first battle (July 24, 1848), an Austrian army under Joseph Radetzky defeated the Sardinians, led by Charles Albert. In the second battle (June 24, 1866), as part of an Italian effort to acquire Austrian-held Venetia, a disorganized Italian army of 120,000 men, led by Victor Emmanuel II, was defeated by an 80,000-man Austrian force. Despite its defeats, Italy subsequently obtained Venetia in the Treaty of Vienna (1866).

cut glass Glassware characterized by a series of facets, or patterns, cut into its surface. A marked pattern is roughed out on a glass object with a revolving abrasive wheel; the pattern is then smoothed by a sandstone wheel and polished in an acid bath. The Romans introduced a crude form of glass cutting in the 1st century ad. Modern glass cutting developed in Germany in the late 17th century with the production of a heavy, colour¬ less crystal glass. After Bohemian glass became popular, English and Irish glassmakers adopted the technique. The prismatic styles of their products, notably Waterford glass, became popular in the U.S. after 1780.

Cuthbert, Saint (b. 634/635, probably Northumbria, Eng.—d. March 20, 687, islet of Inner Fame, or House, off Northumbria; feast day March 20) English saint. A shepherd, Cuthbert entered the Northumbrian mon¬ astery of Melrose in 651 after receiving a divine vision. When plague struck 10 years later, he aided the afflicted, reportedly performing miracles. In 664 he became prior of Lindisfarne, where he instituted a severe rule. In 676 he retired to Inner Fame, where he devoted himself to prayer. His efforts to protect birds made him one of the earliest wild¬ life conservationists.

cutthroat trout Black-spotted game fish ( Salmo clarki ) of the salmon family, found in western North America. The cutthroat trout is named for the bright red streak beneath its lower jaw. Considered a good table fish, it strikes at flies, baits, and lures. It reaches a weight of 4 lb (1.8 kg).

Many cutthroat trout that live in rivers migrate to sea. Like oceanic forms of other trout species, these fish are called sea trout and may not reenter freshwater for several years.

cutting In botany, a plant section originating from the stem, leaf, or root and capable of developing into a new plant. The cutting is usually placed in warm, moist sand. Many plants, especially horticultural and garden varieties, are propagated through cuttings; by the use of new techniques, many other plants formerly not susceptible to propagation through cut¬ tings have more successfully reproduced. The plants that develop from cuttings are clones. See also graft, layering.

cutting horse Light saddle horse trained to cut (isolate) livestock, espe¬ cially cattle, from herds. Most are quarter horses, with the intelligence, speed, and ability to make quick starts, stops, and turns. A well-trained cutting horse can maneuver an animal away from a herd and into a cor¬ ner with little direction from a rider or, in some cases, without a rider.

cuttlefish Any of about 100 species of marine cephalopods in the order Sepioidea, characterized by a thick, internal calcium-containing shell called the cuttlebone. Species range between 1 and 35 in. (2.5-90 cm) in length and have a somewhat flat¬ tened body bordered by a pair of nar¬ row fins. All have eight arms and two longer tentacles used to capture prey.

Suction disks are located on the arms and at the tips of the tentacles.

Cuttlefish inhabit tropical or temper¬ ate coastal waters. They feed mainly on crustaceans, small fishes, and each other. They are used by humans as food, as a source of ink, and for the cuttlebone, a dietary supplement for cage birds.

cutworm Larva of certain species of owlet moths (family Noctuidae). The cutworm (not a true worm) is a serious insect pest of tobacco and other crops. Some species attack such plants as corn, grasses, tomatoes, and beans at night, severing roots and stems near ground level. Other spe¬ cies live underground and feed on plant roots.

Cuvier \kLe-'vya\, Georges (-Leopold-Chretien-Frederic- Dagobert), Baron (b. Aug. 23, 1769, Montbeliard, France—d. May 13, 1832, Paris) French zoologist and statesman who established the sci¬ ences of comparative anatomy and paleontology. As a staff member at the Museum of Natural History in Paris, he published Le Regne animal dis¬ tribute d’apres son organisation (1817), which described his “correlation of parts” theory, in which every animal organ is functionally related to all the other organs and that an animal’s functions and habits determine its anatomic form. Cuvier’s classification of all animals into four completely discrete groups was a significant advance over the system of Carolus Lin¬ naeus. He applied his functional concept to the study of fossils, postulat¬ ing that huge land upheavals and floods were the principal factor in the creation and destruction of species. Though the theory did not last, Cuvi¬ er’s work put paleontology on a firm empirical foundation. As Napoleon’s inspector of public instruction, he helped establish France’s provincial universities, and he also served as chancellor of the University of Paris.

Cuyaba River See Cuiaba River

Cuyahoga V.kl-o-'ho-go, .kl-o-'ho-goV River River, northeastern Ohio, U.S. It flows past Akron, where it drops into a deep valley and turns north, emptying into Lake Erie at Cleveland. It is navigable for lake freighters for only about 5 mi (8 km) of its total length of about 80 mi (130 km). It was at one time so severely polluted that it caught fire; by the late 1970s, anti¬ pollution measures had substantially improved its condition. The Cuya¬ hoga Valley National Recreation Area covers about 32,000 acres (12,950 hectares) of river valley between Akron and Cleveland.

Cuyp VkceipV Aelbert Jacobsz(oon) (baptized Oct. 20, 1620, Dor¬ drecht, Neth.—d. November 1691, Dordrecht) Most famous member of a family of Dutch landscape painters. He was trained by his father, Jacob Gerritsz Cuyp (1594-after 1651), and influenced by Jan Josephs(zoon) van Goyen. He lived most of his life in his native Dordrecht, painting animals and birds, portraits, historical pictures, and most notably river scenes and landscapes with cattle and figures bathed in a subtle glow of light and

Cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis)

DOUGLAS P. WILSON

Cuyuni ► Cyclops I 499

atmosphere. The Italianate style favoured in Utrecht, one of Holland’s artistic centres, is evident in his work. Many of his surviving paintings are signed but few are dated.

Cuyuni \ku-'yu-ne\ River River, northern South America. Rising in Venezuela and flowing through Guyana, it is about 350 mi (560 km) long and forms the border between Venezuela and Guyana for some 60 mi (100 km). It then flows southeast to join the Mazaruni River before entering the Essequibo River, near Bartica. Rapids impede navigation, but the river is important for its alluvial gold and diamonds.

Cuzco \'kii-sko\ City (pop., 1998 est.: 278,590), south-central Peru. It is located high in the Andes Mountains at an elevation of about 11,000 ft (3,300 m). Founded in the 11th or 12th century, it was once the capital of the vast Inca empire. Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro captured the city in 1533. It suffered major earthquake damage in 1650 and again in 1950, though many sites have since been restored. Nearby ruins include an ancient Inca fortress, the city of Machu Picchu, and the Temple of the Sun. Cuzco’s cathedral (1654) and university (1692) date from the colo¬ nial era. The city was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1983.

Cwmbran \kum-'bran\ Town (pop., 1991: 46,020), southeastern Wales. One of 32 new towns established in Britain after World War II to relieve congestion and encourage development, Cwmbran was inaugurated in 1949 in an area of small and decaying industrial villages. Its industries include automobile-parts production.

cyanide VsI-9- l nId\ Any chemical compound containing the combining group CN. Ionic (see ion; ionic bond) and organic cyanide compounds dif¬ fer in chemical properties, but both are toxic, especially the ionic ones. Cyanide poisoning inhibits cells’ oxidative (see oxidation-reduction) pro¬ cesses; its action is extremely rapid, and an antidote must be given promptly. Cyanides occur naturally in certain seeds (e.g., apple seeds, wild cherry pits). Cyanides, including hydrogen cyanide (HCN, or hydrocya¬ nic acid), are used industrially in the production of acrylic fibres, syn¬ thetic rubbers, and plastics as well as in electroplating, case-hardening of iron and steel, fumigation, and concentration of ores.

cyanide process or MacArthur-Forrest process Method of extracting silver and gold from their ores by dissolving them in a dilute solution of sodium cyanide or potassium cyanide. The process—invented in 1887 by the Scottish chemists John S. MacArthur, Robert W. Forrest, and William Forrest—includes contacting the finely ground ore with the cyanide solution, separating unwanted solids from the clear solution, and recovering the precious metals from the solution by precipitation with zinc dust.

cyanite See kyanite

cyanobacteria X.sI-o-.no-bak-'tir-e-oV or blue-green algae Any of

a large group of prokaryotic, mostly photosynthetic organisms. Though classified as bacteria, they resemble the eukaryotic algae in many ways, including some physical characteristics and ecological niches, and were at one time treated as algae. They contain certain pigments, which, with their chlorophyll, often give them a blue-green colour, though many spe¬ cies are actually green, brown, yellow, black, or red. They are common in soil and in both salt and fresh water, and they can grow over a wide range of temperatures, from Antarctic lakes under several metres of ice to Yellowstone National Park’s hot springs in the U.S. Cyanobacteria are often among the first species to colonize bare rock and soil. Some are capable of nitrogen fixation; others contain pigments that enable them to produce free oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis. Under proper con¬ ditions (including pollution by nitrogen wastes) they can reproduce explo¬ sively, forming dense concentrations called blooms, usually coloured an opaque green. Cyanobacteria played a large role in raising the level of free oxygen in the atmosphere of early Earth.

Cybele See Great Mother of the Gods

cybercrime also known as computer crime Any use of a computer as an instrument to further illegal ends, such as committing fraud, traf¬ ficking in child pornography and intellectual property, stealing identities, or violating privacy. Cybercrime, especially through the Internet, has grown in importance as the computer has become central to commerce, entertainment, and government. The international nature of cybercrimes has led to international cyberlaws.

cyberlaw Body of law bearing on the world of computer networks, especially the Internet. As traffic on the Internet has increased, so have the

number and kind of legal issues surrounding the technology. Hotly debated issues include the obscenity of some on-line sites, the right of pri¬ vacy, freedom of speech, regulation of electronic commerce, and the appli¬ cability of COPYRIGHT laws.

cybernetics Science of regulation and control in animals (including humans), organizations, and machines when they are viewed as self- governing whole entities consisting of parts and their organization. It was conceived by Norbert Wiener, who coined the term in 1948. Cybernetics views communication and control in all self-contained complex systems as analogous. It differs from the empirical sciences (physics, biology, etc.) in not being interested in material form but in organization, pattern, and communication in entities. Because of the increasing sophistication of computers and the efforts to make them behave in humanlike ways, cyber¬ netics today is closely allied with artificial intelligence and robotics, and it draws heavily on ideas developed in information theory.

eye ad \'s!-kod\ Any of the palmlike woody plants that constitute the order Cycadales, containing four families: Cycadaceae, Zamiaceae, Stan- geriaceae, and Boweniaceae. Cycads have crowns of large, feathery com¬ pound leaves and cones at the ends of their branches. Some have tall, unbranched, armourlike trunks; others have partially buried stems with swollen trunks. Slow-growing cycads are used as ornamental conserva¬ tory plants, but some survive outdoors in temperate regions. The stems of some cycads yield starch that is edible if thoroughly cooked. The young leaves and seeds of others also are edible.

Cyclades VsI-klo-.dezX Greek Kikladhes \ke-'kla-thes\ Group of about 30 islands, southern Aegean Sea. They cover a land area of 976 sq mi (2,528 sq km) and constitute the Cyclades department of Greece, which has its capital at Ermoupolis. Their name refers to the ancient tradition that they formed a circle around the sacred island of Delos. The chief islands are Andros, Tfnos, Naxos, Amorgos, Melos, Paros, Syros, Kea, Kfthnos, Serifos, Ios, and Thira. They were the centre of a Bronze Age culture—the Cycladic, noted for its white marble idols—and later belonged to the Mycenaean culture in the 2nd millennium bc. Colonized by Ionians in the 10th-9th century bc, they later were successively held by Persians, Athenians, Ptolemaic Egyptians, and Macedonians. Ruled by Venice after the eai'ly 13th century ad, the islands fell to the Turks at dif¬ ferent times during the 16th to 18th centuries. They became part of Greece in 1829. The economy is now based on tourism and on the export of wine, hides, pottery, and handicrafts.

cyclamen VsI-klo-monX Any of about 15 species of flowering perennial herbaceous plants that make up the genus Cyclamen, in the primrose fam¬ ily (Primulaceae), native to the Middle East and southern and central Europe. The florist’s cyclamen (C. persicum), the best-known species, is an indoor plant cultivated for its attractive white to pink to deep red flow¬ ers. Long-stalked, rounded, or kidney-shaped leaves, often variously marked, grow from the base of the plant, which has no aboveground stem. Solitary flowers grow on stalks less than 12 in. (30 cm) tall.

cycling Use of the bicycle in competitive sport or in recreation. The clas¬ sic professional races are held mainly in Europe; the first was held in Paris in 1868. There are basically two types of race: road races and track races. The first U.S. cycling competition, a six-day race, was held in 1891. Six- day racing was reintroduced to Europe as a two-man team event in the 20th century, but it has largely died out in the U.S. The first Tour de France, the premier race, was held in 1903. Cycling has been part of the Olym¬ pics since the first modern games in 1896. Events include a variety of open-road and circuit races for both men and women.

cyclone Any large system of winds that circulates about a centre of low atmospheric pressure in a counterclockwise direction north of the Equa¬ tor and in a clockwise direction south of it. Cyclones that occur in the mid- and high latitudes are known as extratropical cyclones; they are fre¬ quently preceded by thickening and lowering clouds, followed by pre¬ cipitation. Cyclones that form in the lower latitudes are known as tropical cyclones; smaller than extratropical cyclones, they tend to be more vio¬ lent and can cause considerable damage (see tropical cyclone). Wind sys¬ tems that circulate around a high-pressure centre in directions opposite to that of cyclones are known as anticyclones.

Cyclops \'sl-,klaps\ In Greek mythology, any of several one-eyed giants. In the Odyssey, the Cyclopes were cannibals who lived in a faraway land (traditionally Sicily). Odysseus was captured by the Cyclops Polyphemus, but he escaped being devoured by blinding the giant. According to Hesiod,

500 i cyclotron ► Cyprus

there were three Cyclopes (Arges, Brontes, and Steropes) who forged thunderbolts for Zeus. In a later tradition, they were assistants to Hephaes¬ tus in this task. Apollo destroyed them after one of their thunderbolts killed Asclepius.

cyclotron VsI-klo-.traM Particle accelerator that accelerates charged atomic or subatomic particles in a constant magnetic field. It consists of two hollow semicircular electrodes, called dees, in a large evacuated cylindri¬ cal box. An alternating electric field between the dees continuously accel¬ erates the particles from one dee to the other, while the magnetic field guides them in a circular path. As the speed of the particles increases, so does the radius of their path, and the particles spiral outward. In this man¬ ner, a cyclotron can accelerate protons to energies of up to 25 million electron volts.

Cydones VsI-'do-nezV, Demetrius (b. c. 1324, Thessalonica, Byzan¬ tine Empire—d. c. 1398, Crete) Byzantine humanist scholar, statesman, and theologian. After studying under a Greek scholar, he made Greek translations of St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas. He was twice prime minister of the Byzantine empire (1369-83, 1391-96). An academy of Greek culture that he established in Venice in 1390 diffused Greek thought throughout Italy, stimulating the Italian Renaissance. A convert to Latin Catholicism, he worked unsuccessfully for East-West Christian unity; in his Symbouleutikoi (“Exhortations”) he vainly encouraged the Byzantine people to unite with the Latins against the Turks. He is considered the most brilliant Byzantine writer of the 14th century.

Cygnus Vsig-nosV A Radio-emitting galaxy lying in the constellation Cygnus, about 700 million light-years from Earth. It is the brightest cos¬ mic source of radio waves in the sky and the first radio galaxy to be detected. Because of its peculiar divided appearance, it was once thought to be two galaxies colliding. Astronomers now believe it to be a single galaxy with a large black hole at its core; emanating from this central region are two opposing jets of hot gas that end in radio- and X-ray- emitting lobes called "hot spots." See also active galactic nucleus.

cylinder See piston and cylinder

cylinder seal Small stone cylinder engraved in intaglio on its surface to leave impressions when rolled on wet clay. It first appeared c. 3400- 2900 bc and is considered to be one of the finest artistic achievements of Mesopotamia. The earliest examples used geometric or animal patterns; later seals incorporated the owner’s name and depicted a variety of motifs. They were used to mark personal property and make documents legally binding. The seals were adopted in Egypt and the Indus civilization.

cymbal Percussion instrument consisting of a circular metal plate that is struck with a drumstick or two such plates that are struck together. They were used, often ritually, in Assyria,

Israel (from c. 1100 bc), Egypt, and other ancient civilizations, spread to East Asia, and reached Europe by the 13th century ad. Western orchestral cymbals derive from those used in the Turkish military bands in vogue in 18th-century Europe. Though Asian cymbals are often flat. Middle Eastern and Western cymbals usually have a central concave dome, or boss, so that only the edges touch when they are clashed. The finest cymbals have long been manufac¬ tured in Turkey by means of closely guarded techniques. In popular music, cymbals are not clashed manually; instead, a cymbal sus¬ pended on a sticklike stand may be brushed or struck, and horizontal “hi-hat” cymbals are clashed lightly by use of a pedal mechanism.

Cynewulf or Kynewulf \'kin-3-,wulf\ or Cynwulf Vkin-,wulf\ (fl. 9th century ad, Northumbria or Mercia) Anglo-Saxon poet. He is the author of four Old English poems from late 10th-century manuscripts: Elene, about St. Helena; The Fates of the Apostles, on the mission and death of each Apostle; The Ascension, part of a trilogy by different authors; and Juli¬ ana, a life of St. Juliana. Nothing is known of the poet outside of the text;

its evidence suggests he was a learned cleric of Northumbria or Mercia. Runic characters woven into the text are thought to spell his name.

Cynics \'si-niks\ Greek philosophical sect that flourished from the 4th century bc to the 6th century ad. Antisthenes (c. 445-365 bc), a disciple of Socrates, is considered the founder of the movement, but Diogenes of Sinope was its paradigm. Named principally for their meeting place, the Cynosarges, the Cynics considered virtue—including a life of poverty and self-sufficiency and the suppression of desires—to be the sole good, but they were distinguished more for their unconventional manners and way of life than for any system of thought. The Cynics influenced the devel¬ opment of Stoicism.

cypress Any of about 20 species of ornamental and timber evergreen conifers constituting the genus Cupressus of the family Cupres- saceae, which includes more than 130 species found throughout the world. The leaves are usually paired or in threes and are small and scale¬ like. A few of the many economi¬ cally important genera in the cypress family are Cupressus, Thuja (arbor- VlTAE), Calocedrus (incense cedar), and Juniperus (juniper). Arborvitae, cypress, and juniper are especially important as timber sources or orna¬ mentals. They also contain useful oils, resins, and tannins.

cypress, bald See bald cypress

Cyprian Vsip-re-onV Saint Latin Tnascius Caecilius Cyprianus

(b. c. 200, Carthage—d. Sept. 14,

258, Carthage; Western and Eastern feast day September 16; Anglican feast day September 26) Early Chris¬ tian theologian and Church Father. He converted to Christianity c. 246 and within two years was elected bishop of Carthage. In 250 he went into hiding to escape the Decian persecution, when many Christians aposta¬ tized. The following year he returned; bishops in council supported his assertions that the church could remit the sin of apostasy, that bishops in council had final disciplinary authority, and that even unworthy laity must be accepted. In disputes with the bishop of Rome, Cyprian asserted that the people and their bishop constituted the church, that there was no “bishop of bishops” in Rome, that all bishops equally possessed the Holy Spirit, and that their consensus expressed the church’s unity. He was mar¬ tyred under Valerian.

Cyprus officially Republic of Cyprus Island and country, eastern Mediterranean Sea. Area: 3,572 sq mi (9,251 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 968,000 (whole island). Capital: Nicosia. Cyprus is currently divided into two de facto states. The Republic of Cyprus, the internationally rec¬ ognized government, occupies the southern two-thirds of the island. Its population (2005 est.: 747,000) is predominantly Greek. Languages: Greek, Turkish (both official). Religion: Christianity (predominantly East¬ ern Orthodox). Currency: Cyprus pound. The Turkish Republic of North¬ ern Cyprus occupies the northern third of the island. Its population (2005 est.: 221,000) is overwhelmingly Turkish. Languages: Turkish (official), English. Religion: Islam. Currency: Turkish lira. The third largest island in the Mediterranean, Cyprus lies about 40 mi (65 km) off the southern coast of Turkey. It is largely mountainous, with a fertile heartland and coastal plains. Mount Olympus is its highest peak, 6,401 ft (1,951 m) above sea level. The climate is Mediterranean. Cyprus has a free-enterprise economy based mainly on trade and manufacturing, and it ranks high in the world in merchant shipping. The internationally recognized government is a multiparty republic with a unicameral legislature; its head of state and government is the president. Cyprus was inhabited by the early Neolithic Period; by the late Bronze Age it had been visited and settled by Mycenae- ans and Achaeans, who introduced Greek culture and language, and it became a trading centre. By 800 bc Phoenicians had begun to settle there. Ruled over the centuries by the Assyrian, Persian, and Ptolemaic empires, it was annexed by the Roman Republic and Empire in 58 bc. It was part of the Byzantine Empire in the 4th-12th centuries ad. It was conquered by the English king Richard I (the Lionheart) in 1191. A part of the Venetian

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COURTESY OF AVEDIS ZILDJIAN COMPANY

Italian cypress (Cupressus sempervi- rens)

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trading empire from 1489, it was taken by the Ottoman Empire in 1571. In 1878 the British assumed control, and Cyprus became a British crown colony in 1925. It gained independence in 1960. Conflict between Greek and Turkish Cypriots led to the establishment of a United Nations (UN) peacekeeping mission in 1964. In 1974, fearing a movement to unite Cyprus with Greece, the Republic of Turkey sent troops to occupy the northern third of the island. Turkish Cypriots established a functioning government, which obtained recognition only from Turkey. The UN peacekeeping mission has remained in place. Negotiations to reunify the island under a single government in 2004 were not successful, but border restrictions were relaxed by both sides.

Cypselus Vsip-so-bsV (fl. 7th century bc) Tyrant of Corinth (c. 657-627 bc). Though his mother belonged to the ruling Bacchiadae dynasty, clan members attempted to kill him at birth because his father was an outsider. When he grew up, he overthrew them and set up the first tyrant dynasty. He was encouraged in his quest for power by the oracle at Delphi. He founded colonies in northwestern Greece, administering them through his bastard sons, including his successor, Periander. Though he achieved power through demagoguery, he was reputedly so popular that he did not need a bodyguard.

Cyrano de Bergerac Vsir-o-.n March 6, 1619, Paris, France—d. July 28, 1655, Paris) French satirist and dramatist. He was a soldier until 1641 and studied under the philoso¬ pher Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655). He wrote plays as well as fantastical works combining science-fantasy and political satire that inspired such later writers as Jonathan Swift. He became the basis of many romantic legends, including Edmond Rostand’s play Cyrano de Bergerac (1897), in which he is portrayed as a gallant and brilliant but shy and ugly lover, with a remarkably large nose (which in fact he had).

i-do-.ber-zho-’rakV Savinien (b.

Cyrenaica or Cirenaica \,sir-o- ‘na-9-k3\ Northeastern region of present-day Libya. It was colonized by the Greeks (c. 631 bc), who estab¬ lished five cities there. It became a

Savinien Cyrano de Bergerac, engrav¬ ing after a painting.

H. ROGER-VIOLLET

Roman province in 67 bc. Arab armies conquered it in ad 642, as did the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century. Italy colonized it in the early 20th century, but Italian forces were expelled during World War II (1939-45). In 1963 it was incorporated into Libya.

Cyrenaics \,sir-9-'na-iks, ,si-r3-'na-iks\ Greek school of ethics. Cyrene was the centre of its activity and the birthplace of several of its members. Though the elder Aristippus (c. 435-366 bc), a pupil of Socrates, is gen¬ erally recognized as its founder, the school flourished only in the late 4th century and early 3rd century bc. The Cyrenaics held that the only good is the pleasure of the moment; the good life thus consists of the pursuit of such pleasures. The doctrines of the later Cyrenaics were eventually incorporated into Epicureanism.

Cyrene \sl-'re-ne\ Ancient city, North Africa. Located in modern-day Libya, it was founded c. 630 bc by a group of emigrants from the Aegean island of Thira. Their leader, Battus, became the first king; his dynasty ruled until c. 440 bc. Under the aegis of Ptolemaic Egypt (from 323 bc),

Cyrene became one of the great intellectual centres of the Classical world, boasting such scholars as Era¬ tosthenes and Aristippus, founder of the Cyrenaics. Taken by the Romans in 96 bc, it later declined and, with the Arab conquest of ad 642, ceased to exist. Areas of the old city have been excavated, revealing impres¬ sive ruins.

Cyril and Methodius Vsir-ol... mi-'tho-de-osV Saints (respectively b. c. 827, Thessalonica, Macedonia—d. Feb. 14, 869, Rome; b. c. 825, Thessalonica—d. April 6, 884, Moravia; feast day for both, Western church February 14; Eastern church May 11) Brothers who Christianized the Danubian Slavs. They began missionary work among the Slavs of Moravia in 863. Gifted schol¬ ars and linguists, they translated the holy scriptures into the language later known as Old Church Slavic (or Slavonic) and are credited with invent¬ ing the Glagolithic alphabet (see Cyrillic alphabet). In 868 they traveled to Rome to defend the use of a Slavic liturgy. When Cyril died, Methodius returned to Moravia as an archbishop. Known as the “apostles to the Slavs,” the two brothers influenced the religious and cultural development of all Slavic peoples.

Cyril of Alexandria, Saint (b. c. 375—d. June 27, 444; Western feast day June 27; Eastern feast day June 9) Christian theologian and bishop. He became bishop of Alexandria in 412. Zealously orthodox, he closed the churches of the Novatians, a heterodox sect, and expelled the Jews from Alexandria. His greatest doctrinal conflict was with Nestorius over the nature of Jesus; Cyril emphasized the unity of Jesus’ divine and human natures while Nestorius emphasized their distinctness. Cyril con¬ demned Nestorius at the Council of Ephesus (431), only to be condemned himself by bishops who supported Nestorius. Eventually Nestorius was declared a heretic and a compromise on Christ’s nature restored peace to the church (433).

Cyril of Jerusalem, Saint (b. c. 315, Jerusalem—d. 386?, Jerusa¬ lem; feast day March 18) Early leader of the Christian church. He became bishop of Jerusalem c. 350. He was exiled three times by the Arians but was suspected by the strictly orthodox many years later, at the Council of Constantinople (381), for his association with moderate Arians. He anticipated the doctrine of transubstantiation in his writings and promoted Jerusalem as a pilgrimage centre. He was named a Doctor of the Church in 1883.

Cyrillic \s9-'ril-ik\ alphabet Alphabet used for Russian, Serbian (see Serbo-Croatian language), Bulgarian and Macedonian, Belarusian, Ukrai¬ nian, and many non-Slavic languages of the former Soviet Union, as well as Khalka Mongolian (see Mongolian language). The history of the Cyril¬ lic alphabet is complex and much disputed. It is clearly derived from 9th- century Greek uncial capital letters, with the non-Greek letters probably taken from the Glagolitic alphabet, a highly original alphabet in which (along with Cyrillic) Old Church Slavonic was written. A commonly held hypothesis is that followers of Sts. Cyril and Methodius developed Cyril¬ lic in the southern Balkans around the end of the 9th century. The 44

Sanctuary of Apollo, Cyrene

JOSEPHINE POWELL, ROME

502 I Cyrus II ► Czech Republic

original Cyrillic letters were reduced in number in most later alphabets used for vernacular languages, and some wholly original letters intro¬ duced, particularly for non-Slavic languages.

Cyrus II known as Cyrus the Great (b. c. 585, Media or Persis—d. c. 529, Asia) Conqueror who founded the Achaemenian Empire (see Achaemenian dynasty). The grandson of Cyrus I (fl. late 7th century bc), he came to power by overthrowing his maternal grandfather, the king of the Medes. The empire he developed was thenceforth centered on Persia and included Media, Ionia, Lydia, Mesopotamia, Syria, and Palestine. Cyrus conquered by diplomacy as well as by force. The subject of a rich legend in Persia and Greece (recorded by Xenophon and others), he was called the father of his people. He appeal's in the Bible as the liberator of the Jews held captive in Babylon. He died battling nomads in Central Asia. His legacy is the founding not only of an empire but of a culture and civilization that continued to expand after his death and lasted for two centuries. He exerted a strong influence on the Greeks and Alexander the Great. Awarded heroic qualities in legend, he has long been revered by Persians almost as a religious figure. In 1971 Iran celebrated the 2,500th anniversary of his founding of the monarchy.

cyst \'sist\ Enclosed sac within body tissues. It has a distinct membrane and generally contains liquid. Most cysts are benign, but several kinds may be malignant or precancerous. Benign cysts often press on nearby organs and require removal. Formed by overproduction of epithelium (surface tissue of anatomical structures), cysts may become detached from surrounding structures and move freely. They can contain natural secre¬ tions, abnormal breakdown products, or, in infections, bacteria, larval parasites, and microbial products. Some organs, including the kidney, liver, and breast, can become filled with cysts as a result of cystic diseases that may be dangerous or may hide more serious diseases. See also tumour.

cysteine \'sis-t3-,en\ Sulfur-containing nonessential amino acid. In pep¬ tides and proteins, the sulfur atoms of two cysteine molecules are bonded to each other to make cystine, another amino acid. The bonded sulfur atoms form a disulfide bridge, a principal factor in the shape and func¬ tion of skeletal and connective tissue proteins and in the great stability of structural proteins such as keratin.

cystic fibrosis (CF) Vsis-tik-fi-'bro-s3s\ or mucoviscidosis

V.myu-ko-.vis-o-'do-sosV Inherited metabolic disorder characterized by production of thick, sticky mucus. It is recessive (see recessiveness) and the most common inherited disorder (about 1 per 2,000 live births) in those of European ancestry. Concentrated mucous secretions in the lungs plug the bronchi, making breathing difficult, promoting infections, and producing chronic cough, recurrent pneumonia, and progressive loss of lung function, the usual cause of death. The secretions interfere with digestive enzymes and block nutrient absorption. Abnormally salty sweat is the basis for diagnosis of cystic fibrosis. Treatment includes enzyme supplements, a diet high in calories, protein, and fat, vigorous physical therapy, and antibiotics. Persons with cystic fibrosis once seldom survived beyond childhood; now more than half reach adulthood, though males are usually sterile.

cystitis \sis-'tl-t3s\ Inflammation of the urinary bladder (see urinary sys¬ tem). Infections with bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites usually spread from nearby sites. Symptoms include burning pain during and right after urination, unusually urgent or frequent urination, and lower back pain. Women, with a shorter urethra than men, are more susceptible to cystitis, most cases resulting from E. coli bacteria from the rectum. Acute cysti¬ tis, usually bacterial, causes swelling, bleeding, small ulcers and cysts, and sometimes abscesses. Recurrent or persistent infection can lead to chronic cystitis, with bladder-wall thickening. Diagnosis is made by find¬ ing bacteria or other organisms in the (normally sterile) urine. It is treated with drugs or surgery.

cytochrome Vsi-to-.kroirA Any of a group of cell proteins (hemopro- teins) that serve a vital function in the transfer of energy within cells. Hemoproteins are linked to a nonprotein, iron-bearing component (a heme group), which can undergo the reversible oxidation-reduction reactions that yield energy for the cell. Cytochromes are subdivided into three classes depending on what wavelengths of light they absorb. At least 30 differ¬ ent cytochromes have been identified.

cytology \si-'ta-l3-je\ Study of cells. Its earliest phase began with Rob¬ ert Hooke’s microscopic investigations of cork in 1665, during which he introduced the term cell to describe dead cork cells. Mathias Jacob

Schleiden (in 1838) and Theodor Schwann (1839) were among the first to state clearly that cells are the fundamental units of both plants and ani¬ mals. This pronouncement (the cell theory) was confirmed and elaborated by a series of discoveries and interpretations. In 1892 Oscar Hertwig (1849-1922) suggested that processes at the organism’s level are reflec¬ tions of cellular processes, thus establishing cytology as a separate branch of biology. See also physiology.

cytomegalovirus (CMV) Any of several viruses in the herpes family. Active infection produces enlarged cells enclosing foreign matter. Most prevalent in crowded, poor communities, it is transmitted by sexual con¬ tact or infected body fluids. It rarely causes serious illness in healthy adults; however, it can lead to serious consequences, including blindness, in those with depressed immune systems. In newborns, even without spleen and liver enlargement (10% of cases), CMV is the most common infection and a major cause of congenital deafness; it may also induce retardation and blindness. There is no effective treatment.

cytoplasm VsI-to-.pla-zomV Portion of a eukaryotic cell outside the nucleus. The cytoplasm contains all the organelles (see eukaryote). The organelles include the mitochondria, chloroplasts, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and peroxisomes. The cytoplasm also contains the cytoskeleton and the cytosol (the fluid mass that surrounds the vari¬ ous organelles).

cytosine Vsl-t3-,sen\ Organic compound of the pyrimidine family, often called a base, consisting of a single ring, containing both nitrogen and carbon atoms, and an amino group. It occurs in combined form in nucleic acids and several coenzymes. In DNA its complementary base is guanine. It or its corresponding nucleoside or nucleotide may be prepared from DNA by selective techniques of hydrolysis.

cytoskeleton \'sl-t3-,ske-l3-t®n\ System of microscopic filaments or fibres, present in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells (see eukaryote), that organizes other cell components, maintains cell shape, and is responsible for cell locomotion and for movement of the organelles within it. Three major types of filaments make up the cytoskeleton: actin filaments, micro¬ tubules, and intermediate filaments. Actin filaments occur as constantly changing bundles of parallel fibres; they help determine cell shape, help the cell adhere to surfaces, help the cell move, and assist in cell division during mitosis. Intermediate filaments are very stable structures that form the cell’s true skeleton; they anchor the nucleus within the cell and give the cell its elastic properties.

czar See tsar

Czartoryski family \char-to-'ris-ke\ Leading noble family of Poland in the 18th century, known as the Familia. It first achieved widespread power through the efforts of Prince Michal Fryderyk Czartoryski (1696— 1775) and his brother August. The Familia, which sought the enactment of constitutional reforms, attained the height of its influence in the court of Augustus III. The family estate at Pulawy was confiscated in 1794, dur¬ ing the third Partition of Poland. However, the Familia continued to wield significant power, notably through the princes Adam Kazimierz Czarto¬ ryski (1734-1823), a patron of the arts, and Adam Jerzy Czartoryski (1770-1861), who worked for the restoration of Poland.

Czech language formerly Bohemian language West Slavic lan¬ guage spoken by some 12 million people in the historical regions of Bohemia, Moravia, and southwestern Silesia, all now in the Czech Repub¬ lic, and in emigre communities, including perhaps a million speakers in North America. The earliest Old Czech texts date from the late 13th cen¬ tury. The distinctive orthographic system of Czech, which adds diacritics to letters of the Latin alphabet to denote consonants that did not exist in Latin and to mark vowel length, was introduced in the early 15th century and is associated with the religious reformer Jan Hus. The system was later adopted by other Slavic languages that use the Latin alphabet, includ¬ ing Slovak, Slovene, and Croatian (see Serbo-Croatian language). When Czech was revived as a literary language in the early 19th century, Josef DoBROVSKy based his codification of the language largely on the norms of 16th-century Czech, as exemplified in the Kralice Bible (1579-93), an authoritative translation. This decision has resulted in a wide gulf between Standard Czech, the literary language, and Common Czech, the spoken language.

Czech Republic formerly (1918-92, with Slovakia) Czechoslova¬ kia Country, central Europe. Area: 30,450 sq mi (78,866 sq km). Popu¬ lation (2005 est.): 10,221,000. Capital: Prague. Czechs make up nine-

Czerny ► Czestochowa i 503

tenths of the population; Slovaks and Moravians are the largest minorities. Lan¬ guage: Czech (official). Religion: Chris¬ tianity (predominantly Roman Catholic, also other Christians, Protestant). Cur¬ rency: koruna. The landlocked country is dominated by the Bohemian Massif, a ring of mountains rising to 5,256 ft (1,602 m) at Mount Snezka to encircle the Bohemian Plateau. The Morava River valley, known as the

Moravian Corridor, separates the Bohemian Massif from the Carpathian Mountains. Woodlands are a characteristic feature of the Czech landscape; most regions have a moderate oceanic climate. The economy has been privatized since the collapse of communism and is now largely market- oriented. The Czech Republic is a multiparty republic with two legisla¬ tive houses; its chief of state is the president, and the head of government is the prime minister. Until 1918 its history was largely that of Bohemia. In that year the independent republic of Czechoslovakia was bom through the union of Bohemia and Moravia with Slovakia. Czechoslovakia came under the domination of the Soviet Union after World War II, and from 1948 to 1989 it was ruled by a communist government. Its growing politi¬ cal liberalization was suppressed by a Soviet invasion in 1968 (see Pra¬ gue Spring). After communist rule collapsed in 1989-90, separatist sentiments emerged among the Slovaks, and in 1992 the Czechs and Slo¬ vaks agreed to break up their federated state. At midnight on Dec. 31, 1992, Czechoslovakia was peacefully dissolved and replaced by two new countries, the Czech Republic and Slovakia, with the region of Moravia remaining in the former. In 1999 the Czech Republic joined NATO, and in 2004 it became a member of the European Union.

Czerny \'cher-ne\, Karl (b. Feb. 20, 1791, Vienna, Austria—d. July 15, 1857, Vienna) Austrian composer, teacher, and pianist. Son of a musician, he made his piano debut at age 9 and began study with Ludwig van Beethoven at 10. A brilliant pianist, he later became a famous piano teacher; his students included Sigismond Thalberg (1812-71) and Franz Liszt. Though he was a prolific composer, he is known today almost exclu¬ sively for his hundreds of piano exercises and etudes.

Czestochowa \ 1 chen(t)-sto- , ko-v9\ City (pop., 2000 est.: 255,500), south-central Poland, situated on the Warta River. The two original settle¬ ments, Old Czestochowa (founded in the 13th century) and Jasna Gora (14th century), merged in 1826. Noted for its wealth by the 15th century, the city resisted sieges by the Swedes in 1655 and 1705 but was occu¬ pied by the Germans in World Wars I and II. Industries include textiles, paper, steel, iron, chemicals, and food products. The famous painting of Our Lady of Czestochowa (The Black Madonna) is kept in an ancient monastery.

504 I D-Day ► Daddi

D-Day In U.S. military history, any designated day for the commence¬ ment of a major operation. The designation apparently originated in World War I; its meaning is uncertain, though it is probable that the “D” stands for nothing more than “Day.” (The designated time for commencement of action on any D-Day was referred to as H-Hour.) The most celebrated D-Day occurred on June 6, 1944, the first day of the Anglo-American invasion of Europe in World War II. See Normandy Campaign.

da Gama, Vasco See Vasco da Gama

Da Nang formerly Tourane Seaport city (pop., 2003 est.: 590,800), central Vietnam. It was first ceded to France in 1787, and after 1858 it became a French concession beyond the jurisdiction of the protectorate. Da Nang increased in importance after the partition of Vietnam in 1954, and during the Vietnam War it was the site of a U.S. military base. Its port has an excellent deepwater harbour; its manufactures include textiles and machinery.

Da Ponte \da-'pon-ta\, Lorenzo orig. Emanuele Conegliano (b. March 10, 1749, Ceneda, near Treviso,

Veneto—d. Aug. 17, 1838, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Italian poet and librettist. When his Jewish father converted to marry a Roman Catholic, he adopted the name of the local bishop. He took priestly orders in 1768, while teach¬ ing literature and publishing poetry. At odds with the authorities for his progressive views, he was expelled from the Venetian republic in 1779 for adultery. In 1783 he was appointed court poet for Vienna’s Italian theatre.

There he wrote a remarkable series of more than 40 opera librettos, including the masterpieces The Marriage of Figaro (1786), Don Giovanni (1787), and Cost fan tutte (1790) for Wolfgang A. Mozart. Court intrigue forced him to leave Vienna in 1791. He settled in New York in 1805, taught at Columbia College, wrote his colourful memoirs, and helped establish Italian opera in the city.

da Sangallo \da-saq-'gal-ld\ the Younger, Antonio (Giam- berti) (b. April 12, 1484, Florence—d. Aug. 3, 1546, Terni) Italian archi¬ tect. He was the nephew of the architects Giuliano da Sangallo (1445- 1516) and Antonio da Sangallo the Elder (1460-1534). Throughout his career, Antonio worked on St. Peter's Basilica, first as Donato Bramante’s assistant and after 1520 as chief architect. His imposing Palazzo Famese in Rome (1534-46), a fortresslike Florentine-style palace, exercised immense influence well into the 19th century. His wooden model of St. Peter’s (1539-46) still stands in the Vatican Museum.

Da Yu Vda-'yu\ or Ta Yu One of China’s three legendary emperors, supposed founder of the Xia dynasty. His years of strenuous labour pro¬ vided outlets to the sea through dredging and made the world suitable for human habitation. See also Shun; Yao.

dabbling duck Any of about 43 species (tribe Anatini; including 38 species in genus Anas) of ducks found worldwide, chiefly on inland waters and most commonly in tem¬ perate regions of the Northern Hemi¬ sphere. Strongly migratory, dabbling ducks include some of the world’s finest game birds: the black duck, the gadwall, the garganey, the mallard, the pintail (perhaps the world’s most abundant waterfowl), the shoveler, the teals, and the wigeons. They feed mainly on water plants, which they obtain by tipping-up in shallows and infrequently by diving. They often forage near the shore for seeds and insects. They have a flat, broad bill,

float high in the water, and are swift fliers. Males are slightly larger and more boldly coloured than females.

Dqbrowska \d6 n m-'br6f-ska\, Maria or Maria Dombrowska orig. Marja Szumska (b. Oct. 6, 1889, Russow, Pol.—d. May 19, 1965, Warsaw) Polish writer and literary critic. Dqbrowska lived and studied in various European countries in her early years. She is best known for her epic narrative Nights and Days, 4 vol. (1932-34), a family saga

European dace (Leuciscus leuciscus).

JANE BURTON-BRUCE COLEMAN LTD.

Common, or northern, pintail (Anas acuta )

on the theme of the human potential for development within uncertain circumstances. She also published four volumes of short stories, as well as plays, essays (including a series on Joseph Conrad), and translations (including the diary of Samuel Pepys). Long active in political and social causes, she was given a state funeral despite having protested communist censorship.

Dacca See Dhaka

dace Any of various small, slim, active freshwater fishes of the carp family (Cyprinidae). In England and Europe, the dace ( Leuciscus leu¬ ciscus), a relative of the European chub, inhabits streams and rivers. It is a small-headed, silvery fish that grows to 10-12 in. (25-30 cm) long and weighs 1-1.5 lbs (0.5-0.7 kg). It lives in schools and eats plant and ani¬ mal material.

It is a good bait and sport fish but is not highly valued as food. In

North America, the name is applied to various small cyprinids found in creeks and bogs, mostly in the central and southern U.S.

Dachau \'da-,kau\ First Nazi concentration camp in Ger¬ many, established in 1933. It became the model and training center for all other SS-organized camps. In World War II the main camp was supplemented by about 150 branches in southern Germany and Austria, which were collectively called Dachau. It was the first and most important camp at which laboratories were set up to perform medical experiments on inmates. Such experiments and the harsh living condi¬ tions made Dachau one of the most notorious camps, though it was not designed as an extermination camp.

dachshund \'daks-,hund, 'dak-sont\ Dog breed of hound and terrier ancestry developed in Germany to pursue badgers (German, Dachs) into their burrows. It is a long-bodied, lively dog with a deep chest, short legs, tapering muzzle, and long ears. Usually reddish brown, or black and tan, it is bred in two sizes (standard and miniature) and in three coat types (smooth, long, and wiry). The standard dachshund stands about 7-10 in. (18-25 cm) high and weighs 16-32 lbs (7-14.5 kg); the miniature is shorter and weighs less than 9 lbs (4 kg).

Dacia Vda-shoV Ancient country, central Europe. Roughly equivalent to modern Romania, the area’s earliest known inhabitants were Getae and Dacian people of Thracian stock. Known for its rich silver, iron, and gold mines, the region was made a Roman province in ad 107 after two cen¬ turies of hostilities. It was abandoned to the Goths in 270 and ultimately divided into the principalities of Walachia and Moldavia.

Dada \'da-,da\ Nihilistic movement in the arts. It originated in Zurich, Switz., in 1916 and flourished in New York City, Paris, and the German cities of Berlin, Cologne, and Hannover in the early 20th century. The name, French for “hobbyhorse,” was selected by a chance procedure and adopted by a group of artists, including Jean Arp, Marcel Duchamp, Man Ray, and Francis Picabia, to symbolize their emphasis on the illogical and absurd. The movement grew out of disgust with bourgeois values and despair over World War I. The archetypal Dada forms of expression were the nonsense poem and the ready-made. Dada had far-reaching effects on the art of the 20th century; the creative techniques of accident and chance were sustained in Surrealism, Abstract Expressionism, conceptual art, and Pop art.

Daddi \'dad-de\, Bernardo (b. c. 1290, Florence?—d. c. 1355, Flo¬ rence?) Italian painter. He became one of the leading painters in Florence after the death of his teacher, Giotto. He directed a busy workshop spe¬ cializing in small devotional panels and portable altarpieces. His works include a triptych for the Church of Ognissanti (1328) and the polyptych Crucifixion with Eight Saints (1348). His style, a fusion of Giotto’s seri¬ ousness and the lightness of Sienese art, featuring smiling Madonnas and abundant flowers and draperies, remained the dominant style of Floren¬ tine painting through the 14th century.

daddy longlegs ► Dahshur I 505

daddy longlegs or harvestman Any of the 3,400 arachnid species constituting the order Opiliones.

Daddy longlegs differ from spiders in having extremely long, thin legs and a spherical or oval body that is not divided in two. The body is approxi¬ mately 0.05-1.0 in. (1-22 mm) long; the fragile legs may be 20 times the body length. Males are smaller than females. Adults have a pair of glands that secrete a foul-smelling fluid.

Daddy longlegs are very widely dis¬ tributed in temperate regions and in the tropics. The U.S. and Canada have about 150 species. They feed on insects, mites, spiders, carrion, and vegetable matter. See also crane fly.

dado \'da-do\ In Classical architecture, the plain portion of the pedestal of a column, between the base and the cornice (or cap). In later architec¬ ture, a dado is a wall’s paneled or decorated lower part, up to 2-3 ft (60-90 cm) above the floor and defined by a horizontal molding. Interior walls were so treated especially in the 16th-18th century. In carpentry, a dado is a rectangular groove cut across the grain of a wood member.

Dadra and Nagar Haveli \d9-'dra... l n9-gor-3- , ve-le\ Union territory (pop., 2001 prelim.: 220,451), western India. Located between Gujarat and Maharashtra states and consisting of the entities of Dadra and Nagar Havali, it has a total area of 190 sq mi (491 sq km); its capital is Silvassa. Forests cover part of the area; the rest is devoted to cultivation and graz¬ ing. Industrial development is limited. It came under Portuguese control in 1783-85. In 1954 indigenous freedom movements forced the Portu¬ guese out, and it became a union territory of India in 1961. The popula¬ tion is predominantly Hindu.

Daedalic sculpture or Daidalic sculpture \de-'da-lik\ Type of figurative sculpture attributed by later Greeks to the legendary Greek artist Daedalus (Daidalos), associated with Bronze Age Crete and early Archaic sculpture in Greece. Daedalic sculpture displays Eastern (“Orientalizing”) influences: wiglike hair, large eyes, and prominent nose; the female body is flatly geometric with a high waist and formless drapery. The style was used in figurines, on clay plaques, and in relief decoration on vases.

Daedalus Vde-do-bs, 'de-do-losN In Greek mythology, a brilliant archi¬ tect, sculptor, and inventor. He was credited with building for King Minos of Crete the Labyrinth in which the Minotaur was kept. When the king turned against Daedalus and imprisoned him, Daedalus secretly made wings for himself and his son Icarus, intending to escape to Sicily. Despite his father’s warnings, Icarus flew too close to the sun; the wax holding the feathers to his wings melted, and he fell into the sea and drowned.

daemon See demon

daffodil Bulb-forming flowering plant ( Narcissus pseudonarcissus), also called common daffodil or trumpet narcissus, native to northern Europe and widely cultivated there and in North America. It grows to about 16 in. (41 cm) and has five or six leaves about 12 in. (30 cm) long that grow from the bulb. The stem bears one large yellow trumpet-shaped blossom. The daffodil’s popularity has resulted in the production of many varieties differing from the yellow parent form mainly in colour.

Dafydd ap Llywelyn See David ap Llywelyn

Dagan \'da-,gan\ West Semitic god of crop fertility, father of Baal. He was the mythical inventor of the plow. He had an important temple at Ras Shamra and at sanctuaries in Palestine, where he was known as a god of the Philistines. At Ras Shamra he was second only to El, though Baal assumed his functions as vegetation god by c. 1500 bc.

Dagda Vdag-tho\ or Eochaid Ollathair Vo-ke-'o-lo-horV In Irish mythology, a leader of the mythical Tuatha De Danann and father of the three Brigits and of Maponos. His name means “good god,” referring to his many powers rather than to his moral character. The Dagda had an enormous appetite for food and sex and may have been associated with fertility. He possessed a cauldron that was never empty and a club that could kill men and restore them to life.

Dagobert Vdag-o-.borA I (b. 605—d. Jan. 19, 639, Saint-Denis, France) Last Frankish king of the Merovingian dynasty to rule a politically united realm. He became king of Austrasia in 623 and of the entire Frankish

realm in 629. Dagobert secured a treaty with the Byzantine emperor, defeated the Gascons and Bretons, and campaigned against the Slavs in the east. In 631 he sent an army to help the Visigothic usurper in Spain. He moved his capital from Austrasia to Paris, then made his son king of Austrasia in 634. Dagobert also revised Frankish law, patronized the arts, and founded the great abbey of Saint-Denis.

Daguerre \da-'ger\, Louis (-Jacques-Mande) (b. Nov. 18, 1787, Cormeilles, Fr.—d. July 10, 1851, Bry-sur-Mame) French inventor. Ini¬ tially a scene painter for the opera, in 1822 he opened the Diorama, an exhibition of views with effects induced by changes in lighting. In 1826 Nicephore Niepce learned of Daguerre’s experiments in obtaining perma¬ nent pictures by the action of sunlight, and the two became partners in the development of Niepce’s heliographic process until Niepce’s death in 1833. Continuing to experiment, Daguerre discovered that exposing an iodized silver plate in a camera would create a lasting image if the latent image on the plate was developed and fixed. In 1839 a description of his daguerreotype process was announced at the Academy of Sciences.

daguerreotype \d3-'ge-ro-,tIp\ First successful form of photography. It is named for Louis Daguerre, who invented the technique in collabora¬ tion with Nicephore Niepce. They found that if a copper plate coated with silver iodide was exposed to light in a camera, then fumed with mercury vapour, and fixed (made permanent) by a solution of common salt, a per¬ manent image would be formed. The first daguerreotype image was pro¬ duced in 1837, by which time Niepce had died, so the process was named for Daguerre. Many daguerreotypes, especially portraits, were made in the mid 19th century; the technique was gradually replaced by the wet collodion process, introduced in 1851.

Dahl \'dal\, Roald (b. Sept. 13, 1916, Llandaff, Wales—d. Nov. 23, 1990, Oxford, Eng.) British writer. A fighter pilot during World War II, he began his writing career when C.S. Forester encouraged him to write about his combat adventures; they were published by The Saturday Evening Post. The short-story collection Someone Like You (1953) was a best-seller; his later stories, many published in The New Yorker, often include bizarre or supernatural elements. His popular children’s books James and the Giant Peach (1961) and Charlie and the Chocolate Fac¬ tory (1964) were made into films.

dahlia \'dal-ya\ Any of the 12-20 species of tuberous-rooted herbaceous plants that make up the genus Dahlia, in the composite family, native to higher elevations of Mexico and Central America. The leaves of most are segmented and toothed or cut. About six species have been bred for cul¬ tivation as ornamental flowers. Wild species have both disk and ray flow¬ ers in the flowering heads, but many varieties of ornamentals, such as the common garden dahlia ( D. bipinnata), have shortened ray flowers. Dahlia flowers may be white, yellow, red, or purple.

Dahmer, Jeffrey (b. May 21, 1960, Milwaukee, Wis., U.S.—d. Nov. 28, 1994, Portage, Wis.) U.S. serial killer. In 1992 he confessed to kill¬ ing, dismembering, and, in some cases, cannibalizing 16 young men, chiefly near his Milwaukee home, in a killing spree that started in 1978, when he murdered a young hitchhiker. The grim details, including his freezer packed with human body parts, made global news. His insanity plea was rejected by a jury, and he was sentenced to 15 consecutive life terms in 1992 (a 16th was later added for the 16th murder). He was mur¬ dered by a fellow inmate in 1994.

Dahomey See Benin

Dahomey kingdom Western African kingdom that flourished in the 18th—19th century in what is now central Benin. Initially called Abomey, its name was changed to Dahomey after it had expanded by conquering the neighbouring kingdoms of Allada (1724) and Whydah (1727). It thrived on the slave trade with Europe, reaching its high point under Gezu (1818-58), under whom it became independent of the Oyo empire. Soci¬ ety was rigidly stratified into royalty, commoners, and slaves; a central¬ ized bureaucracy carried out the king’s will. The nation was organized for war, both to increase its territory and to take captives for the slave mar¬ ket, and women served as soldiers along with men. With the end of the slave trade in the 1840s, Dahomey began exporting palm oil, which proved less profitable, and an economic decline followed. In 1892 Daho¬ mey was defeated by a French expedition and became part of the French colony of the same name.

Dahshur \da-'shur\ Ancient pyramid site, northern Egypt. It is located near Memphis on the western bank of the Nile. Two of its pyramids date

Daddy longlegs, or harvestman (order Opiliones).

E.s. ROSS

506 I Daidalic sculpture ► Dalhousle

from the 4th dynasty and were built by Snefru (r. 2575-2551 bc); the smaller is believed to be the first true pyramid. The three remaining pyra¬ mids belong to the 12th dynasty (1938-1756 bc). Nearby tombs have yielded a remarkable collection of jewelry and personal accoutrements.

Daidalic sculpture See Daedalic

SCULPTURE

Daigak Guksa Vta-'gak-'kiik-.saV (b. 1055, Korea—d. 1101, Korea)

Korean Buddhist priest and introducer of Ch’ont’ae (Chinese Tiantai) Buddhism to Korea. He became a monk at age 11 and studied in China. On his return to Korea, he promoted the doctrines of Ch’ont’ae, which attempted to reconcile the two main Korean sects, the Kyo (textual) and the Son (Chinese Chan, Japanese Zen; con¬ templative). The introduction of Ch’ont’ae stimulated the reorganization of the Son school and the development of its Chogye order, which became the main order of Korean Buddhism. Daigak Guksa collected and pub¬ lished 4,750 books of Buddhist scriptures and a catalog of sectarian writ¬ ings.

Daigo, Go- See Go-Daigo d'Ailly, Pierre See Pierre d’AiLLY

Daimler Vdlm-loA, Gottlieb (Wilhelm) (b. March 17, 1834, Schorn- dorf, Wiirttemberg—d. March 6, 1900, Cannstatt) German automotive inventor. Trained as an engineer, he cofounded an engine—building com¬ pany in 1882. He patented one of the first successful internal-combustion engines in 1885 and was the first to use a gasoline engine to power a bicycle (see motorcycle). Further innovations culminated in 1889 in a commercially feasible four-wheeled automobile. In 1890 the Daimler company was founded at Cannstadt, and in 1899 it produced the first Mercedes car. In 1926 it merged with the company founded by Karl Benz. See also Daimler-Chrysler AG.

DaimlerChrysler AG German automotive manufacturer. It was formed in 1998 by the merger of Daimler-Benz and U.S. automaker Chrysler Corp. Its German roots are in the auto companies founded by Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz, which merged in 1926. The Mercedes-Benz luxury car, first produced by Daimler in 1901, is the basis of the compa¬ ny’s financial success. DaimlerChrysler makes passenger cars, trucks, and commercial vehicles such as buses. Its brands include Mercedes, Dodge, Jeep, and Plymouth.

daimyo \'di-me-,o\ Any of the largest and most powerful landholding magnates in Japan (c. 10th—19th century). The term was originally applied to military lords who gained territorial control over the various private estates into which the country had been divided; later, in the 14th-15th centuries, daimyo acted as military governors for the Ashikaga shogunate (see Muromachi period). Though they held legal jurisdiction over areas as large as provinces, their private landholdings were relatively small. As the country descended into internecine war, daimyo tended to hold small but consolidated domains in which all the land belonged to themselves or their vassals. Gradually, through constant battles, fewer and fewer daimyo came to hold increasing amounts of territory. When Tokugawa Ieyasu completed unification of Japan in 1603, roughly 200 daimyo had been brought under Tokugawa hegemony. During the Tokugawa period (1603-1867), the daimyo acted as local rulers in three-fourths of the country. After the Meiji Restoration, the daimyo were converted into a pensioned nobility residing in Tokyo. See also HAN.

Dai nan See T'ai-nan Dairen See Dalian

dairy farming Form of animal husbandry that uses mammals, prima¬ rily cows, for the production of milk and products processed from it (including butter, cheese, and ice cream). Though cattle, goats, and sheep have been kept for the production of dairy products since the earliest his¬ torical times, modern dairy farming resulted from the technological advances of the past hundred years: the factory system for processing; sterile storage; refrigeration, fast vehicles and paved roads; and pasteur¬ ization and the enforcement of food-safety laws. Outstanding dairy breeds include the Holstein, Guernsey, Jersey, Ayrshire, and Brown Swiss.

daisy Any of several species of garden plants in the composite family, especially the oxeye daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum) and the English, or true, daisy {Beilis perennis). Both are native to Europe but have become naturalized in the U.S. These and other plants called dai¬ sies are distinguished by a flower composed of 15-30 white ray flowers surrounding a bright yellow disk flower. The cultivated Shasta daisy (C. maximum) resembles the oxeye daisy but has larger flower heads. The English daisy is often used as a bedding plant.

Dakar \da-'kar, 'da-,kar\ City (pop., 1999 est.: urban agglomeration, 1,999,000), capital of Senegal. One of the chief seaports on the western African coast, it lies midway between the mouths of the Gambia and Sene¬ gal rivers. Founded by the French in 1857, its development was spurred by the opening in 1885 of western Africa’s first railway, from Saint-Louis to Dakar. In 1902 it became the capital of French West Africa and, in 1960, of Senegal. Dakar is one of tropical Africa’s leading industrial and ser¬ vice centres. There are museums of ethnography and archaeology there and museums of the sea and of history in nearby Goree.

Dakota See Sioux Dakota River See James River

Dal River River, southern central Sweden. Formed by two forks, the Oster Dal and Vasster Dal, it flows southeast for some 325 mi (520 km) from the mountains along the Norwegian border into the Gulf of Bothnia.

Daladier \da-lad-'ye\, Edouard (b. June 18, 1884, Carpentras, France—d. Oct. 10, 1970, Paris) French politician. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1919 as a member of the Radical Party, served in several different cabinets, and formed short-lived governments in 1933 and 1934. As premier (1938—40), he sought to avoid war by signing the Munich agreement. Arrested after France fell to Germany in World War II, he was imprisoned by the Germans until 1945. After the war he returned to the Chamber of Deputies (1946-58).

Dalai Lama V.da-lI-'la-moX Head of the dominant Dge-lugs-pa order of Tibetan Buddhism. The first of the line was Dge-’dun-grub-pa (1391-1475), founder of a monastery in central Tibet. His successors were regarded as his reincarnations and, like himself, manifestations of the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara. The second head of the order established the ’Brasspungs monastery near Lhasa as its base, and the third received the title Dalai (“Ocean”) from Altan Khan. The fifth, Ngag-dbang-rgya-mtsho (1617— 1682), established the supremacy of the Dge-lugs-pa over other orders. The 13th Dalai Lama, Thub-bstan-rgya-mtsho (1875-1933), held tempo¬ ral and spiritual power after the Chinese were expelled in 1912. The 14th and current Dalai Lama, Bstan-’dzin-rgya-mtsho (b. 1935), was enthroned in 1940 but fled in 1959 with 100,000 followers after a failed revolt against the Chinese, who had gained control of Tibet in 1950-51. His government-in-exile is in Dharmsala, India. A respected figure worldwide, he was awarded the 1989 Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of his “con¬ structive and forward-looking proposals” for solving world problems.

d'Alembert, Jean Le R. See Jean Le Rond d’ALEMBERT

Daley, Richard J(oseph) (b. May 15, 1902, Chicago, Ill., U.S.—d. Dec. 20, 1976, Chicago) U.S. politician, mayor of Chicago (1955-76). A lawyer in his native Chicago, Daley served as state director of revenue (1948-50) and clerk of Cook county (1950-55) before being elected mayor. He pushed urban renewal and highway construction and a sweep¬ ing reform of the police department, but he was criticized for failing to eliminate racial segregation in housing and public schools, for promoting downtown skyscraper construction, and for police brutality committed against demonstrators at the 1968 Democratic National Convention. His tight control of city politics through job patronage won him a reputation as “the last of the big-city bosses.” His last years were marred by scan¬ dals surrounding members of his administration. His son Richard M. Daley (b. 1942) was first elected mayor of Chicago in 1989.

Dalhousie \dal-'hau-ze\, James Andrew Broun Ramsay, mar¬ quess of (b. April 22, 1812, Dalhousie Castle, Midlothian, Scot.—d. Dec. 19, 1860, Dalhousie Castle) British governor-general of India (1847- 56). He entered Parliament in 1837 and later served as president of the Board of Trade, gaining a reputation for administrative efficiency. As governor-general of India he acquired territory by both peaceful and mili¬ tary means. Though he created the map of modem India through his annexations of independent provinces, his greatest achievement was the molding of these provinces into a modern centralized state. He developed

Dalhousie University ► Dalton I 507

a modern communication and trans¬ portation system and instituted social reforms. He left India in 1856, but his controversial policy of annex¬ ation was considered a contributing factor to the Indian Mutiny (1857).

Dalhousie University Privately endowed university in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. It was founded in 1818 as Dalhousie College by the 9th earl of Dalhousie, then lieutenant governor of Nova Scotia, and became a university in 1863. It is organized into faculties of arts, sci¬ ence, management, architecture, engineering, computer science, law, medicine, dentistry, health profes¬ sions, and graduate studies.

Dali \'da-le,\ Spanish \da-'le\ (y Domenech), Salvador (Felipe Jacinto) (b. May 11, 1904,

Figueras, Spain—d. Jan. 23, 1989,

Figueras) Spanish painter, sculptor, printmaker, and designer. He studied in Madrid and Barcelona before moving to Paris, where, in the late 1920s, after reading Sigmund Freud’s writings on the erotic significance of subconscious imagery, he joined the Surrealist group of artists. Once Dali hit on this method, his painting style matured with extraordinary rapidity, and from 1929 to 1937 he produced the paintings that made him the world’s best-known Surrealist artist. His paintings depict a dream world in which commonplace objects, painted with meticulous realism, are juxtaposed, deformed, or metamorphosed in bizarre ways. In his most famous painting, The Persistence of Memory (1931), limp watches melt in an eerie landscape. With Luis Bunuel he made the Surrealist films Un Chien andalou (1928) and L’Age d’or (1930). Expelled from the Surrealist movement when he adopted a more academic style, he later designed stage sets, jewelry, interiors, and book illustra¬ tions. His highly accessible art—and the publicity attracted by the eccen¬ tricity, exhibitionism, and flamboyant behaviour he cultivated throughout his life—made him extremely wealthy.

"Dali Atomicus," or Dali with everything in suspension, photograph by Philippe Halsman, 1948

Dalian Vda-'lyen\ or Ta-lien formerly (1950-81) Luda Ylte-'daV or Lu-ta Japanese and conventional Dairen \'dl-'ren\ City (pop., 2003 est.: 2,181,600) and deepwater port on the Liaodong Peninsula, Liaoning prov¬ ince, China. Leased to Russia in 1898, it was made a free port and ter¬ minus of the Chinese Eastern Railway (1899). The Japanese occupied it (1904) during the Russo-Japanese War, and the lease was transferred to Japan by treaty in 1905. Soviet troops captured the city in 1945, but by

a Chinese-Soviet treaty it remained under Chinese sovereignty with pref¬ erential rights to the port for the U.S.S.R.; Soviet troops withdrew in 1955. It annexed neighbouring Lushun in 1950. Industries include fishing, ship¬ building, oil refining, and the manufacture of locomotives, machine tools, textiles, and chemicals.

Dallapiccola \ l dal-la-pek- , ko-la\ / Luigi (b. Feb. 3, 1904, Pisino, Istria, Austrian Empire—d. Feb. 19, 1975, Florence) Croatian-born Italian com¬ poser. Originally influenced by the music of Claude Debussy, he later was strongly affected by that of Arnold Schoenberg, and he became the lead¬ ing Italian 12-tone composer. His Songs of Prison (1941) was inspired by the experience of fascism, as was his opera The Prisoner (1948). Other important works include the operas Night Flight (1939), Job (1950), and Ulisse (1968).

Dallas City (pop., 2000: 1,188,580), north-central Texas, U.S. Located on the Trinity River, it was first settled in 1841 and was most likely named for either Joseph Dallas or George Mifflin Dallas. While cotton fed the town’s growth, the discovery in 1930 of the great East Texas oil field made the city a major centre of the petroleum industry. It saw spectacular growth after World War II, when several large aircraft-manufacturing firms located in the area. These were followed by electronics and automobile- assembly plants. It is the headquarters of many insurance companies and the Southwest’s leading financial centre, as well as a transportation hub. Its many educational institutions include Southern Methodist University (founded 1911). It is known for its cultural activities including opera, bal¬ let, and symphony concerts. The city is also home to the Kalita Hum¬ phreys Theater, designed by Frank Lloyd Wright.

Dallas, George Mifflin (b. July 10, 1792, Philadelphia, Pa.—d. Dec. 31, 1864, Philadelphia) U.S. politician. He was the son of Alexander J. Dallas, who served as secretary of the treasury (1814-16). He completed an unexpired term as U.S. senator (1831-33) and later served as minister to Russia (1835-39). He was elected vice president under James K. Polk (1845-49). As minister to Britain (1856—61), he obtained a renunciation of Britain’s claimed right to search vessels on the high seas. Dallas, Texas, was named for him.

Dalmatia \dal-'ma-sh3\ Serbo-Croatian Dalmacija \,dal-'mat-se-ya\ Region of Croatia. Comprising a coastal strip and islands along the Adri¬ atic Sea, it is divided from the interior by the Dinaric Alps. Its scenic beauty has made tourism a major economic factor; Dubrovnik and Split are Mediterranean tourist attractions. Occupied by Illyrians from c. 1000 bc, it was colonized by Greeks from the 4th century bc and controlled by Rome 2nd-5th century ad. Under Venetian rule in 1420, it passed to Aus¬ tria after the fall of Napoleon. Most of Dalmatia came under Yugoslavia in 1920. Annexed by Italy during World War II, it passed to Yugoslavia in 1947 as part of the Croatian republic.

da I mafia n Breed of dog named after the Adriatic coastal region of Dalmatia, its first definite home. The time and place of the breed’s origin are unknown. Though it has served as a guard dog, war dog, fire- department mascot, hunter, shepherd, and performer, it became best known as a coach or carriage dog, functioning as an escort and guard for horse-drawn vehicles. Sleek and short-haired, it is distinguished by its dark-spotted white coat. It stands 19-23 in. (48-58.5 cm) high and weighs 50-55 lbs (23-25 kg), and is generally even-tempered and friendly.

Dalriada \,dal-re-'a-d3\ Ancient kingdom, northeastern Ireland and western Scotland. Known from the 5th century ad, it included the north¬ ern part of the present County Antrim in Northern Ireland and part of the Inner Hebrides and Argyll in Scotland. Earlier, Argyll had received north¬ ern Irish people known as Scoti and had become an Irish (i.e., “Scottish”) area. In the late 5th century the rulers of Irish Dalriada expanded into Scottish Dalriada. Irish Dalriada gradually declined, while the Dalriada of the Scottish mainland continued to expand. In the mid-9th century the PlCTS were brought permanently under Dalriadic rule, and the whole coun¬ try was thereafter known as Scotland.

Dalton, John (b. Sept. 5 or 6, 1766, Eaglesfield, Cumberland, Eng.—d. July 27, 1844, Manchester) British chemist and physicist. He spent most of his life in private teaching and research. His work on GASes led him to state Dalton’s law (see gas laws). He devised a system of chemical sym¬ bols, ascertained the relative weights of atoms, and arranged them into a table. His masterpiece of synthesis was the atomic theory—the theory that each element is composed of tiny, indestructible particles called atoms that are all alike and have the same atomic weight —which elevated chemistry

Dalhousie, detail of an oil painting by Sir John Watson-Gordon, 1847; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, LONDON

508 I Dalton brothers ► Dampier

to a quantitative science. He was also the first to describe colour blindness (1794), and his lifelong meteorologi¬ cal journal contains more than 200,000 observations. He is remem¬ bered as one of the fathers of mod¬ em physical science.

Dalton brothers U.S. outlaws.

Probably born in Cass Co., Mo., they worked as cowboys in Oklahoma but by 1889 had become horse thieves.

In 1890-91 they robbed gambling houses, trains, and banks. In 1892 Bob, Grat, and Emmett Dalton and two other gang members rode into Coffeyville, Kan., to rob its banks; they were recognized, and vigilante citizens killed all but Emmett, who was wounded and sent to prison for 14 years. The fourth brother, Bill, had returned to Oklahoma before the raid; he later formed his own gang, and was shot by lawmen in 1894 while playing with his daughter.

Daly River \'da-le\ River, northwestern Northern Territory, Australia. Formed by the confluence of three smaller rivers, it flows about 200 mi (320 km) from the hills west of Amhem Land to Anson Bay on the Timor Sea. Its basin supports cattle ranching and peanut and tobacco farming. It was first explored by Europeans in 1865. It is navigable for 70 mi (115 km) above its tidal mouth.

dam Barrier built across a stream, river, or estuary to conserve water for such uses as human consumption, irrigation, flood control, and electric- power generation. The earliest recorded dam is believed to be a masonry structure 49 ft (15 m) high built across the Nile River in Egypt c. 2900 bc. Modem dams are generally built of earth fill, rock fill, masonry, or monolithic concrete. Earth-fill (or embankment) dams, such as Egypt’s Aswan High Dam, are usually used across broad rivers to retain water. The profile of an earth-fill dam is a broad-based triangle. Concrete dams may take various forms. The gravity dam uses its own dead weight to resist the horizontal force of the water. Concrete-buttress dams reduce material in the wall itself by using support buttresses around the outside base. An arch dam, such as Hoover Dam, is built in a convex arch facing the res¬ ervoir, and owes its strength essentially to its shape, which is particularly efficient in transferring hydraulic forces to supports.

damages In law, the money awarded to a party in a civil suit as repa¬ ration for the loss or injury for which another is liable. The theory of an award of damages in a personal-injury or other tort case is that injured parties should be placed in the position they would have been in if the injury had not occurred, so far as this can be accomplished with a mon¬ etary award. Where the legal wrong at issue is the breach of a contract, the goal of the damages remedy is to give the injured parties the benefit they would have received had the contract been performed. More than one type of damages (e.g., direct, incidental, and punitive) may be awarded for a single injury.

Daman and Diu \d9- , man... , de-ii\ Union territory (pop., 2001 prelim.: 158,059), west-coastal India. Its capital is the town of Daman (pop., 2001 prelim.: 35,743). It consists of two widely separated districts: Daman, on the Gujarat coast north of Mumbai (Bombay), and the island of Diu, off the southern coast of the Kathiawar Peninsula; the territory’s total area is 43 sq mi (112 sq km). Formerly Portuguese possessions. Daman and Diu were annexed by India in 1962. The population is predominantly Hindu. Agriculture and fishing are the major economic activities.

Damaraland Vds-'mar-a-.land, , da-m3-r3-,land\ Historical region, north-central Namibia. Occupied by the Herero and Khoisan people, who subjugated the original Bergdama people there, it extends between the Namib and Kalahari deserts and from Ovamboland to Great Namaqualand, centring on Windhoek. The grassland region was suited both to the nomadic hunting and pastoral life of its original inhabitants and to the cattle breeding of the Europeans who, in the early 20th century, displaced the indigenous peoples and confiscated their herds.

Damascus \d3-'mas-k3s\ Arabic Dimashq \di-'mashk\ City (pop., 2004: 1,614,500), capital of Syria. Located at an oasis at the base of the

Anti-Lebanon Mountains, it has been an important population centre since antiquity. Believed to be the world’s oldest continuously inhabited city, it has evidence of occupation from the 4th millennium bc. The first writ¬ ten reference to it is found in Egyptian tablets of the 15th century bc, and biblical sources refer to it as the capital of the Aramaeans. It changed hands repeatedly over the centuries, belonging to Assyria in the 8th cen¬ tury bc, then Babylon, Persia, Greece, and Rome. It remained under the control of Rome and its successor state, the Byzantine Empire, until it fell to the Arabs in ad 635. Damascus flourished as the capital of the Umayyad dynasty, and the remains of their Great Mosque still stand. Taken by the Ottoman Empire in 1516, it remained under Ottoman rule until 1918; it was occupied by France in 1920 and became part of independent Syria in 1946. Today the city is a flourishing trading centre, with many educa¬ tional and scientific institutions. The old city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979.

Damascus Document or Zadokite Fragments Document asso¬ ciated with the ancient Jewish community at Qumran. The group had fled to the desert during Antiochus IV Epiphanes’s persecutions (175-164/163 bc). The document must predate the revolt of ad 66-70, which forced the community to disband. It is known from fragments found in caves at Qumran as well as from 10th-12th-century manuscripts. The first section calls for fidelity to God’s covenant and observance of the Sabbath and also introduces the sect’s leader, the Teacher of Righteousness. The sec¬ ond contains statutes dealing with vows, community assemblies, and admission and instruction of new members. See also Dead Sea Scrolls.

d'Amboise \da n -'bwaz\, Jacques orig. Jacques Joseph Ahearn

(b. July 28, 1934, Dedham, Mass., U.S.) U.S. dancer and choreographer. After studying at the School of American Ballet, he made his debut at age 12. He joined the New York City Ballet at age 15 and from the 1950s to the 1970s created leading roles in ballets such as Western Symphony (1954), Stars and Stripes (1958), and Who Cares? (1970). D’Amboise was admired for his athletic interpretations of both character and classi¬ cal roles. He also performed in films. He later founded and directed the National Dance Institute, a nonprofit group dedicated to dance instruction in public schools.

Dames, Paix des See Treaty of Cambrai

Damiao \da-me-'au n \, Frei orig. Pio Gianotti (b. Nov. 5, 1898, Italy—d. May 31, 1997, Recife, Pernambuco estado [“state”], Braz.) Italian-born Brazilian friar. He became a Capuchin friar at age 16 and later studied in Rome. In 1931 he was sent to Brazil, where he spent the rest of his life traveling in the poverty-stricken northeastern region. He soon developed a reputation as a miracle worker whose touch or prayers could relieve pain and heal disease. Doctrinally conservative, he was at odds with the region’s left-wing priests, who supported liberation theol¬ ogy. After his death the bishop of Petrolina began the process of seeking Frei Damiao’s beatification.

Damien Vda-me-onX, Father orig. Joseph de Veuster (b. Jan. 3, 1849, Tremelo, Belg.—d. April 15, 1889, Molokai, Hawaii) Belgian priest. After training at the College of Braine-le-Comte, he joined the Society of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary in 1858. He went as a missionary to the Sandwich (Hawaiian) Islands in 1863 and was ordained there in 1864. In 1873 he volunteered to take charge of the leper colony on Molokai Island. There he served as both physician and priest, dramati¬ cally improving living conditions and building two orphanages. He con¬ tracted leprosy himself in 1884 but refused to leave his post, and he died at Molokai five years later.

Damocles \ , dam-3-,klez\ (fl. 4th century bc) Member of the court of Dionysius I the Elder at Syracuse in Sicily. Legend holds that when Damocles spoke in extravagant terms of Dionysius’s happiness, the sov¬ ereign responded by inviting Damocles to a banquet and seating him beneath a sword suspended by a thread, thereby demonstrating the pre¬ carious fortunes of people who hold power.

Damodar Vda-mo-,dar\ River River, northeastern India. It rises, with its many tributaries, in the Chota Nagpur plateau of Jharkhand and flows east 368 miles (592 km) through West Bengal to join the Hugli River south¬ west of Kolkata (Calcutta). Its valley includes India’s most important coal- and mica-mining fields and is an area of active industrial development.

Dampier, William (b. August 1651, East Coker, Somerset, Eng.—d. March 1715, London) English buccaneer and explorer. In his early years he engaged in piracy, chiefly along the western coast of South America

John Dalton, detail of an engraving by W. Worthington, after a portrait by William Allen, 1814.

COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM; PHOTOGRAPH, J.R. FREEMAN & CO. LTD.

damping ► dance of death I 509

and in the Pacific. In 1697 he published a popular book, A New Voyage Round the World. In 1699-1701 he explored the coasts of Australia, New Guinea, and New Britain for the British Admiralty. He was court- martialed for his cruelty but later led a privateering expedition to the South Seas (1703-07). He was a keen observer of natural phenomena; one of his ship’s logs contains the earliest known European description of a typhoon.

damping In physics, the restraint of vibratory motion, such as mechani¬ cal oscillations, noise, and alternating electric currents, by dissipating energy. Unless a child keeps pumping a swing, the back-and-forth motion decreases; damping by the air’s friction opposes the motion and removes energy from the system. Viscous damping is caused by such energy losses as occur in liquid lubrication between moving parts or in a liquid forced through a small opening by a piston, as in automobile shock absorbers. Hysteresis damping involves energy loss within the moving structure itself. Other types of damping include electrical resistance, radiation, and magnetic damping.

Dana, Charles A(nderson) (b. Aug. 8, 1819, Hinsdale, N.H., U.S.—d. Oct. 17, 1897, Glen Cove, N.Y.) U.S. journalist. Dana lived at the utopian Brook Farm community for five years in the 1840s before becoming an editor for Horace Greeley’s New York Tribune, where he actively promoted the antislavery cause. He became a national figure as editor and part owner of the New York Sun (1868-97), which under his control was much admired and imitated. With George Ripley, he edited the New American Cyclopaedia (1857-63). He also edited a highly suc¬ cessful verse anthology and wrote books such as The Art of Newspaper Making (1895).

Dana, James D(wight) (b. Feb. 12,1813, Utica, N.Y., U.S.—d. April 14, 1895, New Haven, Conn.) U.S. geologist, mineralogist, and naturalist. He graduated from Yale University in 1833. He joined a U.S. exploring expedition to the South Seas (1838-42), acting as a geologist and zoologist. His contributions to the American Journal of Science stimulated U.S. geo¬ logic inquiry. His research into the formation of the Earth’s continents and oceans led him to believe in the progressive evolution of the Earth’s physi¬ cal features over time. By the end of his life he also came to accept the evolution of living things, as articulated by Charles Darwin. During his life¬ time, and largely under his leadership, U.S. geology grew from a collection and classification of unrelated facts into a mature science.

Dana Vda-noV Richard Henry (b. Aug. 1, 1815, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.—d. Jan. 6, 1882, Rome, Italy) U.S. writer and lawyer. Dana left Harvard College because of weakened eyesight and shipped out as a common sailor; after regaining his health, he returned and became a law¬ yer. He is remembered for his autobiographical Two Years Before the Mast (1840), which revealed the abuses endured by sailors. The Seaman’s Friend (1841) became the authoritative guide to seamen’s legal rights and duties. He also produced a scholarly edition of Henry Wheaton’s Elements

of International Law (1866), pro¬ vided free legal aid to fugitive slaves, and served as U.S. attorney for Massachusetts.

Danae Vda-no-.eV In Greek legend, the daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos. After an oracle warned her father that she would bear a son by whom he would be slain, he confined Danae in a tower. Zeus visited her in the form of a shower of gold, and she gave birth to Perseus. Mother and child were then placed in a wooden box and cast into the sea, and they drifted ashore on the island of Seri- phus. Perseus grew up there, and when the island’s king, Polydectes, desired Danae, he sent the young hero off in pursuit of the Medusa.

Perseus later rescued his mother and took her to Argos.

dance Form of expression that uses bodily movements that are rhyth¬ mic, patterned (or sometimes improvised), and usually accompanied by music. One of the oldest art forms, dance is found in every culture and is performed for purposes ranging from the ceremonial, liturgical, and magi¬ cal to the theatrical, social, and simply aesthetic. In Europe, tribal dances often evolved into folk dances, which became stylized in the social dances of the 16th-century European courts. Ballet developed from the court dances and became refined by innovations in choreography and technique. In the 20th century, modern dance introduced a new mode of expressive movement. See also allemande; ballroom dance; country dance; courante; gavotte; gigue; hula; jitterbug; landler; mazurka; merengue; minuet; morris dance; pavane; polka; polonaise; quadrille; samba; sarabande; square dance; sword dance; tango; tap dance; waltz.

dance notation Written recording of dance movements. The earliest notation, in the late 15th century, consisted of letter-symbols. Several attempts were made in later centuries to describe dance steps, but no uni¬ fied system combined both rhythm and steps until the 1920s, when Rudolf Laban devised his system of Labanotation. In the 1950s, the competing system of Benesh notation, or “choreology,” devised by Rudolf and Joan Benesh, came into use.

• B

Laban

Comparison of the Laban and Benesh systems. (A) Stand with the feet together. (B) Step forward on the right foot (count 1). (C) Spring into the air. (D) Land to the left, feet together, knees bent (count 2).

dance of death or danse macabre VdaVma-'ka-brA or skel¬ eton dance Medieval allegorical concept of the all-conquering and equalizing power of death, expressed in the drama, poetry, music, and visual arts of western Europe, mainly in the late Middle Ages. It is a lit¬ erary or pictorial representation of a procession or dance of both living and dead figures, the living arranged in order of their rank, from pope and emperor to child, clerk, and hermit, and the dead leading them to the grave. It was given impetus by the Black Death and the Hundred Years' War. Though depictions declined after the 16th century, the theme was revived in literature and music of the 19th-20th centuries.

damselfly Any of numerous predaceous insects of the suborder Zygoptera (order Odonata) having eyes that project to each side. When at rest, the damselfly holds its nar¬ row, membranous, net-veined wings vertically rather than horizontally, unlike dragonflies. Damselflies are more delicate and weak-flying than dragonflies but are similar in having male copulatory organs at the front part of the abdomen. They com¬ monly fly in tandem during mating.

Da mu Vda-.miA In Mesopotamian religion, a Sumerian vegetation god and city god of Girsu on the Euph¬ rates River. He was especially asso¬ ciated with the flowing of sap in the spring. His name means “the child,” and his cult centred on the lamenta¬ tion and search for him. Damu’s cult influenced and later blended with that of Dumuzi the Shepherd, a Sum¬ erian deity of the grassland people. Damu was also the name of a god¬ dess of healing.

Male jewelwing damselfly [Calopteryx splendens).

G.I. BERNARD-OXFORD SCIENTIFIC FILMS LTD.

510 I dandelion ► Dante

dandelion Any of the weedy perennial herbaceous plants that make up the genus Taraxacum, in the composite family, native to Eurasia but wide¬ spread in much of temperate North America. The most familiar species, T. officinale , has a rosette of leaves at the base of the plant; a deep tap¬ root; a smooth, hollow stem; and a solitary yellow flower head composed only of ray flowers (no disk flowers). The fruit is a ball-shaped cluster of many small, tufted, one-seeded fruits. The young leaves are edible; the roots can be used as a coffee substitute.

Dandie Dinmont terrier Breed of terrier developed in the border country of England and Scotland. First noted as a distinct breed c. 1700, it was later named after a character in Sir Walter Scon’s Guy Mannering (1815). It has a long, softly curved body, short legs, and a large, domed head crowned by a silky topknot. Its crisp-textured coat, a combination of hard and soft hairs, may be pepper- or mustard-coloured. It stands 8-11 in. (20-28 cm) high and weighs 18-24 lb (8-11 kg).

Dandolo Vdan-do-lo\, Enrico (b. 1107?, Venice—d. 1205, Constanti¬ nople) Doge of the Republic of Venice (1192-1205). After a career as a Venetian diplomat, he was elected doge at age 85. He swore the “ducal promise,” spelling out the duties of his office, and instituted reforms, revising the penal code and publishing the first Venetian civil code. He also revised the coinage and sought to promote trade with the East. In 1199 he fought a victorious war against the Pisans. He was prominent in the Fourth Crusade, offering ships and supplies in return for payment (see Treaty of Venice). When the Crusaders were unable to pay, they agreed to help recover Zara for Venice and helped place Alexius IV on the Byzan¬ tine throne, an action that led to the conquest of Constantinople. As a leader of the expedition, Dandolo took the title “Lord of the Fourth Part and a Half of the Empire of Romania,” which equaled the territory of the Byzantine Empire given to the Venetians.

dandruff Skin disorder of the scalp, a mild form of dermatitis. It affects most people at some time, when the scalp, which normally sheds its dead outer skin cells continuously, starts to shed them intermittently, causing a scaly buildup before shedding and noticeable flakes of skin when shed¬ ding occurs. Dandruff is not contagious and often goes away spontane¬ ously; special shampoos can control it.

Danegeld Vdan-,geld\ Tax levied in Anglo-Saxon England to buy off Danish invaders during the reign of Ethelred II (978-1016). The term con¬ tinued to be used to refer to taxes collected by the Anglo-Norman kings in the 11th and 12th century.

Danelaw Vdan-,16\ NE region of Anglo-Saxon England. Colonized by invading Danish armies in the late 9th century ad, it was so named because the form of customary law practiced in the local courts was of Danish origin. Danish place-names still mark the region.

Daniel One of the Prophets of the Hebrew scriptures, the central figure in the book of Daniel. The book is a composite work, written partly in Hebrew and partly in Aramaic. The first six chapters tell of Daniel and his adventures in Babylon, including the stories of Daniel’s delivery from the lion’s den, the Jews in the fiery furnace, and the writing on the wall at Belshazzar’s feast. The rest of the book offers apocalyptic visions of the end of history and the last judgment. Though it contains references to rul¬ ers of the 6th century bc, the book is thought to have been written in the 2nd century bc during the persecutions of the Jews under Antiochus IV Epiphanes. Daniel’s upright character made him a model for a persecuted community.

Daniel Romanovich \r3-'man-3- I vich\ known as Daniel of Gali¬ cia (b. 1201—d. 1264) Ruler of Galicia and Volhynia, one of the most powerful princes in east central Europe. He inherited the two principali¬ ties at age 4, but pretenders to the succession kept him from ruling. He finally gained control over Volhynia in 1221 and Galicia in 1238. Daniel enriched his realm, but Mongol invasions (1240-41) forced him to acknowledge the rule of the khan. He led a rebellion against the Mongols (1256) and succeeded briefly in driving them out of Volhynia, but another Mongol force subdued the principality in 1260.

Daniels, Josephus (b. May 18,1862, Washington, N.C., U.S.—d. Jan. 15, 1948, Raleigh, N.C.) U.S. editor, administrator, and diplomat. He published a newspaper in Raleigh, N.C. (1885-1933), and became influ¬ ential in the Democratic Party. In the 1912 presidential election he worked for the nomination of Woodrow Wilson; he later served as U.S. secretary of the navy (1913-21). As ambassador to Mexico (1933-44), Daniels

improved relations between Mexico and the U.S. and became Pres. Frank¬ lin D. Roosevelt’s most trusted adviser on Mexican issues.

Danilevsky \do-nyi-'lyef-ske\, Nikolay (Yakovlevich) (b. Dec. 10, 1822, Obertse, Russia—d. Nov. 19, 1865, Tiflis, Russian Georgia) Russian naturalist and historical philosopher. He was the first to propound the philosophy of history as a series of distinct civilizations. In his Rus¬ sia and Europe (1869), he contended that Russia and the Slavs should be indifferent to the West and concentrate on the development of political absolutism, their own special cultural heritage.

Danilova \d9-'ne-b-v9\, Alexandra (Dionisyevna) (b. Nov. 20, 1903, Peterhof, Russia—d. July 13,

1997, New York, N.Y., U.S.)

Russian-bom U.S. ballet dancer and teacher. She attended the Imperial Ballet School in St. Petersburg and became a soloist at the Mariinsky The¬ atre. In 1924 she joined the Ballets Russes. From 1938 to 1952 she danced with the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo, touring worldwide as its prima ballerina. She created leading roles in The Triumph of Neptune,

Gaite Parisienne, Swan Lake, and Coppelia. After retiring in 1957 she became a full-time faculty member at the School of American Ballet (1964-89). She was instrumental in bringing classical and modern Rus¬ sian repertoires to the U.S.

Danish language Official lan¬ guage of Denmark, belonging to the Scandinavian (North) branch of the Germanic languages. It began to separate from the other Scandinavian languages c. ad 1000. Modern Danish is the Scandinavian language that has undergone the greatest amount of change from Old Scandinavian. A spelling reform in 1948 eliminated the capitalization of nouns and intro¬ duced the letter a for aa, thereby making the spelling more similar to that of Norwegian and Swedish. Evidence of Denmark’s political influence can be seen in the stamp of the Danish language on the Norwegian, Swed¬ ish, and Icelandic languages. It is taught in the schools of the Faroe Islands, of Iceland, and of Greenland.

D'Annunzio \dan-'niint-se-o\, Gabriele (b. March 12, 1863, Pescara, Italy—d. March 1, 1938, Gardone Riviera, on Lake Garda) Italian writer and military hero. He was a journalist before turning to poetry and fic¬ tion. His prodigious output includes The Child of Pleasure (1898), intro¬ ducing the first of his many passionate Nietzschean-Superman heroes; The Triumph of Death (1894), his best-known novel; Alcyone (1904), consid¬ ered his greatest poetic work; and the powerful play The Daughter ofJorio (1904). His works are marked by egocentrism, fluent and melodious style, and an overriding emphasis on sensual gratification. He urged Italy’s entry into World War I, in which he distinguished himself militarily. In 1919 he set himself up as dictator of the port city Fiume in defiance of the Treaty of Versailles and effectively secured it for Italy; he was forced to step down in 1920. He later became an ardent fascist. His eloquence, daring, political leadership, extravagant spending, and scandalous affairs (espe¬ cially with Eleonora Duse) made him one of the most striking personali¬ ties of his day.

danse macabre See dance of death

Dante (Alighieri) Vdan-ta-.a-ta-'gyer-eV (b. c. May 21-June 20, 1265, Florence—d. Sept. 13/14, 1321, Ravenna) Italian poet. Dante was of noble ancestry, and his life was shaped by the conflict between papal and impe¬ rial partisans (the Guelphs and Ghibellines). When an opposing political fac¬ tion within the Guelphs (Dante’s party) gained ascendancy, he was exiled (1302) from Florence, to which he never returned. His life was given direction by his spiritual love for Beatrice Portinari (d. 1290), to whom he dedicated most of his poetry. His great friendship with Guido Cavalcanti shaped his later career as well. La Vita Nuova (1293?) celebrates Beatrice in verse. In his difficult years of exile, he wrote the verse collection The Banquet (c. 1304-07); De vulgari eloquentia (1304-07; “Concerning Ver¬ nacular Eloquence”), the first theoretical discussion of the Italian literary

Alexandra Danilova in Swan Lake.

THE BE1TMANN ARCHIVE

Danton > D'Arcy I 511

language; and On Monarchy (1313?), a major Latin treatise on medieval political philosophy. He is best known for the monumental epic poem The Divine Comedy (written c. 1310-14; originally titled simply Commedia), a profoundly Christian vision of human temporal and eternal destiny. It is an allegory of universal human destiny in the form of a pilgrim’s journey through hell and purgatory, guided by the Roman poet Virgil, then to Para¬ dise, guided by Beatrice. By writing it in Italian rather than Latin, Dante almost singlehandedly made Italian a literary language, and he stands as one of the towering figures of European literature.

Danton \da nJ to n \, Georges (-Jacques) (b. Oct. 26, 1759, Arcis- sur-Aube, France—d. April 5, 1794, Paris) French revolutionary leader. A lawyer in Paris before the French Revolution, he cofounded the Cord¬ eliers Club (1790) and frequently made impassioned speeches before both it and the Jacobin Club. He was elected minister of justice in 1792, and he became a member of the first Committee of Public Safety in April 1793. Effectively the head of government for three months, he pursued a policy of compromise and negotiation. He was not reelected to the Committee when its term expired in Jitly, and he became leader of the moderate Indulgents, which had risen from the Cordeliers. His moderation and opposition to the Reign of Terror led to his own death at the guillotine.

Danube \'dan-,yub\ River German Donau Vdo-.naiA Slovak Dunaj \du-'nl\ Serbo-Croatian and Bulgarian Dunav Vdii-nav\ Romanian Dunarea \'du-nar-,ya\ Ukrainian Dunay \du-'nr\ River, central Europe. The second longest European river (after the Volga), it rises in Germany’s Black Forest and flows about 1,770 mi (2,850 km) to the Black Sea, passing along or through Germany, Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia and Montenegro, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, and Mold¬ ova. Its many tributaries include the Drava, Tisza, and Sava rivers. It has been an important highway between central and eastern Europe from antiquity. The lower Danube is a major avenue for freight transport, and the upper Danube is an important source of hydroelectricity. A regulatory body that consists of its riparian nations was established in 1948 to over¬ see its use. A major hydroelectric and navigation complex was built in the 1970s at Iron Gate Gorge in Romania. A canal linking Kelheim on the Danube and Bamberg on the Main River, allowing traffic to flow between the North and Black seas, was completed in 1992.

The confluence of the Sava (foreground) and Danube rivers from the Kalemegdan fortress, Belgrade, Serbia and Montenegro.

JEAN S. BULDAIN/BERG & ASSOC.

Danube school Tradition of German landscape painting and etching that developed in the Danube River valley between Regensburg and Vienna in the early 16th century. The most important artists associated with the movement were Albrecht Altdorfer and Lucas Cranach the Elder; others included Wolf Huber (1485-1553) and Jorg Breu the Elder (1475/ 76-1537). They were among the pioneers in depicting landscape for its own sake, often in highly subjective, expressive fashion.

Danzig See Gdansk

dao \'dau\ or tao In Chinese philosophy, a fundamental concept signi¬ fying the correct or divine way. In Confucianism, dao signifies a morally correct path of behaviour. In Daoism the concept is more encompassing and includes the visible process of nature, by which all things change, as well as the principle underlying this process. This principle, known as

Absolute Dao, can be only imperfectly understood by the practitioner but is the guiding principle in life. Daoists view life and death as stages of Absolute Dao and advocate a way of life that brings one closer to con¬ formity with essential nature.

Daodejing Vdau-'do-'jiqX or Tao-te ching Classic text of Chinese philosophy. Written between the 6th and 3rd centuries bc, it was once called the Laozi after its traditional author Laozi, though its true author¬ ship is still unresolved. The Daodejing presents a way of life intended to restore harmony and tranquillity to a kingdom racked by disorder. It pro¬ motes a course of nonaction, understood as restraint from any unnatural action rather than complete passivity, thereby allowing the dao to resolve things naturally. It was designed as a handbook for rulers, who should rule by inaction, imposing no restrictions or prohibitions on their subjects. The Daodejing has had a tremendous influence on all later schools of Chinese philosophy and religion and has been the subject of hundreds of commentaries.

Daoism or Taoism Vdau-.iz-omX Major Chinese religio-philosophical tradition. Though the concept of dao was employed by all Chinese schools of thought, Daoism arose out of the promotion of dao as the social ideal. Laozi is traditionally regarded as the founder of Daoism and the author of its classic text, the Daodejing . Other Daoist classics include the Zhuangzi (4th-3rd century bc; ) and the Liezi. In Daoism, dao is the force or prin¬ ciple about which nothing can be predicated, but that latently contains the forms, entities, and forces of all phenomena. This natural wisdom should not be interfered with; DE, or superior virtue, is acquired through action so entirely in accordance with the natural order that its author leaves no trace of himself in his work. The tradition holds that all beings and things are fundamentally one. Daoism’s focus on nature and the natural order complements the societal focus of Confucianism, and its synthesis with Buddhism is the basis of Zen. See also yin-yang.

Daphne \'daf-ne\ In Greek mythology, the personification of the laurel tree. The beautiful daughter of a river god, Daphne lived a pastoral exist¬ ence and rejected every lover. When Apollo pursued her, she prayed to Gaea or to her father to save her, whereupon she was transformed into a laurel. Apollo took its leaves to weave garlands that were thenceforth awarded to prize-winning poets. Daphne’s other pursuer was Leucippus, who was killed because of Apollo’s jealousy.

Daphnephoria \,daf-ne-'for-e-3\ In Greek religion, a festival held every ninth year at Thebes in Boeotia in honor of Apollo Ismenius or Apollo Chalazius. It consisted of a procession and the dedication of a bronze tri¬ pod in Apollo’s temple. The festival was said to have originated in a vision of the Theban general Polematas, who was promised victory over the Aeolians and Pelasgians if the Daphnephoria was instituted.

Dapsang See K2

DAR See Daughters of the American Revolution

Dar es Salaam \ l dai*- l es-sa-'lam\ Largest city (pop., 1995 est.: 1,747,000), capital, and major port of Tanzania. Founded in 1862 by the sultan of Zanzibar, it came under the German East Africa Co. in 1887. It served as the capital of German East Africa (1891-1916), of Tanganyika (1961-64), and subsequently of Tanzania. It is an industrial centre, and its harbour is the major outlet for Tanzania’s agricultural and mineral exports. It is the site of the University of Dar es Salaam (1961).

Darby, Abraham (b. 1678?, near Dudley, Worcestershire, Eng.—d. March 8, 1717, Madeley Court, Worcestershire) British ironmaster. In 1709 Darby’s Bristol Iron Co. became the first to successfully smelt iron ore with coke (see smelting). He demonstrated the superiority of coke in cost and efficiency by building much larger furnaces than were possible with charcoal as fuel. The quality of his iron made it possible to manu¬ facture thin castings that rivaled brass for pots and other hollowware. Iron from his establishment was used for the cylinders of Thomas Newcomen’s engines, for a cast-iron bridge, and for the first locomotive with a high- pressure boiler. See also Dud Dudley.

D'Arcy, William Knox (b. Oct. 11, 1849, Newton Abbot, Devonshire, Eng.—d. May 1, 1917, Stanmore, Middlesex) British businessman. After earning a fortune as a gold miner in Australia, D’Arcy secured a 60-year oil-mining concession in Iran in 1901. The concession, obtained with British government assistance, covered an area of 500,000 sq mi (1.3 mil¬ lion sq km). An oil strike on these lands led to the formation of the Anglo- Persian Oil Co. in 1909. See also BP PLC.

512 I Dardanelles ► Darrow

Dardanelles \,dar-d 3 n-'elz\ ancient Hellespont Vhe-l3-,spant\ Nar¬ row strait between the peninsula of Gallipoli in Europe and the mainland of Turkey in Asia. Some 38 mi (61 km) long and 0.75-4 mi (1-6 km) wide, it links the Aegean Sea with the Sea of Marmara. Strategically important from antiquity, the Dardanelles was defended by Troy from its position on the Asian side. In 480 bc the Persian Xerxes I crossed the strait to invade Greece; Alexander the Great also crossed it in 334 bc on his expedition against Persia. Held by the Roman Republic and Empire and the Byzantine Empire and later by the Ottoman Empire, it is of great stra¬ tegic and economic importance as the gateway from the Black Sea to Istanbul and the Mediterranean Sea.

Dardanelles Campaign or Gallipoli \g3-'li-p3-le\ Campaign (1915-16) Unsuccessful British-led operation against Turkey in World War I, intended to invade the Dardanelles strait, conquer the Gallipoli peninsula, and occupy Constantinople (Istanbul). In response to a Russian appeal to relieve pressure against its troops on the Caucasus front, Brit¬ ain agreed to a naval action against Turkey at the Dardanelles. When bombardment alone failed, British and Australian and New Zealand (ANZAC) troops landed on the Gallipoli peninsula in April 1915, where they met strong resistance from Turkish forces under Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. After six months of standoff, the campaign was halted and Allied troops were skillfully withdrawn under difficult conditions. Allied casu¬ alties numbered about 250,000. The failed campaign gave the impression that the Allies were militarily inept, prompting the resignation of Win¬ ston Churchill, the chief promoter of the venture, as first lord of the admi¬ ralty.

Dare, Virginia (b. Aug. 18, 1587, Roanoke Island, Va.) First child born to English parents in America. Her parents were among the 120 settlers who landed at Roanoke Isiand, Va., in 1587. Her grandfather, John White, was the colony’s governor; he left to collect supplies in England nine days after her birth. A relief expedition that finally reached the colony in 1590 found only the word croatoan carved on a post; the infant Virginia had vanished along with all the other colonists.

Darfur \dar-'fiir\ Historical region and former province, western Sudan. It was an independent kingdom from c. 2500 bc. Its first traditional rul¬ ers, the Daju, probably traded with ancient Egypt; they were succeeded by the Tunjur. Darfur’s Christian period (c. 900-1200) was ended by the advance of Islam with the empire of Kanem-Bornu. In the 1870s Darfur came under Egyptian rule, and in 1916 it became a province of Sudan.

Darien \,dar-e-'en\ Traditional region, eastern Panama. Extending into northwestern Colombia, it forms the link between Central America and South America. A hot, humid area of tropical rainforests, it has always been sparsely populated. The first European settlement in South America, Santa Maria de la Antigua del Darien, was attempted there in 1510. From this failing colony Vasco Nunez de Balboa made his famous march to the Pacific Ocean in 1513.

Dario \da-'re-o\, Ruben pseudonym of Felix Ruben Garcia Sarmiento (b. Jan. 18, 1867, Metapa, Nic.—d. Feb. 6, 1916, Leon) Nicaraguan poet, journalist, and diplomat. At age 19 he began the travels in Europe and the Americas that would continue throughout his life. The diverse collection Azul (1888), written in an innovative simple, direct style, is his first major work. As a diplomat in Buenos Aires (from 1893), he became the centre of the new Modernismo movement. His Profane Hymns (1896) was influenced by the French Symbolists. As a journalist in Europe he became increasingly concerned with issues of imperialism and nationalism. Songs of Life and Hope (1905) represents the culmina¬ tion of his technical experimentation and artistic resourcefulness. In addi¬ tion to his poetry, he wrote about 100 short stories.

Darius \da-'ri-9s\ I known as Darius the Great (b. 550—d. 486 bc) King of Persia (522^1-86 bc). He was the son of Hystaspes, satrap of Parthia. Much of what is known of him is through his own inscriptions. He took the throne by force, killing Bardiya, a son of Cyrus the Great, calling him an impostor who had usurped power. He continued the con¬ quests of his predecessors, subduing Thrace, Macedonia, some Aegean islands, and land stretching to the Indus valley. He failed in his great expedition against the Scythians (513) but put down the Ionian revolt (499), which had been supported by Eretria and Athens. After that he twice tried to conquer Greece, but a storm destroyed his fleet in 492 and the Athenians defeated him at the Battle of Marathon in 490. He died before a third expedition could be launched. Among the greatest of the Achae-

menian dynasty, he was noted for his administrative genius and his build¬ ing projects, especially those at Per- sepous.

Darjiling or Darjeeling City (pop., 2001: 107,197), West Bengal state, northeastern India. It was pur¬ chased in 1835 from the raja of Sik¬ kim and was developed as a sanatorium for British troops.

Located at an average elevation of 7,000 ft (2,100 m), it commands views of Mounts Kanchenjunga and Everest. Its economy is based prima¬ rily on tea, which is plantation- grown, and tourism.

dark matter Nonluminous matter not directly detectable by astrono¬ mers, hypothesized to exist because the mass of the visible matter in the universe cannot account for observed gravitational effects. Long believed to exist in large quantities, it enters into many theories of the origin of the universe and its present large-scale structure and into mod¬ els of gravitation and other fundamental forces (see fundamental interac¬ tion) between particles. Numerous candidates for dark matter have been proposed over the years, but none has yet been confirmed.

Darlan \dar-'la n \, (Jean-Louis-Xavier-) Francois (b. Aug. 7, 1881, Nerac, France—d. Dec. 24, 1942, Algiers) French admiral. After graduating from the French naval school (1902), he rose through the ranks to become navy commander in chief (1939). After France’s defeat by Germany in World War II, he entered Philippe Petain’s government as vice premier and foreign minister (1941-42), then became commander in chief of all Vichy France military forces. In 1942 he concluded an armistice with the Allies in Algiers, then was killed by an anti-Vichy assassin.

Darling River River, southeastern Australia. It is the longest member of the Murray-Darling river system. It rises in several headstreams in the Great Dividing Range and flows generally southwest across New South Wales for 1,702 mi (2,739 km) to join the Murray River at the Victoria border.

Darlington, Cyril Dean (b. Dec. 19, 1903, Chorley, Lancashire, Eng.—d. March 26, 1981) British biologist. A professor at the University of Oxford from 1953, he believed that chromosomes were the cellular components that passed hereditary information from generation to gen¬ eration. He explained the behaviour of chromosomes during meiosis, for¬ mulating a theory of evolution in which the exchange of parts of chromosomes (crossing-over) was the central variable in determining the inherited characteristics of the next generation. His Evolution of Man and Society (1969) raised controversy by insisting that the intelligence of races was determined by inheritance.

Darnley, Henry Stewart, Lord (b. Dec. 7, 1545, Temple Newsom, Yorkshire, Eng.—d. Feb. 9/10, 1567, Edinburgh, Scot.) English noble¬ man, second husband of Mary, Queen of Scots, and father of James I. Son of Matthew Stewart, earl of Lennox (1516-71), a pretender to the Scot¬ tish throne, Henry wed his cousin Mary in 1565 despite the opposition of Elizabeth I and Scottish Protestants. It became evident, even to Mary, that superficial charm was his only positive attribute. After he played a role in the murder of Mary’s secretary, David Riccio, he was himself mur¬ dered at age 21 at the instigation of James Hepburn, earl of Bothwell (1535-78), whom Mary soon married.

Darrow Vdar-6\, Clarence (Seward) (b. April 18, 1857, near Kins¬ man, Ohio, U.S.—d. March 13, 1938, Chicago, Ill.) U.S. lawyer and ora¬ tor. He attended law school for only one year before being admitted to the Ohio bar in 1878. Darrow moved to Chicago in 1887 and immedi¬ ately joined the effort to free anarchists charged with murder in the Hay- market Riot. He was appointed Chicago city corporation counsel (1890) and then became general attorney for the Chicago and North Western Railway. His defense of Eugene V. Debs on charges stemming from the Pullman Strike (1894) established Darrow’s reputation as a union and

Darius I seated before two incense burners, detail of a bas-relief of the north courtyard in the Treasury at Per- sepolis, late 6th-early 5th century bc; in the Archaeological Museum, Tehran

COURTESY OF THE ORIENTAL INSTITUTE, THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

darshan ► Dassault I 513

criminal lawyer. He represented striking Pennsylvania coal miners, draw¬ ing attention to working conditions and the use of child labour (1902-03); secured the acquittal of William Haywood in the assassination of Gov. Frank R. Steunenberg of Idaho (1907); and sought to defend the McNamara brothers, accused of bombing the Los Angeles Times building (1911). He saved Richard Loeb and Nathan Leopold from a death sen¬ tence for the murder of 14-year-old Robert Franks and won acquittal for members of an African American family who had fought a mob trying to expel them from their home in a white Detroit neighbourhood (1925-26). Perhaps his most famous case was the Scopes trial (1925), in which he defended a high school teacher who was charged with violating a Ten¬ nessee state law against teaching Darwin’s theory of evolution.

darshan or darsan Vdor-shon, 'dar-shon\ In Hindu worship, the beholding of an auspicious deity, person, or object. The experience is often conceived to be reciprocal and results in a blessing of the viewer. In rathayatras (car festivals), images are carried through the streets to allow viewing by those who formerly would not have been allowed in the temple. Darshan may also be imparted by a guru to his disciples, a ruler to his subjects, or a pilgrimage shrine to its visitors. In Indian philosophy, darshan also refers to a philosophical system (e.g., Vedanta).

Dart, Raymond Arthur (b. Feb. 4, 1893, Toowong, Brisbane, Queen., Austl.—d. Nov. 22, 1988, Johannesburg, S.Af.) Australian-born South African physical anthropologist and paleontologist. In 1925, when Asia was still believed to be the cradle of humankind, Dart’s announce¬ ment of the discovery of the Taung skull near the Kalahari substantiated Charles Darwin’s prediction that such ancestral hominin forms would be found in Africa. Dart named the skull, establishing it as the type speci¬ men of a new genus and species, Australopithecus africanus. He lived to see his findings corroborated by additional discoveries that firmly estab¬ lished Africa as the site of human origins. Dart taught at the University of the Witwatersrand from 1923 to 1958.

darter Any of about 100 species of small, slender freshwater fishes (family Percidae), native to eastern North America. Darters live near the bottom of clear streams, darting quickly about when disturbed or when feeding on small aquatic animals such as insects and worms. They have two dorsal fins and often are brightly coloured. Most species are 2-3 in. (5-7 cm) long, but some grow to 9 in. (23 cm). Some species lay their eggs and abandon them; the males of other species establish a nest and guard the eggs until hatched. See also snail darter.

Dartmouth Vdart-mothX College Private institution of higher learning in Hanover, N.H., a traditional member of the Ivy League. It is consistently ranked as one of the best liberal arts colleges in the U.S. It was founded in 1769 by Rev. Eleazar Wheelock (1711-79) for the education of “youth of the Indian Tribes . . . English Youth and others.” The original charter was approved by King George III. Women were first admitted in 1972. Besides offering a broad range of undergraduate programs, Dartmouth grants graduate and professional degrees in the arts and sciences, busi¬ ness, engineering, and medicine. See also Dartmouth College case.

Dartmouth College case formally Trustees of Dartmouth Col¬ lege v. Woodward Case in which the U.S. Supreme Court held (1819) that the charter of Dartmouth College, granted in 1769 by King George III, was a contract and as such could not be impaired by the New Hampshire legislature. State legislators had tried to alter the contract’s terms regarding the continuance of the board of trustees, an effort rejected by the court. The decision was far-reaching in its application to business charters, protecting businesses and corporations from much government regulation. Dartmouth’s case was argued by Daniel Webster.

darts Indoor target game. It is played by throwing feathered darts at a circular board with numbered spaces. The board, usually made of cork, bristle, or elmwood, is divided into 20 sectors valued at points from 1 to 20. Six concentric rings, ranging from an inner bull’s-eye to a narrow outermost ring, determine scoring. The official throwing distance in most countries is 7 ft 9.25 in. (2.37 m), though variations extend up to 9 ft (2.75 m). In Britain, darts is normally played in pubs.

Darwin formerly Palmerston Seaport (pop., 2001 prelim.: 69,698), capital of Northern Territory, Australia. Located on Port Darwin, a deep inlet of Clarence Strait in the Timor Sea, it has one of Australia’s best harbours. The harbour was named in 1839 for Charles Darwin. The port, settled in 1869, was known as Palmerston until 1911. Located in a largely undeveloped region, Darwin is a supply and shipping centre for northern

Australia. A military base in World War II, it was bombed by the Japa¬ nese in 1942, then extensively rebuilt. A cyclone in 1974 damaged or destroyed nearly all of the city; rebuilt a second time, it is now one of Australia’s most modem cities.

Darwin, Charles (Robert) (b. Feb. 12, 1809, Shrewsbury, Shrop¬ shire, Eng.—d. April 19, 1882, Downe, Kent) British naturalist. The grandson of Erasmus Darwin and Josiah Wedgwood, he studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh and biology at Cambridge. He was rec¬ ommended as a naturalist on HMS Beagle, which was bound on a long scientific survey expedition to South America and the South Seas (1831- 36). His zoological and geological discoveries on the voyage resulted in numerous important publications and formed the basis of his theories of evolution. Seeing competition between individuals of a single species, he recognized that within a local population the individual bird, for example, with the sharper beak might have a better chance to survive and repro¬ duce and that if such traits were passed on to new generations, they would be predominant in future populations. He saw this natural selection as the mechanism by which advantageous variations were passed on to later generations and less advantageous traits gradually disappeared. He worked on his theory for more than 20 years before publishing it in his famous On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859). The book was immediately in great demand, and Darwin’s intensely con¬ troversial theory was accepted quickly in most scientific circles; most opposition came from religious leaders. Though Darwin’s ideas were modified by later developments in genetics and molecular biology, his work remains central to modern evolutionary theory. His many other important works included Variation in Animals and Plants Under Domes¬ tication (1868) and The Descent of Man... (1871). He was buried in Westminster Abbey. See also Darwinism.

Darwin, Erasmus (b. Dec. 12, 1731, Elston Hall, Nottinghamshire, Eng.—d. April 18, 1802, Derby, Der¬ byshire) British physician, grandfa¬ ther of Charles Darwin and Francis Galton. A freethinker and radical,

Darwin often wrote his opinions and scientific treatises in verse. In Zoonomia; or, The Laws of Organic Life (1794-96), he advanced a theory of evolution similar to that of La¬ marck, suggesting that species modi¬ fied themselves by adapting to their environment in an intentional way.

His conclusions, drawn from simple observation, were rejected by the more sophisticated 19th-century sci¬ entists, including his grandson Charles.

Darwinism Theory of the evolu¬ tionary mechanism proposed by Charles Darwin as an explanation of organic change. It denotes Darwin’s specific view of how evolution works. Darwin developed the con¬ cept that evolution is brought about by the interplay of three principles: variation (present in all forms of life), heredity (the force that transmits similar organic form from one generation to another), and the struggle for existence (which determines the variations that will be advantageous in a given environment, thus altering the species through selective reproduc¬ tion). Present knowledge of the genetic basis of inheritance has contrib¬ uted to scientists’ understanding of the mechanisms behind Darwin’s ideas, in a theory known as neo-Darwinism.

Darwin's finch or Galapagos finch Any of 14 species (in three genera) of songbirds (family Fringillidae) whose adaptations to several ecological niches in the Galapagos Islands and Cocos Island gave Charles Darwin evidence for his thesis that “species are not immutable.” All the species are 4-8 in. (10-20 cm) long and brownish or black, but they dif¬ fer greatly in the configuration of the bill, which is suited to each species’ particular feeding habit.

Dassault \da-'so\, Marcel orig. Marcel Bloch (b. Jan. 22, 1892, Paris, France—d. April 18, 1986, Paris) French aircraft designer and industrialist. He designed aircraft during World War I, and in 1930 he

Erasmus Darwin, detail of an oil paint¬ ing by Joseph Wright, 1770; in the National Portrait Gallery, London

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, LONDON

514 I data compression ► Daudet

started his own company to build military and civilian airplanes. Sent to Buchenwald as a Jew during World War II, he later changed his last name (to that of his brother’s byname in the Resistance) and resumed his busi¬ ness. His company produced Europe’s first supersonic plane, the Mystere, and in 1956 began production of the Mirage warplane, which would be acquired by countries worldwide.

data compression Process of reducing the amount of data needed for storage or transmission of a given piece of information (text, graphics, video, sound, etc.), typically by use of encoding techniques. Data com¬ pression is characterized as either lossy or lossless depending on whether some data is discarded or not, respectively. Lossless compression scans the data for repetitive sequences or regions and replaces them with a single “token.” For example, every occurrence of the word the or region with the colour red might be converted to $. ZIP and GIF are the most com¬ mon lossless formats for text and graphics, respectively. Lossy compres¬ sion is frequently used for photographs, video, and sound files where the loss of some detail is generally unnoticeable. JPEG and MPEG (see MP3) are the most common lossy formats.

data encryption Process of disguising information as “ciphertext,” or data that will be unintelligible to an unauthorized person. Decryption is the process of converting ciphertext back into its original format, some¬ times called plaintext (see cryptography). Computers encrypt data by applying an algorithm to a block of data. A personal key known only to the message’s transmitter and intended receiver is used to control the encryption. Well-designed keys are almost impregnable. A key 16 char¬ acters long selected at random from 256 ASCII characters could take far longer than the 15-billion-year age of the universe to decode, assuming the perpetrator attempted 100 million different key combinations per sec¬ ond. Symmetric encryption requires the same key for both encryption and decryption. Asymmetric encryption, or public-key cryptography, requires a pair of keys, one for encryption and one for decryption.

data mining Type of database analysis that attempts to discover use¬ ful patterns or relationships in a group of data. The analysis uses advanced statistical methods, such as cluster analysis, and sometimes employs arti¬ ficial intelugence or neural network techniques. A major goal of data min¬ ing is to discover previously unknown relationships among the data, especially when the data come from different databases. Businesses can use these new relationships to develop new advertising campaigns or make predictions about how well a product will sell. Governments also use these techniques to discern illegal or embargoed activities by indi¬ viduals, associations, and other governments.

data processing Manipulation of data by a computer. It includes the conversion of raw data to machine-readable form, flow of data through the CPU and memory to output devices, and formatting or transformation of output. Any use of computers to perform defined operations on data can be included under data processing. In the commercial world, data processing refers to the processing of data required to run organizations and businesses.

data structure Way in which data are stored for efficient search and retrieval. The simplest data structure is the one-dimensional (linear) array, in which stored elements are numbered with consecutive integers and contents are accessed by these numbers. Data items stored nonconsecu- tively in memory may be linked by pointers (memory addresses stored with items to indicate where the “next” item or items in the structure are located). Many algorithms have been developed for sorting data efficiently; these apply to structures residing in main memory and also to structures that constitute information systems and databases.

data transmission Sending and receiving data via cables (e.g., tele¬ phone lines or fibre optics) or wireless relay systems. Because ordinary telephone circuits pass signals that fall within the frequency range of voice communication (about 300-3,500 hertz), the high frequencies associated with data transmission suffer a loss of amplitude and transmission speed. Data signals must therefore be translated into a format compatible with the signals used in telephone lines. Digital computers use a modem to transform outgoing digital electronic data; a similar system at the receiv¬ ing end translates the incoming signal back to the original electronic data. Specialized data-transmission links carry signals at frequencies higher than those used by the public telephone network. See also broadband tech¬ nology; cable modem; DSL; ISDN; fax; radio; teletype; T1 ; wireless commu¬ nications.

database Collection of data or information organized for rapid search and retrieval, especially by a computer. Databases are structured to facili¬ tate storage, retrieval, modification, and deletion of data in conjunction with various data-processing operations. A database consists of a file or set of files that can be broken down into records, each of which consists of one or more fields. Fields are the basic units of data storage. Users retrieve database information primarily through queries. Using keywords and sorting commands, users can rapidly search, rearrange, group, and select the field in many records to retrieve or create reports on particular aggregates of data according to the rules of the database management sys¬ tem being used.

database, relational See relational database

database management system (DBMS) System for quick search and retrieval of information from a database. The DBMS determines how data are stored and retrieved. It must address problems such as security, accuracy, consistency among different records, response time, and memory requirements. These issues are most significant for database systems on computer networks. Ever-higher processing speeds are required for effi¬ cient database management. Relational DBMSs, in which data are orga¬ nized into a series of tables (“relations”) that are easily reorganized for accessing data in different ways, are the most widely used today.

Date Line See International Date Line

date palm Tree (Phoenix dactylifera) of the palm family, found in the Canary Islands and northern Africa, the Middle East, Pakistan, India, and California. The trunk, strongly marked with the pruned stubs of old leaf bases, ends in a crown of long, graceful, shining, pinnate leaves. The fruit, called the date, is a usually oblong brown berry. Dates have long been an important food in desert regions, and are the source of syrup, alcohol, vin¬ egar, and a strong liquor. All parts of the tree yield products of economic value, being used variously for timber, furniture, basketry, fuel, rope, and packing material. The seeds are sometimes used as stock feed. The tree is grown as an ornamental along the Mediterranean shores of Europe. Its leaves are used for the celebration of Palm Sunday (among Christians) and the Feast of Tabernacles (among Jews). Date sugar, a product of India, is obtained from the sap of a closely related species, P. sylvestris.

dating In geology and archaeology, the process of determining an object’s or event’s place within a chronological scheme. Scientists may use either relative dating, in which items are sequenced on the basis of stratigraphic clues (see stratigraphy) or a presumed evolution in form or structure, or absolute dating, in which items are assigned a date indepen¬ dent of context. The latter type includes potassium-argon and carbon- 14 dating; both are based on the measurement of radioactive decay. The record of changes in polarity of the Earth’s magnetic field has provided a timescale for seafloor spreading and long-term marine sedimentation. Den¬ drochronology has proved useful in archaeology and climatology. See also FISSION-TRACK DATING; HELIUM DATING; LEAD-210 DATING; RUBIDIUM-STRONTIUM