Britannica Concise 2005

Guderian

ULLSTEIN BILDERDIENST

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Guernsey ► Guianas I 813

Guernsey Vg9m-ze\ Breed of dairy cattle that originated on the Chan¬ nel Island of Guernsey. Like the Jersey, it is thought to have descended from French cattle. Larger than Jerseys, Guernseys are fawn-colored and marked with white. Their milk has a pronounced yellow color. First exported to the U.S. in 1830, they are found also in Australia and Canada.

Guerrero \gar-'ra-ro\ State (pop., 2000: 3,079,649), southwestern Mexico. It covers 24,819 sq mi (64,281 sq km), and its capital is Chilpan- cingo. Bounded by the Pacific Ocean, it lies almost entirely—except for a narrow coastal plain—within the Sierra Madre del Sur, the valleys of which are fertile but difficult to access. Its principal river is the Balsas. Named after the independence leader Vicente Guerrero (1782-1831), the region became a state in 1849. Its best-known cities are Acapulco and Taxco, a preserved colonial town. It derives its income from agriculture, mining, and tourism.

guerrilla Xgo-Ti-loN Member of an irregular military force fighting small-scale, limited actions, in concert with an overall political-military strategy, against conventional military forces. Guerrilla tactics involve constantly shifting attacks, sabotage, and terrorism. The word (the diminu¬ tive of the Spanish guerra, “war”) was first used to describe the Spanish- Portuguese irregulars who helped drive the French from the Iberian Peninsula in the early 19th century. The underlying strategy is to harass the enemy until the guerrillas have sufficient military strength to win or can pressure the enemy to seek peace. The Chinese general Sunzi (5th century bc) laid down the rules of guerrilla tactics.

Guesde \'ged\, Jules orig. Mathieu Basile (b. Nov. 12, 1845, Paris, France—d. July 28, 1922, Saint- Mande) French labour organizer. He consulted with Karl Marx in 1880 on a socialist program, adopted by a French labour congress, that called on workers to elect representatives who would “conduct the class struggle in the halls of parliament.”

He was opposed by “possibilists,” who advocated collective bargaining and support for progressive candi¬ dates regardless of party affiliation.

He founded the socialist weekly L’Egalite, served in the Chamber of Deputies from 1893, and was minis¬ ter without portfolio (1914-15).

Guest, Edgar (Albert) (b. Aug.

20, 1881, Birmingham, Warwick- Guesde, 1906 shire, Eng.—d. Aug. 5,1959, Detroit, bbc hulton picture library Mich., U.S.) British-born U.S. writer.

His family immigrated to the U.S. when he was 10 years old. He became an office boy for the Detroit Free Press and later a reporter and writer of daily sentimental rhymes. These became so popular that they were syndicated throughout the country. His first book, A Heap o’ Livin’ (1916), became a best-seller and was followed by similar collections of optimistic verse on such subjects as home, mother, and the virtue of hard work.

Guevara \ge-'var-9\, Che orig. Ernesto Guevara de la Serna

(b. June 14, 1928, Rosario, Arg.—d.

October 1967, Bolivia) Theoretician and tactician of guerrilla warfare and prominent figure in Fidel Castro’s revolution in Cuba (1956-59). Born to a middle-class family, he com¬ pleted medical studies in 1953 and subsequently traveled widely in Latin America, eventually settling in Guatemala. The overthrow of Gua¬ temala’s Pres. Jacobo Arbenz per¬ suaded him that the U.S. would always oppose leftist governments and that only violent revolution would end the poverty of the Latin American masses. He left Guatemala for Mexico, where he met Castro and joined his cause. After the Cuban revolution he held several key posts as one of Castro’s most trusted aides; handsome and charismatic, he served

Che Guevara.

LEE LOCKWOOD/BLACK STAR

as one of the revolution’s most effective voices. He left Cuba in 1965 to organize guerrilla fighters in Congo and later Bolivia. Captured and shot by the Bolivian army, he immediately achieved international fame and the status of a martyred hero among leftists worldwide.

Guggenheim Vgu-gon- ,hlm\, Meyer and Daniel (respectively b. Feb. 1, 1828, Langnau, Switz.—d. March 15, 1905, Palm Beach, Fla., U.S.; b. July 9, 1856, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—d. Sept. 28, 1930, Port Washington, N.Y.) U.S. industrialists, father and son, who developed worldwide mining interests that yielded a vast fortune. Meyer immigrated to the U.S. in 1847 and built an import firm specializing in Swiss embroi¬ deries. His investments in two Colorado copper mines in the 1880s were the foundation of extensive mining interests. His seven sons, especially Daniel, built a large organization of smelting and refining operations. In 1901 the Guggenheims merged their holdings with the American Smelt¬ ing and Refining Co., a trust composed of the country’s largest metal¬ processing plants. Daniel directed the trust until 1919 and acquired mines throughout the world. Philanthropies include the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation (1925), which awards fellowships to artists and scholars studying abroad, and the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation (1937), which oversees New York City’s Guggenheim Museum and the Guggenheim Collection in Venice. See also Solomon Guggenheim.

Guggenheim, Peggy orig. Marguerite Guggenheim (b. Aug. 26, 1898, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Dec. 23, 1979, near Venice, Italy) Art collector and patron of the New York school of artists. Granddaughter of Meyer and Daniel Guggenheim, she inherited a large fortune in 1921. In 1930 she moved to Paris, where she took up a bohemian life, and in 1932 to London. She returned to New York City in 1941, married artist Max Ernst, and in 1942 opened a gallery where she exhibited many of the radi¬ cal artists she supported, among them Jackson Pollock, Robert Motherwell, Mark Rothko, and Hans Hofmann. After World War II she settled in Ven¬ ice and exhibited her outstanding collection of Cubist, abstract, and Sur¬ realist art; the Peggy Guggenheim Collection is still open to the public.

Guggenheim, Solomon (Robert) (b. Feb. 2, 1861, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—d. Nov. 3, 1949, New York, N.Y.) Businessman and art col¬ lector. He became a partner in his father’s Swiss embroidery import busi¬ ness. He also worked in the family mining industry and was a director of many family companies. After retiring from business in 1919, he devoted his time to collecting modernist paintings. He established the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation (1937), which provided the funds for the Solomon Guggenheim Museum (1959). See also Meyer and Daniel Guggen¬ heim.

Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao \bil-'bau\ Art museum in Bilbao, Spain. It opened in 1997 as a cooperative venture between the Guggen¬ heim Foundation and the Basque regional administration of northwestern Spain. The museum complex, designed by Frank Gehry, consists of inter¬ connected buildings whose extraordinary free-form titanium-sheathed mass suggests a gigantic work of abstract sculpture. The interior space, organized around a large atrium, is mainly devoted to modem and con¬ temporary art.

Guggenheim Ygii-gan-.hlnA Museum, Solomon R. Museum in New York City housing the Solomon R. Guggenheim collection of mod¬ ern art. An example of the “organic architecture” of Frank Lloyd Wright, the building (constructed 1956-59) represents a radical departure from traditional museum design, spiraling upward and outward in a smooth coil of massive, unadorned white concrete. The exhibition space, which has been criticized for upstaging the artwork displayed, consists of a six- story-high spiral ramp encircling an open centre volume lighted by a dome of glass supported by stainless steel. The museum has a comprehensive collection of European painting from throughout the 20th century and of American painting from the second half of the century.

GUI See GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE

Guianas \ge-'a-noz, gl-'a-n3z\, the Region, northern South America. The region is bounded on the north by the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea, on the east and south by Brazil, and on the west by Venezuela, and covers an area of about 181,000 sq mi (468,800 sq km). It consists of Guyana (formerly British Guiana), Suriname (formerly Dutch Guiana), and French Guiana; most of it is covered by dense forests containing valuable timber. Settlements are largely confined to the coast and river valleys. The earliest known inhabitants were the Surinam Indians. Its coast was sighted by Christopher Columbus in 1498, and the area was explored by the Span-

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814 i guide dog ► Guinea

ish in the early 16th century. The Dutch founded settlements c. 1580 and the French and English in the early 17th century.

guide dog or Seeing Eye dog Dog professionally trained to guide and protect its blind master. They have also been used to assist persons with hearing impairments and restricted mobility. Systematic training of guide dogs originated in Germany during World War I to aid blinded vet¬ erans. At the age of approximately one year, the dog is trained for three or four months. Retrievers and German shepherds are the most widely used breeds.

guided missile Projectile provided with means for altering its direc¬ tion after it leaves its launching device. Almost all modem missiles are pro¬ pelled by rocket or jet engines and have guidance mechanisms, usually including sensors, to help the missile find its target. Heat-seeking mis¬ siles, for example, carry infrared sensors that allow them to home in on the exhaust of jet engines.

Guido d'Arezzo Vgwe-do-da-'rat-soX (b. c. 990, Arezzo? —d. 1050, Avellana?) Italian music theorist. A Benedictine monk charged with train¬ ing the choristers in the cathedral of Arezzo, he is credited with two important advances: the invention of the staff for notating exact pitches, and the use of different syllables to sing each pitch, or solmization. In his famous Micrologus (1026—33), he describes the use of at least a two-line staff and the use of syllables as a mnemonic device for singing musical pitches. The famous “Guidonian hand,” an aid to modulation from one hexachord to another by using the joints of the hand to represent different pitches, is not mentioned in his extant writings.

Guienne See Guyenne

guild Association of craftsmen or merchants formed for mutual aid and for the advancement of their professional interests. Guilds flourished in Europe between the 11th and 16th century and were of two types: mer¬ chant guilds, including all the merchants of a particular town or city; and craft guilds, including all the craftsmen in a particular branch of industry (e.g., weavers, painters, goldsmiths). Their functions included establish¬ ing trade monopolies, setting standards for quality of goods, maintaining stable prices, and gaining leverage in local governments in order to fur¬ ther the interests of the guild. Craft guilds also established hierarchies of craftsmen based on level of training (e.g., masters, journeymen, and apprentices).

Guild Socialism Movement that called for workers’ control of indus¬ try through a system of national guilds, organized internally on demo¬ cratic lines, and state ownership of industry. It began in England in 1906 with publication of Arthur J. Penty’s The Restoration of the Gild System and was organized into the National Guilds League in 1915. It reached its apex with the left-wing shop stewards’ movement during World War I and, after the war, with building guilds that built houses for the state. Both movements collapsed after the economic slump of 1921, and the league was dissolved in 1925.

Guillemin \ge-3-'ma n \, Roger C(harles) L(ouis) (b. Jan. 11, 1924, Dijon, Fr.) French-born U.S. physiologist. He and his colleagues discov¬ ered, isolated, and synthesized hypothalamic hormones that regulate thy¬ roid activity, cause the pituitary to release growth hormone, and regulate the activities of the pituitary and the pancreas. He shared a 1977 Nobel Prize with Andrew V. Schally and Rosalyn Yalow. Guillemin is also known for his discovery of endorphins.

guillemot \ , gi-lo- l mat\ Any of three species of black-and-white seabirds (genus Cepphus , family Alcidae). Guillemots have a pointed, black bill and red legs. Guillemots are deep divers that feed at the bottom. The best- known species, the black guillemot, breeds around the Arctic Circle and winters south to the British Isles, Maine, and the Bering Strait; it is about 14 in. (35 cm) long. The similar pigeon guillemot breeds along both coasts of the North Pacific, south to Japan and southern California; the spec¬ tacled guillemot breeds from Japan to the Kuril Islands. In British usage, the name also refers to birds called murres in the U.S.

guillotine \,ge-9-'ten, 'gi-l9-,ten\ Instrument for inflicting capital pun¬ ishment by decapitation. A minimal wooden structure, it supported a heavy blade that, when released, slid down in vertical guides to sever the victim’s head. It was introduced in France in 1792 in the French Revolu¬ tion, though similar devices had been used in Scotland, England, and other European countries, often for executing criminals of noble birth. The name derived from a French physician and member of the National

Assembly, Joseph-Ignace Guillotin (1738-1814), who was instrumental in passing a law requiring all sentences of death to be carried out “by means of a machine,” so that execution by decapitation would no longer be confined to nobles and executions would be as painless as possible. The last execution by guillotine in France took place in 1977.

Guin, Ursula Le See Ursula Le Guin

Guinea \'gi-ne\ officially Republic of Guinea formerly French Guinea Country, western Africa. Area: 94,926 sq mi (245,857 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 9,402,000. Capital: Conakry. The Fulani people are

in the majority, followed by the Malinke, the Susu, and many other groups. Language: French (official). Religions: Islam; also Christianity. Currency: Guinean franc.

Facing the Atlantic Ocean to the west, Guinea has four geographic regions. Lower Guinea comprises the coast and coastal plain, which are interspersed with lagoons and mangrove swamps. To the east the Fouta Djallon highlands rise sharply from the coastal plain to elevations above 3,000 ft (900 m); western Africa’s three major rivers—the Niger, Senegal, and Gambia —originate there. Upper Guinea comprises the Niger Plains. The Forest Region, an isolated high¬ land in the southeast, rises to 5,748 ft (1,752 m) at Mount Nimba, the coun¬ try’s highest peak. Most of the country has a humid tropical climate, and there are extensive tracts of tropical rainforest. Export crops include rice, bananas, and coffee. Guinea is a major world producer of bauxite. Its devel¬ oping mixed economy is based on agriculture, mining, and trade. Guinea is a multiparty republic with one legislative house; the head of state and gov¬ ernment is the president, assisted by the prime minister. In successive migrations c. ad 900, the Susu swept down from the desert and pushed the original inhabitants, the Baga, to the Atlantic coast. Small kingdoms of the Susu rose in importance in the 13th century and later extended their rule to the coast. In the mid-15th century the Portuguese visited the coast and developed a slave trade. In the 16th century the Fulani established domi¬ nation over the Fouta Djallon region; they ruled into the 19th century. In the early 19th century the French arrived and in 1849 proclaimed the coastal region a French protectorate. In 1895 French Guinea became part of the federation of French West Africa. In 1946 it was made an overseas territory of France, and in 1958 it achieved independence. Following a military coup in 1984, Guinea began implementing Westernized government systems. A new constitution was adopted in 1991, and the first multiparty elections were held in 1993. During the 1990s Guinea accommodated several hun¬ dred thousand war refugees from neighbouring Liberia and Sierra Leone, and conflicts between these countries and Guinea have continued to flare up over the refugee population.

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Guinea ► Guise I 815

Guinea, Gulf of Great inlet of the Atlantic Ocean on the western Afri¬ can coast. It includes the Bights of Benin and Biafra, and its major tribu¬ taries are the Volta and Niger rivers. Its natural resources include offshore oil deposits and metal ore deposits. Its coastline forms part of the west¬ ern edge of the African tectonic plate and corresponds remarkably to the continental margin of South America from Brazil to the Guianas, provid¬ ing one of the clearest confirmations of the theory of continental drift.

Guinea-Bissau \'gi-ne-bi-'sau\ officially Republic of Guinea- Bissau formerly (until 1974) Portuguese Guinea Country, western Africa. Its territory includes the Bijagos Archipelago, off the Atlantic coast

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to the southwest. Area: 13,948 sq mi (36,125 sq km). Population (2005 est.):

1,413,000. Capital: Bissau. The four major ethnic groups are the Balanta Brassa,

Fulani, Malinke, and Mandyako. Languages: Portuguese (official), Balante, Fula, Malinke, Mandyako. Religions: traditional beliefs, Islam, Christian¬ ity. Currency: CFA franc. Most of the country consists of low, marshy terrain and flat plateau. The climate is generally hot and tropical. Much of the wildlife is aquatic; crocodiles, snakes, and birds such as pelicans and flamingos abound. Guinea-Bissau has a developing, primarily agri¬ cultural economy; cashews and peanuts are the main cash crops. It is a multiparty republic with one legislative house; its head of state and gov¬ ernment is the president assisted by the prime minister. More than 1,000 years ago the coast of Guinea-Bissau was occupied by agriculturists using iron implements. They grew irrigated and dry rice and were also the major suppliers of marine salt to the western Sudan. At about the same time, the area came under the influence of the Mali empire and became a tributary kingdom known as Gabu. After 1546 Gabu was virtually autonomous; vestiges of it lasted until 1867. The earliest overseas contacts came in the 15th century with the Portuguese, who imported slaves from the Guinea area to the offshore Cape Verde Islands. Portuguese control of Guinea- Bissau was marginal despite their claims to sovereignty there. The end of the slave trade forced the Portuguese inland in search of new profits. Their subjugation of the interior was slow and sometimes violent; it was not effectively achieved until 1915, though sporadic resistance continued until 1936. Guerrilla warfare in the 1960s led to the country’s independence in 1974, but political turmoil continued, and the government was over¬ thrown by a military coup in 1980. A new constitution was adopted in 1984, and the first multiparty elections were held in 1994. A destructive civil war in 1998 was followed by a military coup in 1999, but the coup was followed by elections.

guinea fowl Any of a family (Numididae) of African birds, sometimes placed in the family Phasianidae. One species ( Numida meleagris) is widely domesticated for its flesh and, because it gabbles loudly at the least

alarm, as a “watchdog” on farms.

Wild forms of this species are known as helmet guinea fowl because of their large bony crest. Many varieties are widespread in the savannas and scrublands of Africa, and the guinea fowl has been introduced into the West Indies and elsewhere. About 20 in. (50 cm) long, in its typical form it has a bare face, brown eyes, red and blue wattles at the bill, white-spotted black plumage, and a hunched pos¬ ture. It lives in flocks and feeds on seed tubers and some insects.

guinea pig Domesticated species (Cavia porcellus ) of South American cavy (family Caviidae). It resembles most other cavies in being stout, short-legged, and about 10 in. (25 cm) long. It has small ears, no exter¬ nal tail, and a coat that is black, tan, cream-coloured, brown, white, or a combination of these colours. Hair length and texture vary among varieties. It feeds largely on grass and other green plants. Domesticated in pre-Incan times, it was introduced into Europe in the early 16th century. It is a popular pet and a valuable research animal.

guinea worm or medina worm or dragon worm Nematode (Dracunculus medinensis) that is a common parasite of humans and other mammals in tropical Asia and Africa and has been introduced into the West Indies and tropical South America. The female grows to 20-48 in. (50-120 cm) long; the male, which dies upon mating, is only about 0.5- 1.1 in. (12-29 mm) long. Both sexes live in the connective tissue of the host animal. Humans become infected when they drink water containing tiny crustaceans (e.g., copepods) that have eaten guinea-worm larvae. The disease the guinea worm carries, called dracunculiasis, can be extremely debilitating and painful.

Guinevere See Arthurian legend

Guinness Vgi-nos\ (de Cuffe), Sir Alec (b. April 2, 1914, London, Eng.—d. Aug. 5, 2000, Midhurst, West Sussex) British actor. He made his stage debut in 1934. His reputation soared after 1936, when he joined the Old Vic company and starred in plays by William Shakespeare, George Bernard Shaw, and Anton Chekhov. A versatile actor, he won the praise of New York critics and audiences in Shakespearean roles and in T.S. Eli¬ ot’s The Cocktail Party (1946). His many films include comedies such as Kind Hearts and Coronets (1949), The Lavender Hill Mob (1951), The Captain’s Paradise (1953), and Our Man in Havana (1959) as well as dramas such as The Bridge on the River Kwai (1957, Academy Award) and Tunes of Glory (1960). He won a new generation of fans in three Star Wars films (1977, 1980, 1983).

Guinness PLC Vgi-nosX Manufacturer of distilled liquors and brewer of a distinctive, dark, creamy stout. It originated in Dublin, where Arthur Guinness bought a small brewery in the late 18th century. From 1799 the brewery produced only Guinness stout, which became known as the national beer of Ireland. Incorporated in 1886 as Arthur Guinness Son and Co. Ltd., it did not become a public limited company until 1982. In 1955, to help settle trivia disputes in pubs, it began publishing The Guinness Book of Records, which has become perhaps the best-selling book (annually) in the world. In 1997 it merged with Grand Metropolitan PLC, the parent company of Burger King, to form the London-based Diageo PLC.

Guiscard, Robert See Robert Guiscard

Guise, Francois de Lorraine, 2nd duke de (b. Feb. 24, 1519, Bar, France—d. Feb. 24, 1563, Orleans) French soldier and loyal servant to the French crown, the greatest figure produced by the house of Guise. He fought in Francis I’s army and was badly wounded at the siege of Bou¬ logne (1545), earning him the nickname “the Scarred.” He led French armies in other victories against the English and the Spanish. On the accession of Francis II (1559), Guise became grand master of the royal household. The Bourbons launched a conspiracy to overthrow the Guises, who learned of the plot and ruthlessly suppressed it (1560). When Cathe¬ rine de Medicis became regent (1560), she supported the Bourbons (who

Vulturine guinea fowl [Acryllium vul- turinum)

S.C. BISSEROT-BRUCE COLEAAAN INC.

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816 i Guise ► Gulag

were leaders of the Huguenot movement) and religious toleration and was against the Guises and Catholic dominance. The first of the resultant Wars of Religion again showed Guise to be an outstanding soldier. He was assassinated by a Huguenot in 1563.

Guise, Henri I de Lorraine, 3rd duke de (b. Dec. 31, 1550—d. Dec. 23, 1588, Blois, France) French leader of the Catholic party and the Holy League during the French Wars of Religion. When Catherine de Medi- cis turned to the Guises in 1572 for help in removing the Huguenot Gas- pard II de Coligny, Henri, who blamed Coligny for the murder of his father, the 2nd duke de Guise, helped plan the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew's Day. Fearing Guise’s growing popularity, Henry III made peace with the Huguenots in 1576, and Guise angrily countered by forming the Holy League. After Guise’s victory in the War of the Three Henrys (1588), Henry was forced to surrender to the Holy League’s demands, and Guise was appointed lieutenant general of France. Soon afterward the king’s body¬ guard stabbed Guise to death; the next day his brother, Louis II (1555— 88), Cardinal de Guise, was also murdered.

Guise, Henri II de Lorraine, 5th duke de (b. April 4,1614, Blois, France—d. June 2, 1664) French leader of the house of Guise. He was already archbishop of Rheims when he became duke de Guise in 1640. After being sentenced to death for his part in a conspiracy against Car¬ dinal de Richelieu (1641), he fled to Brussels and commanded the Austrian troops against France. He unsuccessfully led the Neapolitans in their war against Spain (1647, 1654), then spent the rest of his life at the French court, trying unsuccessfully to revive the power of the Guise dynasty.

Guise Vgez\, house of Noble French Roman Catholic family that played a major role in French politics during the Reformation. Claude de Lorraine (1496-1550) was created the 1st duke de Guise in 1527 for his service to Francis I in the defense of France. Claude’s sons Francois, 2nd duke de Guise, and Charles, cardinal de Lorraine (1524-1574), gained great power during the reign of Francis II. Supported by Spain and the papacy, their persecution of the Huguenots led to the unsuccessful Amboise Conspiracy (1560), an attempted assassination of the leaders of the Guise party and transfer of power to the house of Bourbon. The Guise- led massacre of a Huguenot congregation at Vassy precipitated the Wars of Religion, in which Henri I, 3rd duke de Guise, was a prominent leader. Charles de Lorraine, 4th duke de Guise (1571-1640), lived through the rapid decline of the family’s power. Henri II, 5th duke de Guise, tried unsuccessfully to revive the family’s power; the direct line expired with the death of his grand-nephew in 1675.

guitar Plucked stringed instrument. It normally has six strings, a fretted fingerboard, and a soundbox with a pronounced waist. It probably origi¬ nated in Spain in the early 16th century. By 1800 it was being strung with

strings

© MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

six single strings; 19th-century innovations gave it its modern form. Mod¬ ern classical guitar technique owes much to Francisco Tarrega (1852— 1909), and Andres Segovia gave the instrument prominence in the concert hall. However, it has always been primarily an amateur’s instrument, and it remains an important folk instrument in many countries. The 12-string guitar is strung in six double courses. The Hawaiian, or steel, guitar is held horizontally and the strings are stopped by the pressure of a metal bar, producing a sweet glissando tone. The electric guitar represented a major development. Electric pickups were attached to the acoustic guitar in the 1920s. In the 1940s Les Paul invented the solid-body guitar; lack¬ ing a soundbox, it transmits only the string vibrations. With its long- sustained notes, affinity for strong amplification, and capacity for

producing wailing melodic lines as well as harshly percussive rhythms, it soon became the principal instrument of Western popular music.

Guitry \ge-*tre\, Sacha (b. Feb. 21, 1885, St. Petersburg, Russia—d. July 24, 1957, Paris, France) Russian-born French actor and dramatist. Son of the French actor Lucien Guitry (1860-1925), he appeared on the Russian stage with his father’s company. At age 21 he achieved his first success with his play Nono. He had over 90 plays produced, including Pasteur (1919) and Beranger (1920), written with acting parts for his father. He wrote, directed, and acted in many films, of which the best- known was perhaps The Cheat (1936).

Guiyang Ygwe-'yaq\ or Kuei-yang \'gwa-'yaq\ City (pop., 1999 est.: 1,320,566), capital of Guizhou province, southern China. It is situated south of Chongqing. The Sui (581-618) and Tang (618-907) dynasties estab¬ lished military outposts there, but the city developed only after the Mongol invasion of southwestern China in 1279. Chinese settlement followed, and under the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties Guiyang became the seat of a prefecture. The Sino-Japanese War (1937-45) spurred its growth into a major provincial city and industrial centre.

Guizhou or Kuei-chou \'gwa-'jo\ conventional Kweichow \'gwa-'chau\ Province (pop., 2000 est.: 35,250,000), southwestern China. It is bordered by Yunnan, Sichuan, and Hunan provinces, Chongqing municipality, and Guangxi autonomous region. It has an area of 67,200 sq mi (174,000 sq km). Its capital is Guiyang. Guizhou has rough topog¬ raphy, poor communications, and consequent isolation. About three- fourths of the people are Han Chinese; there are also aboriginal peoples, including the Miao. Guizhou came under Chinese influence during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), when it was made a province. During the Qing dynasty (1644-1911), struggles between the minorities, especially the Miao, were common. Serious revolts occurred in the 19th century and in 1941-44, as a result of exploitation by local warlords. The communists took the area in 1949. Its mineral resources are rich and support some mining.

Guizot \ge-'zo\, Francois (-Pierre-Guillaume) (b. Oct. 4, 1787, Nimes, France—d. Oct. 12, 1874,

Val-Richer) French political figure and historian. He studied law but became a professor of history at the University of Paris in 1812. He emerged as a leader of the conserva¬ tive constitutional monarchists and during the July monarchy (1830—48) was the dominant minister in France, holding such offices as minister of education, foreign minister, and pre¬ mier. Forced to resign by the Revo¬ lution of 1 848, he spent most of his remaining days in relative political isolation. His works include General History of Civilization in Europe (1828) and The History of France from the Earliest Times to the Year

1789 (1872-76).

Gujarat V.gii-jo-'raA State (pop.,

2001 prelim.: 50,596,992) and historic region, western India. Lying on the Arabian Sea and with a coastline of 992 mi (1,596 km) long that includes the union territory enclaves of Daman and Diu, it is bordered by Pakistan, the states of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra, and Dadra and Nagar Haveli union territory. It has an area of 75,685 sq mi (196,024 sq km), and the capital is Gandhinagar. During the 4th and 5th centuries ad, it was ruled by the Gupta dynasty; it derived its name from the Gurjaras, who ruled the area in the 8th and 9th centuries. After a period of economic and cultural achievement, it fell successively under Arab Muslim, Mughal, and Maratha rule. In 1818 it came under British con¬ trol, and after 1857 it was a province of British India. Following Indian independence in 1947, most of Gujarat was included in the state of Bom¬ bay, which was divided into Gujarat and Maharashtra in 1960. Gujarat is a leading industrialized state of India and a major petroleum producer. It is also famous for its arts and crafts.

Gulag \'gu-,lag\ System of Soviet labour camps and prisons that from the 1920s to the mid-1950s housed millions of political prisoners and criminals. The term (an abbreviation of the Russian words for Chief

Guizot, 1855

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Gulbenkian ► GUM I 817

Administration of Corrective Labour Camps) was largely unknown in the West until the 1973 publication of Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn’s Gulag Archi¬ pelago. The Gulag consisted of hundreds of camps, under the control of the secret police, where prisoners felled timber, worked in the mines, or laboured on construction projects. At least 10% died each year from harsh working conditions, inadequate food, and summary executions. The Gulag reached its height in the years of collectivization of Soviet agri¬ culture (1929-32), during Joseph Stalin’s purges (1936-38), and immedi¬ ately after World War II, shrinking only after Stalin’s death in 1953. An estimated 15-30 million Russians died in the camps.

Gulbenkian, Calouste (Sarkis) (b. March 29, 1869, Istanbul, Turk.—d. July 20, 1955, Lisbon, Port.) Turkish-born British financier, industrialist, and philanthropist. In 1911 he helped found the Turkish Petroleum Co. (later Iraq Petroleum Co.) and became the first to exploit Iraqi oil; his 5% share made him one of the world’s richest men. From 1948 he negotiated Saudi Arabian oil concessions to U.S. firms. He amassed an outstanding art collection of some 6,000 works, now in Lis¬ bon’s Calouste Gulbenkian Museum. The Lisbon-based Calouste Gul¬ benkian Foundation supports activities worldwide in science, art, social welfare, cultural relations, health, and education.

gulf Any large coastal indentation, similar to a bay but larger. Most exist¬ ing gulfs were formed or greatly extended as a result of the rise in sea level that accompanied the ending of the last ice age. Some, such as the Gulf of California and the Gulf of Oman, resulted from warping, folding, or downfaulting of the Earth’s crust, which caused parts of the shoreline to drop below sea level. Most gulfs are connected with the sea by one or more straits. A gulf may have a group of islands at its mouth or may open into another gulf. Gulfs may differ from the adjoining sea in water prop¬ erties and sedimentation.

Gulf & Western Inc. Former U.S. corporation, founded in 1958 by Charles Bluhdorn. One of the most highly diversified conglomerates in the U.S., Gulf & Western took control of the Paramount Pictures Corp. in 1966 and changed its name to Paramount Communications in 1989. It was acquired by the media conglomerate Viacom Inc. in 1994.

Gulf Cooperation Council Persian Gulf international organization founded in Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) in 1981. Its members include Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, the UAE, and Oman. Its purpose is to facilitate cooperation among members in the fields of international commerce, education, shipping, and travel. Headquarters are in Saudi Arabia, and it meets twice a year. Its administrative struc¬ ture includes a supreme council, a council of foreign ministers, an arbi¬ tration commission, and a general secretariat.

Gulf Intracoastal Waterway System of inland waterways, includ¬ ing rivers and canals, along the U.S. coast of the Gulf of Mexico. It extends from Apalachee Bay, Fla., west to the Mexican border at Brownsville, Texas, a distance of more than 1,100 mi (1,770 km). It includes Mobile Bay and Mississippi Sound, passes through New Orleans, and takes in the Sabine-Neches Waterway and the ship canal at Houston. Together with its counterpart, the Atiantic Intracoastal Waterway, it forms the Intra¬ coastal Waterway, a shipping route that extends for 3,000 mi (4,800 km) in the southern and eastern U.S.

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (Aug. 5, 1964) Resolution by the U.S. Congress authorizing Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson to use “all necessary mea¬ sures” to repel armed attacks against U.S. forces in Vietnam. It was drafted in response to the alleged shelling of two U.S. navy ships by North Viet¬ nam in the Gulf of Tonkin. Later information disputed the severity of the attack. The resolution was cited as authorization for the subsequent expan¬ sion of the Vietnam War; many in Congress came to see it as a blank check for the president, and it was repealed in 1970.

Gulf Oil Corp. Major U.S. petroleum company. Gulf Oil began with an oil gusher near Beaumont, Texas, in 1901 and was incorporated in 1907. The oil well was developed by the Pittsburgh Mellon family (see Andrew W. Mellon). Gulf became the first oil company to enter the con¬ sumer gasoline market when it opened a drive-in filling station in Pitts¬ burgh in 1913. By 1923 the Gulf refinery in Port Arthur, Texas, was the largest in the world. Gulf Oil continued to develop oil fields in Texas, Oklahoma, and Louisiana, as well as in Mexico and Venezuela. In 1984 it was bought by Chevron, another oil company.

Gulf Stream Warm ocean current, part of a general clockwise-rotating system of currents in the North Atlantic. A major contribution of the Gulf

Stream is its warming effect on the climates of adjacent land areas. In winter, the air over the ocean west of Norway is more than 40°F (22°C) warmer than the average for that latitude, one of the greatest temperature anomalies in the world. Winters in southwestern England are extraordi¬ narily mild for this northern latitude because of the Gulf Stream. Regions of the Gulf Stream, such as the Grand Banks, have been among the most productive commercial fishing grounds in the world.

Gulf War See Persian Gulf War

Gulf War syndrome Cluster of illnesses in veterans of the Persian Gulf War (1990-91). These illnesses are characterized by variable and nonspecific symptoms such as fatigue, muscle and joint pains, headaches, memory loss, and posttraumatic stress reactions. The cause is unknown. The disorder does not appeal' to be fatal but can be associated with con¬ siderable distress and disability.

gull Any of more than 40 species of heavily built, web-footed seabirds (family Laridae) that are most abun¬ dant as breeders in temperate to arc¬ tic regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Adults are mainly gray or white, with variable head mark¬ ings. The bill is strong and slightly hooked, sometimes displaying a spot of colour. Species differ in bill and leg colours and in wing patterns.

Wingspans range from 24 to 63 in.

(0.6 to 1.6 m). Gulls feed on insects, mollusks, and crustaceans on beaches; worms and grubs in plowed fields; and fish and garbage from ships and along shores. Some large gulls prey on the eggs and young of other birds, including their own kind.

See also herring gull; kittiwake.

Gull, Sir William Withey (b.

Dec. 31, 1816, Colchester, Essex,

Eng.—d. Jan. 29, 1890, London)

British physician. A famous and popular teacher, Gull was one of the first clinicians to describe pathological lesions in tabes dorsalis (1856), inter¬ mittent hemoglobin in the urine, atherosclerotic atrophy of the kidney, and Gull disease (a form of hypothyroidism). He believed in minimal use of drugs and defended vivisection and clinical investigation. He was the leading British physician of his time; his patients included Queen Victo¬ ria.

Gullstrand, Allvar (b. June 5, 1862, Landskrona, Swed.—d. July 28, 1930, Stockholm) Swedish ophthalmologist. He contributed to knowledge of the cornea and of astigmatism, improved post-cataract-surgery correc¬ tive lenses, and devised the Gullstrand slit lamp, a valuable diagnostic tool for detailed study of the eye. He won a 1911 Nobel Prize for Physi¬ ology or Medicine for research on the eye as a light-refracting apparatus.

gum In botany, an adhesive substance of vegetable origin, mostly obtained as exudate from the bark of trees or shrubs belonging to the pea family. Gum arabic (from a species of acacia) is used in lithography. Gum tragacanth (from several shrub species in the genus Astragalus ) is used as a coating and binding agent in pill manufacture, as an emulsifier in processed foods, and as a thickener in sauces. Some plant gums are used in the manufacture of cosmetics.

gum or gingiva \'jin-jo-vo, jin-'jl-vs\ Mucous-membrane-covered con¬ nective tissue attached to and surrounding the necks of the teeth and the alveolar bone of the jaw. The edges of the gums around the teeth are free and extend into the spaces between the teeth. Fibres of the ligament that holds the teeth in their sockets enter the gum and hold it tightly against the teeth. Pink, speckled, and tough, healthy gums have limited sensitiv¬ ity to pain, temperature, and pressure. Changes in colour, loss of speck¬ ling, or abnormal sensitivity are early signs of gingivitis, in which pockets form between the gum and teeth and become infected, with inflammation, bleeding, and, in severe cases, loss of teeth.

GUM \'giim\ abbreviation of Gosudarstvenny Universalny Magazin (Russian: "State Department Store") Largest depart¬ ment store in Russia. Situated in Moscow’s Red Square, it occupies a huge, ornate building (constructed 1889-93) that once housed more than 1,000

heavily built, web-footed seabirds

Herring gull (Larus argentatus)

JOHN MARKHAM

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

818 i gum ► Gur

shops. GUM now includes about 150 shops selling food, clothing, home appliances, watches and cameras, and many other goods. It functions more like a Western-style shopping mall than a department store and is a popu¬ lar tourist attraction.

gum, chewing See chewing gum

Gum Nebula Largest known emission nebula in terms of how much of the sky it occupies as seen from Earth, extending over about 35° in the southern constellations Puppis and Vela. A complex of diffuse, glowing gas too faint to see with the unaided eye, it was discovered in the 1950s. It lies roughly 1,000 light-years from Earth and may be the remnant of an ancient supernova.

gum tree See tupelo

Gumal Pass \g3-'m9l\ or Gomal Pass \go-'m3l\ Mountain pass, southern North-West Frontier Province, Pakistan. Lying along the Gumal River valley in the Sulaiman Range, it is the most important pass between the Khyber and Bolan passes, and connects Ghazni in eastern Afghanistan with Dera Ismail Khan in Pakistan. Actually a 4-mi (6-km) gorge, it is the oldest trade route in the area, traditionally used by nomadic Afghan trad¬ ers called Powindahs, whose entry into Pakistan is now restricted.

gumbo In soil science, any of various fine-grained, rich, black, alluvial soils, especially of the central U.S., that when wet become impenetrable and soapy or waxy and very sticky. When dried, gumbo “bakes” and becomes extremely hard.

gun Weapon consisting essentially of a metal tube from which a missile or projectile is shot by the force of exploding gunpowder or some other propellant. The term is often limited today to the so-called big guns, can¬ non larger than a howitzer or mortar. It may also be used to refer to mili¬ tary small arms such as the rifle, machine gun, and pistol, as well as to nonmilitary firearms such as the shotgun. Though the Chinese used gun¬ powder in warfare from the 9th century, guns were not developed until the Europeans acquired gunpowder in the 13th century. The earliest guns (c. 1327) resembled old-fashioned soda bottles; they apparently were fired by applying a red-hot wire to a touchhole drilled through the top. Sepa¬ rating the barrel and the powder chamber resulted in breechloaders, which continued to be used in naval swivel guns and fortress wallpieces well into the 17th century. Small arms, as distinguished from hand cannon, did not exist until the development of the matchlock in the 15th century. See also FLINTLOCK, WHEEL LOCK.

gunasthana Vgu-nos-'ta-noV In Jainism, any of the 14 stages of spiri¬ tual development through which a soul passes on its way to liberation. The goal is to gradually purify the soul and to gain release from the cycle of birth and death. The thirteenth stage was that of an arhat. In the final stage the soul achieves the release known as moksha. See also Eightfold Path, nirvana.

gunite See shotcrete

Gunn, Thomfson William) (b. Aug. 29, 1929, Gravesend, Kent, Eng.—d. April 25, 2004, San Francisco, Calif., U.S.) British-U.S. poet. Educated at Cambridge and Stanford universities, he lived in San Fran¬ cisco from the 1950s and taught for many years at the University of Cali¬ fornia, Berkeley. His early verse appeared in Fighting Terms (1954) and The Sense of Movement (1957); in the late 1950s his poems became more experimental. My Sad Captains (1961), Moly (1971), Jack Straw’s Castle (1976), and The Passages of Joy (1982) discuss his homosexuality; The Man with Night Sweats (1992) has AIDS as a subject. Other collections include Collected Poems (1993) and Boss Cupid (2000).

gunpowder Any of several mixtures used as propelling charges in guns and as blasting agents in mining. The first such explosive was black powder, a mixture of saltpeter (potassium nitrate), sulfur, and charcoal. It originated in the 9th century in China and made its way west in the 13th century. The recipe was refined and finally fixed in the 14th century; black powder is still widely used for ignition charges, primers, fuses, blank charges in military ammunition, and fireworks. In 1838 it was discovered that cotton could be made explosive by dipping it in concentrated nitric acid, and the form of nitrocellulose known as guncotton came into use as an ingredient of gunpowder in the 1860s. In the 1880s Paul Vieille (1854- 1934) used nitrocellulose to create the first smokeless gunpowder; mod¬ ern gunpowder consists of either nitrocellulose alone or a combination of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin.

Gunpowder Plot (1605) Conspiracy by English Roman Catholic zeal¬ ots to blow up Parliament and kill James I. Angered by James’s refusal to grant more religious toleration to Catholics, a group of conspirators led by Robert Catesby (1573-1605) recruited Guy Fawkes to their plot. One member warned his brother-in-law Lord Monteagle not to attend Parlia¬ ment on the appointed day (November 5, 1605), and Monteagle alerted the government. Fawkes was arrested in a rented cellar under the palace at Westminster, where he had concealed 20 barrels of gunpowder. Under torture, he revealed the names of the conspirators, and they were all either killed while resisting arrest or executed in 1606. The plot bitterly inten¬ sified Protestant suspicions of Catholics.

Gunther, John (b. Aug. 30, 1901, Chicago, Ill., U.S.—d. May 29, 1970, New York, N.Y.) U.S. journalist and author. He worked for the Chi¬ cago Daily News London bureau (1924-36) before publishing Inside Europe (1936), the first of his highly successful sociopolitical books describing and interpreting various regions of the world, including Inside Asia (1939), Inside Latin America (1941), Inside Africa (1955), Inside Russia Today (1958), Inside Europe Today (1961), and Inside South America (1967). He was also a war correspondent and radio commenta¬ tor.

Guo Moruo Vgwo-'mo-'rwoV or Kuo Mo-jo Vgwo-'mo-'joV orig. Guo Kaizhen (b. Nov. 1892, Shawan, Luoshan county, Sichuan prov¬ ince, China—d. June 12, 1978, Beijing) Chinese scholar and writer. In his youth he abandoned medical studies to devote himself to foreign litera¬ ture, producing a popular translation of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s Sorrows of Young Werther (1922). He wrote prolifically in every genre, including poetry, fiction, plays, nine autobiographical volumes, transla¬ tions of Western works, and historical and philosophical treatises, includ¬ ing a monumental study of ancient inscriptions. Initially a liberal democrat, he became a Marxist in the 1920s, and his work was banned by the Guomindang. Following the 1949 revolution, he was named to the highest official literary positions and later to the presidency of the Chi¬ nese Academy of Sciences.

Guo Xiang \'gw6-'shyaq\ or Kuo Hsiang (d. 312, China) Chinese Neo-Daoist philosopher. He was a high government official who adapted and completed another philosopher’s unfinished commentary on the writ¬ ings of Zhuangzi. Interpreting dao (“the way”) as nothingness, he argued that it cannot produce being and cannot be a first cause. He concluded that there is no agent of causality in the universe; all things spontaneously produce themselves, and everything has its own nature. Happiness comes from following that distinctive nature, and dissatisfaction and regret come from failing to follow it. He also interpreted Daoist “nonaction” to mean spontaneous action rather than sitting still, a deviation from original Dao- ism that agreed with Zhuangzi’s thought.

Guomindang Vgwo-'min-'daqV See Nationalist Party

guppy Colourful, freshwater, live-bearing topminnows ( Lebistes retic- ulatus and Poecilia reticulata; see killifish) popular as pets in home aquariums. Guppies are hardy, ener¬ getic, easily kept, and prolific. The male, smaller and much more brightly coloured than the female, grows to about 1.5 in. (4 cm). Gup¬ pies have been bred in various ornate strains characterized by colour or pattern and by shape and size of the tail and dorsal fins.

Gupta \'gup-to\ dynasty (4th- 6th centuries) Rulers of an empire in northern and parts of central and western India. The dynasty was founded by Chandra (Candra) Gupta I (r. 320-c. 330). The Gupta era was once regarded as India’s Classical period, but new archaeological evidence has given the Mauryan empire that designation. Nevertheless, the Gupta period is noted for the flourishing of Sanskrit literature (see Kalidasa), its sophis¬ ticated metal coins, its advanced mathematics (which made use of deci¬ mal notation and the numeral zero and at that time was more advanced than anywhere else), and its astronomical advances.

Gur \'gur\ languages formerly Voltaic \val-'ta-ik\ languages Branch of the huge Niger-Congo language family. Gur comprises some 85 languages and language complexes spoken by about 20,000,000 people

(Top) Male and (bottom) female gup¬ pies (Lebistes reticulatus)

JANE BURTON-BRUCE COLEMAN LTD.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Gurdjieff ► Gutenberg I 819

mainly in Burkina Faso, northern Cote d’Ivoire, northern Ghana, and northern Togo. Moore in Burkina Faso has the largest number of speak¬ ers, more than 6,000,000 (see Mossi). Once considered a Gur language, Dogon is spoken by about 600,000 people in Mali; it is of uncertain affiliation within Niger-Congo.

Gurdjieff \gor-'jef\, George (Ivanovitch) orig. George S. Georgiades (b. 1872?, Alexandropol, Armenia, Russian Empire—d. Oct. 29, 1949, Neuilly, near Paris, France) Armenian mystic and philoso¬ pher. He apparently traveled in the Middle East, Africa, and Central Asia as a young man. He taught in Moscow and St. Petersburg, and in 1919 he founded the Institute for the Harmonious Development of Man at Tif- lis (now Tbilisi), Georgia. In 1922 he reestablished the institute at Fon¬ tainebleau, France, gathering a group of followers who lived communally, engaging in philosophical dialogue, ritual exercises, and dance. His basic assertion was that ordinary living was akin to sleep and that through spiri¬ tual discipline it was possible to achieve heightened levels of vitality and awareness. The Fontainebleau centre closed in 1933, but Gurdjieff con¬ tinued to teach in Paris until his death.

gurdwara \gur-'dwa-ra\ Sikh place of worship. Each gurdwara houses a copy of the Adi Granth and serves as a meeting place for worship, including recitation, singing, and explication of scripture. A community kitchen and often a school are attached to the building. In private homes a room set aside for devotion is also called a gurdwara. Pilgrimages are often made to the gurdwaras associated with the Sikh Gurus' lives, nota¬ bly the Golden Temple.

Gurjara-Pratihara Vgur-'ja-ro-pro-te-'ha-roV dynasty Either of two dynasties of Hindu India. The Pratiharas were the most important dynasty of 9th-century northern India. The line of Haricandra ruled in Mandor, Marwar (present-day Jodhpur, Rajasthan state), in the 6th-9th centuries, generally with feudatory status. The line of Nagabhata ruled first at Ujjain and later at Kannauj in the 8th—11th centuries. This line is generally con¬ sidered the more important one; at its peak of prosperity and power (c. 836-910), it rivaled the Gupta dynasty in the extent of its territory. The last important Pratihara king was driven from Kannauj by MahmOd of Ghazna (1018). Other Gurjara lines existed, but they did not take the sur¬ name Pratihara.

guru In Hinduism, a personal spiritual teacher. In ancient India, knowl¬ edge of the Vedas was transmitted through oral teaching from guru to pupil. The rise of the bhakti movement further increased the importance of gurus, who were often looked on as living embodiments of spiritual truth and were identified with the deity. They prescribed spiritual disci¬ plines to their devotees, who followed their dictates in a tradition of will¬ ing service and obedience. Men or women may be gurus, though generally only men have established lineages. See also Guru.

Guru Title of the first 10 leaders of Sikhism. The first was Nanak, who before his death (1539) began the tradition that allowed the Guru to name his successor. He was followed by Angad (1539-1552), Amar Das, Ram- das (1574-1581), Arjan, Hargobind, Hari Rai, Hari Krishen (1661-1664), Tegh Bahadur (1664-1675), and Gobind Singh. In time the Guru became as much a military as a spiritual leader. Gobind Singh discontinued the office in 1708 and vested its authority in the Sikh sacred scripture, the Adi Granth. See also guru.

Gustafson \,g3s-'taf-s3n\, Ralph (Barker) (b. Aug. 16, 1909, Lime Ridge, near Sherbrooke, Que., Can.—d. May 29, 1995, North Hatley) Canadian poet. Gustafson attended the University of Oxford; he settled in New York after World War II but later returned to Canada. His work shows a development from traditional form and manner to an elliptical style reflecting the influence of Anglo-Saxon verse and the metrical experiments of Gerard Manley Hopkins. His later works, usually consid¬ ered his better writings, include Rivers Among Rocks (1960), Conflicts of Spring (1981), and Shadows in the Grass (1991). He also published col¬ lections of short stories.

Gustav I Vasa orig. Gustav Eriksson Vasa (b. May 12,

1496?—d. Sept. 29, 1560, Stockholm, Swed.) King of Sweden (1523-60) and founder of the Vasa dynasty. The son of a Swedish senator, Gustav joined the rebellion against Christian II of Denmark, who controlled most of Sweden. He became leader of the rebels (1520) and secured crucial aid from the rich free city of Liibeck. This aid enabled Gustav to establish Sweden’s independence, and in 1523 he was elected king. Gustav imposed heavy taxes to pay his debts to Liibeck and to strengthen royal

authority and lands. He hoped to seize the Roman Catholic church’s wealth, and he pushed Sweden toward becoming a Protestant (Lutheran) country. An autocratic ruler, he built a strong monarchy and an efficient administration.

Gustav II Adolf Latin Gustavus Adolphus (b. Dec. 9, 1594, Stockholm, Swed.—d. Nov. 6, 1632, Liitzen, Saxony) King of Sweden (1611-32) who made Sweden a major European power. The son of Charles IX, Gustav inherited his father’s dynastic quarrels with Sigismund III Vasa and until 1629 faced a legitimist invasion from Poland. He ended the war with Denmark in 1613, but Sweden was forced to pay a crushing war indemnity. He ended the war with Russia (1617) and annexed Ingria and Kexholm. Internal tensions were largely resolved by his trusted chancel¬ lor, Axel Gustafsson Oxenstierna. Gustav’s sweeping domestic reforms included establishing an efficient central administration and improving education. Resuming the war with Sigismund in 1621, Gustav obtained much of Polish Livonia (Latvia and Estonia). He saw his Polish cam¬ paigns as part of the struggle of Protestantism against the Counter- Reformation. He entered the Thirty Years' War in 1630 as a defensive maneuver, to secure the Swedish state and church from danger. An out¬ standing military tactician, he led an army of unusual quality, and his position was strengthened by alliances with France, Brandenburg, and Saxony. Success in the Battle of Breitenfeld let him sweep through cen¬ tral Germany and claim large territorial cessions, particularly Pomerania (1631). At Liitzen in 1632, the Swedes defeated Albrecht W.E. von Wal¬ lenstein’s army, but Gustav was killed in battle.

Gustav III (b. Jan. 24, 1746, Stockholm, Swed.—d. March 29, 1792, Stockholm) King of Sweden (1771-92). The son of King Adolf Freder¬ ick (1710-71), he succeeded to a weakened Swedish throne. Unable to mediate between the contending factions of the Riksdag (legislature), in 1772 he established a new constitution that increased the crown’s power. He introduced numerous enlightened reforms, which antagonized the nobility. He waged an unpopular war on Russia (1788-90), and when a group of Swedish officers mutinied, he again augmented royal authority in a new constitution (1789). Gustav planned to form a league of Euro¬ pean monarchs to oppose the French Revolution, but the Swedish nobil¬ ity remained opposed to him and had him assassinated. Gustav was a patron of the arts and a playwright, and his reign was known as the Swed¬ ish enlightenment.

Gustav IV Adolf (b. Nov. 1, 1778, Stockholm, Swed.—d. Feb. 7, 1837, Sankt Gallen, Switz.) King of Sweden (1800-09). Son of the assassinated Gustav III, he came to the throne in 1792 under the regency of his uncle Charles, duke of Sodermanland (later Charles XIII). In 1805 Gustav brought Sweden into the European coalition against Napoleon. When Russia joined with France in 1807, Gustav remained in the field, though he knew it would mean a Russian attack on Finland. Denmark-Norway also declared war on Sweden, causing the loss of additional territory. In 1809 Gustav was overthrown in a coup, and his heirs were declared ineli¬ gible to succeed him. He and his family left Sweden for exile, settling in Switzerland.

Gustav V orig. Oscar Gustaf Adolf (b. June 16, 1858, Stockholm, Swed.—d. Oct. 29, 1950, Stockholm) King of Sweden (1907-50). The son of Oscar II (1829-1907), he entered the army and traveled widely before succeeding his father in 1907. In a period of expanding democracy within his country, Gustav proved a capable constitutional monarch. Though he favoured the Allies in World Wars I and II, he was a firm pro¬ ponent of Swedish neutrality.

Gut of Canso See Strait of Canso

Gutenberg VgU-Un-.borgV Johannes (Gensfleisch zur Laden zum) (b. c. 1395, Mainz—-d. probably Feb. 3, 1468, Mainz) German inventor of a method of printing from movable type. Born to a patrician family in Mainz, he apparently worked at such crafts as goldsmithing and gem cutting in Mainz and Strasbourg and was experimenting with print¬ ing by 1438. He obtained backing in 1450 from the financier Johann Fust (c.. 1400-66); Fust’s impatience and other factors led to Gutenberg’s loss of his establishment to Fust in 1455. Gutenberg’s masterpiece, and the first book ever printed from movable type, is the “Forty-Two-Line” Bible, completed no later than 1455. A magnificent Psalter was published in 1457, after the loss of his press. The only other works still attributed to him are minor. His invention’s unique elements included a mold, with which type could be cast precisely and in large quantities; a type-metal alloy; a new press, derived from those used in winemaking, papermak-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

820 I Guthrie ► Guzman

ing, and bookbinding; and an oil-based printing ink. None of these fea¬ tures existed in Chinese or Korean printing, in the existing European technique of stamping letters on various surfaces, or in woodblock print¬ ing. Gutenberg’s invention, seminal to the course of Western civilization, remained the source of the basic elements of typesetting for 500 years.

Guthrie, Sir (William) Tyrone (b. July 2, 1900, Tunbridge Wells, Kent, Eng.—d. May 15, 1971, Newbliss, County Monaghan, Ire.) British theatre director and producer. After his first London production in 1931, he became director of the Shakespeare Repertory Company (1933-34, 1936—45), which performed at the Old Vic and Sadler’s Wells theatres. His original approach to Shakespearean drama greatly influenced the 20th-century revival of interest in traditional theatre. He also directed operas such as Peter Grimes (1946) and Carmen (1949) and his own play, Top of the Ladder (1950). He helped found and direct the Stratford Fes¬ tival in Canada (1953-57), influencing the development of Canadian the¬ atre. He also founded and directed (1963-66) the Tyrone Guthrie Theater in Minneapolis.

Guthrie, Woody orig. Woodrow Wilson Guthrie (b. July 14, 1912, Okemah, Okla., U.S.—d. Oct. 3, 1967, New York, N.Y.) U.S. singer and songwriter, one of the legendary figures of American folk music. He left home at age 15 to travel the country by freight train. With his guitar and harmonica he sang in the hobo and migrant camps of the Great Depression, later becoming a musical spokesman for labour and populist sentiment. He wrote more than a thousand songs, including “So Long (It’s Been Good to Know Yuh),” “Hard Traveling,” and “Union Maid.” In New York City he joined Pete Seeger and others in the Almanac Singers; after serving in World War II, he continued to perform with them for farmer and worker groups. “This Land Is Your Land” was his most famous song, and it became an unofficial national anthem. His autobiography, Bound for Glory (1943), was filmed in 1976. His son Arlo (b. 1947) also achieved success as a songwriter and singer.

Guwahati \ l gii-w3- , ha-te\ or Gauhati \gau-'ha-te\ City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 808,021), western Assam state, northeastern India. Located on the Brahmaputra River, it was the capital of the Hindu kingdom of Kamarupa (under the name of Pragjyotisa) c. ad 400. Taken by the Ahoms, it became the seat of the Ahom governor of Lower Assam in 1681. It was ceded to the British in 1826 and was the administrative seat for Assam until 1874. Gauhati is now an important river port and Assam’s main commercial centre. The nearby temples of Kamakhya and Umananda are places of Hindu pilgrimage.

Guy-Blache, Alice orig. Alice Guy (b. July 1, 1873, Paris, France—d. March 24, 1968, Mahwah, N.J., U.S.) French-born U.S. pio¬ neer of French and American film industries. The first woman director, she is also generally acknowledged to be the first director to film a nar¬ rative story. She directed her first film, The Cabbage Fairy , in 1896 to demonstrate the entertainment possibilities of the motion-picture camera manufactured by her employer, Leon Gaumont. She became the Gaumont film company’s head of production, directing nearly all early Gaumont films. About 1901 Guy began to work on longer, more elaborate projects, notably Esmeralda (1905), based on Victor Hugo’s The Hunchback of Notre Dame, and The Life of Christ (1906). From 1906 to 1907 she directed about 100 films, using experimental sound technology. She mar¬ ried cameraman Herbert Blache in 1907 and followed him to the U.S., where in 1910 she founded the successful Solax Company. As president of Solax she directed about 45 films and supervised nearly 300 other pro¬ ductions. Only a handful of the hundreds of films she made survive.

Guyana \gI-'a-no\ officially Co-operative Republic of Guyana

formerly (until 1966) British Guiana Country, northeastern South America. Area: 83,044 sq mi (215,083 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 751,000. Capital: Georgetown. About half the people are of South Asian descent; most of the rest are of African ancestry. Language: English (offi¬ cial). Religions: Christianity (Protestant, Roman Catholic), Hinduism, Islam. Currency: Guyana dollar. Guyana has a narrow Atlantic coastal plain that extends up to 10 mi (16 km) inland and includes reclaimed land protected by seawalls and canals. Inland, a high rainforest covers three- fourths of the country. The Pakaraima Mountains in the west provide headwaters for the Essequibo River. Guyana has a developing market economy with both public and private ownership. Major exports include sugar, rice, and bauxite. It is a multiparty republic with one legislative house; its head of state and government is the president. American Indi¬ ans inhabited Guyana prior to European settlement, but little is known of

the territory during the Napoleonic Wars

and afterward purchased the colonies of Demerara, Berbice, and Esse¬ quibo, which were united in 1831 as British Guiana. The slave trade was abolished in 1807, but emancipation of the 100,000 slaves in the colonies was not complete until 1838. From the 1840s, South Asian and Chinese indentured servants were brought to work the plantations; by 1917 almost 240,000 South Asians had migrated to British Guiana. It was made a crown colony in 1928 and granted home rule in 1953. Political parties began to emerge, developing along ethnic lines as the People’s Progres¬ sive Party (largely South Asian) and the People’s National Congress (PNC; largely black). The PNC formed a coalition government and led the country into independence as Guyana in 1966. In 1970 Guyana became a republic within the Commonwealth; in 1980 it adopted a new constitution. In the last decades of the 20th century, Guyana moved away from the socialist approach first taken following independence. At the beginning of the 21st century, it was still struggling to achieve economic and political stability.

Guyenne \ge-'en\ or Guienne ancient Aquitania Historic region, southwestern France. The Guyenne region corresponds to the modern departement of Gironde and to most of the departements of Lot-et- Garonne, Dordogne, Lot, and Aveyron. An old duchy whose capital was at Bordeaux, it was near the Garonne and Dordogne rivers. From Roman times until the Middle Ages it was part of the region of Aquitaine. Under English control during much of the later Middle Ages, Guyenne was retaken by the French at the beginning of the Hundred Years' War, but in 1360 it was restored, with Aquitaine, to the English. France later recon¬ quered the area, and from the 17th century until 1789 Guyenne was part of the French gouvernement of Guienne and Gascony.

Guzman \gus-'man\ (Fernandez), (Silvestre) Antonio (b. Feb. 12, 1911, La Vega, Dom.Rep.—d. July 4, 1982, Santo Domingo) Presi¬ dent of the Dominican Republic (1978-82). Son of a textile merchant, he managed textile stores before being elected president as a left-of-centre candidate, despite attempts by followers of the incumbent, Joaquin Bal- aguer, to halt the vote count. Responding to the collapse of world sugar prices, he launched an aggressive agricultural policy that quickly enabled the country to achieve self-sufficiency in rice and beans. Though he inher¬ ited a turbulent political and economic situation, he left behind a stable economy and democratic institutions guaranteeing civil liberties. His death was an apparent suicide.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Gwalior ► gyroscope I 821

Gwalior Vgwa-le-,6r\ City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 826,919), Madhya Pradesh state, north-central India. The city, now an important commercial and industrial centre, is built around a walled fortress situated on a cliff 300 ft (90 m) above the plain. First known from c. ad 525, it was under Hindu rule until 1232 and then changed hands several times between Muslims and Hindus until 1751; thereafter it remained a Maratha strong¬ hold, though it was taken by the British several times. The fortress con¬ tains outstanding examples of Hindu architecture, including reservoirs, palaces, temples, and a mosque. Just below the fort’s walls are 15th- century rock-cut Jain statues that are nearly 60 ft (18 m) high.

Gwandu Vgwan-dii \ formerly Gando \'gan-do\ Traditional emirate, northwestern Nigeria. Originally settled by the Kebbawa, the area was part of the the Kebbi kingdom in the 16th century. The emirate’s town of Gwandu became important during the Fulani jihad (1804-12), and from 1815 it was one of the two capitals of the Fulani empire until it came under British control in 1903. The Gando emirate was reduced in size by British cessions to French West Africa in 1907. Its emir, however, remains an important Muslim traditional leader in Nigeria. The town of Gwandu is a local agricultural market.

Gwent Historical region, southeastern Wales. Its heart is the plain of Gwent, and it includes a coastal plain along the River Severn estuary. Gwent was and still is the gateway between England and southern Wales. The Romans built a military headquarters and major fortress in Gwent, and the Normans erected castles. Formerly a Welsh county (1974-96), it has since been divided into several unitary authorities. The economy of the region relies on both agriculture and industry.

Gwyn, Nell orig. Eleanor Gwyn (b. Feb. 2,1650, London, Eng.—d. Nov. 14, 1687, London) British actress. She was selling oranges at the Drury Lane Theatre when she became the mistress of its leading actor, Charles Hart, who trained her for the stage. She became the leading come¬ dienne of the King’s Company (1666-69) and as “pretty, witty Nell” was in demand as a speaker of impudent prologues and epilogues. She became the mistress of Charles II (1669-85) and was popular with the public, who found her high spirits and frank recklessness welcome antidotes to Puri¬ tanism.

Gwynedd or Gwyneth \'gwi-,neth\ County (pop., 2001: 116,838), northwestern Wales. It encompasses most of the historic counties of Caer¬ narfonshire and Merioneth. Its administrative centre is Caernarfon. The ancient region of Gwynedd comprised most of northern Wales. The Nor¬ mans built castles at Caernarfon and Conwy but did not penetrate inland. It thus remained a stronghold of Welsh culture, with a high proportion of Welsh-speaking people. The landscape is mostly mountains of old hard rock cut by Ice Age glaciers. It includes Snowdonia National Park (1951), which covers about half its total area. Tourism is economically important.

gymnasium In Germany, a state-maintained secondary school that pre¬ pares pupils for higher academic education. This type of nine-year school originated in Strasbourg in 1537. Though the usual graduation age is 19 or 20, pupils may terminate their studies at age 16 and enter a vocational school. Secondary or postprimary education is also provided by middle schools ( Mittelschulen ), teachers’ colleges, and commercial schools.

gymnastics Competitive sport in which individuals perform optional and prescribed acrobatic exercises, mostly on special apparatus, in order to demonstrate strength, balance, and body control. Part of the ancient Olym¬ pic Games, gymnastics was virtually reinvented in the modern era by the German Friedrich Jahn (1778-1852). The sport became part of the revived Olympics in 1896; women’s gymnastics was instituted in 1936. Men’s events include the horizontal bar, parallel bars, pommel horse, vaulting, rings, and floor exercises. Women’s events include the balance beam, uneven par¬ allel bars, vaulting, floor exercises, and rhythmic sportive gymnastics.

gymnosperm Vjim-no-.spornA Any woody plant that reproduces by means of a seed (or ovule) in direct contact with the environment, as opposed to an angiosperm, or flowering plant, whose seeds are enclosed by mature ovaries, or fruits. The four surviving gymnosperm divisions are Coniferophyta (conifers, the most widespread), Cycadophyta (cycads), Ginkgophyta (ginkgos), and Gnetophyta. More than half are trees; most of the rest are shrubs. Gymnosperms occur on all continents except Antarc¬

tica, and especially in the temperate latitudes. Those widely found in the Northern Hemisphere are junipers, firs, larches, spruces, and pines; in the Southern Hemisphere, podocarps ( Podocarpus ). The wood of gymno¬ sperms is often called softwood to differentiate it from the hardwood of angiosperms. Many timber and pulp trees are also planted as ornamentals. Gymnosperms also are a minor source of food; of essential oils used in soaps, air fresheners, disinfectants, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and per¬ fumes; of tannin, used for curing leather; and of turpentines. Gymnosperms were a major component in the vegetation that was compressed over mil¬ lions of years into coal. Most are evergreen. They produce male and female reproductive cells in separate male and female strobili (see cone).

gynecology See obstetrics and gynecology

gynecomastia V.gl-no-ko-'mas-te-oV Breast enlargement in a male. It usually involves only the nipple and nearby tissue of one breast. More rarely, the whole breast grows to a size normal in a female. True gyneco¬ mastia is related to an increase in estrogens. Testicular or pituitary-gland tumours commonly cause gynecomastia. Similar conditions (pseudogy¬ necomastia) are caused by excessive body fat, inflammatory disorders, granular lesions, or growth of tumours. Treatment involves hormone therapy, correction of the estrogen disorder, or tumour removal.

gypsum Vjip-S9m\ Common sulfate mineral, hydrated calcium sulfate (CaS0 4 -2H 2 0), of great commercial importance. Deposits occur in many countries, but the U.S., Canada, France, Italy, and Britain are among the leading producers. Crude gypsum is used as a fluxing agent, soil condi¬ tioner, filler in paper and textiles, and retarder in portland cement. About three-fourths of the total production is calcined for use as plaster of paris and as building materials in plaster, board products, and tiles and blocks.

Gypsy see Rom

gypsy moth Species (. Lymantria dispar) of tussock moth, a serious pest of trees. The European strain was introduced into eastern North America c. 1869. The heavy-bodied, weak-flying female is white with black zig¬ zag markings and a wingspan of 1.5-2 in. (38-50 mm). The smaller, darker male is a stronger flier. The voracious larvae can completely defo¬ liate deciduous trees within weeks. The larger Asian gypsy moth (wing¬ span of about 3.5 in., or 90 mm) is even more threatening because the female is a stronger flier, enabling it to spread quickly, and the larvae eat the leaves of both conifers and deciduous trees. It was introduced into northwestern North America in 1991. Sprayed insecticides remain the most effective means of control.

Gypsy Rose Lee See Gypsy Rose Lee

gyrfalcon Vjsr-.fal-konV Arctic bird of prey ( Falco rusticolus), the larg¬ est falcon. It may reach 2 ft (60 cm) in length. It breeds only in the North Pole region (and in some Central Asian highlands) but is sometimes seen at lower latitudes when food is scarce. It varies from pure white with black speckling to dark gray with barring. Its legs are fully feathered.

It hunts near the ground for hares, rodents, and birds of the tundra and seacoast. In traditional falconry, the gyrfalcon was the bird of kings.

gyroscope Vjl-re- I skop\ A mechanical or optical device used to maintain orientation during motion.

A mechanical gyroscope consists of a rapidly spinning wheel set in a framework that permits it to tilt freely in any direction or to rotate about any axis. The momentum of such a wheel causes it to retain its attitude when the framework is tilted. An optical gyroscope, laser or fibre, measures the inter¬ ference pattern generated by two light beams, traveling in opposite direc¬ tions within a mirrored ring or fibre loop, in order to detect very small changes in motion. Gyroscopes are used in compasses, in automatic pilots on ships and aircraft, in the steering mechanisms of torpedoes, in antiroll equipment on large ships, and in inertial guidance systems.

Gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus ) with prey.

SHELLY GROSSMAN/WOODFIN CAMP & ASSOCIATES

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

822 I H-R diagram ► habituation

H-R diagram See Hertzsprung-Russell diagram

Ha-erh-pin See Harbin

Ha Jin (b. Feb. 21, 1956, Jinzhou, China) Chinese-U.S. writer. He joined the army at age 14. He received a doctorate at Brandeis University in the U.S., where he remained. His book of stories Under the Red Flag (1997) concerns the Cultural Revolution. His novel Waiting (1999), about Chi¬ nese society, won the National Book Award, as well as the 2000 PEN/ Faulkner Award for fiction.

Haakon IV Haakonsson \ , ha-kon... , ha-k6ns- l s6n\ known as Haa¬ kon the Old (b. 1204, Norway—d. December, 1263, Orkney Islands) King of Norway (1217-63). After he became king, his mother answered doubts about his pater¬ nity (he was the illegitimate son of Haakon III) by passing through an ordeal of hot irons. He estab¬ lished Norwegian sovereignty over Iceland and Green¬ land (1261-62) and died defending the Hebrides and the Isle of Man from the Scots. He was a noted patron of the arts, and his reign began the “golden age” in medieval Norwegian history.

Haakon Vho-konX VII orig. Christian Frederik Carl Georg Valdemar Axel (b. Aug. 3, 1872,

Charlottenlund, Den.—d. Sept. 21, 1957, Oslo, Nor.)

King of Norway (1905-57). Bom prince Carl of Den¬ mark, he was offered the Norwegian crown after the restoration of the country’s independence in 1905. He accepted only after receiving approval by a plebi¬ scite, and he took the Old Norse name of Haa¬ kon. In World War II he fled to England after the German invasion of Norway (1940), and his refusal to abdicate inspired Norwegians to resist the German occupation.

Haarlem City (pop., 2001 est.: 148,377), western Netherlands. It lies along the Spaarne River, west of Amsterdam. By the 12th century it had become a fortified town and the residence of the counts of Holland. It was chartered in 1245 and incorporated in the United Netherlands in 1577. Its prosperity peaked in the 17th century, when it was a refuge for Hugue¬ nots and also an artistic centre. It is an industrial city and the centre for a tulip-growing region. Sites of interest include the 13th-century town hall and the 14th-century Great Church.

Haas \'has\, Mary R(osamond) (b. Jan. 12, 1910, Richmond, Ind., U.S.—d. May 17, 1996, Alameda county, Calif.) U.S. linguist. She stud¬ ied with Edward Sapir at Yale University, where her dissertation was on Tunica, a moribund American Indian language. She continued her field¬ work on, and comparative studies of, American Indian languages, espe¬ cially of the southeastern U.S., including the Natchez and Muskogean languages, for the rest of her life. She directed the Survey of California Indian Languages while on the University of California, Berkeley, faculty (1945-77). Many of her students have done invaluable descriptive work on nearly extinct languages.

Habakkuk Mio-'bak-ok, 'hab-9-,kuk\ (fl. 6th or 7th century bc) One of the 12 Minor Prophets of the Hebrew scriptures, traditional author of the book of Habakkuk. (His prophecy is part of a larger book, The Twelve, in the Jewish canon.) He was perhaps a Temple musician as well as a prophet. He denounced the sins of Judah, identifying their enemies the Chaldeans (Babylonians) as an instrument of God’s punishment, but also predicted the final triumph of righteousness.

habeas corpus Vha-be-os-'kor-posV Latin "you should have the body" In common law, any of several writs issued to bring a party before a court. The most important such writ ( habeas corpus ad subjiciendum ) is used to correct violations of personal liberty by directing judicial inquiry into the legality of a detention. Common grounds for relief include a conviction based on illegally obtained evidence, a denial of effective assistance of counsel, or a conviction by a jury that was improperly selected or impaneled. The writ may be used in civil matters to challenge a person’s custody of a child or the institutionalization of a person declared incompetent.

Haber Vha-borX, Fritz (b. Dec. 9, 1868, Breslau, Silesia, Prussia—d. Jan. 29, 1934, Basel, Switz.) German physical chemist. After early research in electrochemistry and thermodynamics, he developed, with his brother-in-law Carl Bosch (1874-1940), the Haber-Bosch process for mak¬

ing ammonia. Intensely patriotic, he directed Germany’s World War I chemical-warfare efforts, under which poison gas was introduced. His versatility and his wide-ranging and important work brought him fame and honour, and he was awarded a 1918 Nobel Prize. In 1933 the Nazi Party’s anti-Semitic policies led him to resign as head (since 1911) of the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute.

Haber-Bosch Vha-bor-'boshN process or Haber ammonia pro¬ cess or synthetic ammonia process First economically feasible method of directly synthesizing ammonia from hydrogen gas and atmo¬ spheric nitrogen. It was developed c. 1909 by Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch (1874-1940), prompted by rapidly increasing demand for nitrogen fertil¬ izer. It was the first industrial process to use high pressure (200-400 atmospheres) for a chemical reaction. A catalyst (usually iron) lets it take place at a moderate temperature (750-1,200 °F [400- 650 °C]), and immediate removal of ammonia as it is formed favours formation of more of it. Still the cheap¬ est means of industrial nitrogen fixation, it is a basic process of the chemical industry.

Habermas Vha-bor-.masV Jurgen (b. June 18, 1929) German philosopher associated with the Frank¬ furt school. He received his Ph.D. at the University of Bonn in 1954. He taught primarily at the Johann Wolf¬ gang Goethe University in Frankfurt, Ger.; he also directed the Max Planck Institute in Starnberg (1971— 80). In his Theory of Communicative Action (1985, 1987), he attempts to develop an account of truth that does not imply that truth is “absolute” or transcendent—i.e., valid for all people and all societies at all times. His “discourse” theory of truth is based on the observation that communication, unlike other forms of human action, is oriented toward “consent” rather than “success,” in that it aims to achieve mutual understanding rather to change or master some aspect of the world. The process of constructing such an under¬ standing, however, requires that each individual assume that the utterances of the other are for the most part “true,” and that the other can provide reasons to support the truth of his utterances should he be called upon to do so. The notion of truth is thus not a metaphysical fiction but a regu¬ lative ideal that makes communication possible.

Habima Vho-'be-moV or Habimah Hebrew "Stage" Hebrew theatre company. Organized in Poland in 1912, it was reestablished in 1917 in Moscow, where it was encouraged by Konstantin Stanislavsky. Habima’s production of The Dybbuk (1922) established it as a company of high artistic merit, and it became affiliated with the Moscow Art Theatre. After producing The Golem (1925), the group toured Europe and the U.S. In 1931 most of the group moved to Tel Aviv, where they presented Yiddish and biblical dramas and a repertory of Israeli, classical, and contempo¬ rary foreign plays. In 1958 it became the National Theatre of Israel.

habit In psychology, any regularly repeated behaviour that requires little or no thought and is learned rather than innate. Some habits (e.g., tying a shoelace) may conserve higher mental processes for more demanding tasks, but others promote behavioral inflexibility or are unhealthy. Five methods are commonly used to break unwanted habits: replacing the old response with a new one, repeating the behaviour until it becomes unpleasant, separating the individual from the stimulus that prompts the response, habituation, and punishment.

habitat Place where an organism or a community of organisms lives, including all living and nonliving factors or conditions of the surround¬ ing environment. A host organism inhabited by parasites is as much a habitat as a place on land such as a grove of trees or an aquatic locality such as a small pond. “Microhabitat” refers to the conditions and organ¬ isms in the immediate vicinity of a plant or animal.

habituation Reduction of an animal’s behavioral response to a stimu¬ lus, as a result of a lack of reinforcement during continual exposure to the stimulus. Habituation is usually considered a form of learning in which behaviours not needed are eliminated. It may be separated from most other forms of decreased response on the basis of permanence; the habituated animal either does not resume its earlier reaction to the stimulus after a period of no stimulus, or, if the normal reaction is resumed on reexpo¬ sure to the stimulus, it wanes more quickly than before. Vital responses (e.g., flight from a predator) cannot be truly habituated.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Habsburg ► Hadrian's Wall I 823

Habsburg Vhaps-.borgX dynasty or Hapsburg dynasty Royal German family, one of the chief dynasties of Europe from the 15th to the 20th century. As dukes, archdukes, and emperors, the Habsburgs ruled Austria from 1282 until 1918. They also controlled Hungary and Bohe¬ mia (1526-1918) and ruled Spain and the Spanish empire for almost two centuries (1504-06, 1516-1700). One of the earliest Habsburgs to rise to great power was Rudolf I, who became German king in 1273. Frederick IV, the Habsburg king of Germany, was crowned Holy Roman emperor as Frederick III in 1452, and Habsburgs continued to hold that title until 1806. Frederick’s son Maximilian I acquired the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Burgundy through marriage. The zenith of Habsburg power came in the 16th century under the emperor Charles V. See also Holy Roman Empire.

Ha bur River See KhabGr River

Hachiman \'ha-che-,man\ One of the most popular of Japan’s Shinto deities. Referred to as the god of war, he is believed to be the deification of Ojin, the 15th emperor. He is the patron of the Minamoto clan and of warriors in general. His first shrine was built in 725, and today half the Shinto shrines are dedicated to him. In the 8th century Hachiman was accepted as a Buddhist divinity; he is the guardian deity of the great Bud¬ dhist temple at Todai.

hacienda \,(h)a-se-'en-d3\ also called estancia (Argentina and Uruguay) or fazenda (Brazil) In Latin America, a large landed estate. The hacienda originated in the colonial period and survived into the 20th century. Labourers, ordinarily Indians, were theoretically free wage earners on haciendas, but in practice their employers, who controlled the local governments, were able to bind them to the land, primarily by keeping them in a state of perpetual indebtedness. By the 19th century, as much as half of Mexico’s rural population was entangled in the peonage system. Many haciendas were broken up by the Mexican Revolution.

Hackman, Gene in full Eugene Alden Hackman (b. Jan. 30, 1930, San Bernardino, Calif., U.S.) U.S. film actor. He won a leading role on Broadway in Any Wednesday (1964), which led to his film debut in Lilith (1964). He was praised for his performances in Bonnie and Clyde (1967) and I Never Sang for My Father (1970), and he attained star sta¬ tus in The French Connection (1971, Academy Award). Hackman was noted for his emotionally honest and natural portrayals of ordinary men. He won further acclaim for The Conversation (1974), Mississippi Burn¬ ing (1988), and Unforgiven (1992, Academy Award). Among his other films are Superman (1978) and its sequels (1980, 1987).

Hadar \'ha-dar\ remains Hominin fossils found since 1973 near the Awash River, about 185 mi (300 km) from Addis Ababa in Ethiopia. The remains—representing at least 30 hominin individuals, including “Lucy” and the “First Family” of 13 Australopithecus afarensis individuals who probably perished together—date from 3.4 to 2.9 million years ago. In the Middle Awash region just to the south, researchers have found some of the oldest known (c. 4 million years old) hominin fossils, and in the adjacent Gona area some of the oldest known (c. 2.3 million years old) stone tools have been identified. The lower valley of the Awash is a World Heritage site.

haddock Valuable North American food fish ( Melanogrammus aeglefi- nus, family Gadidae). A bottom-dweller that feeds on invertebrates and fishes, it resembles the cod, with its chin barbel (fleshy feeler) and two anal and three dorsal fins, but is distinguished by a dark (rather than light) lateral line and a distinctive dark spot on each shoulder. It is gray or brownish above, paler below. It grows to about 3 ft (90 cm) long and 25 lbs (11 kg).

Haddock [Melanogrammus aeglefinus)

PAINTING BY JEAN HELMER

Hades Vha-,dez\ Greek god of the underworld. He was also known as Pluto; his Roman equivalent was Dis. Hades was the son of the Titans Rhea and Cronus and the brother of Zeus and Poseidon. His queen was Persephone, the daughter of Demeter, whom he kidnapped from earth and carried off to the underworld. Stern and pitiless, unmoved by prayer or sacrifice, he presided over the trial and punishment of the wicked after death. His name was also sometimes used to designate the dwelling place of the dead, and it later became a synonym for Hell.

Hadid, Zaha (b. Oct. 31, 1950, Baghdad, Iraq) Iraqi-born British archi¬ tect. Hadid took a degree in mathematics at the American University of Beirut (1972) and trained at London’s Architectural Association. There she met the Dutch architect Rem Koolhaas, with whom she worked until she established her own firm in 1979. Her building designs—inspired by modernist movements including Cubism, Futurism, Suprematism, and Constructivism—were characterized by a sense of fragmentation, insta¬ bility, and movement. Best known of her built works are the Vitra Fire Station (1989-93) in Weil am Rhein, Ger., and the Lois & Richard Rosenthal Center for Contemporary Art (1997-2003) in Cincinnati, Ohio. The latter was the first American museum designed by a woman. In 2004 Hadid became the first woman to be awarded the Pritzker Architecture Prize.

Hadlth \ha-'deth\ In Islam, the tradition or collection of traditions attrib¬ uted to the Prophet Muhammad that include his sayings, acts, and approval or disapproval of things. Hadlth is revered by Muslims as a major source of religious law and moral guidance. It consists of two parts: the oral law itself and the isnad, or chain of authorities who passed it down to poster¬ ity. The various collections of Hadlth provide the major source for study¬ ing the development of Islam in its first few centuries.

Hadrian Vha-dre-on\ Latin Caesar Traianus Hadrianus Augustus orig. Publius Aelius Hadrianus (b. Jan. 24, ad 76, Ital- ica, Baetica?—d. July 10, 138,

Baiae, near Naples) Roman emperor (117-38), Trajan’s nephew and suc¬ cessor. After years of intrigue, he was adopted and named successor just before Trajan’s death. He executed his senatorial opponents, abandoned Trajan’s conquests in Armenia and Mesopotamia, and coped with unrest in Mauretania and Parthia. He traveled widely, and many of his accomplishments were related to his visits abroad. He began construction of Hadrian's Wall, and he visited and disciplined troops in Algeria and elsewhere. An admirer of Greek civilization, he completed the temple of Zeus in Athens and cre¬ ated a federation of Greek cities. He launched a building program at Del¬ phi and was initiated into the Eleusin- lAN mysteries. After his young companion Antinoiis drowned in the Nile (130), he grieved openly; he erected statues of the boy throughout the realm, and cults sprang up widely. He named Antoninus Pius his succes¬ sor, to be followed by Marcus Aurelius.

Hadrianopolis, Battle of See Battle of Adrianople

Hadrian's Villa Hadrian’s country residence, built (c. ad 125-34) at Tivoli near Rome. A sumptuous imperial complex with parks and gardens on a grand scale, it included baths, libraries, sculpture gardens, theaters, alfresco dining areas, pavilions, and private suites. The buildings, which covered about 7 sq mi (18 sq km), were reproductions of celebrated struc¬ tures the emperor had seen in his travels. The uneven terrain made nec¬ essary large flights of steps and terraces. Significant portions have survived to modem times.

Hadrian's Wall Continuous Roman defensive barrier. Begun by Hadrian in ad 122, the wall guarded the northwestern frontier of the prov¬ ince of Britain from barbarian (particularly Celtic) invaders. It extended 73 mi (118 km) from coast to coast, from Wallsend (Segedunum) to Bow- ness. It had towers, gates, and forts at regular intervals; a ditch fronted it

Hadrian, bust in the National Archaeo¬ logical Museum, Naples.

ANDERSON—AUNARI/ART RESOURCE, NEW YORK

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

824 I hadron ► Haggard

and an earthwork (the vallum ) ran behind it. It was briefly abandoned in favour of the Antonine Wall, but it returned to use until c. 410. Portions remain visible today.

hadron \'ha-,dran\ Any of the subatomic particles that are built from quarks and thus interact via the strong force. The hadrons fall into two groups: mesons and baryons. Except for protons and neutrons, which are bound in nuclei, all hadrons have short lives and are produced in high- energy collision of subatomic particles. All hadrons are subject to gravi¬ tation; charged hadrons are subject to electromagnetic forces. Some hadrons break up by way of the weak force (as in radioactive decay); oth¬ ers decay via the strong and electromagnetic forces.

openly with British forces and with the forces of the Palestinian Arabs and their allies. When Israel became a state in 1948, Haganah became the core of its national army. See also Irgun Zvai Leumi.

Hagatna or Agana \a-'gan-ya\ Town (pop., 2000: 1,122), capital of Guam. It lies on Guam’s western coast on Hagatna Bay. It had a popu¬ lation of 10,000 in 1940, when it was completely destroyed in World War II, and it has come back slowly. Nearby Latte Stone Park features pillars (latte stones) that supported houses of the prehistoric Latte culture.

Haeckel Vhe-kolX, Ernst (Heinrich Philipp August) (b. Feb. 16, 1834, Potsdam, Prussia—d. Aug. 9,

1919, Jena, Ger.) German zoologist and evolutionist. After receiving a degree in medicine in 1857, he obtained a doctorate in zoology from the University of Jena, and from 1862 to 1909 he taught zoology at Jena.

His work concentrated on diverse marine invertebrates. Influenced by Charles Darwin, Haeckel saw evolu¬ tion as the basis for an explanation of all nature and the rationale of a philo¬ sophical approach. He attempted to create the first genealogical tree of the entire animal kingdom. He pro¬ posed that each species illustrates its evolutionary history in its embryo- logical development (“Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny”). Through his theories of the evolution of humans, he brought attention to important biological questions.

Through his numerous books, he was Ernst Haeckel, c. 1870.

an influential popularizer of evolu- the bettmann archive _

tionary theory.

Haemophilus Uie-'ma-fo-losX Genus of tiny rod-shaped bacteria. All are strict parasites occurring in the respiratory tracts of warm-blooded animals, including humans, and in certain cold-blooded animals. Some require oxygen, others do not. H. influenzae causes severe bacterial dis¬ eases in young children, including meningitis, otitis, and pneumonia. Another species of Haemophilus causes a sexually transmitted disease in humans known as chancroid, or soft chancre. Yet another causes second¬ ary infection in persons with influenza.

Hafez Vh6-fez\ or Hafiz \'ho-fiz\ orig. Muhammad Shams

al-DIn Hafiz (b. 132*5/26, Shiraz, Iran—d. 1389/90, Shiraz) Persian poet. The recipient of a traditional religious education ( hafiz. designates someone who has learned the Qur’an by heart), he served as court poet to several rulers of Shiraz. He perfected the ghazel as a verse form of 6-15 couplets linked by unity of subject and symbolism rather than by a logical sequence of ideas. His poems are notable for their simple, often colloquial, musical language and his unaffected use of homely images and proverbial expressions. His most famous work is his Divan. He is regarded as one of the greatest Persian lyric poets.

Hafsid Vhaf-sodV dynasty (c. 13th-16th century) Berber dynasty. It was founded by a governor of the Almohad dynasty, Abu Zakariyya’ Yahya, in north-central Africa c. 1229. His son Mustansir (r. 1249-77) enlarged the empire to its peak of power and prestige. It had trade relations with Italian, Spanish, and Provencal communities despite the fact that it also ran pirate operations in the Mediterranean Sea. It resisted periodic inva¬ sions by the Marinid dynasty. Dynastic struggles after 1452 weakened the Hafsids. Spanish and Turkish forces later competed for the Hafsid terri¬ tory, and the Ottoman Empire incorporated its land into a province in 1574.

Haganah \ha-ga-'na\ (1920^-8) Zionist military organization. It was organized to combat the attacks of Palestinian Arabs on Jewish settle¬ ments, and it effectively defended them despite being outlawed by the British authorities and being poorly armed. Through World War II (1939— 45) its activities were moderate by contrast with more extreme Zionist militias, but it turned to terrorism after the war when the British refused to permit unlimited Jewish immigration to Palestine. In 1947 it clashed

Haggadah or Haggada \,ha-ga-'da, ho-'ga-doV In Judaism, the text that guides the performance of ritual acts and prayers at the Seder dinner celebrating Passover. The Haggadah retells the story of Exodus, offering commentaries that provide a religious philosophy of Jewish history and supplying answers to the traditional questions asked by children at the beginning of the Seder. More broadly, the term Haggadah can refer to the part of rabbinical literature not concerned with the law (e.g., stories, parables, legends, history, and astronomy).

Haggai Vhag-e-,1, 'hag-,I\ (fl. 6th century bc) One of the 12 Minor Proph¬ ets of the Hebrew scriptures, traditional author of the book of Haggai. (His prophecy is part of a larger book, The Twelve, in the Jewish canon.) Born during the Babylonian Exile, he returned to Israel when it ended and helped mobilize the Jewish community to rebuild the Temple of Jerusa¬ lem. His book consists of four prophecies delivered in 521 bc. He attributes the economic distress of the returned exiles to their delay in reconstruct¬ ing the Temple and promises that the new house of God will be greater than the first.

Haggard, Sir H(enry) Rider (b. June 22, 1856, Bradenham, Nor¬ folk, Eng.—d. May 14, 1925, London) British novelist. After holding a series of official posts in South Africa (1875-81), he began writing sto¬ ries set in Africa. Of his 34 colourful adventure novels, the best-known is King Solomon’s Mines (1885); others include She (1887), Allan Qua- termain (1887), Cleopatra (1889), and Ayesha (1905). Also a farmer, he wrote A Farmer’s Year (1899) and Rural England (2 vol., 1902), and he was knighted in 1912 for his work on agricultural commissions.

Haggard, Merle (Ronald) (b. April 6, 1937, Bakersfield, Calif., U.S.) U.S. country-music singer and songwriter. Poverty marked Hag¬ gard’s childhood, and in his teens he began a career of theft and burglary. After his release from San Quentin prison in 1960, he returned to Bakers¬ field and became a professional musician. He was soon producing hit recordings regularly, including “Mama Tried,” “The Bottle Let Me Down,” “The Fightin’ Side of Me,” “Okie from Muskogee” (controver¬ sial for its apparent attack on hippies), and later hit duets with George Jones and Willie Nelson.

Walter Hagen, 1936

hagfish Any of about 30 species of primitive jawless fishes in two fami¬ lies of the class Agnatha. The Myx- inidae are found in every ocean; the Eptatretidae are found everywhere but the North Atlantic. Hagfishes are eel-like, scaleless, and soft-skinned and have paired thick barbels on the end of the snout. Species grow to 16-32 in. (40-80 cm) long. They have a cartilaginous skeleton. The mouth is a slitlike, sucking opening with homy teeth. Found in cold seawater, to depths of over 4,000 ft (1,200 m), they habitually lie buried in burrows on soft bottoms. See also lamprey.

Hagen, Walter (Charles) (b.

U.S.—d. Oct. 5, 1969, Traverse City, Mich.) U.S. golfer. A caddie from the age of 9, Hagen was 21 when he won his first major tournament. He won numerous important championships from the mid 1910s to the late 1920s and captained the U.S. Ryder Cup team for 1927-37. A colourful, self- confident man, he insisted that pro¬ fessional golfers be treated as gentlemen (not always previously the case). Among his well-known remarks is the observation that, in life, one should take the time to “stop and smell the roses.”

Dec. 21, 1892, Rochester, N.Y.,

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Hagia Sophia ► Haile Selassie I 825

Hagia Sophia Vha-ge-o-so-'fe-o, 'ha-je-o-so-'fe-sV (Greek: “Holy Wis¬ dom”) Church in Istanbul, later a mosque and now a museum. It is the masterpiece of Byzantine architecture. Designed under Justinian I by Anthe¬ mius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus, the original building was com¬ pleted in less than six years (ad 532-37). It combined a longitudinal basilica and a centralized building in a wholly original manner, with a huge main dome (rebuilt 563) supported on pendentives and semidomes on either side. In plan it is almost square. There are three aisles separated by col¬ umns with galleries above and great marble piers rising up to support the dome. The walls above the galleries, as well as the base of the dome, are pierced by windows, whose light obscures the supports, giving the impres¬ sion that the canopy floats on air.

hagiography V.ha-ge-'a-gro-fe, ,ha-je-'a-gr3-fe\ Literature describing the lives of the saints. Christian hagiography includes stories of saintly monks, bishops, princes, and virgins, with accounts of their martyrdom and of the miracles connected with their relics, tombs, icons, or statues. Written as early as the 2nd century and popular during the Middle Ages, hagiographies focus on lives of individual saints or on stories of a class of saints (e.g., martyrs).

Hague \'hag\, The Dutch 's-Gravenhage \,skrav- 3 n-'ha-k9\ or Den Haag \den-'hak\ City (pop., 2005 est.: 468,421), seat of government of The Netherlands. Located 4 mi (6 km) from the North Sea, it is the administrative capital of The Netherlands, home to its court and govern¬ ment, though Amsterdam is the official capital. The counts of Holland built a castle at The Hague in 1248. The complex now forms the Binnenhof in the old quarter of the city, which became the seat of the Dutch govern¬ ment in 1585. The city grew rapidly in the 19th and 20th centuries. A centre of government, international law, and corporate administration, most of its businesses are engaged in trade, banking, and insurance. The International Court of Justice is housed in the Peace Palace (1913). The city is filled with notable architecture, much of which survived despite the heavy damage inflicted on the city during the German occupation in World War II.

Hague Conventions Series of international agreements signed at The Hague (1899, 1907). The first conference was requested by Russia to dis¬ cuss rules to limit warfare and attempt arms limitations. Twenty-six coun¬ tries attended and approved several proposed conventions, including prohibition of the use of asphyxiating gases (not renewed in 1907) and creation of a Permanent Court of Arbitration. The 1907 meeting, called by Theodore Roosevelt, was attended by 44 countries and also had arms limitation as a goal, which again went unmet. An agreement to reconvene in eight years confirmed the principle that international conferences were the best way to handle international problems. Though World War I pre¬ vented the next meeting from taking place, the conferences influenced creation of the League of Nations and the United Nations. See also Geneva Conventions.

Hahn, Otto (b. March 8, 1879, Frankfurt am Main, Ger.—d. July 28, 1968, Gottingen, W.Ger.) German physical chemist. He worked at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry (1912—44), serving as director from 1928. With Lise Meitner he discovered several radioelements. In 1938, with Meitner and Fritz Strassmann (1902-80), he found the first chemi¬ cal evidence of nuclear-fission products, created when they bombarded uranium with neutrons. For his discovery of nuclear fission, Hahn was awarded a 1944 Nobel Prize. He became president of the Max Planck Society; a respected public figure, he spoke out strongly against further development of nuclear weapons. In 1966 he shared the Enrico Fermi Award with Meitner and Strassmann.

Hahnemann Vha-no-monV, (Christian Friedrich) Samuel (b.

April 10, 1755, Meissen, Saxony—d. July 2, 1843, Paris, Fr.) German physician, founder of homeopathy. Struck by the similarity of the symp¬ toms quinine produced in the healthy body to those of the disorders it cured, he theorized that “likes are cured by likes” and proposed his doc¬ trine that substances used this way are most effective in small doses. His chief work, Organon of Rational Medicine (1810), expounds his system. His Pure Pharmacology (6 vol., 1811) details the symptoms produced by testing a large number of drugs on healthy subjects.

Hai River \'hl\ River, Hebei province, China. A short part of the Bai River, the name Hai properly belongs only to the stream from Tianjin that flows into the Bo Hai some 43 mi (70 km) away. It is, however, also used as the general name for the system of tributary streams that discharge into the sea through this channel. Because of the streams’ heavy inflow, the

Hai River often floods; in 1939 Tianjin was submerged for a month. The river is now the site of a comprehensive water-control project.

Haida \'hI-do\ Northwest Coast Indian people of the Queen Charlotte Islands (Haida Gwaii), B.C., Can., and southern Prince of Wales Island, Alaska, U.S. Their language, also called Haida, belongs to the Na-Dene language family. Each child born was assigned at birth to one of two major tribal divisions, or moieties—the Raven and the Eagle—based on mater¬ nal descent. Marriages between two members of the same moiety were taboo. Each moiety consisted of lineages that owned rights to land, had their own chiefs, waged war, held ceremonies such as POTLATCHes, and functioned as economically independent units. Haida economy was based on fishing and hunting. The Haida continue to be known for their crafts¬ manship and their art, which includes the carving of totem poles. At the turn of the 21st century, they numbered about 3,500.

Haidarabad See Hyderabad

Haifa \'hI-fo\ ancient Sycaminum City (pop., 2001: 270,500) and chief port, northwestern Israel. Located on the Bay of Haifa overlooking the Mediterranean Sea, it is first mentioned in the Talmud (c. 1st—4th cen¬ tury ad). Conquered in 1100 by Christian Crusaders, it was taken by Napoleon I in 1799 and by Egyptian Gen. Ibrahim Pasha in 1839. Occu¬ pied by British forces in 1918, it became part of mandated Palestine. It came under Israeli control in 1948, during the first Arab-Israeu war. Situ¬ ated on the northern slopes of Mount Carmel, with the exception of its port section on the bay, it is a tourist resort and a commercial centre. Haifa is the world headquarters of the Baha’i faith.

Haig, Douglas, 1 st Earl (b. June 19, 1861, Edinburgh, Scot.—d. Jan. 29, 1928, London, Eng.) British general in World War I. A career army officer, he was promoted to general in 1914 and led British forces in northern France. In 1915 he succeeded John French as commander in chief of the British Expeditionary Force. Advocating a strategy of attrition, he was criticized for the enormous British losses at the Battles of the Somme (1916) and Ypres (1917). He was promoted to field marshal in 1916. In 1918 he secured the appointment of Ferdinand Foch as commander of the Allied forces; the two worked well together, and after helping stop the last German offensive, Haig led the victorious Allied assault in August

haiku Vhl-.kiA Unrhymed Japanese poetic form consisting of 17 syl¬ lables arranged in three lines containing five, seven, and five syllables, respectively. Haiku expresses much and suggests more in the fewest pos¬ sible words. The form gained distinction in the 17th century, when Basho elevated it to a highly refined art. It remains Japan’s most popular poetic form. The Imagist poets (1912-30) and others have imitated the form in English and other languages.

hail Precipitation of balls or pieces of ice with a diameter of 0.2-4 in. (5 mm-10 cm). Small hail (also called sleet, or ice pellets) has a diam¬ eter of less than 0.2 in. Hail can be extremely destructive to buildings and crops; if it is large enough, it may be dangerous to animals. Hailstones 6 in. (15 cm) in diameter have fallen during storms in the U.S. Midwest. Hailstorms are most common in the middle latitudes and usually last around 15 minutes. They ordinarily occur in middle to late afternoon and may accompany thunderstorms.

Hail Mary Latin Ave Maria Principal Roman Catholic prayer addressed to the Virgin Mary. It begins with the greetings spoken to Mary by the Archangel Gabriel and by her cousin Elizabeth in the Gospel of Luke: “Hail Mary, full of grace, the Lord is with thee. Blessed art thou among women and blessed is the fruit of thy womb, Jesus.” A closing petition, “Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners, now and at the hour of our death,” came into general use by the end of the 14th century. Churchgoers who attend confession are often asked to repeat the prayer as penance for sins.

Haile Mariam, Mengistu See Mengistu Haile Mariam

Haile Selassie VhI-le-s9-Tas-e\ orig. Tafari Makonnen (b. July 23, 1892, near Harer, Eth.—d. Aug. 26, 1975, Addis Ababa) Emperor of Ethiopia (1930-74). Tafari was a son of Ras Makonnen, a chief adviser to Emperor Menilek II. After Menilek’s daughter, Zauditu, became empress (1917), Ras (Prince) Tafari, who had married Menilek’s great- granddaughter, was named regent and heir apparent to the throne. When Zauditu died in 1930, Tafari took the name of Haile Selassie (“Might of the Trinity”) to mark his imperial status. As emperor he sought to mod-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

826 I Hainan ► Haitink

emize his country and steer it into the mainstream of African politics.

He brought Ethiopia into the League of Nations and the UN and made Addis Ababa the centre for the Organization of African Unity (now the African Union). Through most of his reign he remained popular among the majority Christian population.

He was deposed in 1974 in a mili¬ tary coup by Mengistu Haile Mariam and kept under house arrest. He was apparently killed by his captors.

Haile Selassie was regarded as the Messiah of the African race by the Rastafarian movement.

Hainan \'hl-'nan\ or Hai-nan

Province (pop., 2002 est.: 8,030,000) and island of China. With an area of 13,200 sq mi (34,300 sq km), the province also includes the Paracel and Spratly islands. It is located in the South China Sea, separated from Guangdong province by a narrow strait. For centuries part of Guang¬ dong, Hainan became a separate province in 1988, the southernmost prov¬ ince of China and the smallest. Its capital is Haikou. It was under Chinese rule since the 2nd century bc but was not closely controlled until the Tang dynasty (ad 618-907). Chinese began settling the island in the 16th— 17th centuries, gradually forcing the indigenous peoples into the interior. Hainan was occupied by the Japanese (1939^15), and it came under com¬ munist control in 1950. Although the government has tried to stimulate economic development there, it is one of China’s less prosperous regions.

Hainaut \a-'no\ Flemish Henegouwen \ , ha-n9-,kau-3\ Medieval county, now a province in southwestern Belgium. The area was once part of the county of Hainaut, which was larger than the modern province, and was bounded by Flanders on the north. United with Flanders several times from the 11th to the 13 th century, it was later ruled by the house of Avesnes, the Wittelsbachs, the Burgundians, and finally the Habsburgs. Gradually annexed to France in the 17th and 18th centuries, part of the county stayed with France (now the Nord department ), and the rest passed to The Netherlands in 1814 and to Belgium in 1831. It is a well-farmed region with varied agriculture; animals, including Belgian draft horses, are raised. There are more than 100 castles in Hainaut.

Haiphong Vhl-'foqX Seaport city (pop., 2004 est.: 591,100), northern Vietnam. Situated in the Red River delta, about 10 mi (16 km) from the Gulf of Tonkin, it is the country’s third largest city and serves as the port of the capital, Hanoi, about 50 mi (80 km) to the west. Established in 1874, it developed commercially as a port and as the terminus of a railway. It became a leading industrial centre, and after 1954 many new plants were built there with aid given by Soviet-bloc countries and by China. It sus¬ tained heavy damage from U.S. bombing during the Vietnam War but was subsequently rebuilt.

hair Threadlike outgrowths of the skin. Babies shed a layer of downy, slender hairs (lanugo) before or just after birth. The fine, short, unpig- mented hairs (vellus) then grow. Starting at puberty, terminal hair, longer, coarser, and more pigmented, develops in the armpits, crotch, sometimes on parts of the trunk and limbs, and, in males, on the face. Scalp hair, eyebrows, and eyelashes are different types. The number of scalp hairs, which grow about 0.5 in. (13 mm) per month, averages 100,000-150,000. The hair shaft (above the skin) is dead tissue, composed of keratin. Only a few growing cells at the base of the root are alive. Hair is formed by cell division at the base of the follicle (a tiny pocket in the skin), part of a cycle of growing, resting, and falling out. Vellus lasts about four months, scalp hairs three to five years.

hairstreak Any butterfly in the subfamily Theclinae (family Lycae- nidae), sometimes known as gossamer-winged butterflies. Adults are deli¬ cate and have a 0.75-1.5-in. (18-38-mm) wingspan. Rapid fliers, hairstreaks usually have iridescent wings and are typically brown or gray with delicate stripes on the bottoms of the wings. Larvae are short, broad, and sluglike. Some species eat plants, many are cannibals, and still oth¬

ers secrete honey dew, a sweet by-product of digestion that attracts ants. Found in open areas on every continent, hairstreaks are most abundant in the New World tropics.

hairworm See horsehair worm

Haiti \'ha-te\ officially Republic of Haiti Country in the West Indies, occupying the western third of the island of Hispaniola, which it shares with the Dominican Republic to the east. Area: 10,695 sq mi (27,700 sq

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km). Population (2005 est.): 8,528,000.

Capital: Port-au-Prince. Almost the entire population is of African or African- European descent. Languages: Haitian Cre¬ ole, French (both official). Religions:

Christianity (mainly Roman Catholic; also Protestant); also Vodou. Cur¬ rency: gourde. Most of the land is mountainous, about two-thirds above 1,600 ft (490 m) in elevation. The mountain ranges alternate with fertile but overpopulated lowlands. Haiti’s tropical climate is modified by the moun¬ tains and subject to periodic droughts and hurricanes. Its longest river is the Artibonite. The poorest country in the Americas, Haiti has a developing market economy based in large part on agriculture and light industries; cof¬ fee is the main cash crop. It is a multiparty republic with two legislative houses; the chief of state is the president, and the head of government is the prime minister. For early history, see Hispaniola. Haiti gained its indepen¬ dence in 1804, after former slaves led by Toussaint-Louverture in the 1790s and by Jean-Jacques Dessalines in 1803 rebelled against French rule. The new republic encompassed the entire island of Hispaniola, but the eastern portion of the island was restored to Spain in 1809. It was reunited under Haitian Pres. Jean-Pierre Boyer (1818-43); after his overthrow the eastern portion revolted and formed the Dominican Republic. Haiti’s government was marked by instability, with frequent coups and assassinations. It was occupied by the U.S. in 1915-34. In 1957 the dictator Francois ("Papa Doc") Duvalier came to power. Despite economic decline and civil unrest, Duvalier ruled until his death in 1971. He was succeeded by his son, Jean- Claude (“Baby Doc”) Duvalier, who was forced into exile in 1986. Haiti’s first free presidential elections, held in 1990, were won by Jean-Bertrand Aristide. He was deposed by a military coup in 1991, after which tens of thousands of Haitians attempted to flee to the U.S. in small boats. When the military government stepped down in 1994, Aristide returned from exile and resumed the presidency. His associate Rene Preval replaced him in 1995, and in 2000 Aristide reclaimed the presidency, only to be driven from office and out of the country in 2004 as economic and political instability continued to plague Haiti.

Haitink \'hl-tiqk\, Bernard (Johann Hermann) (b. March 4, 1929, Amsterdam, Neth.) Dutch conductor. Originally a violinist, he first

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

hajj ► Haldane I 827

performed with the Concertgebouw Orchestra in 1956. From 1961 to 1988 he was its permanent conductor, and he left a wide-ranging recorded legacy. He also had a noteworthy opera career as head of the Glynde- bourne (1978-88) and Co vent Garden (from 1988) operas.

hajj Yhaj\ In Islam, the pilgrimage to Mecca required of all Muslims at least once in their lifetime, provided they are physically and financially able. It is one of the Five Pillars of Islam. By tradition the pilgrimage is undertaken between the 7th and 12th days of the last month of the Islamic year. At Mecca, the pilgrims are obliged to perform several rituals, includ¬ ing walking seven times around the Ka'bah shrine. They must also visit holy places outside Mecca and sacrifice an animal in honor of Abraham’s near-sacrifice of Isaac. In conclusion, they return to Mecca and perform a farewell circling of the shrine.

Hajjaj \ka-'jaj\ (ibn Yusuf al-ThaqafF), al- (b. c. 661, Al-Ta’if, Hejaz, Arabian Peninsula—d. June 714, Al-Wasit, Iraq) Provincial gov¬ ernor under the Umayyad dynasty (661-750), first in Mecca and then in Iraq. He ruthlessly suppressed a rebellion in Mecca in 692. Two years later he was named governor of Iraq, where his willingness to use brute force to suppress insurrection made him a legend. Despite his inclination to use the sword, he was known for promoting prosperity and security in Iraq, keeping the irrigation system working, and improving agricultural production. He adopted a new, purely Arab currency.

hake Any of several large marine fishes (genus Merluccius) usually considered part of the cod family. Hakes are elongated, large-headed fishes with large, sharp teeth, two dorsal fins (one notched), and a notched anal fin. They are swift carnivores and, though somewhat soft-fleshed, are used as food. Hakes are found throughout the Atlantic, in the eastern Pacific, and along New Zealand. In eastern North America, the name is also applied to several related marine fishes (genus Urophycis ), includ¬ ing the economically important white hake and red hake.

PAINTING BY JEAN HELMER

Hakka \'hak-'ka\ Ethnic group of China. Their name is Cantonese for “guest people” and is indicative of their unassimilated status in the areas of southern China where they live. In the 18th—19th centuries they often feuded with their non-Hakka neighbours over land. The Taiping Rebellion (1850-64) initially grew out of these local conflicts; after it, many Hakka emigrated to Taiwan and the Malay Peninsula.

Hakluyt \'hak-,lut\, Richard (b. c. 1552, London, Eng.?—d. Nov. 23, 1616, England) British geographer. A clergyman, he gave public lectures and became the first professor of modern geography at the University of Oxford. He became acquainted with the most important sea captains and merchants of England and took on the role of publicist for explorers. In 1583 he was sent to Paris as chaplain to the English ambassador and also served as an intelligence officer, collecting information on the Canadian fur trade and on other overseas enterprises. His major publication, The principcill Navigations, Voiages and Discoveries of the English nation (1589), described the early English voyages to North America. After 1600 he advised Elizabeth I on colonial affairs, and in 1612 he became a charter member of the Northwest Passage Company.

Hakuin \'ha-ku-,eq\ or Hakuin Ekaku Ve-ka-ku\ (b. Jan. 19, 1686, Hara Suruga province, Japan—d. Jan. 18, 1769, Hara) Japanese priest and artist who helped revive the Rinzai Zen sect. After joining the sect c. 1700, he became an itinerant monk. He lived in poverty at a time when many priests sought advancement under the Tokugawa shogunate, and he attracted a large following that provided a new foundation for Rinzai Zen. Hakuin taught that direct knowledge of truth is open to all people and that a moral life must follow from religious belief. He used koans to aid medi¬ tation and invented the well-known paradox of contemplating the sound of one hand clapping. He is also known as an artist and calligrapher.

hal In Sufism, a state of mind reached from time to time by mystics dur¬ ing their journey toward God. The ahwal (plural of hal) are God-given graces that appear when a soul is purified of its attachments to the mate¬ rial world. Unlike maqams, which are based on merit, ahwal cannot be acquired or retained through an individual’s own efforts; the Sufi can only wait patiently for their arrival, which fills him with spiritual joy and renews his desire to seek God. The ahwal most often referred to are those of watching, nearness, ecstasy, intoxication, sobriety, and intimacy.

Halab See Aleppo

Halakhah or Halakha \,ha-la-'ka, ha-'la-kaX In Judaism, all laws and ordinances evolved since biblical times to regulate worship and the daily lives of the Jewish people. In contrast to the laws written in the Torah, the Halakhah represents an oral tradition. These laws were passed from generation to generation before being written down in the lst-3rd cen¬ tury ad in the compilation called the Mishna, which became the founda¬ tion of the Talmud.

Halas Vha-bs\, George (Stanley) (b. Feb. 2, 1895, Chicago, Ill., U.S.—d. Oct. 31, 1983, Chicago) U.S. gridiron football coach and team owner. He graduated from the University of Illinois and briefly played baseball for the New York Yankees. In 1920 he helped found the National Football League and established the team that would become the Chicago Bears. He served as the Bears’ coach for most of the next 50 years (1920- 30, 1933—43, 1946-55, 1958-67). He is noted for having revived the T-formation with a man in motion, variations of which are still in use today. Under his coaching, the Bears won seven league championships and four division titles.

halberd Weapon consisting of an ax blade and a sharp spike mounted on the end of a long staff. Usually about 5-6 ft (1.5-2 m) long, it was an important weapon in middle Europe in the 15th and early 16th centuries. It enabled a foot soldier to contend with an armoured man on horseback; the spiked head kept the rider at a distance, and the ax blade could strike a heavy cleaving blow. Firearms and the declining use of armour made the halberd obsolete.

Haldane Vh61-,dan\, J(ohn) B(urdon) S(anderson) (b. Nov. 5, 1892, Oxford, Oxfordshire, Eng.—d.

Dec. 1, 1964, Bhubaneswar, India)

British geneticist. Son of John Scott Haldane, he began studying science as his father’s assistant at age eight and later received his M.A. from Oxford. Haldane, R. A. Fisher, and Sewall Wright, in separate math¬ ematical arguments based on analy¬ ses of mutation rates, population size, patterns of reproduction, and other factors, related Charles Darwin’s evolutionary theory and Gregor Mendel’s concepts of heredity.

Haldane also contributed to the theory of enzyme action and to stud¬ ies in human physiology.

Haldane, John Scott (b. May 3,

1860, Edinburgh, Scot.—d. March 14/15, 1936, Oxford, Oxfordshire,

Eng.) British physiologist and phi¬ losopher. He developed procedures for studying the physiology of breathing and of the blood and devices for measuring hemoglobin and for analyzing blood gas and mixtures of gases. He discovered that breathing is regulated in large part by the effect of the amount of carbon dioxide in the blood on the brain’s respiratory centre. He studied the effects of low air pressure, investigated the action of gases in mine suffocations and explosions (an important contribution to mine safety), and developed a staged decompression method for ascent from deep-sea dives. He also tried to clarify the philosophical basis of biology. He was the brother of Richard Burdon Haldane and the father of J.B.S. Haldane.

Haldane (of Cloane), Richard Burdon, 1st Viscount (b. July 30, 1856, Edinburgh, Scot.—d. Aug. 19, 1928, Cloan, Perthshire) Scot¬ tish lawyer and statesman. As British secretary of state for war (1905- 12), he instituted important military reforms; the speedy mobilization of

J.B.S. Haldane

BASSANO AND VANDYK STUDIOS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

828 I Haldeman ► Haliburton

British forces in 1914 was largely due to his planning. He was lord chan¬ cellor (1912-15)inH.H. Asquith’s government and again (1924) in James Ramsay MacDonald’s Labour Party government.

Haldeman Vhol-do-monX, H(arry) R(obbins) (b. Oct. 27, 1926, Los Angeles, Calif., U.S.—d. Nov. 12, 1993, Santa Barbara, Calif.) U.S. White House aide. An advertising executive in Los Angeles (1949-68), he man¬ aged several of the campaigns of Richard Nixon, including Nixon’s 1968 presidential campaign. Named White House chief of staff, he became known as the “Iron Chancellor” for his efficient management of the White House and his close control of access to the president. Along with John D. Ehrlichman, he was one of Nixon’s closest advisers. He participated in the cover-up of involvement by White House officials in the Watergate break-in (see Watergate scandal) and helped carry out other “dirty tricks” during the 1972 campaign. Forced to resign in 1973, he was tried and convicted in 1975 for conspiracy, perjury, and obstruction of justice; he served 18 months in prison.

Hale, George E(llery) (b. June 29, 1868, Chicago, Ill.—d. Feb. 21, 1938, Pasadena, Calif., U.S.) U.S. astronomer. He studied at Harvard and in Berlin. In 1888 he organized the Kenwood Observatory in Chicago. In 1892 he joined the faculty of the University of Chicago and began orga¬ nizing the Yerkes Observatory, of which he was director until 1904; there he built the 40-in. (1-m) refracting telescope that remains the largest of its type in the world. He established the Astrophysical Journal in 1895. In 1904 he organized the Mount Wilson Observatory and was its director until 1923. There he built solar apparatus of great power as well as the huge 60-in. (1.5-m) and 100-in. (2.5-m) reflecting telescopes. In 1928 he began work on a 200-in. (5-m) reflecting telescope at Caltech’s Palomar Obser¬ vatory; completed in 1948, it was named in his honour. As a researcher, he is known particularly for his discovery of magnetic fields in sunspots.

Hale, John Parker (b. March 31, 1806, Rochester, N.H., U.S.—d. Nov. 19, 1873, Dover, N.H.) U.S. politician and reformer. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1843—45), where he achieved promi¬ nence as an opponent of slavery. In the U.S. Senate (1847-53, 1855-65), he sponsored a bill abolishing flogging in the navy. In 1852 he was the unsuccessful presidential candidate of the Free Soil Party. He returned to the Senate as a Republican and became a leader of that party. He later served as U.S. minister to Spain (1865-69).

Hale, Sir Matthew (b. Nov. 1, 1609, Alderley, Gloucestershire, Eng.—d. Dec. 25, 1676, Alderley) British legal scholar. Orphaned at age 5, he planned to become a minister but ultimately chose the study of law. He defended Archbishop William Laud and other Royalists during the English Civil Wars (1642-51). As a justice of the Court of Common Pleas (1654-58) and a member of Parliament (1654-60), he played a major role in reforming the legal system and promoting the restoration of Charles II. He later became chief baron of the Exchequer (1660) and chief justice of the King’s Bench (1671-76). One of the greatest scholars of the history of English common law, he is best known for his History of the Pleas of the Crown (published 1736).

Hale, Nathan (b. June 6, 1755, Coventry, Conn.—d. Sept. 22, 1776, Manhattan Island, N.Y., U.S.) American Revolutionary officer. After graduating from Yale University (1773), he became a schoolteacher. In 1775 he joined a Connecticut regiment and took part in the siege of Bos¬ ton. Made a captain in 1776, he helped capture a British provision sloop on Long Island. Volunteering for spy duty, he penetrated British lines but was captured while returning and hanged without trial the next day at the age of 21. His last words reportedly were, “I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country,” a remark similar to one made in Joseph Addison’s play Cato.

Hale, Sarah Josepha orig. Sarah Josepha Buell (b. Oct. 24, 1788, Newport, N.H., U.S.—d. April 30, 1879, Philadelphia, Pa.) U.S. writer and editor. Hale turned to writing in 1822 as a widow trying to support her family. She edited the Ladies’ Magazine (1828-37) and then Godey's Lady's Book (1837-77); as the first female magazine editor, she shaped many of the attitudes and ideas of women of the period. Her books include The Ladies’ Wreath (1837), a collection of poetry by women that sold widely; and Woman ’s Record (1853). She is also remembered for her verse “Mary Had a Little Lamb” (1830).

Hale-Bopp, Comet Comet discovered in 1994 by the amateur astrono¬ mers Alan Hale and Thomas Bopp at a distance from the Sun of about seven astronomical units, beyond Jupiter’s orbit and farther than any comet

detected before by amateurs. Astronomers estimated its nucleus to be about 25 mi (40 km) in diameter, larger than most comets. At its closest approach to the Sun in April 1997, it was one of the intrinsically bright¬ est comets in several centuries, though not the brightest as seen from Earth. The comet triggered the mass suicide near San Diego, Calif., U.S., in 1997 of 39 members of a religious cult known as Heaven's Gate, whose leader maintained that they would be reincarnated in a spacecraft follow¬ ing in the comet’s wake.

Haleakala National Park \,ha-la-a-ka-'la\ National park, eastern Maui, Hawaii, U.S. Established in 1960, it occupies an area of 28,655 acres (11,597 hectares). Its central feature is Haleakala Crater, the world’s largest dormant volcanic crater, more than 2,500 ft (762 m) deep and about 20 mi (32 km) in circumference. The crater floor, covering more than 19 sq mi (49 sq km), has areas of forest, desert, and meadow. It is the site of Science City, a research-observatory complex operated by the U.S. Department of Defense and the Universities of Hawaii and Michigan.

Haley, Alexander Palmer) (b. Aug. 11, 1921, Ithaca, N.Y., U.S.—d. Feb. 10, 1992, Seattle, Wash.) U.S. writer. He was raised in North Carolina, served in the Coast Guard (1939-59), and later became a journalist. An interview with Malcolm X led to the best-selling Autobi¬ ography of Malcolm X (1965; film, 1992). His greatest success, however, was Roots (1976, special Pulitzer Prize), a history of seven generations of his ancestors beginning with their enslavement. Adapted for television, it became one of the most popular American television shows ever and spurred great interest in genealogy, though Haley later admitted that the saga was partly fictional.

Haley, Bill orig. William John Clifton (b. July 6, 1925, Highland Park, Mich., U.S.—d. Feb. 9, 1981, Harlingen, Texas) U.S. singer and guitarist, one of the pioneers of rock and roll (see rock music). Haley worked as a disc jockey and sang and played guitar for several country music bands in the late 1940s, later forming his own band, the Saddlemen. Marrying elements of country to rhythm and blues, he renamed his band Bill Haley and His Comets and recorded some of rock’s earliest hits, including “Shake Rattle and Roll” (1954) and “Rock Around the Clock” (1955). He continued to tour as a nostalgia act into the 1970s.

Haley, Sir William (John) (b. May 24, 1901, Jersey, Channel Islands—d. Sept. 6, 1987, Jersey) English journalist and editor. Haley began to study journalism in 1918 and joined the staff of the Manchester Evening News in 1922. He held the post of director of the Manchester Guardian and Evening News before becoming director general of the BBC (1944-52) and then editor of The Times of London (1952-66), the most important and influential position in British journalism.

half-life Interval of time required for one-half of the atomic nuclei of a radioactive sample to decay (change spontaneously into other nuclear species by emitting particles and energy), or the time required for the number of disintegrations per second of a radioactive material to decrease by one-half. Half-lives are characteristic properties of the various unstable atomic nuclei and the particular way in which they decay. Alpha decay and beta decay are generally slower processes than gamma decay.

halftone process In printing, a technique of breaking up an image into a series of dots to permit reproduction of the full tone range of a photo¬ graph or artwork. It is traditionally done by placing a glass screen printed with a tight grid of lines over the plate being exposed. The grid breaks up the image into hundreds of tiny dots, each of which is read by the camera as either black or white—or, in the case of colour art, as either a single printing colour or white. The resulting image, called a halftone, is then rephotographed for printing. Screens are made with a varying num¬ ber of lines per inch, depending on the application; for newspapers the range is about 80-120, whereas glossy magazines usually require 133— 175 lines per inch.

Haliburton, Thomas Chandler (b. Dec. 17, 1796, Windsor, Nova Scotia—d. Aug. 27, 1865, Isleworth, Middlesex, Eng.) Canadian writer. He served in the legislature of his native Nova Scotia and later served as a judge of the Supreme Court (1841-54), where he maintained the strong conservatism that informs his writings. He moved to England in 1856 and was a member of Parliament from 1859 until his death. He is best known for creating the character Sam Slick, a Yankee clock peddler and cracker- barrel philosopher whose escapades first appeared in the newspaper Nova Scotian and were later published in The Clockmaker (1836, 1838, 1840) and other volumes.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

halibut ► Hall effect I 829

halibut Any of various flatfishes, especially the Atlantic and Pacific hal¬ ibuts (genus Hippoglossus, family Pleuronectidae), both of which have eyes and colour on the right side. The Atlantic halibut, found on both sides of the North Atlantic Ocean, is the largest flatfish; it may reach a length of about 7 ft (2 m) and a weight of 720 lb (325 kg). It is brown, black¬ ish, or deep green on the eyed side. The smaller and slimmer Pacific hali¬ but is found on both sides of the North Pacific Ocean. Other edible halibut include the Greenland halibut, of Arctic and near-Arctic parts of the Atlan¬ tic, and the California halibut (family Bothidae), found along the Cali¬ fornia coast.

Halicarnassus \,ha-l3-kar-'na-s3s\ modern Bodrum \bo-'drum\ Ancient Greek city, western Anatolia. Located in modem Turkey on a peninsula in the Aegean Sea, it became the capital of Caria (c. 370 bc) under the Persian satrap Mausolus, who built a great wall, public build¬ ings, and a secret dockyard and canal. His widow erected (c. 350 bc) a great tomb (the Mausoleum) in his memory. It was one of the Seven Won¬ ders of the ancient world, and its remains are now in the British Museum. Halicarnassus was the birthplace of the Greek historian Herodotus. It came under Roman rule in 129 bc, and in early Christian times was a bishop¬ ric. The ruins of the castle of the Knights of St. John, founded c. ad 1400, dominate the ancient site.

halide mineral Vha-.lld, 'ha-.lIdV Any of a group of naturally occurring inorganic compounds that contain a halogen such as fluorine, chlorine, iodine, or bromine as the anion. Such compounds, with the notable excep¬ tions of fluorite, haute, and sylvite, are rare and of very local occurrence.

Halifax City (pop., 2001: 119,292), capital of Nova Scotia, Canada. Located on Halifax Harbour, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean, it was settled by the British in 1749 as a counter¬ balance to French holdings at Cape Breton. It served as a British army and navy base until its defenses were taken over by the Canadian govern¬ ment in 1906. The city suffered from a munitions-ship explosion in 1917 that killed nearly 2,000 people. Dur¬ ing World Wars I and II, Halifax was Canada’s most important naval base.

The city is Nova Scotia’s leading commercial and industrial centre, and its port is one of the busiest in Canada. Its educational institutions include Dalhousie University (1818); historic buildings include St. Paul’s Church (1750), Canada’s oldest Protestant church. In 1996 Halifax amalgamated with several surround¬ ing communities to form Halifax Regional Municipality (pop., 2001:

359,183).

Halifax, Edward Frederick Lindley Wood, 1st earl of (b.

April 16, 1881, Powderham Castle, Devonshire, Eng.—d. Dec. 23, 1959, Garroby Hall, near York, Yorkshire) British statesman. He was elected to Parliament in 1910. As viceroy of India (1925-31), he worked on terms of understanding with Mohandas K. Gandhi and accelerated constitutional advances. His tenure as foreign secretary (1938—40) in Neville Chamber¬ lain’s government was controversial because of Chamberlain’s policy of appeasement toward Adolf Hitler, but Halifax kept the post into Winston Churchill’s ministry. As ambassador to the U.S. (1941^-6), he greatly served the Allied cause in World War II, for which he was created earl of Halifax in 1944.

halite Vha-.llt, 'ha-.lItX Naturally occurring sodium chloride (NaCl), com¬ mon or rock salt. Halite occurs on all continents, in beds that range from a few feet to more than 1,000 ft (300 m) in thickness. Termed evaporite deposits because they formed by the evaporation of saline water in par¬ tially enclosed basins, they characteristically are associated with beds of limestone, dolomite, and shale. Halite is found in large deposits in New York and in Russia, France, India, and Canada.

Hall, Charles Martin (b. Dec. 6, 1863, Thompson, Ohio, U.S.—d. Dec. 27, 1914, Daytona Beach, Fla.) U.S. chemist. He attended Oberlin College, where, soon after graduating in 1885, he discovered the method

of producing aluminum by electrolysis (simultaneously with Paul Heroult), an innovation that brought the metal into wide commercial use. Supported by the Mellon family, he formed the Pittsburgh Reduction Co. (later Alcoa). The need for cheap and plentiful power led the company to Nia¬ gara Falls, where in 1895 it became the first customer for Niagara’s new power plant.

Hall, G(ranville) Stanley (b. Feb. 1, 1844, Ashfield, Mass., U.S.—d. April 24, 1924, Worcester, Mass.) U.S. psychologist. He studied in Ger¬ many under Wilhelm Wundt and Hermann von Helmholtz and returned to the U.S. to earn the first psychology Ph.D. granted in America (Harvard, 1878). After teaching at Johns Hopkins University, he helped establish Clark University (1888) in Worcester, Mass., and worked there to shape experimental psychology into a science. He is frequently regarded as the founder of child psychology and educational psychology; he also did much to direct the ideas of Charles Darwin and Sigmund Freud into the psychological currents of his time. He founded several journals, includ¬ ing the American Journal of Psychology, and he helped found the Ameri¬ can Psychological Association, of which he was the first president. Hall’s work gave early impetus and direction to the development of psychology in the U.S.

hall, hypostyle See hypostyle hall

Hall, Sir James (b. Jan. 17, 1761, Dunglass, East Lothian, Scot.—d. June 23, 1832, Edinburgh) Scottish geologist and physicist. He founded experimental geology by artificially producing various rock types in the laboratory. He saw that he could obtain different kinds of rocks by melt¬ ing minerals and cooling them at a controlled rate. Later he produced a rock that closely resembled natural marble by heating calcium carbonate under pressure. He experimented extensively with igneous rocks from Scotland and showed that they had been produced by intense heat.

Hall, James (b. Sept. 12, 1811, Hingham, Mass., U.S.—d. Aug. 7, 1898, Bethlehem, N.H.) U.S. geologist and paleontologist. He made extensive explorations in the St. Lawrence valley while teaching at Rens¬ selaer Polytechnic Institute (1832-36). In 1836 he was appointed state geologist for the Geological Survey of New York; his studies culminated in the massive Geology of New York (part 4, 1843), a classic in U.S. geol¬ ogy that introduced the geosynclinal theory of mountain building. He was state geologist of Iowa (1855—58) and of Wisconsin (1857-60). He served as director of New York State’s Museum of Natural History (1871-98). His major later work was the huge Paleontology of New York (13 vol.,

1847-94).

Hall, Sir Peter (Reginald Frederick) (b. Nov. 22, 1930, Bury Saint Edmonds, Suffolk, Eng.) British theatre, opera, and film director. After producing and acting in plays at Cambridge University, he entered the professional theatre. At London’s Arts Theatre (1955-56) he staged Lon¬ don premieres of important continental plays. Especially renowned for his Shakespearean productions, he was managing director of the Royal Shakespeare Co. (1962-68) and continued to direct plays for it long after¬ ward. He succeeded Laurence Olivier as managing director of London’s National Theatre (1973-88). He formed his own theatrical production company in 1988 and also directed operas and several films.

Hall, Radclyffe orig. Marguerite Radclyffe-Hall (b. Aug. 12, 1880, Bournemouth, Hampshire, Eng.—d. Oct. 7, 1943, London) English writer. Born to a wealthy family and educated at King’s College, London, Hall began her literary career by writing verses, which eventually were collected into five volumes. She won prizes for her novel Adam ’s Breed (1926), a plea for animal rights. She was condemned for writing openly and sympathetically about lesbianism in The Well of Loneliness (1928), one of the first lesbian novels in English. It was judged obscene and banned in Britain; the ban was overturned on appeal after Hall’s death. Most of her five other novels express her strong Christian beliefs.

hall church Type of church with side aisles approximately equal in height to the nave, unlike the typical basilica. The interior is lit by large aisle windows instead of a clerestory, with chapels sometimes arranged alongside the nave. Hall churches originated in Germany and were char¬ acteristic of the Late Gothic period there. Special features of German hall churches include lofty nave arcades and immense roofs. St. Elizabeth in Marburg (c. 1257-83) is an archetypal example.

Hall effect Development of a transverse electric field in a solid material carrying an electric current and placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to the current. Discovered in 1879 by Edwin H. Hall (1855-1938), the Hall

The Old Town Clock on Citadel Hill, Halifax, Nova Scotia

JOHN DE VISSER

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

830 I Hallaj ► Halmahera

field results from the force exerted by the magnetic field on the moving particles of the current. The Hall effect can be used to measure certain properties of current carriers as well as to detect the presence of a cur¬ rent on a magnetic field.

Hallaj \ka-'laj\, al- (b. c. 858, Tur, Iran—d. March 26, 922, Baghdad, Iraq) Muslim teacher of Sufism. Brought up in the Iraqi city of Wasit, he was drawn to asceticism at an early age and studied with a series of Sufi teachers. From c. 895 he traveled extensively as a teacher and preacher, making three pilgrimages to Mecca and gathering a large following. These travels and his popularity alienated his Sufi masters, and his demands for reform earned him the enmity of non-Sufi Muslims. Accused of foment¬ ing rebellion and claiming to be divine, he was arrested, imprisoned (c. 911-922), and eventually crucified and tortured to death.

Halle \'ha-l3\ (an der Saale) City (pop., 2002 est.: 243,045), east- central Germany. Lying on the Saale River, Halle’s location was the site of settlements that centred around the local salt deposits and flourished c. 1000-400 bc. Halle and its valuable saltworks were granted to the arch¬ bishopric of Magdeburg in ad 968. It was a member of the Hanseatic League (1281-1478). The capital of Halle district in East Germany (1952— 90), it is an important rail junction and a principal commercial and indus¬ trial centre. It was the birthplace of George Frideric Handel and the site of the Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg, founded in 1694.

Halleck Vhal-okV, Henry W(ager) (b. Jan. 16, 1815, Westernville, N.Y., U.S.—d. Jan. 9, 1872, Louisville, Ky.) Union officer during the American Civil War. A graduate of West Point, he was commissioned in the engineers and sent on a tour of military facilities in Europe (1844), after which he wrote a textbook on war (1846) that became widely used. In 1861 he became supreme commander of Union forces in the western theatre and hurriedly organized large volunteer armies, though the mili¬ tary successes of the following spring were largely due to subordinate generals such as Ulysses S. Grant and John Pope. In 1862 he was appointed general in chief of Union forces, but subsequent reverses in Virginia and conflict with his subordinates and with the secretary of war Edwin M. Stanton resulted in his replacement by Grant in 1864.

Halley Vha-le, 'ha-le\/ Edmond (b. Nov. 8, 1656, Haggerston, Shore¬ ditch, near London—d. Jan. 14,

1742, Greenwich, near London)

English astronomer and mathemati¬ cian. He studied at the University of Oxford. In 1676 he set sail for the South Atlantic with the intention of compiling an accurate catalog of the stars of the Southern Hemisphere.

His star catalogue (1678) recorded the position of 341 stars. In 1684 he met Isaac Newton at Cambridge, which led to his prominent role (with Robert Hooke and Christopher Wren) in the development of Newton's law of gravitation. Halley edited New¬ ton’s Philosophiae Naturalis Prin- cipia Mathematica, bringing it to print in 1687. He produced the first meteorological chart (1686, showing the distribution of prevailing winds in the world’s oceans) and magnetic charts of the Atlantic and Pacific (1701). In astronomy, he described the parabolic orbits of 24 comets observed in the years 1337-1698. He showed that three of these were so similar that they must have been the same comet, and he accurately pre¬ dicted its return in 1758 (see Halley's Comet).

Halley's Comet First comet whose return was predicted, proving that at least some comets are members of the solar system. Edmond Halley showed in 1705 that comets seen in 1531, 1607, and 1682 were really one comet, and he predicted its return in 1758. Later calculations identified it with the large, bright comet seen during the Norman Conquest (and depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry) and with other comet sightings at inter¬ vals of about 76 years, the first in 240 bc. The only easily seen comet that returns in a single lifetime, it approached Earth twice in the 20th century (1910, 1985-86). Its nucleus is roughly 9 mi (15 km) across.

hallmark Symbol stamped on an item of silver or gold to indicate that it conforms to legal standards of purity. Hallmarking in Britain dates from 1300; no gold or silver could be sold until tested for purity and struck with the king’s mark. A maker’s mark was introduced in 1363; at first a symbol, such as a fish or key, it came to include or be replaced by ini¬ tials. A “hallmark” was a mark made at Goldsmith’s Hall, London. In the U.S., no hallmarks were initially required. In the late 18th and early 19th century, local regulations were established in New York, Boston, Balti¬ more, and elsewhere; makers’ marks appeared and the words “coin” and “sterling” were stamped on silver objects. In 1906 the use of the words came under federal regulation. Hallmarks on gold, similar to those on sil¬ ver, are also subject to federal regulation.

Halloween Holiday observed on October 31, the eve of All Saints' Day. Its pagan origins can be traced to the Celtic festival of Samhain, celebrated in ancient England and Ireland to mark the beginning of the Celtic new year. The souls of the dead were supposed to revisit their homes on Sam¬ hain eve, and witches, goblins, black cats, and ghosts were said to roam abroad. The night was also thought to be the most favorable time for divi¬ nations concerning marriage, luck, health, and death. The pagan obser¬ vances influenced the Christian festival of All Hallows’ Eve, celebrated on the same date. The holiday was gradually secularized and was intro¬ duced into the U.S. by the late 19th century. Still associated with evil spirits and the supernatural, it is celebrated by children in costume who gather candy by ringing doorbells and calling out “trick or treat,” “trick” referring to the pranks and vandalism that are also part of the Halloween tradition.

Hallstatt Vhal-,shtat,\ English \'h6l-,stat\ Site in upper Austria where objects characteristic of the Early Iron Age (from c. 1100 bc) were first identified. More than 2,000 graves were near a salt mine that preserved implements, parts of clothing, and bodies of miners. The remains are divided into four phases (A, B, C,

D), differing according to burial practices, presence of low grave mound or tumulus, relative quantity of bronze and iron, and style of pot¬ tery, weapons, jewelry, and clothing.

Decoration in general is geometric and symmetrical, with a tendency toward the extravagant.

hallucination Perception of objects, sounds, or sensations having no demonstrable reality, usually aris¬ ing from a disorder of the nervous system or in response to certain drugs (see hallucinogen). Hallucinations are in many ways similar to dreams: they derive their content from perceptions known to memory, though these can be greatly transformed. Hallucinations can result when attention collapses from intense arousal due to extreme anxiety, fatigue, excitement, or other causes. They figure prominently in the diagnosis of schizophrenia.

hallucinogen \h3-'lu-s 3 n-9-j3n\ Substance that produces psychological effects normally associated only with dreams, schizophrenia, or religious visions. It produces changes in perception (ranging from distortions in what is sensed to perceptions of objects where there are none), thought, and feeling. Those that have aroused the most controversy include Ecstasy, LSD, mescaline, psilocybin (from certain mushrooms), and bufotenine (from the skin of toads); some would add marijuana. The mode of action is still not clear; serotonin, epinephrine, or other neurotransmitters may be affected.

Halmahera V.hal-mo-'hor-oV Dutch Djailolo \j!-'lo-lo\ Largest island of the Moluccas, Indonesia. It is made up of four peninsulas enclosing three great bays; politically it includes the small islands of Temate and Tidore. Its area is 6,865 sq mi (17,780 sq km). It is dominated by heavily wooded mountain chains, with three active volcanoes on the northern peninsula. The indigenous population, whose descendants inhabit the inte¬ rior, were probably Papuan; the coastal people include many elements from surrounding islands. In 1683 the Dutch obtained a foothold in Hal¬ mahera with the aid of the sultan of Temate. With the Moluccas, it was incorporated into the Republic of Indonesia in 1949.

i

v

Edmond Halley, detail of an oil paint¬ ing by Richard Phillips, c. 1720; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

Bronze bucket found at Early Iron Age cemetery at Hallstatt, Austria, about 6th century bc.

COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

halogen ► Hamilton I 831

halogen Vha-b-jonV Any of five nonmetallic elements—fluorine, chlo¬ rine, bromine, iodine, and astatine—with similar chemical properties. They occur in the second rightmost column of the periodic table as usually arranged. All are highly reactive oxidizing agents (see oxidation-reduction) with valence 1 (for fluorine, the only valence). They combine readily with most metals and nonmetals to form a variety of compounds and never occur uncombined in nature. A radioactive element, astatine occurs natu¬ rally in minute amounts as an intermediate decay product; it has no stable nonradioactive isotopes. Halogen salts formed with metal atoms (halides) are very stable; sodium chloride is the most familiar. The halogen lamp takes its name from the halogens included in the gas within its tungsten-filament bulb, added to prolong filament life and increase brightness.

halogen lamp or tungsten-halogen lamp Incandescent lamp with a quartz bulb and a gas filling that includes a HALOGEN. It gives bril¬ liant light from a compact unit. The halogen combines with the tungsten evaporated from the hot filament to form a compound that is attracted back to the filament, thus extending the filament’s life. The evaporated tungsten is also prevented from condensing on the bulb and darkening it, an effect that reduces the light output of ordinary incandescent lamps. First used in the late 1960s in motion-picture production, halogen lamps are now also used in automobile headlights, underwater photography, and residential lighting.

1581/85, Antwerp, Spanish

Hals Vhalz, 'hals\, Frans (b.

Netherlands—d. Sept. 1, 1666, Haar¬ lem, Neth.) Dutch portrait painter.

He spent his life in Haarlem, where he was registered as a master by the Guild of St. Luke in 1610. His group portraits of members of local guilds and military societies, notably the monumental Banquet of Officers of the Civic Guard of St. George (1616), were painted with a tech¬ nique close to Impressionism in its looseness, unique in Dutch art at the time. He introduced a jovial spirit that revolutionized portraiture and set him apart from his contemporar¬ ies. His subjects exude joie de vivre, with an occasional hint of sadness.

After 1650 he portrayed elderly people who nervously display the spark of life even as it flickers; these portraits, such as The Women Regents of the Almshouse at Haar¬ lem (1664), are his masterpieces. His work greatly influenced Edouard Manet, Vincent van Gogh, and Robert Henri.

The Merry Toper, oil on canvas by Frans Hals, c. 1628-30; in the Rijks- museum, Amsterdam.

COURTESY OF THE RUKSMUSEUM, AMSTERDAM

Halsey Vhol-se, 'h6l-ze\, William F(rederick), Jr, known as Bull Halsey (b. Oct. 30, 1882, Elizabeth, N.J., U.S.—d. Aug. 16, 1959, Fish¬ ers Island, N.Y.) U.S. admiral. After graduating from the U.S. Naval Acad¬ emy, he commanded a destroyer in World War I. He became a naval aviator in 1935, and in 1940 he was promoted to vice admiral. When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, his fleet was at sea; the only U.S. naval presence in the Pacific for months, it carried out surprise attacks against Japanese-held islands in the Marshall and Gilbert islands. A leading expo¬ nent of carrier-based aircraft, he became famous for his daring and imagi¬ native tactics. As commander of the South Pacific naval forces, he was instrumental in the Japanese defeat at Guadalcanal. In 1944 he became commander of the 3rd Fleet, leading his carrier task force in brilliant air strikes. He was responsible for finding and destroying the Japanese fleet at the Battle of Leyte Gulf. He was promoted to fleet admiral in 1945 and retired in 1947.

Halsted, William S(tewart) (b. Sept. 23, 1852, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Sept. 7, 1922, Baltimore, Md.) U.S. pioneer of scientific sur¬ gery. He graduated from the College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1877. In 1881 he discovered that blood could be aerated and reinfused. He developed conduction anesthesia (1885) by experimenting with injecting his own nerve trunks with cocaine, a substance to which he subsequently became addicted (though later cured). At Johns Hopkins University he established the first surgical school in the U.S. An early champion of aseptic procedures, Halsted introduced the use of thin rubber gloves in surgery (1890). He emphasized homeostasis during surgery, gentleness in

handling living tissue, and precise realignment of severed tissues. He originated the practice of hospital surgical residencies.

haltia Vhal-te-a\ Among the Balto-Finnic peoples, a guardian spirit of the household. In Finland it was the spirit of the first person to claim a site as property. Identical in appearance to this original owner, the haltia presided over the household and served as a moral force to discourage misbehavior. A haltia could only be transported to a new home by car¬ rying fire or ashes from the old one. On farms there were barn-spirits to watch over the animals, a mill-spirit to keep the miller awake, and a threshing-house spirit to supervise the drying of the grain.

Halys River See Kizil River

ham Cut of meat consisting of the thigh of a hog, usually preserved through a curing process that involves salting and smoking or drying. In addition to preserving the meat, curing gives it additional flavour. Sugar or honey and spices are sometimes added to further enhance flavour. Pro¬ duced throughout the Old World except where forbidden by religious edict (principally by observant Muslims and Jews), ham became a favoured food on farms of North America. The distinctive qualities of hams of various regions of the world result from unique combinations of hog¬ raising and meat-processing techniques. Virginia hams, for example, are cut from razorback hogs fed on peanuts and peaches and smoked over apple- and hickory-wood fires. Ham is a source of high-grade animal pro¬ tein, thiamine, and iron.

hamadryad See dryad

Hamas \ha-'mas\ acronym of Harakat al-Muqawamah al-lslamiyyah English Islamic Resistance Movement Arabic "Zeal" Militant Palestinian Islamic movement. The group is dedicated to the destruction of Israel and the creation of a Palestinian Islamic state. It was founded in 1987 by Sheikh Ahmad Yasln, and its leadership comes from the Palestinian branch of the Muslim Brotherhood. Hamas’s aims are more militant: it takes the position that Palestine cannot be surrendered to non-Muslims. It opposed the 1993 peace agreement between the Pal¬ estine Liberation Organization and Israel. Beginning in 2000, the group intensified its violent acts against Israelis, including numerous suicide bombings. In 2006 Hamas participated in the elections for the Palestin¬ ian Legislative Council and won a surprise victory over Fatah.

Hamburg Vham-,burk,\ English Vham-.borgV City (pop., 2002 est.: city, 1,726,363; metro, area, 2,515,468), constituting a state, northern Ger¬ many. Covering 292 sq mi (755 sq km), it is located on the Elbe River and is Germany’s largest port. It grew around the 9th-century castle of Ham- maburg. Treaties with Lubeck in the mid-13th century led to the formation of the Hanseatic League, of which it was a leader. Incorporated into the French Empire (1810-14), it became a member of the German Confedera¬ tion as a free city in 1815. In World War II Allied firebombing killed some 55,000 people and devastated the city. It was rapidly rebuilt after the war. The birthplace of Felix Mendelssohn and Johannes Brahms and home to the Hamburg Opera, it enjoys a distinguished musical history. It is Germany’s foremost industrial city and northern Germany’s chief economic centre.

Hamhung \'ham-,huq\ City (pop., 1993 est.: 709,000), east-central North Korea. It was the commercial and administrative centre of North Korea during the Choson dynasty (1392-1910) and developed as a mod¬ em industrial city in the 1920s. During the Korean War, most industrial plants in the area were destroyed by U.S. bombing raids, but they were rebuilt. In addition to its manufacturing importance, it is the site of sev¬ eral institutions of learning.

Hamilton City (pop., 1995 est.: 1,100), capital of Bermuda. It lies on Great Bermuda island in the western Atlantic, along the shore of a deep¬ water harbour. Founded in 1790, it succeeded St. George as capital in 1815. To encourage business and employment, it was made a free port in 1956. Tourism is the economic mainstay; cruise ships dock along the main street.

Hamilton City (pop., 2001: city, 490,268; metro, area, 662,401), south¬ eastern Ontario, Canada. Located on Hamilton Harbour at the western end of Lake Ontario, it was settled by British loyalists fleeing the American Revolution. The opening of the Burlington Canal (1830), linking the har¬ bour to Lake Ontario, led to the city’s development as an important port and rail centre. It is now one of Canada’s leading industrial centres and a financial hub and the site of McMaster University. The centre of an extensive fruit-growing district, it is the site of one of Canada’s largest open-air markets.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

832 I Hamilton ► Hammerfest

Hamilton, Alexander (b. Jan.

Indies—d. July 12, 1804, New York,

N.Y., U.S.) U.S. statesman. He first came to the U.S. in 1772, arriving in New Jersey. In the American Revolu¬ tion he joined the Continental Army and showed conspicuous bravery at the Battle of Trenton (see Battles of Trenton and Princeton). He served as aide-de-camp to Gen. George Wash¬ ington (1777-81); fluent in French, he became a liaison with French commanders. After the war he prac¬ ticed law in New York. At the Con¬ tinental Congress, he argued for a strong central government. As a del¬ egate to the Annapolis Convention in 1786, he drafted the address that led to the Constitutional Convention.

With James Madison and John Jay, he wrote an influential series of essays, later known as the Federalist papers, in defense of the new Constitution and republican government. Appointed the first secretary of the treasury (1789), Hamilton developed fiscal policies designed to strengthen the national government at the expense of the states. His proposal for a Bank of the United States was opposed by Thomas Jefferson but adopted by Con¬ gress in 1791. Differences between Hamilton and Jefferson over the pow¬ ers of the national government and the country’s foreign policy led to the rise of political parties; Hamilton became leader of the Federalist Party, and Madison and Jefferson created the Democratic-Republican Party. Hamilton favoured friendship with Britain and influenced Washington to take a neutral stand toward the French Revolution. In 1796 he caused a rift in the Federalist Party by opposing its nomination of John Adams for president. In 1800 he tried to prevent Adams’s reelection, circulating a private attack that Aaron Burr, long at odds with Hamilton, obtained and published. When Jefferson and Burr both defeated Adams but received an equal number of electoral votes, Hamilton helped persuade the Federal¬ ists in the House of Representatives to choose Jefferson. In 1804 he opposed Burr’s candidacy for governor of New York. This affront, coupled with alleged remarks questioning Burr’s character, led Burr to challenge Hamilton to a duel, in which Hamilton was mortally wounded.

11, 1755/57, Nevis, British West

f

Alexander Hamilton, detail of an oil painting by John Trumbull; in the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.

Hamilton, Edith (b. Aug. 12, 1867, Dresden, Saxony—d. May 31, 1963, Washington, D.C., U.S.) U.S. scholar and educator. Born in Ger¬ many of American parents, Hamilton grew up in Fort Wayne, Ind., U.S. She graduated from Bryn Mawr College and at age 29 headed its prepa¬ ratory school. Ultimately preferring classical studies to school adminis¬ tration, she retired in 1922 to write such historical works as The Greek Way (1930) and The Roman Way (1932). Her Mythology (1943) was stud¬ ied by millions as a textbook.

Hamilton, Emma, Lady orig. Amy Lyon (b. c. 1761, Great Neston, Cheshire, Eng.—d. Jan. 15, 1815, Calais, France) English social figure, mistress of Horatio Nelson. In 1786 she became the mistress, and in 1791 the wife, of Sir William Hamilton (1730-1803), British envoy to Naples. A beautiful woman whose portrait was frequently painted by George Rom¬ ney, she was a favourite in Neapolitan society. She became Nelson’s mis¬ tress in 1798 and gave birth to their daughter, Horatia, in 1801, then lived with Nelson after her husband’s death (1803). She later squandered the money both men left her, was imprisoned for debt (1813-14), and died in poverty.

Hamito-Semitic languages See Afroasiatic languages

Hamm, Mia orig. Mariel Margaret Hamm (b. March 17, 1972, Selma, Ala., U.S.) U.S. football (soccer) player. At the age of 15 Hamm became the youngest person ever to play on the U.S. national soccer team. In 1989 she entered the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and there helped her team win four collegiate championships. She also helped the U.S. team win the World Cup in 1991 and 1999 and the Olympic gold medal in 1996. She broke the all-time international scoring record for either men or women on May 16, 1999, against Brazil with her 108th career goal.

Hammar V.ham-'marV Lake Arabic Hawr al-Hammar Large swampy lake, southeastern Iraq. Lying south of the junction of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and fed by distributaries of the Euphrates, the lake is some 750 sq mi (2,000 sq km) in area; it drains through a short channel into the Shatt al-Arab near AI-Basrah. It was once a reed-filled marshland but was later used for irrigating the delta region. Home to the Madan, or Marsh Arabs, a tribe of seminomadic marsh dwellers, it was partially drained in 1992 by the Iraqi government in an attempt to drive out ShTite guerrillas who had taken refuge there. By 1993 one-third of the lake was dry, and thousands of its residents had fled deeper into the marshes or to Iran.

Hammarskjold Yha-mor-.sholdV, Dag (Hjalmar Agne Carl) (b.

July 29, 1905, Jonkoping, Swed.—d. Sept. 18, 1961, near Ndola, North¬ ern Rhodesia) Second secretary-general of the UN (1953-61). His father was prime minister of Sweden and chairman of the Nobel Prize Founda¬ tion. Hammarskjold studied law and economics in Uppsala and Stock¬ holm, then taught at Stockholm (1933-36). He served in the finance ministry, as president of the board of the Bank of Sweden, and in the for¬ eign ministry, where he became chair of the Swedish delegation to the UN (1952). He was appointed secretary-general in 1953 and was reap¬ pointed in 1957. His first three years were quiet, but he subsequently dealt with the Suez Crisis, conflict in Lebanon and Jordan, and civil strife fol¬ lowing the creation of the Republic of the Congo (1960). He died in a plane crash on a peace mission to Africa. He was posthumously awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1961. As secretary-general, Hammarskjold is generally thought to have combined great moral force with subtlety in meeting international challenges.

hammer Tool for pounding or delivering repeated blows. Hand ham¬ mers have a handle and striking head. Surfaces of hammerheads vary in size, angle of orientation to the handle (parallel or inclined), and type of face (flat or convex). Carpenters’ hammers often have a claw on the head for extracting nails. Weights range from a few ounces or grams up to 15 lbs (7 kg) for hammers used in breaking stones. Steam hammers often use, in addition to gravity, a downward thrust from a steam-activated pis¬ ton. Pneumatic (air-driven) hammers include the hammer drill, for rock and concrete, and the riveting hammer, for construction operations involv¬ ing steel girders and plate.

Hammer, Armand (b. May 21, 1898, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Dec. 10, 1990, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. industrialist and philanthropist. Ham¬ mer made his first million dollars in pharmaceuticals before earning his medical degree from Columbia University. He went to the Soviet Russia in 1921 to provide medical aid to famine victims and was persuaded by Vladimir Ilich Lenin to remain. His ventures, including a pencil manufac¬ turing firm, were bought out by the Soviets in the late 1920s, and he returned to the U.S. laden with artworks formerly owned by the Romanov family. He increased his fortune in the U.S. through the whiskey and cattle industries and retired in 1956, but an investment in wildcat oil wells led to another career as head of the Occidental Petroleum Corp. (1957-90). He was a longtime advocate of broadening U.S.-Soviet trade ties. The Armand Hammer Museum in Los Angeles houses his art collection.

hammer-beam roof English medieval timber roof system used when a long span was needed. Not a true truss, the construction is similar to corbeled masonry (see corbel) in that each set of beams steps upward (and inward) by resting on the ones below by means of curved braces and struts. The roof of Richard IPs Westminster Hall in London (1402), with a 70-ft (21-m) span, is an excellent example.

hammer throw Athletic event in which a hammer is thrown for dis¬ tance. The hammer consists of a 16-lb (7.26-kg) metal ball attached to a spring steel wire handle that measures not more than 4 ft (1.2 m) in length. The thrower makes three full, quick turns of the body before flinging the hammer. The sport developed centuries ago in the British Isles; it has been a regular part of track-and-field competitions there since 1866 and an Olympic sport since 1900.

hammered dulcimer See dulcimer

Hammerfest Vha-mor-.festX Northernmost town in Europe (pop., 1995 est.: 9,651), on the island of Kvalpya, northwestern Norway. Chartered in 1789, most of it was destroyed by fire in 1891. Norway’s first municipal hydroelectric station was built with its reconstruction. Germans occupied the town (1940-44); on their withdrawal, they blew up the installations and evacuated the population. The town has since been rebuilt. Despite its latitude, its harbour is ice-free year-round because of the warming

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

hammerhead shark ► Hampton I 833