Britannica Concise 2005 - читать бесплатно онлайн полную версию книги автора Encyclopedia Britannica (ч. 23)

green and feathery. The flowers open only in sunlight. They blossom all summer in northern climates and into the winter in areas with mild winters.

Californian Indian Any member of the various North American Indian peoples living in and around present-day California, U.S. Of the many Californian groups, most were composed of independent territorial and political units that were smaller than the average groupings of other North American Indians. Food var¬ ied with the region inhabited (coastal peoples fished, desert peoples hunted and practiced marginal agriculture, etc.), as did style of housing. The peoples of California were politi¬ cally stable, sedentary, and conservative and less in conflict with one another than was usually the case in other areas of North America; neigh¬ bouring groups often developed elaborate systems of economic exchange of goods and services. The Californian Indians reached peaks of cultural attainment rarely seen among peoples depending almost wholly for sub¬ sistence on hunting, fishing, and the gathering of wild plant foods. Cali¬ fornian Indians had a renowned oral literature, and Californian basketwork is considered exquisite. See also Modoc; Northwest Coast Indian; Pomo; YuMAn.

Caligula \ka-'li-gya-la\ officially Gaius Caesar (Germanicus) (b.

Aug. 31, ad 12, Antium, Latium—d. Jan. 24, 41, Rome) Roman emperor (37-41). Known by his childhood nickname, Caligula (“Little Boot”) was declared heir to the throne by Tiberius following the suspicious deaths of Caligula’s parents and brothers and probably connived in Tiberius’s death. Caligula suffered a severe illness seven months into his rule and began displaying mental instability, engaging in despotic caprice and cruelty. Restoring treason trials (38), he executed former supporters and extorted money from the citizens. He plundered Gaul in 40 and began planning to invade Britain. He made pretensions to divinity and declared his sister Drusilla a goddess on her death. Weary of his tyranny, a group of con¬ spirators assassinated him.

caliper Instrument that consists of two adjustable legs or jaws for mea¬ suring the dimensions of material parts. Spring calipers have an adjusting screw and nut; firm-joint calipers use friction at the joint to hold the legs unmoving. Outside calipers measure thicknesses and outside diameters of objects; inside calipers measure hole diameters and distances between sur¬ faces. Hermaphrodite calipers, which have one leg bent inward and one straight leg ending in a sharp point, are used for scribing lines at a speci¬ fied distance from a flat or curved surface. See also micrometer.

caliph Vka-taf, 'ka-bf\ Arabic khalTfah ("deputy" or "succes¬ sor") Title given to those who succeeded the Prophet Muhammad as real or nominal ruler of the Muslim world, ostensibly with all his powers except that of prophecy. Controversy over the selection of the fourth caliph, c Au, eventually split Islam into the Sunnite and ShYite branches. 'All’s rival, Mu'awiyah I, established the Umayyad dynasty of caliphs, which produced 14 caliphs (661-750). The 'Abbasid dynasty (750-1258), the most widely observed caliphate, associated with 38 caliphs, moved the capital from Damascus to Baghdad. The Mongol conquest of Baghdad in 1258 effectively ended the dynasty. Other Muslim leaders created caliphates with limited success. The Fattmid dynasty proclaimed a new caliphate in 920; c Abd al-Rahman III announced one in opposition to both the 'Abbasids and the Fatimids in 928. A scion of the 'Abbasid line was set up by the MamlGk dynasty as a sort of puppet caliph after 1258. This caliphate exer¬ cised no power whatsoever, and, from 1517 until it was abolished by the Republic of Turkey in 1924, it resided in Istanbul under the control of the Ottoman Empire. Modern Muslim militants consider the abolition of the caliphate a catastrophic event, and its return has been a central pillar of their political program.

calisthenics Systematic rhythmic bodily exercises (e.g., jumping jacks, push-ups), usually performed without apparatus. Calisthenics promote strength, endurance, flexibility, and general well-being by placing regu¬ lar demands on the cardiovascular system. The exercises, initially con¬

ceived as primarily for women, arose in the 19th century in Germany and Sweden. Catharine Esther Beecher in the U.S. advocated women’s calis¬ thenics. As their health benefits became known, they became an activity for both sexes.

Calixtus \k3-'lik-st3s\ II orig. Guido of Burgundy (d. Dec. 13/14, 1124, Rome) Pope (1119-24). As archbishop of Vienne in Lower Bur¬ gundy, he became known as an advocate of reform and an opponent of Holy Roman emperor Henry V. Elected pope in 1119, he condemned lay investiture and excommunicated Henry. They were later reconciled, and the Concordat of Worms (1122) ended the Investiture Controversy. Calix¬ tus called the first Lateran Council (1123), which secured peace between church and empire for the next 35 years. His bull Etsi Judaeis (1120) pro¬ tected Roman Jews.

calla Either of two distinct kinds of plants of the arum family. Calla palustris is known as the arum lily, water arum, or wild calla. The com¬ mon name calla is also generally given to several species of Zantedes- chia, often called calla lilies. The handsome C. palustris occurs widely in wet places in cool, northern tem¬ perate and subarctic regions. It has heart-shaped leaves, showy white floral leaves, and clusters of brilliant red berries. Its juice is violently poi¬ sonous. The most important of the calla lilies, all native to South Africa, is the common florist’s calla (Z. aethiopica ), a stout herb with a fra¬ grant white spathe and arrow-shaped leaves; a popular indoor plant, it is grown commercially for cut flowers.

Callaghan Vka-lo-.ha^ (of Cardiff), (Leonard) James Cal¬ laghan, Baron (b. March 27, 1912, Portsmouth, Hampshire, Eng.—d. March 26, 2005, Ringmer, East Sussex) British politician. A trade union official, he entered the House of Commons as a Labour Party member in 1945. He served in Labour governments as chancellor of the Exchequer (1964-67), home secretary (1967-70), and foreign secretary (1974-76) before becoming prime minister (1976-79). A moderate within his party, he tried to stem the vociferous demands of the trade unions. After a series of paralyzing labour strikes in 1978-79 (the “Winter of Discontent”), his government was brought down by a parliamentary vote of no confidence. He was created a life peer in the House of Lords in 1987.

Callaghan \'ka-b-,han\, Morley (Edward) (b. Sept. 22, 1903, Tor¬ onto, Ont., Can.—d. Aug. 25, 1990, Toronto) Canadian novelist and short- story writer. Callaghan received a law degree in 1928 but never practiced. He won acclaim for the short-story collection A Native Argosy (1929). His first novel, Strange Fugitive (1928), describes the destruction of a social misfit, a type that recurs in his fiction. Subsequent novels, includ¬ ing They Shall Inherit the Earth (1935) and The Loved and the Lost (1951, Governor General’s Award), emphasize Christian love as an answer to social injustice. That Summer in Paris (1963) describes Callaghan’s friendship with F. Scon Fitzgerald and Ernest Hemingway. Later works include A Fine and Private Place (1975) and A Time for Judas (1983).

Callahan, Harry (Morey) (b. Oct. 22,1912, Detroit, Mich., U.S.—d. March 15, 1999, Atlanta, Ga.) U.S. photographer. He had no formal train¬ ing in photography and first developed an interest in it in 1938. In 1941 Ansel Adams’s photographs inspired him to develop his own style. His subjects included landscapes, cityscapes, and unconventional portraits of his wife and daughter. He was best known as a teacher; he was head of the photography department at the Chicago Institute of Design (1949-61) and developed the photography department at the Rhode Island School of Design (1961-76). In 1980 two collections of his works were published, Water’s Edge and Harry Callahan: Color, 1945-1980.

Callao \ka-'ya-o\ City (pop., 1996 est.: 407,904), chief seaport, Peru. It was founded in 1537 by Francisco Pizarro on Callao Bay west of Lima. As the leading shipping point for gold and silver taken by Spanish conquis- tadores from the Incas, it was frequently assaulted by pirates and by Spain’s European rivals. It was destroyed by a tidal wave in 1746, then rebuilt near its original site. It withstood several sieges by Spanish forces during the wars for independence. The revolutionary leader Simon Bou-

lalifornia poppy (Eschscholzia califor-

lica).

3RANT HEILMAN PHOTOGRAPHY

Arum lily (Calla palustris)

INGMAR HOIMASEN

Callas ► Calukya i 315

var landed here in 1823, and three years later it was the scene of the final Spanish surrender to rebel forces. It suffered heavy earthquake damage in 1940 but has since expanded and modernized.

Callas \'ka-bs\, Maria orig. Cecilia Sophia Anna Maria Kalogeropoulos (b. Dec. 2, 1923, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Sept. 16, 1977, Paris, France) U.S. soprano of Greek descent. In 1937 she moved to Greece with her mother and made her debut there in 1939. She gained an international reputation for her performance in La Gioconda at the 1947 Verona Festival. She continued to sing heavy dramatic roles, including Giacomo Puccini’s Turandot and Richard Wagner’s Kundry, until the conductor Tullio Serafin (1878-1968) convinced her to shift to the bel canto repertoire, for which she became famous. Her signature role was Vincenzo Bellini’s Norma. Though her voice was imperfect, her extraordi¬ nary range, dramatic stage presence, and mastery of difficult roles made her the most famous opera star of her day. Her fiery temperament and her flamboyant and demanding personality made her an international celeb¬ rity; she was the consummate diva.

calligraphy \ko-'lig-r3-fe\ Art of beautiful, stylized, or elegant hand¬ writing or lettering with pen or brush and ink. It involves the correct for¬ mation of characters, the ordering of the various parts, and the harmony of proportions. In the Islamic and Chinese cultures, calligraphy is as highly revered as painting. In Europe in the 14th-16th century, two scripts developed that influenced all subsequent handwriting and printing: the roman and italic styles. With the invention of modern printing (1450), calligraphy became increasingly bold and ornamental.

Callimachus (fl. late 5th century bc) Greek sculptor. Though little is known of his life, he reputedly invented the ornate Corinthian capital (see order) after seeing leaves growing around a basket placed on a girl’s tomb. He was noted for the elaborate carving and detailed draperies of his sculp¬ tures, which survive only as Roman copies.

Callimachus Vko-'lim-o-kosN (b. c. 305, Cyrene, North Africa—d. c. 240 bc) Greek poet and scholar. He migrated to Egypt, where he worked at the Library of Alexandria. Of his voluminous writings, only fragments survive. His best-known poetical work is the Causes (c. 270 bc), a med¬ ley of obscure tales explaining the origins of customs, festivals, and names. He is the most representative poet of the erudite and sophisticated Alexandrian school. His most famous prose work is the Pinakes (“Tab¬ lets”) in 120 books, a catalog of the authors whose works were held in the library.

Calliope or Kalliope \k3-'lI-3-pe\ In Greek mythology, the foremost of the nine Muses and the patron of epic poetry. She and King Oeagrus of Thrace were the parents of Orpheus. She also bore Apollo two sons, Hymen and Ialemus. Other versions of the myth say she was the mother of Rhesus, king of Thrace, or the mother of Linus, inventor of melody and rhythm.

Callipolis See Gallipoli

Callisto \k3-'lis-to\ In Greek mythology, a nymph and a hunting com¬ panion of Artemis. Though she vowed never to wed, she was seduced by Zeus, who turned her into a she-bear to conceal his infidelity from the jealous Hera. She was then killed by Artemis during a hunt. Other ver¬ sions hold that it was Artemis or Hera, enraged at her unchastity, who turned her into a bear. After her death Zeus placed her in the heavens as the constellation Ursa Major (Great Bear).

Callot \ka-'lo\, Jacques (b. 1592/93, Nancy, Fr.—d. March 24, 1635, Nancy) French etcher, engraver, and draftsman. He learned the technique of engraving in Rome. In 1612, at the court of the Medici family in Flo¬ rence, he was employed to make pictorial records of pageants and feasts. He had a genius for caricature and the grotesque; his series of etchings The Miseries of War (1633), documenting the atrocities of the Thirty Years’ War, was used as a source by Francisco de Goya. His output was prodigious; more than 1,400 etchings and 2,000 drawings survive. One of the greatest of all etchers, he was also one of the first major artists to practice the graphic arts exclusively.

Calloway, Cab orig. Cabell Calloway III (b. Dec. 25, 1907, Roch¬ ester, N.Y., U.S.—d. Nov. 18, 1994, Hockessin, Del.) U.S. singer and big- band leader. He fronted his first group in 1928; it became the house band at Harlem’s Cotton Club in 1931. An accomplished scat singer who com¬ bined audacious showmanship with prodigious vocal range and imagina¬ tion, he became most identified with his hit “Minnie the Moocher” (1931). Exposure with his band launched the careers of many important jazz

soloists. The composer George Ger¬ shwin modeled the character Sportin’

Life in his musical Porgy and Bess (1935) on Calloway, who later per¬ formed the role himself.

callus In botany, soft tissue that forms over a wounded or cut plant surface, leading to healing. A callus arises from cells of the cambium.

When a callus forms, some of its cells may organize into growing points, some of which in turn give rise to roots while others produce stems and leaves. Thus a callus may be capable of regenerating an entire plant.

Calmette \kal-'met\, Albert (Leon Charles) (b. July 12, 1863,

Nice, Fr.—d. Oct. 29, 1933, Paris)

French bacteriologist. In the 1890s he founded the Pasteur bacteriological institutes in Saigon and later Lille. He discovered in 1908 that tuberculosis bacteria from cattle were weakened when cultured with bile, producing a strain of bacteria that provoked a pro¬ tective immune reaction without causing disease. That discovery led him to develop, with Camille Guerin, a tuberculosis vaccine. He also described a test (Calmette reaction) for tuberculosis and discovered an antivenin for snakebite.

Calonne \ka-'lon\, Charles- Alexandre de (b. Jan. 20, 1734,

Douai, France—d. Oct. 29, 1802,

Paris) French politician. He served as intendant of Metz (1768) and Lille (1774), and his financial genius led to his appointment as controller gen¬ eral of finance (1783). He soon dis¬ covered that major reforms were necessary to save France from bank¬ ruptcy. His efforts precipitated the governmental crisis that led to the French Revolution. After the Revolution began, he devoted himself to the cause of counterrevolution from his exile in England.

calorie Unit of energy or heat. Various precise definitions are used for different purposes (physical chemistry measurements, engineering steam tables, and thermochemistry), but in all cases the calorie is about 4.2 joules, the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 °C (1.8 °F) at normal atmospheric pressure. The calorie used by dietitians and food scientists and found on food labels is actually the kilo¬ calorie (also called Calorie and abbreviated kcal or Cal), or 1,000 calo¬ ries. It is a measure of the amount of heat energy or metabolic energy contained in the chemical bonds (see bonding) of a food.

calorimeter 'y.ka-b-'ri-ma-tsrX Device for measuring heat produced during a mechanical, electrical, or chemical reaction and for calculating the heat capacity of materials. A common design, known as a bomb calo¬ rimeter, consists of a reaction chamber surrounded by a liquid that absorbs the heat produced by the reaction. The amount of heat can be determined from the increase in temperature, taking into account the properties of the container and the liquid.

Caltech See California Institute of Technology

Calukya Vka-bk-y3\ dynasty or Chalukya dynasty Either of two ancient Indian dynasties. The Western Calukyas ruled as emperors in the Deccan (peninsular India) from ad 543 to 757 and again from c. 975 to c. 1189. The Eastern Calukyas ruled in Vengi (present-day eastern Andhra Pradesh) from c. 624 to c. 1070. The most significant ruling fam¬ ily of the Deccan in the 5th and 6th centuries, they controlled both coasts and the major river valleys.

Cab Calloway.

SCHOMBURG CENTER FOR RESEARCH IN BLACK CULTURE; THE NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY; ASTOR, LENOX AND TILDEN FOUNDATIONS

Calmette

HARUNGUE-H. ROGER-VIOLLET

316 I calumet ► Cambodia

calumet Vkal-ys-.metA or sacred pipe or peace pipe One of the

central ceremonial objects of many American Indian groups. It was con¬ sidered a microcosm, its parts and its decorative colours and motifs cor¬ responding to the essential parts of the universe. It was smoked in personal prayer as well as at collective rites. Because of the narcotic effect of the tobacco and the symbolism of the indrawn and ascending smoke, the calumet was employed as a means of communication between the spirit world and humans.

Calvary or Golgotha Hill in Jerusalem. The purported site of Jesus' Crucifixion, the hill was outside the Old City walls of Jerusalem and near the sepulchre where Jesus was said to have been afterward interred. Its exact location is uncertain, but most scholars prefer either the spot now covered by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre or a hillock called Gordon’s Calvary north of the Damascus Gate.

Calvert, George See George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore

Calvert, Leonard (b. c. 1606, England—d. June 9, 1647, St. Mary’s, Md.) First governor of the Maryland colony. He was the younger brother of Cecil Calvert, the colony’s proprietor. In 1633 he was sent from England to establish a settlement at St. Mary’s. He gradually allowed limited legislative initiative in the colony’s assembly. He lost a land con¬ flict with William Claiborne and was forced to leave Maryland (1644—46); aided by colonists, including Margaret Brent, he returned to reinstate his proprietorial rule.

Calvin, John French Jean Cauvin \ko-'va n \ (b. July 10, 1509, Noyon, Picardy, France—d. May 27, 1564, Geneva, Switz.) French Prot¬ estant theologian and major figure of the Reformation. He studied religion at the University of Paris and law in Orleans and Bourges. When he returned to Paris in 1531 he studied the Bible and became part of a move¬ ment that emphasized salvation by grace rather than by works. Govern¬ ment intolerance prompted him to move to Basel, Switz., where he wrote the first edition of Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536). Gaining a reputation among Protestant leaders, he went to Geneva to help establish Protestantism in that city. He was expelled by city fathers in 1538 but returned in 1541, when the town council instituted the church order out¬ lined in his Ecclesiastical Ordinances, including enforcement of sexual morality and abolition of Catholic “superstition.” He approved the arrest and conviction for heresy of Michael Servetus. By 1555 Calvin had suc¬ ceeded in establishing a theocracy in Geneva, where he served as pastor and head of the Genevan Academy and wrote the sermons, biblical com¬ mentaries, and letters that form the basis of Calvinism.

Calvin, Melvin (b. April 8, 1911, St. Paul, Minn., U.S.—d. Jan. 8, 1997, Berkeley, Calif.) U.S. biochemist. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Minnesota. He developed a system of using the radioactive isotope carbon-14 as a tracer element in his studies of the green alga chlo- rella. By halting the plant’s metabolism at various stages and measuring tiny amounts of radioactive compounds present, Calvin was able to iden¬ tify most of the reactions involved in the intermediate steps of photosyn¬ thesis, for which he was awarded a 1961 Nobel Prize. His research also included work in radiation chemistry and the processes leading to the ori¬ gin of life.

Calvinism In Protestantism, the theology developed and advanced by John Calvin. It was further developed by his followers and became the foundation of the Reformed church and Presbyterianism. As shaped by Calvin’s successor at Geneva, Theodore Beza (1519-1605), Calvinism emphasizes the doctrine of predestination, holding that God extends grace and grants salvation only to the chosen, or elect. It stresses the literal truth of the Bible, and it views the church as a Christian community in which Christ is head and all members are equal under him. It therefore rejects the episcopal form of church government in favor of an organization in which church officers are elected. Calvinism was the basis of theocracies in Geneva and Puritan New England (see Puritanism), and it strongly influ¬ enced the Presbyterian church in Scotland.

Calvino \kal-'ve-no\, Italo (b. Oct. 15, 1923, Santiago de las Vegas, Cuba—d. Sept. 19, 1985, Siena, Italy) Cuban-born Italian writer. After early works inspired by his involvement with the Italian Resistance in World War II, he turned decisively to fantasy and allegory in the 1950s. Cosmicomics (1965) is a collection of whimsical narratives about the cre¬ ation and evolution of the universe. The novels Invisible Cities (1972), The Castle of Crossed Destinies (1973), and If on a Winter’s Night a Traveler (1979) use playfully innovative structures and shifting view¬

points. The Uses of Literature (1980) is a collection of essays he wrote for a left-wing journal he edited from 1959 to 1966.

calypso \k3-'lip-so\ Musical style best known as a type of folk song. Calypso originated in Trinidad but is common throughout the Caribbean. The calypso tradition dates to the early 19th century. The subject of a calypso text, usually witty and satiric, is an event of political or social import. The lyric often incorporates Spanish, Creole, and African phrases, employing newly invented expressions such as bobol (graft) and pakoti (unfaithfulness). The exaggeration of local speech patterns is matched by an offbeat rhythm. Favourite accompanying instruments are the shak-shak (maraca), cuatro (a string instrument), and tamboo-bamboo (bamboo poles of various lengths struck on the ground). Shaped and tuned oil drums, played together in orchestras called steel bands, have also been popular.

cam Machine component that either rotates or reciprocates (moves back and forth) to create a prescribed motion in a contacting element (the fol¬ lower). Since the shape of the contacting surface of the cam is determined by the prescribed motion and the profile of the follower, cams take vari¬ ous forms. Cam-follower mechanisms are particularly useful when a simple motion of one part of a machine is to be converted to a more com¬ plicated prescribed motion of another part, one that must be accurately timed with respect to the simple motion and may include periods of rest (dwells). Cams are essential elements in automatic machine tools, printing machines, sewing machines, and textile machinery.

Cam Ranh Vkam-'ranV Bay Vietnamese Vinh Cam Ranh Inlet of the South China Sea, south-central Vietnam. Located between Phan Rang and Nha Trang, it was a French colonial naval base. It was used by the Japanese in World War II. From 1965 it was a major U.S. base in the Vietnam War. It later was a major Soviet naval base, and Russia main¬ tained a presence there after the dissolution of the U.S.S.R.

Camaguey \,ka-ma-'gwa\ City (pop., 1994 est.: 293,961), capital of Camagiiey province, Cuba. Founded at the site of the present-day port of Nuevitas, it was moved inland in 1528. Because of the province’s great production of livestock and agricultural products, it is now Cuba’s larg¬ est interior city and an important communications, trading, and industrial centre.

Camargo \ka-mar-'go\, Marie (-Anne de Cupis de) (b. April 15, 1710, Brussels, Spanish Netherlands—d. April 20, 1770, Paris, Fr.) French ballerina. She made her Paris Opera debut in 1726 and went on to dance in 78 ballets and operas before her retirement in 1751. Admired for her speed and agility, she executed jumping steps previously per¬ formed only by male dancers, shortening her skirts and removing the heels from her slippers to enable her do so. Her name was adopted in 1930 by a British ballet group, the Camargo Society.

Camargue \ka-'marg\ Marshy island in the delta of the Rhone River, southern France. Occupying an area of 300 sq mi (780 sq km), it is sparsely populated). The region was once entirely wild, with free-roaming herds of cattle and wild horses; such herds can still be found in the regional park. Vineyards, forage crops, and grains were planted begin¬ ning in the late 19th century; rice growing developed after 1945. A nature reserve at the Vaccares Lagoon protects waterbirds such as flamingos and egrets.

Cambay, Gulf of See Gulf of Khambhat Cambio, Arnolfo di See Arnolfo di Cambio

cambium In plants, a layer of actively dividing cells between xylem (fluid-conducting) and phloem (food-conducting) tissues that is responsible for the secondary growth of stems and roots, resulting in an increase in thickness. A cambium may also form within callus tissues. See also bark, WOOD.

Cambodia officially Kingdom of Cambodia Country, Southeast Asia. Area: 69,898 sq mi (181,035 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 13,327,000. Capital: Phnom Penh. The vast majority of the population belongs to the Khmer ethnic group. Language: Khmer (official). Reli¬ gions: Buddhism (official); also traditional beliefs. Currency: riel. The landscape is dominated by large central plains; the Dangrek Mountains rise along the northern border. Cambodia lies largely in the basin of the Mekong River; the large lake Tonle Sap is in its western part. Much of the country is tropical forest. It is one of the world’s poorest countries. Agri¬ culture employs about three-fourths of the workforce. Cambodia is a con¬ stitutional monarchy with two legislative houses; its chief of state is the

Cambodian ► Cambridge i 317

king, and its head of government is the prime minister. In the early centuries ad the area was under Hindu and, to a lesser extent, Buddhist influence. The Khmer state gradually spread in the early 8th century

and reached its height under Jayavarman II and his successors in the 9th- 12th centuries, when it ruled the Mekong valley and neighbouring states and built Angkor. Buddhism was widely adopted in the 13th century. From the 13th century the state was attacked by Annam and Tai (Siamese) city-states and was subject largely to Tai and Vietnamese hegemony. It became a French protectorate in 1863. It was occupied by the Japanese in World War II and became independent in 1954. Its borders were the scene of fighting in the Vietnam War from 1961, and in 1970 its north¬ eastern and eastern areas were occupied by the North Vietnamese and penetrated by U.S. and South Vietnamese forces. A bombing campaign in Cambodia by U.S. warplanes alienated much of the population, enabling the communist Khmer Rouge under Pol Pot to seize power in 1975. Their regime of terror resulted in the deaths of at least 1.5 million Cambodi¬ ans. Vietnam invaded in 1978 and drove the Khmer Rouge into the west¬ ern hinterlands, but Cambodian infighting continued. A peace accord was reached by most Cambodian factions under UN auspices in 1991. Elec¬ tions were held in 1993, and Norodom Sihanouk was restored to the mon¬ archy. A civilian government slowly emerged under UN tutelage until 1997, when a coup by Hun Sen consolidated his position as prime min¬ ister. Hun Sen’s party won legislative elections in 1998; also that year, Cambodia became part of ASEAN.

Cambodian See Khmer

Cambodian language See Khmer language

Cambon \ka n -'bo n \, (Pierre-) Paul (b. Jan. 20, 1843, Paris, France—d. May 29, 1924, Paris) French diplomat. He worked in the civil service (1870-82) before entering the diplomatic service, in which he served as ambassador to Spain and Turkey. Appointed ambassador to Britain (1898-1920), he spent his first years in smoothing over Anglo- French relations. His efforts were crowned by the signing of the Entente Cordiale in 1904. During World War I he continued to play a vital role in cooperation between the two allies.

Cambrai \kam-'bra. League of (1508-10) Alliance of Pope Julius II, Emperor Maximilian I, King Louis XII, and King Ferdinand V, formed in 1508. Ostensibly directed against the Turks, its actual aim was to attack the Republic of Venice and divide its possessions among the allies. The allies were unable to act together because of their individual ambitions, and the league collapsed in 1510, when the pope joined with Venice, while Ferdinand became neutral.

Cambrai \kam-'bra\, Treaty of or Paix des Dames Vpe-da-'damX (French: “Peace of the Ladies”) (August 3, 1529) Agreement ending one phase of the wars between Francis I of France and Emperor Charles V, temporarily confirming Spanish (Habsburg) control in Italy. It was called the Paix des Dames because it was negotiated by Louise of Savoy (1476- 1531), mother of King Francis and regent in his absence, and Margaret of Austria, aunt of Charles and regent of the Netherlands. See also Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis.

Cambrian Period Oldest time division of the Paleozoic Era. During the Cambrian, 543^190 million years ago, there were widespread seas and several scattered landmasses. The largest continent was Gondwana. The average climate was probably warmer than today, with less variation between regions. There were no land plants or animals, but there were marine organisms with either shells or skeletons. Because the dominant animals were trilobites, the Cambrian is sometimes referred to as the Age of Trilobites.

Cambridge City and administrative district (pop., 2001: 108,878), east¬ ern England. It is the county seat of Cambridgeshire. Cambridge lies on the River Cam, a tributary of the Ouse, north of London. Originally a ford¬ ing site, Cambridge possesses earthworks and Roman remains. Two monastic foundations date from the 11th-12th centuries. Cambridge received its first charter in 1207. It is best known as the site of the Uni¬ versity of Cambridge, noted for its educational excellence and outstanding architecture. The city’s economy is linked to the university and its research and development services.

Corpus Christi College, University of Cambridge, Cambridge.

SHOSTAL

Cambridge City (pop., 2000: 101,355), northeastern Massachusetts, U.S. Adjacent to Boston, it was founded in 1630 as one of the Massachu¬ setts Bay Colony settlements. The first American institution of higher learning. Harvard College (see Harvard University), was founded here in 1636. George Washington took command of the Continental Forces at what is now Cambridge Common in 1775. In the 19th century it was the home of such literary leaders as Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, James Rus¬ sell Lowell, and Oliver Wendell Holmes. The Massachusetts Institute of Tech¬ nology moved to Cambridge from Boston in 1916.

Cambridge, University of Autonomous institution of higher learn¬ ing in Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England. Its beginnings lie in an exo¬ dus of scholars from the University of Oxford in 1209. Its first college was built in 1284, and the university was officially recognized by the pope in 1318. From 1511 Desiderius Erasmus did much to inculcate the new learning of the Renaissance at Cambridge. In 1546 Henry VIII founded Trinity College, which remains the largest of Cambridge’s 31 colleges. From 1669 Isaac Newton taught mathematics, giving this field a unique position there. In 1871 James Clerk Maxwell accepted the chair of experi¬ mental physics, beginning a leadership in physics that would continue into the next century. A host of world-renowned scholars in other fields have also taught at Cambridge, including John Maynard Keynes in economics and Stephen W. Hawking in applied mathematics and theoretical physics. Many of the university’s buildings, including the famous King’s College Chapel and two chapels designed by Christopher Wren, are rich in history and tradition. The library houses numerous important collections, and the Fitzwilliam Museum contains noteworthy collections of antiquities.

318 I Cambridge Agreement ► Cameron

Cambridge Agreement Pledge made in Cambridge, England, in

1629 by Puritan stockholders of the Massachusetts Bay Co. to emigrate to New England if the colony’s government could be transferred there. The company agreed and shifted control of the corporation to the signers of the agreement. John Winthrop was elected governor, and he set sail in

1630 with a large group of Puritan followers to settle in the Boston area (see Massachusetts Bay Colony).

Cambridge Platonists Vpla-t 3 n-ists\ Group of 17th-century British philosophic and religious thinkers. Led by Benjamin Whichcote (1609- 1683), it included Ralph Cudworth and Henry More (1614-1687) at Cam¬ bridge and Joseph Glanvill (1636-1680) at Oxford. Educated as Puritans, they reacted against the Calvinist emphasis on the arbitrariness of divine sovereignty. In their eyes, Thomas Hobbes and the Calvinists erred in mak¬ ing the voluntarist assumption (see voluntarism) that morality consists in obeying the will of a sovereign. Morality, they asserted, is essentially rational, and the good person’s virtue is grounded in an understanding of the eternal and immutable nature of goodness, which not even God can alter through sovereign power.

Cambridgeshire Vkam-brij-.shuA Administrative (pop., 2001: 552,655), geographic, and historic county, eastern England. Greatly enlarged in the government reorganization in 1974, Cambridgeshire now includes part of the former county of Huntingdonshire and the Isle of Ely; the county seat is Cambridge. Prehistoric tracks ring the fens; drainage was begun by the Romans. Major structures include Ely Cathedral and the buildings of the University of Cambridge. Cambridgeshire is crossed by two major rivers, the Nen and the Ouse, with its tributary the Cam.

Camden Town Group Group of English painters formed in 1911. The artists met weekly in the studio of Walter Sickert (1860-1942), the group’s prime inspiration, in a working-class area of London. The Camden Town artists utilized an Impressionist technique but were also open to the influ¬ ence of Post-Impressionism. Their subject matter was derived from the everyday life of an English industrial town. Despite a somewhat expres¬ sive use of colour, their paintings remained representational and realistic, reflecting an interpretation of a modem aesthetic different from the more formally daring developments emerging in Paris at the same time. The Camden Town Group was absorbed in 1913 by the London Group, a com¬ bination of several smaller groups of contemporary English artists.

camel Either of two species of large, hump-backed ruminants of the family Camelidae. Camels are used as draft and saddle animals in desert regions of Africa, Arabia, and Asia.

Adaptations to windblown deserts include double rows of eyelashes, the ability to close the nostrils, and wide-spreading soft feet. They also can tolerate dehydration and high body temperatures. They are thus able to go several days without drinking water. Though docile when properly trained, camels can be dan¬ gerous. The Bactrian camel ( Came- lus bactrianus) is about 7 ft (2 m) tall at the top of the two humps; the Ara¬ bian camel (C. dromedarius), or dromedary, has one hump and is 7 ft (2 m) high at the shoulder. When food is available, camels store fat in their humps to be used later for sus¬ tenance; water is produced as a by-product of fat metabolism. The feral camels of Australia were introduced to that continent in the 1800s.

camel racing Sport of running camels at speed, with a rider astride, over a predetermined course. The sport is generally limited to running the dromedary—whose name is derived from the Greek verb dramein, “to run”—rather than the Bactrian camel. Camel racing on the Arabian Pen¬ insula can be traced to at least the 7th century. Although traditionally overshadowed by horse racing in that region, the racing of camels was long a folk sport practiced at social gatherings and festivals. In the late 20th century it was organized into a formal sport, similar to Thorough¬ bred horse racing. The sport is popular in India, Australia, parts of East Africa, and especially the Arab countries of the Middle East. A race typi¬ cally has 25 to 30 entries and covers distances ranging from 2.5 to 6 mi (4 to 10 km).

camellia Nko-'mel-yoV Any of the East Asian evergreen shrubs and trees that make up the genus Camellia in the tea family (Theaceae), most notable for three ornamental flowering species and for C. sinensis (some¬ times called Thea sinensis ), the source of tea. The common camellia (C. japonica ) is the best-known, particularly for its double (many-petaled) cultivated varieties. The tea plant (C. sinensis ), reaching 30 ft (9 m) in the wild but in cultivation kept to a low, mounded shrub, bears fragrant white, yellow-centred flowers.

Camelot In Arthurian legend, the seat of King Arthur’s court. It has been variously identified with Caerleon in Wales, Queen Camel in Somerset, Camelford in Cornwall, Winchester in Hampshire, and Cadbury Castle in Somerset. Camelot has come to symbolize a short-lived golden era under a beloved leader.

cameo Hard or precious stone, glass, ceramic, or shell carved in relief above the surface. It is the opposite of intaglio. Surviving cameos date from the early Sumerian period (c.

3100 bc) to the decline of Roman civilization, and from the Renais¬ sance to the Neoclassical period of the 18th century. They were carved with mythological scenes and por¬ traits, and many commemorated spe¬ cific persons. In the 18th—19th century, cameos adorned diadems, belts, brooches, and bracelets.

cameo glass Glassware deco¬ rated with figures and forms in coloured glass carved in relief against a glass background of a con¬ trasting colour. It is produced by blowing two layers of glass together.

When the glass has cooled, an out¬ line of the design is drawn on the surface and covered with wax. The glass is then etched down to the inner layer, leaving the design outline in relief. Fine cameo glass was produced by the Romans in the 1st century ad. The art was revived by John Northwood in England and Emile Galle in France in the late 19th century.

camera Device for recording an image of an object on a light-sensitive surface (see photography). It is essentially a light-tight box with an open¬ ing (aperture) to admit light focused onto a sensitized film or plate. All cameras have included five crucial components: (1) the camera box, which holds and protects the sensitive film from all light except that entering through the lens; (2) film, on which the image is recorded; (3) the light control, consisting of an aperture or diaphragm and a shutter, both often adjustable; (4) the lens, which focuses the light rays from the subject onto the film, creating the image; and (5) the viewing system, which may be separate from the lens system (usually above it) or may operate through it by means of a mirror. The camera was inspired by the camera obscura—a dark enclosure with an aperture (usually provided with a lens) through which light enters to form an image of outside objects on the opposite surface—and was developed by Nicephore Niepce and L.-J.-M. Daguerre in the early 19th century. See also digital camera.

Camerarius \,kam-3-'rar-e-3s\, Rudolph (Jacob) German Rudolph Camerer (b. Feb. 17, 1665, Tubingen, Ger.—d. Sept. 11, 1721, Tubingen) German botanist. One of the first to perform experiments in heredity, he demonstrated sexuality in plants by identifying and defin¬ ing the male and female reproductive parts of the plant and by describ¬ ing their function in fertilization, showing that pollen is required for the process.

Cameron, Julia Margaret (b. June 11, 1815, Calcutta, India—d. Jan. 26, 1879, Kalutara, Ceylon) British portrait photographer. In 1864, after receiving a camera as a gift, she set up a studio and darkroom and began taking portraits. Her sitters were friends such as Alfred Tennyson, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and Charles Darwin. Her sensitive portraits of women, such as that of Ellen Terry, are especially noteworthy. Like many Victorian photographers, she made allegorical photographs in imi¬ tation of the Pre-Raphaelite paintings of the day. Her technical ability was criticized, but she was more interested in spiritual depth than in technical perfection; her portraits are considered exceptionally fine.

Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus)

©GEORGE HOLTON-THE NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCIETY COLLECTION/PHOTO RESEARCHERS

"The Rape of Europa," cameo in gold and enamel frame, 16th—17th century; in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

COURTESY OF THE KUNSTHISTORISCHES MUSEUM, VIENNA

Cameron ► Campania i 319

Cameron, Simon (b. March 8, 1799, Maytown, Pa., U.S.—d. June 26, 1889, Donegal Springs, Pa.) U.S. politician. He was successful in sev¬ eral businesses before entering the U.S. Senate (1845-49, 1857-61, and 1867-77). As leader of Pennsylvania’s Republican Party, he helped secure the nomination of Abraham Lincoln in 1860. Appointed secretary of war in 1861, he was soon dismissed for showing favouritism in awarding army contracts.

Cameroon officially Republic of Cameroon Country, West Africa. Area: 183,569 sq mi (475,442 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 16,988,000. Capital: Yaounde. The country has numerous ethnic groups, including the

Fang (one-fifth of the population), Bam- ileke (one-fifth), Duala, and Fulani. Pyg¬ mies (locally known as Baguielli and Babinga) live in the southern forests. Lan¬ guages: French, English (both official), Fula, Bamileke, Duala. Religions: Christianity (mostly Roman Catholic; also Protestant), traditional beliefs, Islam (mainly in the north). Currency: CFA franc. Cameroon has four geographic regions. The southern area consists of coastal plains and a densely forested plateau. The central region rises progressively to the north and includes the Adamawa Plateau. In the north a savanna plain slopes downward toward the Lake Chad basin. To the west and north along the Nigerian border the relief is mountain¬ ous and includes Mount Cameroon. Of the main rivers, the Sanaga drains into the Atlantic Ocean, and the Benue flows westward into the Niger River basin in Nigeria. Cameroon has a developing market economy based largely on agriculture but with a growing services sector. It is a republic with one legislative house; its chief of state is the president and its head of government the prime minister. Long inhabited before European colo¬ nization, Cameroon was peopled by Bantu-language speakers coming from equatorial Africa to settle in the south. They were followed by Mus¬ lim Fulani from the Niger River basin, who settled in the north. Portu¬ guese explorers visited in the late 15th century, and the Dutch were also active there. In 1884 the Germans took control and extended their pro¬ tectorate over Cameroon. In World War I joint French-British action forced the Germans to retreat, and after the war the region was divided into French and British administrative zones. After World War II the two areas became UN trusteeships. In 1960 the French trust territory became an independent republic. In 1961 the southern part of the British trust ter¬ ritory voted for union with the new Republic of Cameroon, and the north¬ ern part voted for union with Nigeria. The independent country has faced chronic economic problems, which have produced unrest in the country.

Cameroon, Mount Volcanic massif, Cameroon. Rising to 13,435 ft (4,095 m), it is the highest peak in West Africa. Extending 14 mi (23 km) inland from the Gulf of Guinea, it is the westernmost extension of a series

of mountains that form a natural boundary between Cameroon and Nige¬ ria. Richard Burton climbed its summit in 1861. The volcano last erupted in 2000.

Camilla In Roman mythology, a legendary warrior maiden and favourite of Diana. According to Virgil, her father dedicated her to Diana and trained her as a hunter and warrior, and she led a band of warriors that included women. She fought against Aeneas and was killed as she chased a retreat¬ ing soldier.

Camillus \k3-'mil-3s\, Marcus Furius (d. 365 bc) Roman soldier and statesman. He allegedly defeated the Gauls after their sack of Rome (c. 390), for which he was honoured as the city’s second founder. Awarded four triumphs and made dictator five times, he enjoyed his greatest victory in 396, over the Etruscans at Veii. Though a patrician, he adopted reforms beneficial to the army and the plebeians (367).

Camisards Vkam-o-.zardzV Protestant militants in southern France who opposed Louis XIV’s persecution of Protestantism. The armed insurrection, which began in 1702, came in response to Louis’s revocation of the Edict of Nantes, ending religious toleration. The well-organized Camisards, so named for their white shirts (in French dialect, camisa ), fought success¬ fully and even held royal armies in check. In response, the government burned hundreds of villages and massacred their populations. By 1705, with many of the Camisard leaders captured and executed, the revolt had lost its force.

Camoes \k3-'m6i n sh\, Luis (Vaz) de (b. c. 1524/25, Lisbon—d. June 10, 1580, Lisbon) Portuguese poet. A member of the impoverished aris¬ tocracy, he may have spent about 17 years in India. His masterpiece, the epic The Lusiads (1572), extols glorious deeds in Portuguese history as it recounts Vasco da Gama’s discovery of the sea route to India. His numerous lyric pieces (together with many apocryphal poems) appeared posthumously in editions of the poetry collection Rimas (from 1595). He also wrote dramatic works, including Filodemo (1587), in which he devel¬ oped the auto , a kind of morality play, and the comedy The Two Amphi- tryons (1587). He had an unparalleled impact on Portuguese and Brazilian literature and is regarded as Portugal’s national poet.

camouflage Vka-mo-.flazhX Art and practice of concealment and visual deception in war. Its goal is to prevent enemy observation of installations, personnel, equipment, and activities. Camouflage came into wide use in World War I in response to air warfare. Aerial reconnaissance (and later aerial bombardment) required concealment of troops and equipment. By World War II, long-range bombing threatened warring countries in their entirety, and almost everything of military significance was hidden to some degree, using mottled, dull-coloured paint patterns (green, gray, or brown), cloth garnishing, netting, and natural foliage. Dummies and decoys, including fake vehicles and airfields, tricked enemy planes into bombing harmless targets. It remained an important technique after World War II, used with notable success by communist guerrilla units in the Vietnam War.

Camp David Rural retreat of U.S. presidents, northern Maryland. The scenic mountainous area (200 acres, or 81 hectares) was established as “Shangri-La” in 1942 by Pres. Franklin Roosevelt and made an official presidential retreat by Harry Truman in 1945. In 1953 Dwight D. Eisen¬ hower renamed it Camp David for his grandson. It has been the scene of a number of high-level presidential conferences with foreign heads of state. See also Camp David Accords.

Camp David Accords (1978) Two agreements reached between Men- achem Begin of Israel and Anwar el-Sadat of Egypt with the help of U.S. President Jimmy Carter at Camp David, Md., U.S. One agreement created a framework for negotiations to arrive at a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel, formally ending some 30 years of being in a state of war. This treaty, normalizing relations, was signed in 1979 and led to the return of the Sinai Peninsula, occupied by Israel in the Six-Day War (1967), to Egypt. The other agreement created a framework for a broader peace in the region that included a plan for Palestinian self-rule in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. The latter provisions were not implemented. See also Moshe Dayan.

Campania \kam-'pa-nya\ Region (pop., 2001 prelim.: 5,652,492), southern Italy. It is located on the Tyrrhenian Sea and occupies 5,249 sq mi (13,595 sq km). Its capital is Naples. Occupied successively by Greeks, Etruscans, and Samnites, Campania became an ally of Rome c. 350 bc. It was a favourite resort of the Romans, and it is noted for its natural beauty and famous old towns, including Cumae, Pompeii, Capua, Salemum, and

320 I campanile ► campion

Neapolis (Naples). After the fall of Rome, Campania was ruled by Gaul, Byzantium, and the Normans; it became part of the Kingdom of Naples in 1282. It was united with Italy in 1861. Its economy is bolstered by agriculture, the industrial area around Naples, and tourism.

campanile \,kam-p3- , ne-le\ Italian belltower, originally built beside or attached to a church. The earliest campaniles (7th-10th century) were plain round towers with a few small arched openings near the top; the Leaning Tower of Pisa is an elaborate version of this type. The Venetian form of campanile consisted of a tall, square, slim shaft, frequently tapered, with a belfry at the top, above which rose the spire, sometimes square as in the famous campanile of St. Mark's Basilica (1 Oth— 12th cen¬ tury, belfry story 1510). After falling out of favor during the Renaissance, the Venetian type was revived in the 19th century, often in connection with factories, housing, or collegiate buildings.

campanula See bellflower

Campbell, John Archibald (b. June 24, 1811, Washington, Ga., U.S.—d. March 12, 1889, Baltimore, Md.) U.S. jurist. After being admit¬ ted to the bar at age 18, he moved to Alabama, where he gained a large private practice and served in the state legislature. Appointed to the Supreme Court of the United States in 1853, he became known as a strict constructionist; his tenure was notable for his concurrence in the Dred Scott decision. Although he opposed secession as imprudent, he resigned from the Supreme Court in 1861 and cast his lot with the South in the American Civil War, serving as assistant secretary of war for the Con¬ federacy. After the South’s surrender he was imprisoned for four months on false charges. Upon his release he moved to New Orleans, where he established a law practice.

Campbell, Joseph (b. March 26, 1904, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Oct. 31, 1987, Honolulu, Hawaii) U.S. author of works on comparative mythology. He studied English literature and taught at Sarah Lawrence College. He explored the common functions of myths in human cultures, examining mythic archetypes in folklore and literature from around the world. His views, strongly influenced by Carl Gustav Jung, were popu¬ larized through a public-television series in the 1980s. His books include The Hero with a Thousand Faces (1949) and The Masks of God (4 vol.,

1959-67).

Campbell, Kim orig. Avril Phaedra Campbell (b. March 10, 1947, Port Alberni, B.C., Can.) Prime minister of Canada (1993). She taught political science at the University of British Columbia and prac¬ ticed law for two years before turning to politics. In 1988 she was elected to the federal parliament as a Progressive Conservative. Under Prime Minister Brian Mulroney, she became minister for Indian affairs (1989), attorney general (1990), and defense minister (1993). Upon Mulroney’s retirement in June 1993, she became Canada’s first female prime minis¬ ter and the first prime minister from the West Coast. Her tenure was brief; in November her party suffered a heavy defeat, and she resigned as party leader.

Campbell, Mrs. Patrick orig. Beatrice Stella Tanner (b. Feb. 9, 1865, London, Eng.—d. April 9, 1940, Pau, France) British actress. She married at age 19 and made her stage debut in 1888, winning fame as Paula in The Second Mrs. Tanqueray in 1893. She originated the role of Eliza Doolittle in George Bernard Shaw’s Pygmalion (1914), and she and Shaw conducted a famous correspondence for many years. She also achieved great success in Maurice Maeterlinck’s Pelleas and Melisande, Henrik Ibsen’s Ghosts, and Sophocles' Electra. She made her film debut in Riptide (1933) at age 68 and later appeared in several more films.

Campbell family Vkam-boL or Campbells of Argyll \ar-'gil\ Scottish noble family. The Campbells of Lochow gained prominence in the later Middle Ages. In 1457 Colin Campbell, Baron Campbell (died 1493), was created 1st earl of Argyll. Archibald (died 1558), 4th earl, was a leading Protestant. Archibald (15327-1573), 5th earl, was also a Prot¬ estant but supported the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots. Archibald (16077-1661), 8th earl, was the leader of Scotland’s anti-Royalist party in the English Civil Wars. His son Archibald (1629-1685), 9th earl, was a Protestant leader executed for his opposition to the Roman Catholic king James II. Archibald (16517-1703), 10th earl, regained the family estates and was created 1st duke of Argyll; he organized the massacre of the Macdonalds of Glencoe. John Campbell (1678-1743), 2nd duke, sup¬ ported union with England and was commander of the British forces in the Jacobite rebellion of 1715. Archibald (1682-1761), 3rd duke, was a

prominent politician during the early Hanoverian period in Britain. After he died without a legitimate heir, the succession passed to the Campbells of Mamore.

Campbell-Bannerman, Sir Henry orig. Henry Campbell (b.

Sept. 7, 1836, Glasgow, Scot.—d. April 22, 1908, London, Eng.) British politician. A member of the House of Commons from 1868, he was elected leader of the Liberal Party in 1899 and served as prime minister (1905- OS). His popularity unified his badly divided party. Though much of his legislative program was nullified by the House of Lords, he obtained approval of the Trades Disputes Act of 1906. He took the lead in grant¬ ing self-government to the Transvaal and the Orange River Colony, thereby securing the Boers’ loyalty to the British Empire.

Campeche \kam-'pa-cha\ State (pop., 2000: 690,689), southeastern Mexico. Covering 19,619 sq mi (50,812 sq km), its capital is Campeche. Located on the Yucatan Peninsula, it is bounded by the Gulf of Mexico. Named for the ancient Mayan province of Kimpech (Campech), it com¬ prises much of the western part of the peninsula. Rivers in the southern part drain into Terminos Lagoon, at whose gulf entrance is the area’s chief depot, Ciudad del Carmen. Forest products and commercial fishing are important to the economy.

Campeche City (pop., 2000: 190,813), capital of Campeche state, Mexico. The Spanish town was founded in 1540 on the site of a Mayan village, the remains of which are still visible. It became the capital of the newly created Campeche state in 1863. It is a service centre for offshore oil drilling facilities.

Campeche, Bay of Inlet of the Gulf of Mexico. Bounded by the Yucatan Peninsula, the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and the southern part of the state of Veracruz, it covers about 6,000 sq mi (15,500 sq km). Major offshore oil fields were developed in the bay in the 1970s, and it became Mexico’s principal oil-producing region. In 1979 an accident at an oil well there released some 3 million barrels of crude oil into the gulf; the gov¬ ernment spent more than $100 million to bring the spill under control.

camphor Organic compound of the isoprenoid family. A white, waxy solid with a penetrating, somewhat musty aroma, it is obtained from the wood of the camphor laurel (see laurel family), Cinnamomum camphora (found in Asia), or produced synthetically from oil of turpentine. It has long been used in incense and as a medicinal. Modem applications include use as a plasticizer for cellulose nitrate, as a moth repellent, as a flavour¬ ing, in embalming, and in fireworks. Camphorated oil is 20% camphor in olive oil.

Campin Vkam-pin\, Robert (b. c. 1378, Tournai, Fr.—d. April 26, 1444, Tournai) Flemish painter. He is identified with the Master of Fle- malle on stylistic grounds. Documents show that Campin was a master painter in Tournai in 1406; two students are listed as entering his studio in 1427: Rogier van der Weyden and Jacques Daret. Campin’s principal surviving works are two large panels of an altarpiece once believed to have come from a nonexistent Abbey of Flemalle. The famous Merode Altarpiece, a triptych of the Annunciation formerly regarded as his mas¬ terpiece, is now thought to be by a member of his workshop or circle. Characterized by a naturalistic conception of form and a poetic represen¬ tation of the objects of daily life, Campin’s work marks the break with the prevailing International Gothic style and prefigures the achievements of the painters of the Northern Renaissance. Despite much uncertainty about his life and work, he was one of the most important and influential Flemish artists of the 15th century.

camping Recreational activity in which participants live outdoors, often in the wilderness, usually using tents, trailers, or motor homes, but some¬ times only a sleeping bag, for shelter. Modem camping originated near the end of the 19th century in the U.S. as a rough, back-to-nature pastime for hardy lovers of nature. Canoes were the original vehicle; bicycle camping soon followed. Camping was a major part of the programs of the Boy Scouts and Girl Guides (see scouting). It gained greatly in popular¬ ity after World War II. As the number of campgrounds with greater ameni¬ ties grew, it became the standard holiday for many ordinary families. Recent decades have seen its continued growth, to the point of placing a serious strain on the resources of state and federal outdoor-recreation areas. See also backpacking.

campion Any of the ornamental rock-garden or border plants that make up the genus Silene, of the pink family, consisting of about 500 species of herbaceous plants found throughout the world. The name is also applied

Campion ► Canada Act I 321

to members of the genus Lychnis of the same family. Some species of Silene stand erect; others are spread¬ ing plants. The stems often are cov¬ ered with a sticky material. Some species have solitary flowers; others have branched clusters of red, white, or pink flowers. The fruit is a capsule.

Campion, Jane (b. April 30,

1954, Wellington, N.Z.) New Zealand film director. After training as a painter in Australia, she studied filmmaking and made several notable short films. Her first feature,

Sweetie (1989), was followed by the successful An Angel at My Table (1990). She wrote and directed the internationally acclaimed The Piano (1993) and directed The Portrait of a Lady (1996) and Holy Smoke (1999).

Campo Formio \,kam-p6-'f6r-me-o. Treaty of (Oct. 17, 1797) Peace settlement between France and Austria, signed at Campo Formio (now Campoformido, Italy) following Austria’s defeat in Napoleon’s first Italian campaign. The treaty preserved most of the French conquests and completed Napoleon’s victory over the First Coalition, the group of Euro¬ pean nations opposing him. See also French Revolutionary Wars.

Campobasso X.kam-po-'ba-soX City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 46,860), Italy. Located northeast of Naples, it is the capital of Mouse autonomous region. The old hill town was abandoned in 1732 when its inhabitants built a new town on a lower fertile plain. The old town still has a medieval castle and Romanesque churches; the new town has an archaeological museum.

Campylobacter Vkam-pi-lo-.bak-taiA Genus of gram-negative spiral¬ shaped bacteria infecting mammals. Many species, especially C. fetus , cause miscarriage in sheep and cattle. C. jejuni is a common cause of food poisoning. Sources include meats (particularly chicken) and unpas¬ teurized milk. Infection causes acute gastroenteritis, fever, headache, and joint and muscle pain; nerve damage and death may occur in severe cases.

Camus \ka-'mie\, Albert (b. Nov. 7, 1913, Mondovi, Alg.—d. Jan. 4, 1960, near Sens, France) Algerian-French novelist, essayist, and play¬ wright. Born into a working-class family, Camus graduated from the uni¬ versity in Algiers and then worked with a theatrical company, becoming associated with leftist causes. He spent the war years in Paris, and the French Resistance brought him into the circle of Jean-Paul Sartre and exis¬ tentialism. He became a leading literary figure with his enigmatic first novel, The Stranger (1942), a study of 20th-century alienation, and the philosophical essay “The Myth of Sisyphus” (1942), an analysis of con¬ temporary nihilism and the concept of the absurd. The Plague (1947), his allegorical second novel, and “The Rebel” (1951), another long essay, developed related issues. Other major works include the short-story col¬ lection Exile and the Kingdom (1957) and the posthumous autobiographi¬ cal novel The First Man (1994). His plays include Le Malentendu (1944) and Caligula (1944). Camus won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1957. He died in a car accident.

Canaan Vka-naM Ancient name for an area of shifting boundaries but centred on Palestine. Coastal Canaanite civilization dates to the Paleolithic Period; towns developed in Neolithic times (c. 7000-4000 bc). The name appears in writings from the 15th century bc. Invaded by the Hebrews (c. 1200 bc), who settled in southern areas, it was later invaded by the Phi¬ listines. In the 10th century bc the Israelites, under King David, broke Phi¬ listine power, and Canaan became thereafter the Land of Israel, the “Promised Land” of the biblical book of Exodus.

Canada Country, North America. Area: 3,855,103 sq mi (9,984,670 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 32,227,000. Capital: Ottawa. People of Brit¬ ish and French descent constitute more than half the population; there are significant minorities of Chinese, South Asian, German, Italian, American Indian, and Inuit (Eskimo) origin. Languages: English, French (both offi¬ cial). Religions: Christianity (mostly Roman Catholic; also Protestant, other Christians, Eastern Orthodox); also Islam, Judaism, Hinduism, Bud¬ dhism. Currency: Canadian dollar. Canada may be divided into several physiographic regions. A large interior basin centred on Hudson Bay and covering nearly four-fifths of the country is composed of the Canadian

Shield, the interior plains, and the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence lowlands. Rimming the basin are highland regions, including the Arctic Archipelago. Mountain ranges include the Rocky, Coast, and Laurentian mountains. Canada’s highest peak is Mount Logan (19,551 ft [5,959 m]) in Yukon Ter¬ ritory. Five of Canada’s rivers—the St. Lawrence, Mackenzie, Yukon, Fraser, and Nelson —rank among the world’s 40 longest. In addition to Lakes Superior and Huron, both shared with the U.S., Canada’s Great Bear and Great Save lakes are among the world’s 11 largest lakes in area. The country also includes several major islands, including Baffin, Ellesmere, Victoria, Newfoundand, and Melville, and many small ones. Its border with the U.S., the longest border in the world not patrolled by military forces, extends 5,525 mi (8,890 km). With a developed market economy that is export-directed and closely linked with that of the U.S., Canada is one of the world’s most prosperous countries. It is a parliamentary state with two legislative houses; its chief of state is the British monarch, whose repre¬ sentative is Canada’s governor-general, and the head of government is the prime minister. Originally inhabited by American Indians and Inuit, Canada was visited c. ad 1000 by Scandinavian explorers, whose settle¬ ment is confirmed by archaeological evidence from Newfoundland. Fish¬ ing expeditions off Newfoundland by the English, French, Spanish, and Portuguese began as early as 1500. The French claim to Canada was made in 1534 when Jacques Cartier entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence. A small settlement was made in Nova Scotia (Acadia) in 1604, and by 1608 Samuel de Champain had reached Quebec. Fur trading was the impetus behind the early colonizing efforts. In response to French activity, the English in 1670 formed the Hudson's Bay Company. The British-French rivalry for the inte¬ rior of upper North America lasted almost a century. The first French loss occurred in 1713 at the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (War of the Span¬ ish Succession), when Nova Scotia and Newfoundland were ceded to the British. The Seven Years' War (French and Indian War) resulted in France’s expulsion from continental North America in 1763. After the American Revolution Canada’s population was augmented by loyalists fleeing the United States, and the increasing number arriving in Quebec led the Brit¬ ish to divide the colony into Upper and Lower Canada in 1791. The British reunited the two provinces in 1841. Canadian expansionism resulted in the confederation movement of the mid-19th century, and in 1867 the Domin¬ ion of Canada, comprising Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, and Ontario, came into existence. After confederation, Canada entered a period of westward expansion. The prosperity that accompanied Canada into the 20th century was marred by continuing conflict between the English and French communities. Through the Statute of Westminster (1931), Canada was recognized as an equal partner of Great Britain. With the Canada Act of 1982, the British gave Canada total control over its con¬ stitution and severed the remaining legal connections between the two countries. French Canadian unrest continued to be a major concern, with a movement growing for Quebec separatism in the late 20th century. Ref- erendums for more political autonomy for Quebec were rejected in 1992 and 1995, but the issue remained unresolved. In 1999 Canada formed the new territory of Nunavut. See map on following page.

Canadian Prime Ministers

John A. Macdonald

1867-73

W. L. Mackenzie King

1935-48

Alexander Mackenzie

1873-78

Louis St. Laurent

1948-57

John A. Macdonald

1878-91

John G. Diefenbaker

1957-63

John Abbott

1891-92

Lester B. Pearson

1963-68

John Thompson

1892-94

Pierre Elliott Trudeau

1968-79

Mackenzie Bowell

1894-96

Joseph Clark

1979-80

Charles Tupper

1896

Pierre Elliott Trudeau

1980-84

Wilfred Laurier

1896-1911

John N. Turner

1984

Robert Laird Borden

1911-20

Brian Mulroney

1984-93

Arthur Meighen

1920-21

Kim Campbell

1993

W. L. Mackenzie King

1921-26

Jean Chretien

1993-2003

Arthur Meighen

1926

Paul Martin

2003-06

W. L. Mackenzie King Richard Bedford Bennett

1926-30

1930-35

Stephen Harper

2006-

Canada Act or Constitution Act Measure formally ending British power to legislate for Canada, approved by the British Parliament on March 25, 1982, and proclaimed by Queen Elizabeth II on April 17, 1982. The document contains the British North America Act and was approved by all the Canadian provinces except Quebec, which was denied its claim of a constitutional veto by Canada’s Supreme Court.

Ill

Canada Bill ► Canaletto I 323

Canada Bill See Constitutional Act (1791)

Canada Company Organization instrumental in colonizing much of the western part of Upper Canada (now Ontario). The company was formed in 1824 to bring settlers to the region. It was directed until 1829 by John Galt (1779-1839), founder of Guelph and father of Alexander Galt. Though the company, chartered with 2.5 million acres, was criti¬ cized as a monopoly, it continued to exist until the 1950s.

Canada Day formerly Dominion Day Annual Canadian holiday. Observed on July 1, it commemorates the formation of the Dominion of Canada on July 1, 1867. With the 1982 passage of the Canada Act, its name was officially changed to Canada Day. It is celebrated with parades, fireworks, flag display, and the singing of the national anthem, “O Canada.”

Canada East or Lower Canada Region of Canada now known as Quebec. In 1791-1841 it was known as Lower Canada and in 1841-67 as Canada East. Populated mainly by French settlers who wanted to preserve their distinctive identity and cultural traditions, it was reluctant to join the proposed confederation with Canada West. It finally agreed to confed¬ eration in 1867, providing that it would remain a territorial and govern¬ mental unit in which French Canadians would have an electoral majority.

Canada goose Brown-backed, light-breasted goose (Branta canaden¬ sis) with a black head and neck and white cheeks. Subspecies vary in size, from the 4.4-lb (2-kg) cackling goose to the 14.3-lb (6.5-kg) giant Canada goose, which has a wing- spread of up to 6.6 ft (2 m). Canada geese breed across Canada and Alaska and winter mainly in the southern U.S. and Mexico; they have been introduced into England and other countries. They are an impor¬ tant game bird. Their almost inces¬ sant honking draws attention to their V-formations during migration. In recent years their population in North America has increased, mak¬ ing them pests in some inhabited areas.

Canada West or Upper Canada Region of Canada now known as Ontario. In 1791-1841 it was known as Upper Canada and in 1841-67 as Canada West. Settled primarily by English-speaking immigrants, it sought confederation with Canada East in order to secure the unified gov¬ ernment needed for effective administration and the construction of inter¬ colonial railways. The unified Dominion of Canada was made official by the British North America Act of 1867.

Canadian Alliance French Alliance Canadienne Former con¬ servative Canadian political party. It was created in 2000 from the merger of the Reform Party of Canada with other conservative groups in an effort to mount a united challenge to the ruling Liberal Party of Canada. By 1997 the Reform Party, whose support had been concentrated in the western Canadian provinces, held 60 seats in the Canadian House of Commons and was the official opposition party. The new Canadian Alliance gained 66 seats in the 2000 election and became the official opposition, though it was unable to make significant inroads in eastern Canada. In 2003 the party merged with the Progressive Conservative Party to form the Conser¬ vative Party of Canada. The party’s platform generally favoured a reduc¬ tion in the size of government, lower taxes, and conservative positions on social issues.

Canadian Broadcasting Corp. (CBC) Canadian public broadcast¬ ing service, created in 1936 to promote Canadian culture and serve as an instrument of national unity. It offers French- and English-language pro¬ grams over AM and FM radio networks, television networks, cable tele¬ vision channels, and shortwave radio. Noted for its news and public affairs programs, the CBC also presents documentaries, dramas, classical music, entertainment, and educational programs as well as sports programs.

Canadian Football League (CFL) Major Canadian professional gridiron football organization, formed in 1958. The league’s Western Con¬ ference includes teams from Edmonton, Calgary, British Columbia, Saskatchewan, and Winnipeg; its Eastern Conference comprises teams

from Hamilton, Montreal, Ottawa, and Toronto. The conference winners compete for the Grey Cup. The CFL plays a gridiron style of football.

Canadian Labour Congress (CLC) Nationwide association of labour unions in Canada. The CLC was formed in 1956 by the merger of the Canadian counterparts to the American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations, which merged in the same year (see AFL-CIO). It represents roughly 3 million unionized workers across Canada.

Canadian National Railway Co. Corporation created by the Canadian government in 1918 to operate a number of nationalized rail¬ roads (including the old Grand Trunk lines. Intercolonial Railway, National Transcontinental Railway, and Canadian Northern Railway) as one of Canada’s two transcontinental railroad systems. Its passenger ser¬ vices were taken over by VIA Rail Canada in 1978, and the company was privatized in 1995. The Canadian National Railway stretches across Canada from Nova Scotia to Vancouver. It bought the Illinois Central Corp. in 1999, thus acquiring a railroad network that links Canada to the Gulf of Mexico.

Canadian Pacific Railway Ltd. (CPR) Privately owned company that operates one of Canada’s two transcontinental railroad systems. The company was created in 1881 to complete a railroad from Montreal to Port Moody in British Columbia. Its passenger services were taken over by VIA Rail Canada in 1978. After its former parent company, Canadian Pacific Ltd., reorganized in 2001, CPR became a publicly owned opera¬ tor of freight rail lines across Canada and in parts of the U.S.

Canadian River River, southwestern U.S. Flowing across northeast¬ ern New Mexico, it cuts a gorge nearly 1,500 ft (450 m) deep before turn¬ ing eastward to continue across northwestern Texas and through central Oklahoma to the Arkansas River in Oklahoma. It is 906 mi (1,458 km) long. Its course is punctuated by flood-control and irrigation units.

Canadian Shield One of the world’s largest geologic continental shields, centred on Hudson Bay and extending for 3 million sq mi (8 mil¬ lion sq km) over Canada from the Great Lakes to the Canadian Arctic and into Greenland, with small extensions into northern Minnesota, Wiscon¬ sin, Michigan, and New York. It is the largest mass of exposed Precam- brian rock on earth. The region as a whole is composed of ancient crystalline rocks whose complex structure attests to a long history of uplift and depression, mountain building, and erosion.

canal Artificial waterway built for transportation, irrigation, water sup¬ ply, or drainage. The early Middle Eastern civilizations probably first built canals to supply drinking and irrigation water. The most ambitious navi¬ gation canal was a 200-mi (320-km) construction in what is now Iraq. Roman canal systems for military transport extended throughout northern Europe and Britain. The most significant canal innovation was the pound lock, developed by the Dutch c. 1373. The closed chamber, or pound, of a lock is flooded or drained of water so that a vessel within it is raised or lowered in order to pass between bodies of water at different elevations. Canals were extremely important before the coming of the railroad in the mid-19th century. Among the significant waterways in the U.S. were the Erie Canal, several canals linking the Great Lakes, and one connecting the Great Lakes to the Mississippi River. Modern waterway engineering enables larger vessels to travel faster by reducing delays at locks. See also Grand Canal, Panama Canal, Suez Canal. See illustration on following page.

Canal Zone or Panama Canal Zone Strip of territory, a historic administrative entity in Panama over which the U.S. formerly exercised jurisdictional rights (1903-79). The zone came into being in 1904 when Panama granted the U.S., in return for annual payments, sole right to operate and control the Panama Canal, including a strip of land 10 mi (16 km) wide along the canal extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean and bisecting the Isthmus of Panama. The zone was abolished by treaty in 1979, and civil control of the territory was returned to Panama. By the same treaty a commission under joint U.S.-Panamanian ownership was established to operate the canal until the year 2000, when Panama assumed full control.

Canaletto \,ka-n 3 l-'e-to\ orig. Giovanni Antonio Canal (b. Oct. 18, 1697, Venice, Republic of Venice—d. April 20, 1768, Venice) Italian painter and etcher. He was trained in the studio of his father, a theatrical scene painter. From 1719 to 1720 he worked in Rome, painting scenes for operas, until he turned to painting topographical images. After his return

324 I Canaris ► cancer

Canal with a basic lock arrangement. Boats traveling upstream pass from the lower to the upper pool through the chamber (or pound) on the left; downstream traffic uses the pound on the right.

to Venice, he produced the picturesque views ( vedute ) that would bring him international fame. His pictures provide dramatic views of Venetian architecture and demonstrate skill in rendering sunlight and shadow. In the 1730s he was kept busy meeting foreign visitors’ demand for souvenir views of Venice. When the War of the Austrian Succession made foreign visitors scarce, he expanded his output to include imaginative views of Roman ruins, and in 1746 he went to England to paint views of London and the great English country houses. In 1763 he was elected to the Vene¬ tian Academy. The most famous topographical painter of the 18th century, he influenced succeeding generations of landscape artists. He is not to be confused with his nephew Bernardo Bellotto, also known as Canaletto.

Canaris \ka-'na-ros\, Wilhelm (Franz) (b. Jan. 1, 1887, Aplerbeck, Westphalia, Ger.—d. April 9, 1945, Flossenblirg concentration camp, Bavaria) German naval officer. Under Adolf Hitler, Canaris became head of military intelligence (Abwehr) in 1935. Believing that the Nazi regime would destroy traditional conservative values and that its foreign ambi¬ tions were dangerous to Germany, he enlisted some of the anti-Hitler con¬ spirators into the Abwehr and shielded their activities. After the abortive July Plot against Hitler in 1944, Canaris was arrested and executed.

canary Popular cage bird (Serinus canaria', in the goldfinch family, Carduelidae) that owes its coloration and sustained vocal powers to 400 years of selective breeding. Varieties called rollers trill almost continu¬ ously; choppers have a loud trill of distinct notes. Well-known breeds include Hartz Mountain, Norwich, and Yorkshire. The average life span of a caged canary is 10-15 years.

The canary is native to the Canary,

Azores, and Madeira islands. The wild form is streak-backed and mostly greenish brown.

Canary Islands Spanish Islas Canarias Island group and autonomous community (pop., 2005 est.: 1,968,280) of Spain located in the Atlantic Ocean 67 mi (108 km) off the

northwestern coast of Africa. The islands comprise two provinces, Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas, with an area of 2,876 sq mi (7,447 sq km). The capital is Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Known in ancient times as the “Fortunate Islands,” they were written about by both Plutarch and Pliny the Elder. Believed to be the western limit of the world, they were visited in the Middle Ages by Arabs, Genoese, Majorcans, Portuguese, and French. They were taken by Castile (see Castile-Leon) in 1404, and their indigenous inhabitants, the Guanche and Canario, were gradually con¬ quered during the 15th century. The islands became a stop on the usual route for Spanish trading vessels with the New World. Today agriculture is an economic mainstay, as is an expanding tourist trade.

canasta \k3-'nas-t9\ Form of rummy, using two full decks, in which players or partnerships try to meld groups of three or more cards of the same rank and score bonuses for seven-card melds. Eleven cards are dealt to each player, the undealt portion of the pack is placed on the table, and the top card is turned up to start the discard pile. Each player in turn must draw, may meld, and must discard one card. A hand ends when a player melds his last card (goes out). Canasta originated in Uruguay in the late 1940s; its name (meaning “basket”) is probably a reference to the tray for holding discards.

Canaveral Vko-'na-vo-roL, Cape Cape, eastern Florida, U.S. It is the location of NASA’s John F. Kennedy Space Center and the launch site of U.S. spaceflights, which included the first U.S. manned spaceflight (1961), the first lunar-landing flight (1969), and flights of the space shuttle Challenger, which exploded shortly after liftoff in 1986. After the death of Pres. John F. Kennedy in 1963, it was renamed Cape Kennedy; it reverted to its original name in 1973.

Canberra \'kan-ber-o\ City (pop., 2004 est.: metro, area, 377,074), capi¬ tal of Australia. Located in the Australian Capital Territory, on the Molon- glo River, it was chosen in 1909 as the site of the capital. An international competition held in 1911 chose the U.S. architect Walter Burley Griffin (b. 1876—d. 1937) to design the city, and construction began in 1913. The transfer of Parliament from Melbourne took place in 1927. The city continues to expand, with residential development taking place in satel¬ lite towns. There is light industry and a growing tourist trade, though government functions dominate.

A statue by Henry Moore sits on the grounds of the National Library of Australia in Canberra.

ROBIN SMITH PHOTOGRAPHY, NEW SOUTH WAlfS

cancer Uncontrolled multiplication of abnormal cells. Cancerous cells and tissues have abnormal growth rates, shapes, sizes, and functioning. Cancer may progress in stages from a localized tumour (confined to the site of origin) to direct extension (spread into nearby tissue or lymph nodes) and metastasis (spread to more distant sites via the blood or lymphatic sys¬ tem). This malignant growth pattern distinguishes cancerous tumours from benign ones. Cancer is also classified by grade, the extent to which cell characteristics remain specific to their tissue of origin. Both stage and grade affect the chances of survival. Genetic factors and immune status affect sus-

Canary (Serinus canaria).

ERIC HOSKING

Cancer ► canna I 325

ceptibility. Triggers include hormones, viruses, smoking, diet, and radia¬ tion. Cancer can begin in almost any tissue, including blood (see leukemia) and lymph (see lymphoma). When it metastasizes, it remains a cancer of its tissue of origin. Early diagnosis and treatment increase the chance of cure. Treatment may include chemotherapy, surgery, and radiation therapy. See also BLADDER CANCER; BREAST CANCER; CARCINOGEN; COLORECTAL CANCER; KAPOSI SAR¬ COMA; LARYNGEAL CANCER; LUNG CANCER; OVARIAN CANCER; PANCREATIC CANCER; PROSTATE CANCER; SKIN CANCER; STOMACH CANCER; UTERINE CANCER.

Cancer (Latin: “Crab”) In astronomy, the constellation lying between Leo and Gemini; in astrology, the fourth sign of the zodiac, governing approximately the period June 22-July 22. It is represented as a crab (or crayfish), a reference to the crab in Greek mythology that pinched Her¬ acles while he was fighting the Lemaean hydra. Heracles crushed the crab, but his enemy Hera rewarded it by placing it in the sky as a constella¬ tion.

Cancer, Tropic of See Tropic of Cancer

Cancun \kan-'kiin\ City (pop., 2000: 397,191) and island resort, south¬ eastern Mexico. The city, on the northeastern coast of the Yucatan Pen¬ insula, is a service town for the resort on Cancun Island (13 mi [21 km] long), which is connected by a causeway to the city. Originally settled by Maya Indians, the area was first described by John Lloyd Stephens and Fre¬ derick Catherwood in their Incidents of Travel in Yucatan (1843). Can¬ cun remained a fishing village until 1970, when the area was selected as a suitable site for a resort. The plan proved hugely successful; today Can¬ cun is one of Mexico’s busiest resorts.

Candela \kan-'da-l9\, Felix (b. Jan. 27, 1910, Madrid, Spain—d. Dec. 7, 1997, Durham, N.C., U.S.) Spanish Mexican engineer and architect. He immigrated to Mexico in 1939 and began to design and construct buildings there. His ferroconcrete structures are distinguished by thin, curved shells that are extremely strong and economical; his imaginative use of paraboloid barrel-vaulting helped dispel mistaken notions of the limits of this material. Notable works include the expressionistic church of Nuestra Senora de los Milagros in Mexico City (1955), with a hyper¬ bolic paraboloid roof of ferroconcrete only 1.5 in. (3.8 cm) thick.

Candida Vkan-do-doX Any of the parasitic imperfect fungi (see fungus) that make up the genus Candida, which resemble yeasts and occur espe¬ cially in the mouth, vagina, and intestinal tract. Though usually benign, Candidas can become pathogenic, causing diseases including candidiasis and thrush.

Candlemas (February 2) In the Christian church, the celebration of the presentation of the infant Jesus and the post-childbirth purification of Mary in the Temple, in accordance with Jewish law. The Greek church calls it Hypapante (“Meeting”) in reference to Jesus’ meeting there with Simeon, to whom it had been revealed that he would not die before meeting the Messiah. The festival is first documented in Jerusalem in the late 4th cen¬ tury; the custom of observing it with lighted candles (the source of its name) dates to at least the mid-5th century. The popular nonreligious holiday Groundhog Day developed, in part, from the medieval tradition that certain animals interrupted their hibernation on this day.

Candolle \ka n -'d6l\, Augustin (Pyrame de) (b. Feb. 4, 1778, Geneva, Switz.—d. Sept. 9, 1841, Geneva) Swiss botanist. In Paris (from 1796) he became an assistant to Georges Cuvier and worked with Lamarck on revising his botanical works. He carried out a government- commissioned botanical and agricultural survey of France (1806-12). In 1813 he published his most important work, Theorie elementaire de la botanique, in which he contended that plant anatomy, not physiology, must be the basis of classification, for which he coined the term taxonomy. He introduced the concept of homologous parts for plants (following Cuvi¬ er’s work on animals). From 1817 until his death he taught at the Uni¬ versity of Geneva. He outlined systematic laws of botanical nomenclature (1818-21); his taxonomy suffered from certain weaknesses, but he achieved extensive subdivision of flowering plants, describing 161 fami¬ lies of dicotyledons, and his system supplanted that of Carolus Linnaeus. He completed seven volumes of a descriptive classification of all known seed plants (from 1824).

Candomble \ l kan-dom- , bla\ Variant of Macumba, a syncretic Afro- Brazilian religion most prominent in the Brazilian state of Bahia. Incor¬ porating elements of Roman Catholicism, Candomble is the most African of the Afro-Brazilian sects. Its deities, called orixas, have distinct per¬ sonalities (often capricious) and are associated with occupations, colours,

days of the week, and natural phenomena. Rituals include animal sacri¬ fice, spirit offerings, and dances. See also Macumba; vodun.

Candra Gupta See Chandragupta Maurya Candra Gupta II See Chandra Gupta II

candy Sweet sugar- or chocolate-based confection. The Egyptians made candy from honey (combined with figs, dates, nuts, and spices), sugar being unknown. With the spread of sugarcane cultivation in the 15th cen¬ tury, the industry began to grow. In the late 18th century the first candy¬ manufacturing machinery was produced. The main ingredients are cane and beet sugars combined with other carbohydrate foods such as corn syrup, cornstarch, honey, molasses, and maple sugar. To the sweet base are added chocolate, fruits, nuts, peanuts, eggs, milk, flavours, and colours. Common varieties include hard candies (crystallized sugar), caramels and toffees, nougats, jellies, fondants, marshmallows, marzipans, truffles, cot¬ ton candies, licorices, and chewing gums.

cane Hollow or pithy and usually slender and flexible jointed stem (as of a reed). Also, any of various slender woody stems, especially an elon¬ gated flowering or fruiting stem (as of a rose) usually arising directly from the ground. The term is also applied to any of various tall woody grasses or reeds, including the coarse grasses of the genus Arundinaria (see bam¬ boo), SUGARCANE, and SORGHUM.

Canetti, Elias (b. July 25, 1905, Ruse, Bulg.—d. Aug. 14, 1994, Zurich, Switz.) Bulgarian-born British nov¬ elist and playwright. Canetti was from a Spanish-speaking Jewish family. His best-known work, the novel Auto-da-Fe (1935), deals with the dangers in believing that detached intellectualism can prevail over evil and chaos. He settled in Britain in 1938. Later works that reflect his interest in the psychopa¬ thology of power include Crowds and Power (1960); the plays The Wedding (1932), Comedy of Vanity (1950), and Life-Terms (1964); and his series of autobiographies begin¬ ning with The Tongue Set Free (1977). He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1981.

Cange \'ka n zh\, Charles du Fresne, Lord du (b. Dec. 18,

1610, Amiens, France—d. Oct. 23,

1688, , Paris) French scholar. Du Cange’s most important works, A Glossary for Writers of Middle and Low Latin (1678) and A Glossary for Writers of Middle and Low Greek (1688), made use of his encyclopaedic knowledge not only of languages but of history, law, archaeology, and geography. His historical approach and effort to distinguish medieval vocabularies from their classical counter¬ parts inspired later scholars to examine the development of language from a historical perspective. Frequently reedited, his dictionaries retained their usefulness through the 20th century.

canine or canid Vka-nod, 'ka-nodX Any domestic or wild dog or dog¬ like mammal (e.g., wolf, jackal, fox) in the family Canidae, found through¬ out the world except in Antarctica and on most ocean islands. Canines tend to be slender and long-legged, with a long muzzle, bushy tail, erect pointed ears, and well-developed canine and cheek teeth. They prey on all types of animals; some also eat carrion and vegetable matter. They probably were the first animals to be domesticated. Though helpful in controlling rodent and rabbit populations, canines have been hunted for their pelts and slaughtered to prevent their reputed (and sometimes real) destruction of livestock and large game.

cankerworm See looper

canna Any of the tropical herbaceous plants that make up the family Cannaceae, of the ginger order (Zingiberales), containing a single genus with about 55 species, found from southeastern North America through South America. Cannas have rhizomes with erect stems growing to 10 ft (3 m) high. The green or bronze leaves are spirally arranged. The flow¬ ers are asymmetrical. Spotted variations of the scarlet, red-orange, or yel-

Canetti

HORST TAPPE/CAMERA PRESS/GLOBE PHOTOS

326 I cannabis ► canoe

low flowers sometimes occur. The genus Canna is widely grown for ornamental use. C. edulis, from Peru, has edible, starchy rhizomes.

cannabis Vka-n3-b9s\ Any plant of the genus Cannabis, which contains a single species, C. sativa. It is widely cultivated throughout the northern temperate zone. Hemp fiber is obtained from a tall, canelike variety, while marijuana is obtained from the female plant of a smaller variety.

Cannae Vka-ne\, Battle of (216 bc) Major battle near the ancient vil¬ lage of Cannae, in Apulia, southeastern Italy, during the Second Punic War. The Romans, with 80,000 men, met the 50,000 Carthaginian and allied African, Gallic, and Spanish troops under Hannibal’s command and were crushed by them. Hannibal’s troops gradually surrounded their foes and annihilated them in a classic example of the “double envelopment” maneuver. Roman losses exceeded 65,000 men, while the Carthaginians lost only about 6,000.

Cannes \'kan\ City (pop., 1999: 67,304), southeastern France. Located on the Mediterranean Sea southwest of Nice, it is an international resort. Probably settled by Ligurians, it was occupied successively by Phocae- ans, Celts, and Romans. In the 10th century the monks of Lerins built fortifications to guard against Muslim sea raiders. Napoleon, on his return from Elba in 1815, camped nearby. A resort since the 19th century, the city is home to the Cannes Film Festival.

Cannes Film Festival \'kan\ Film festival held annually in Cannes, France. First held in 1946 for the recognition of artistic achievement, the festival came to provide a rendezvous for those interested in the art and influence of the movies. Like other film festivals, it became an interna¬ tional marketplace where producers and distributors could exchange ideas, view films, and sign contracts. The phenomenon of international coproduction arose at Cannes in the late 1940s. The festival was at times the site of artistic contention as well, as in 1958-59, when advocates and opponents of the French New Wave exchanged diatribes and manifestos.

cannibalism The usually ritualistic eating of human flesh by humans. The term derives from the Spanish name (Canbales or Canfbales) for the Carib people, first encountered by Christopher Columbus. Reliable first¬ hand accounts of the practice are comparatively rare, causing some to question whether full-blown cannibalism has ever existed. Most agree that the consumption of particular portions or organs was a ritual means by which certain qualities of the person eaten might be obtained or by which powers of witchcraft and sorcery might be exercised. In some cases, a small portion of the dead person was ritually eaten by relatives. Head¬ hunters (see headhunting) sometimes consumed bits of the bodies or heads of deceased enemies. The Aztecs apparently practiced cannibalism on a large scale as part of the ritual of human sacrifice.

cannibalism In zoology, the eating of any animal by another member of the same species. Certain ants regularly consume injured immatures and, when food is scarce, eat healthy immatures; this practice allows the adults to survive the food shortage and live to breed again. Male lions taking over a pride may kill and eat the existing young. After losing her cubs the mother will become impregnated by the new dominant male, thereby ensuring his genetic contribution. Aquarium guppies sometimes regulate their population size by eating most of their young.

canning Method of preserving food from spoilage by storing it in con¬ tainers that are hermetically sealed and then sterilized by heat. The pro¬ cess was invented in 1809 by Nicolas Appert (b. c. 1750—d. 1841) of France, who used glass bottles. In the 19th century tin-coated iron cans with soldered tops, bottoms, and seams were used, but in the early 20th century these were replaced by tin-plated steel containers with interlock¬ ing seams and polymer seals. In the later 20th century seamless alumi¬ num cans (punched out from a single sheet) capped with a steel or aluminum lid became common, particularly in the beverage industry. In modern canning, food is passed under hot water or steam, transferred to a sterile container, sealed inside, and subjected to heat sufficient to kill any remaining microorganisms, cooking the food. The process preserves most nutrients but often affects consistency and taste.

Canning, George (b. April 11, 1770, London, Eng.—d. Aug. 8, 1827, Chiswick, near London) British politician. As a young man, he came under the influence of William Pitt, who helped him win a seat in Parlia¬ ment (1793) and a post as undersecretary for foreign affairs (1796-99). Canning served twice as foreign secretary (1807-09, 1822-27); his poli¬ cies included cutting England adrift from the Holy Alliance and recogniz¬ ing the independence of the Spanish American colonies. He became prime

minister in 1827 but died a few months later. He helped the Tory Party take a more liberal view on many questions of domestic, colo¬ nial, and foreign policy.

Canning, Stratford, Viscount Stratford (of Redcliffe) (b. Nov.

4, 1786, London, Eng.—d. Aug. 14,

1880, Frant, Sussex) British diplo¬ mat. A cousin of George Canning, he served as minister to Switzerland (1814-18) and later to the U.S.

(1820-23). As ambassador to Con¬ stantinople intermittently for almost 20 years, he exerted a strong influ¬ ence on Turkish policy. He was involved with the movement for Greek independence from Turkey.

He later became friends with the Ottoman sultan and encouraged the Tanzimat program of reforms. He supported Turkish resistance to Rus¬ sian attempts to influence Ottoman affairs and tried in vain to prevent the Crimean War. He retired after leav¬ ing Turkey in 1858.

cannon Long-range artillery piece, as distinguished from other big guns such as the howitzer or mortar. Early cannons, appearing in Europe in the 15th century, were smooth-bored and forged of iron, weighed 6,000-8,000 lbs (2,800-3,600 kg) and were loaded through the muzzle. They were mounted on wheeled carriages, which were thrown backward when the cannon was fired. Rifled bores and breechloading were adopted in the later 19th century, and new mechanisms such as the hydraulic buffer absorbed the recoil. Before 1850 ammunition was either cannister, grapeshot, or round, solid cannonballs and black powder, but rifled bores made pos¬ sible the use of elongated projectiles, which had a longer range. The shrapnel shell was widely used in the 19th-20th century. Modern cannons, of high-grade steel, are towed on split-trail carriages or are mounted on tracked vehicles; a common calibre is 155 mm (6 in.). Many helicopters, airplanes, and naval vessels are equipped with multibarreled, Gatling-type rotary cannons firing 20-mm exploding shells.

Cannon, Joseph (Gurney) (b. May 7, 1836, Guilford county, N.C., U.S.—d. Nov. 12, 1926, Danville, Ill.) U.S. politician. He began practic¬ ing law in Illinois in 1859. Elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1872, he served 46 years (1873-91, 1893-1913, 1915-23). A staunchly conservative Republican, he used his power as speaker (1903-11) in a partisan manner. In 1910 a coalition of Democrats and insurgent Repub¬ licans passed a resolution that made the speaker ineligible for member¬ ship on the rules committee, the main source of his power. Personally well liked, he was popularly known as “Uncle Joe.”

Cannon, Walter B(radford) (b. Oct. 19, 1871, Prairie du Chien, Wis., U.S.—d. Oct. 1, 1945, Franklin, N.H.) U.S. neurologist and physi¬ ologist. He was the first to use X rays in physiological studies. He also investigated hemorrhagic and traumatic shock during World War I and worked on methods of blood storage. He researched the emergency func¬ tions of the sympathetic nervous system and homeostasis and sympathin, an epinephrine-like substance released by certain neurons. With Philip Bal'd he developed the Cannon-Bard theory, which proposed that emo¬ tional and physiological responses to external situations arise simulta¬ neously and that both prepare the body to deal with the situation.

Cano Vka-no\, Alonso (b. March 19, 1601, Granada, Spain—d. Sept. 3, 1667, Granada) Spanish painter, sculptor, and architect. He studied in Sevilla with Francisco Pacheco and was active as court painter in Madrid (1638-44). Despite a violent temperament, Cano produced serene and elegant religious paintings and sculpture. He worked for much of his career in Granada, where he designed the facade of the Granada Cathe¬ dral (1667), one of the masterpieces of Spanish Baroque architecture. He is often called the Spanish Michelangelo for the diversity of his talents.

canoe Lightweight boat pointed at both ends and propelled by one or more paddles. The earliest canoes had light frames of wood covered by tightly stretched tree bark. The birchbark canoe was first used by the

George Canning, painting by Sir Tho¬ mas Lawrence and Richard Evans; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, LONDON

canoeing ► canton I 327

Algonquian Indians in what is now the northeastern U.S. and Canada, and its use passed westward. Canoes were often about 20 ft (6 m) in length, though war canoes might be as long as 100 ft (30 m). The dugout canoe, made from a hollowed-out log, was used by Indians in what is now the southeastern U.S. and along the Pacific coast as far north as Canada, as well as by peoples in Africa and New Zealand. Modern canoes are made of wood, canvas over wood frames, aluminum, and molded plastic or fibreglass. Most are open from end to end, but the kayak is also consid¬ ered a canoe. See also canoeing.

canoeing Use of a canoe or kayak for recreation or competition. Both types of boat are used in water touring, in speed competitions, and in white-water sport, or navigation through rapids (which includes, in the case of kayaks, ocean surf). The Scottish philanthropist John MacGregor (1825-1892) is traditionally credited with establishing the modem out¬ door activity of canoeing in the 1860s. Canoeing events became part of the Olympic Games in 1936 (1948 for women). In addition to various singles, pairs, and team still-water events for distance and speed, there are white-water racing competitions and, for kayaks, slalom events involving the use of gates similar to those of slalom skiing.

canon Musical form and compositional technique. Canons are charac¬ terized by having a melody that is imitated at a specified time interval by one or more parts, either at the same pitch or at some other pitch. Imi¬ tation may occur in the same note values, in augmentation (longer notes), or in diminution (shorter notes); in retrograde order (beginning at its end), mirror inversion (each ascending melodic interval becoming a descend¬ ing interval, and vice versa), or retrograde mirror inversion; and so on. Canons range from folk rounds such as “Three Blind Mice” and “Frere Jacques” to the massively complex canons of Johann Sebastian Bach.

canon law Body of laws established within Roman Catholicism, East¬ ern Orthodoxy, independent churches of Eastern Christianity, and the Anglican Communion for church governance. Canon law concerns the constitution of the church, relations between it and other bodies, and mat¬ ters of internal discipline. The ecclesiastical lawyer and teacher Gratian published the first definitive collection of Roman Catholic canon law c. 1140; the Decretum Gratiani drew on older local collections, councils, Roman law, and church fathers. The enlarged Corpus juris canonici (“Body of Canon Law”) was published in 1500. A commission of cardi¬ nals issued the new Codex juris canonici (“Code of Canon Law”) in 1917, and a revised version was commissioned after the Second Vatican Coun¬ cil and published in 1983. Following the Schism of 1054, the Eastern Orthodox church developed its own canon law under the patriarch of Constantinople. The Anglican, Coptic, and Ethiopian Orthodox churches also formulated their own collections.

canonization Official act of a Christian church declaring a deceased member worthy of veneration and entering his or her name in the canon (authorized list) of saints. The cult of local martyrs was widespread in the early church, and by the 10th century church authorities were consider¬ ing the need for formal recognition of saints by Rome, a change that was formalized by Gregory IX in the 13th century. Responsibility for beatifi¬ cation (declaring a person worthy of limited veneration) was assigned to the Roman Curia under Sixtus V (r. 1585-90). A candidate’s writings, miracles, and reputation for sanctity are investigated: one official gathers evidence in favor of beatification; another (the “devil’s advocate”) is charged with seeing that the entire truth is made known about the can¬ didate. Canonization requires proof of two miracles subsequent to beati¬ fication. The process in the Eastern Orthodox Church is less formal; popular devotion by the faithful serving as the usual basis for sainthood.

canopic jar In ancient Egyptian funerary ritual, a covered vessel of wood, stone, pottery, or faience containing the embalmed viscera removed from a body during mummification. First used during the Old Kingdom (c. 2575-c. 2130 bc), the jars became more elaborate during the Middle Kingdom (c. 1938-c. 1600 bc), when their lids were decorated with sculpted human heads (probably representations of the deceased). From the 19th dynasty until the end of the New Kingdom (1539-1075 bc), the heads represented the four sons of Horus. During the 20th dynasty (1190— 1075 bc), the practice began of returning the viscera to the body, and the art of canopic jars declined.

Canova, Antonio (b. Nov. 1, 1757, Possagno, Republic of Venice—d. Oct. 13, 1822, Venice) Italian sculptor. Apprenticed to a sculptor at an early age, he opened his own studio in Venice by 1775. In 1778-79 he produced his first important sculpture, Daedalus and Icarus', the figures

were so realistic that he was accused of making plaster casts from live models. He settled in Rome in 1779 and became strongly influenced by Classical antiquity. Among his most important commissions were the tombs of two popes, Clement XIII and Clement XIV. In 1802 he became court sculptor to Napoleon I in Paris. In 1816 Pope Pius VII awarded him the title of marquis of Ischia for arranging the return of Italian art looted by the French. Canova also painted portraits and re-creations of paintings discovered at Pompeii and Herculaneum. He dominated European sculpture around the turn of the century and was of primary importance in the development of the Neoclassical style in sculpture (see Classicism and Neoclassicism).

Canso, Strait of or Canso Gut Channel, Nova Scotia, Canada. Sepa¬ rating mainland Nova Scotia and Cape Breton Island, it is 4.5 mi (23 km) long and 1 mi (2 km) wide, with depths of 200 ft (60 m). Since 1955 the 7,000-ft (2,100-m) Canso Causeway has linked Cape Breton with the mainland. A navigation lock can handle most oceangoing vessels.

Cantabria \kan-'ta-bre-9\ Historical region, autonomous community (pop., 2001: 535,131), and province, northern Spain. It borders the Bay of Biscay and covers an area of 2,054 sq mi (5,321 sq km); its coastal hills rise gradually into the Cantabrian Mountains. Its capital is Santander. The Cantabri, an Iberian tribe, dominated the region until 19 bc, when they were subdued by the Romans. Because of its isolation, the area was little affected by the Iberian Moorish invasions (c. 8th—11th centuries). In the Middle Ages, Cantabria came under Castilian influence. The region itself was formerly known as Santander, and much of its population is centred on the city of the same name. Mining is an important part of the economy.

Cantabrian Mountains \kan-'ta-bre-on\ Mountain range, northern Spain. The mountains, which extend about 180 mi (300 km), are geo¬ logically of similar origin to the Pyrenees, though classified as a separate formation. They include many tall peaks, the highest being Torre de Cerredo (8,787 ft, or 2,678 m), and thus form a more formidable barrier than the Pyrenees. The region is economically important for its coal and iron.

cantata Work for voice or voices and instruments of the Baroque era. From its beginnings in early 17th-century Italy, both secular and religious cantatas were written. The earliest cantatas were generally for solo voice and minimal instrumental accompaniment. Cantatas soon developed a dramatic character and alternating sections of recitative and aria, parallel¬ ing the simultaneous development of opera, and they came to resemble unstaged operatic scenes or acts. In Germany the Lutheran cantata devel¬ oped more directly out of the expanding choral motet, and almost always involved a chorus. A single chorale (hymn) often served as the basis for an entire cantata, which might have up to 10 diverse numbers, including duets, recitatives, and choral fugues. The most celebrated are the approxi¬ mately 200 written by Johann Sebastian Bach. After c. 1750 the cantata gradually declined.

Canterbury Historic city and administrative district (pop., 2001: 135,287), southeastern England. Located on the River Great Stour, the site has been occupied since pre-Roman times; the Roman town of Durov- ernum Cantiacorum was established after Claudius invaded Britain in ad 43. It has been an ecclesiastical metropolis of England since St. Augus¬ tine of Canterbury founded a monastery there in 602 and later established a cathedral. The cathedral was the scene of the murder of Archbishop St. Thomas Becket in 1170. After his canonization in 1172, it became a pil¬ grimage shrine; it is the destination of the pilgrims in Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales. Canterbury was heavily bombed in World War II, but the cathedral largely escaped damage. The cathedral and other historic buildings were designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1988.

cantilever \'kan-t3-,le-v3r\ Projecting beam or other horizontal mem¬ ber supported at one or more points but not at both ends. Some engineers distinguish between a cantilever, supported at only one fixed end, and an overhanging beam that projects beyond one of its end supports. The free, unsupported end is capable of supporting a weight or surface, such as a concrete slab. Any beam built into a wall with a projecting free end forms a cantilever, which may carry a balcony, canopy, roof, or part of a build¬ ing above. Cantilevering can be used for constructions as simple as book¬ shelves or as complicated as bridges.

canton Political subdivision of Switzerland, France, and some other European countries. Each of Switzerland’s 26 cantons and half-cantons has its own constitution, legislature, executive, and judiciary. Five pre-

328 I Canton ► Capa

serve the ancient democratic assembly, in which all citizens meet; the remaining 21 have a cantonal legislature with elective representatives and usually proportional representation. In France, the canton is a territorial and administrative subdivision of an arrondissement but not an actual unit of local government.

Canton See Guangzhou

Canton system System of trade that developed between Chinese and foreign merchants in the southern China city of Guangzhou (Canton). From 1759 to 1842, all foreign trade coming into China was confined to Guangzhou and had to be conducted with authorized Chinese merchants. Foreign merchants were confined to a small area outside the city wall and were subject to Chinese law and other restrictions. British merchants’ complaints grew during the early 19th century, and, with Britain’s victory in the first Opium War (1839-42), China was forced to abolish the sys¬ tem. See also British East India Co.; Treaty of Nanjing.

cantor In Judaism and Christianity, an official in charge of music or chants. In Judaism the hazzan (cantor) leads liturgical prayer and chant¬ ing. In medieval Christianity the cantor had charge of a cathedral’s music—specifically, of supervising the choir’s singing. The term also designated the head of a college of church music.

Cantor, Eddie orig. Edward Israel Iskowitz (b. Jan. 31, 1892, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Oct. 10, 1964, Hollywood, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. comedian and singer. As a child, Cantor clowned and sang for coins on street comers in his native New York City. He dropped out of elementary school, could not keep a job because of his irrepressible clowning, and soon went into vaudeville as a blackface song-and-dance man. He toured with Florenz Ziegfeld’s Follies and the Shuberts. He appeared in several Broad¬ way reviews, and from 1923 to 1926 he was a star in Kid Boots. From 1931 Cantor performed for 18 years on The Chase and Sanborn Hour as a standup comedian. His films include Roman Scandals (1933) and Strike Me Pink (1936). In the 1950s he hosted a television show.

Cantor \'kan-tor\, Georg (b. March 3, 1845, St. Petersburg, Russia—d. Jan. 6, 1918, Halle, Ger.) German mathematician, founder of set theory. He was the first to examine number systems, such as the rational numbers and the real numbers, systematically as complete entities, or sets. This led him to the surprising discovery that not all infinite sets are the same size. In particular, he showed that the rational numbers could be put in a one- to-one correspondence with the counting numbers; hence the set is count¬ able. He also showed that no such correspondence is possible for the much larger set of irrational numbers; hence they are known as an uncountable set. His investigations led him to the classification of transfinite numbers, which are, informally speaking, degrees of infinity.

cantus firmus Latin "fixed chant" Preexistent melody, such as a plainchant (see Gregorian chant) excerpt, underlying a polyphonic musi¬ cal composition (one consisting of several independent voices or parts). In the 11th- and 12th-century organum, the tones of the plainchant melody for such words as “alleluia” and “amen” were held by one voice (the tenor), while another, more active, improvised line was added. Develop¬ ments introduced by the Notre-Dame school of the late 12th and early 13th centuries included rhythmic patterning of the added voice and the addi¬ tion of two or three voices. The composition of nonliturgical words for the added voice or voices in the 13th century resulted in the independent motet. Cantus firmus technique remained the basis of most composition of the 14th—15th centuries (though the “chant” was now often a secular melody) and remained important in the 16th-century mass. It was later codified in the pedagogical method called species counterpoint.

Canute Vko-'niitV the Great Danish Knut (d. Nov. 12, 1035) Danish king of England (1016-35), Denmark (1019-35), and Norway (1028-35). He helped his father, Sweyn I, invade England in 1013. Sweyn was accepted as king of England after exiling King Ethelred II but died in 1014; Canute returned and defeated Ethelred’s son to win the English throne in 1016. At first he ruled ruthlessly, killing English opponents and appointing Danes in their places, but within a few years he had married Ethelred’s widow and was granting earldoms to Englishmen. Canute proved an effec¬ tive ruler who brought peace and prosperity to England, issued an impor¬ tant law code, and became a strong supporter of the church. With English help he secured the throne of Denmark on his brother’s death. His early death and that of his sons led to the restoration of Ethelred’s dynasty.

canvas Stout cloth. Canvas (probably named for cannabis, or hemp), has been made from hemp and flax fibres since ancient times to produce cloth

for sails. More recently it has also been made from tow, jute, cotton, and mixtures of such fibres. Flax canvas is essentially of double warp (see weaving), being invariably intended to withstand pressure or rough usage. Articles made from canvas include camera and golf bags, running shoes, tents, and mailbags. Tarred canvas is used for tarpaulins to cover goods. Artists’ canvas for painting is much lighter than sail canvas; those of the best quality are made of cream or bleached flax fibre.

canvasback Diving duck ( Aythya valisineria), one of the most popular game birds. The male weighs about 3 lb (1.4 kg). During the breeding season he has a red head and neck and a black breast, with a white back and sides finely lined in gray. In eclipse (nonbreeding) plumage, he resembles the female, with a tan head and gray-brown back. Canvasbacks breed in northwestern North America and winter along the coasts from British Columbia and Massachusetts south to central Mexico. They pre¬ fer the roots of wild celery (eelgrass) but will eat many other plants and even some small animals.

canyon Very narrow, deep valley cut by a river through resistant rock and having steep, almost vertical sides. Canyons occur most often in arid or semiarid regions. Some canyons (e.g., the Grand Canyon) are spec¬ tacular natural features. See also submarine canyon.

Canyon de Chelly \do-'sha\ National Monument Preserve, northeastern Arizona, U.S. Located on the Navajo Indian reservation immediately east of Chinle, the preserve was established in 1931 and occupies 131 sq mi (339 sq km). It includes several hundred pre- Columbian cliff dwellings, some of them built in caves on the canyon walls. They represent a broader time span than any other ruins in the Southwest, with many dating from the 11th century. Modern Navajo homes and farms occupy the canyon floor.

Canyonlands National Park Park, southeastern Utah, U.S. The park, established in 1964, occupies a wilderness of water-eroded sand¬ stone spires, canyons, and mesas extending over 527 sq mi (1,366 sq km). Some of its rock walls display Indian petroglyphs. The Needles section in its southern part contains the Angel and Druid arches, gigantic balanced rock formations.

Cao Cao \'tsau-'tsau\ or Ts'ao Ts'ao (b. ad 155, Boxian, China—d. 220, Luoyang) Chinese general who, at the end of the Han dynasty, assumed imperial prerogatives. Cao Cao rose to prominence when he suppressed the Yellow Turban rebellion in the last years of the Han. Though the rebellion was suppressed, the dynasty was irreparably weakened, and in the ensuing chaos Cao Cao occupied the strategic northern section of China around the capital of Luoyang. His domain was known as the king¬ dom of Wei (see Three Kingdoms). Confucian historians and popular leg¬ ends alike describe him as the archetypal unscrupulous villain; he is portrayed as such in the famous 14th-century novel Sanguozhi yanyi (“Romance of the Three Kingdoms”). His son, Cao Pei, founded the Wei dynasty (220-265/266).

Cao Dai \'kau-'dl\ Syncretist modern Vietnamese religious movement with a strongly nationalist political character. Cao Dai draws on ethical precepts from Confucianism, occult practices from Daoism, theories of karma and rebirth from Buddhism, and hierarchical organization (includ¬ ing a pope) from Roman Catholicism. It was formally established in 1926 by Ngo Van Chieu (1878-19267), a colonial administrator in French Indochina who professed to have had a communication from the supreme deity. The movement met with resistance from the Vietnamese govern¬ ment both before and after the communist takeover in 1975. It was reported to have some three million adherents in Vietnam and abroad in the early 21st century.

Cao Zhan \'tsau-'jan\ or Ts'ao Chan (b. 17157, Jiangning, Jiangsu province, China—d. Feb. 12, 1763, Beijing) Chinese novelist. He is the author of Dream of the Red Chamber (1791), generally considered Chi¬ na’s greatest novel. A partly autobiographical work written in the ver¬ nacular, it describes in lingering detail the decline of a powerful family and an ill-fated love between cousins. Cao finished at least 80 of its 120 chapters; it was completed after his death, probably by Gao E, about whom little is known.

Capa, Robert orig. Andrei Friedmann (b. 1913, Budapest, Hung.—d. May 25, 1954, Thai Binh, Viet.) Hungarian-born U.S. photo- journalist. In Paris he presented his photographs as the work of a ficti¬ tious rich American, Robert Capa; the deception was soon discovered but he kept the name. He first achieved fame as a war correspondent in the

Capablanca ► Cape Verde I 329

Spanish Civil War (1936). In World War II he covered the fighting in Africa, Sicily, and Italy for Life magazine; images of the Normandy inva¬ sion are among his most memorable works. In 1947 he founded Magnum Photos with Henri Cartier-Bresson and David Seymour. He was killed by a land mine while photographing the French Indochina war for Life.

Capablanca, Jose (Raul) (b. Nov. 19, 1888, Havana, Cuba—d. March 8, 1942, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Cuban chess master. He learned chess from his father at age 4 and beat Cuba’s best player at 12. He defeated Emanuel Lasker to become world champion in 1921; in 1927 he was defeated by Alexander Alekhine (1892-1946). From 1916 to 1924, while playing in many tournaments, he did not lose a game. In 1921 he published an instruction manual, Chess Fundamentals.

capacitance Vko-'pa-ss-tsnsV Property of a pair of electric conductors separated by a nonconducting material (such as air) that permits storage of electric energy by the separation of electric charge, and that is measured by the amount of separated charge that can be stored per unit of electric potential between the conductors. If electric charge is transferred between two initially uncharged conductors, they become equally (but oppositely) charged. A potential difference is set up between them and some of the electricity can be stored. Capacitance C is the ratio of the amount of charge q on one of the conductors to the potential difference V between the conductors, or C = q/V. The unit of capacitance is coulombs per volt (C/V), or farads (F).

Cape Agulhas See Cape Agulhas Cape Ann See Cape Ann Cape Bojador See Cape Bojador Cape Bon Peninsula See SharIk Peninsua

Cape Breton \'bret- 3 n\ Island Island, (pop., 2001: 109,330), eastern part of Nova Scotia, Canada. Separated from the mainland by the Strait of Canso, it is 110 mi (175 km) long and up to 75 mi (120 km) wide, with an area of 3,981 sc[ mi (10,311 sq km). It contains the Bras d'Or salt lakes. Originally called lie Royale as a French colony, it later took the name of its eastern cape, probably the first land visited by John Cabot on his 1497-98 voyage and probably named by Basque fishermen from Cap Breton, France. It was ceded to the British by the 1763 Treaty of Paris and joined to Nova Scotia. In 1784 it became a separate British crown colony, but it was rejoined to Nova Scotia in 1820. In 1955 the island was linked to the mainland by a causeway. Cape Breton Highlands National Park was established in 1936. Tourism is an important industry on the island.

Cape buffalo Massive, black, horned buffalo ( Syncerus caffer), for¬ merly found throughout sub-Saharan Africa but now greatly reduced in number by disease and hunting. It is a gregarious animal of open or scrub-covered plains and open forests. When wounded, it is regarded as one of the most dangerous animals. It stands up to 5 ft (1.5 m) tall at the shoulder, and bulls can weigh almost a ton (about 900 kg). Its heavy horns typically curve downward, then up and inward. A smaller subspecies is found in dense West African forests.

Cape Canaveral See Canaveral, Cape

Cape Cod Peninsula, eastern Massachusetts, U.S. Some 65 mi (105 km) long and 1-20 mi (2-32 km) wide, it touches Buzzards Bay and extends into the Atlantic Ocean in a wide curve, enclosing Cape Cod Bay. The Cape Cod Canal, cutting across the base of the peninsula, forms part of the Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway. Named by an English explorer who visited its shores in 1602 and took aboard a “great store of codfish,” Cape Cod was the site, near Provincetown, of the Pilgrims’ landing in 1620. Extending into the warm Gulf Stream, it has coastal towns and villages that become densely populated resorts in summer. In the 19th century Provincetown was an active whaling port. The cape’s northern hook was designated the Cape Cod National Seashore in 1961.

Cape Colony See Cape Province Cape Dezhnev See Cape Dezhnev

Cape Fear River River, central and southeastern North Carolina, U.S. Formed by the confluence of the Deep and Haw rivers, it flows southeast about 200 mi (320 km) to enter the Atlantic Ocean near Southport at Cape Fear. The southern estuary forms part of the Atlantic Intracoastal Water¬ way. A series of locks and dams makes the river navigable from Wilm¬ ington to Fayetteville.

Cape Hatteras Vha-t3-ras\ National Seashore Scenic coastal area situated on Bodie, Hatteras, and Ocracoke islands along the Outer Banks, eastern North Carolina, U.S. The park, the country’s first national sea¬ shore, was authorized in 1937 and established in 1953. It has a total area of 47 sq mi (122 sq km). It includes the tallest (208 ft [63 m]) masonry lighthouse in the country, located at Cape Hatteras.

Cape Horn See Cape Horn

Cape Krusenstern VkrU-zon-.stenA National Monument

National preserve, northwestern Alaska, U.S., on the coast of the Chuk¬ chi Sea. Established in 1978, it was enlarged in 1980 to 1,031 sq mi (2,670 sq km). Its remarkable archaeological sites illustrate the cultural evolu¬ tion of the Arctic peoples over some 4,000 years.

Cape of Good Hope See Cape of Good Hope

Cape Province or Cape of Good Hope formerly (1826-1910) Cape Colony Former province, South Africa. Occupying the southern extremity of the African continent, it comprised the southern and west¬ ern portions of South Africa; its capital was Cape Town. The black state of Ciskei and parts of two others, Transkei and Bophuthatswana, lay within its boundaries. Its name refers to the Cape of Good Hope, 30 mi (50 km) south of Cape Town. The original inhabitants included Bantu, San, and Khoekhoe peoples. Bartolomeu Dias, en route to India in 1488, became the first European to visit the area. A colony was founded by the Dutch at Table Bay in 1652; it was ceded to the British in 1814. It joined the Union of South Africa in 1910 and the Republic of South Africa in 1961. The province ceased to exist in 1994, when it was split roughly into Eastern Cape, Northern Cape, and Western Cape provinces.

Cape Town Afrikaans Kaapstad \'kap-,stat\ City (pop., 2005 est., urban agglom.: 3,103,000), legislative capital of the Republic of South Africa. It is also the capital of Western Cape province. Located on Table Bay, Cape Town has long been an important regional port. The first settlement at Table Bay, it was founded in the 17th century by the Dutch navigator Jan van Riebeeck for the Dutch East India Company, and it soon served as a stop¬ over for ships plying the Europe-to-India route. It was under Dutch rule intermittently until it was taken by the British in 1806. Today it is a com¬ mercial and cultural centre. See also Pretoria; Bloemfontein.

Cape Verde \'vord\ officially Republic of Cape Verde Island country, east-central Atlantic Ocean. Lying 385 mi (620 km) off the west-

thirds of its population are Creole (mixed origin); the remainder are Euro-

330 I Capek ► capitalism

pean and black African. Languages: Portuguese (official), Crioulo (a Portuguese dialect). Religions: Christianity (predominantly Roman Catholic); also Islam. Currency: Cape Verde escudo. The mountainous windward islands are craggy and furrowed by erosion; the flat leeward islands are largely plains and lowlands. The archipelago is volcanic in origin. Fogo Island has an active volcano that erupted in 1951; it is also the location of the highest peak, which rises 9,281 ft (2,829 m). The other main islands are Santo Antao, Boa Vista, and Sao Tiago. Cape Verde has a developing mixed economy based largely on agriculture, though tour¬ ism has been promoted. It is a republic with one legislative house; its chief of state is the president and its head of government the prime min¬ ister. The islands were uninhabited when Diogo Gomes sighted and named Maio and Sao Tiago in 1460; in 1462 the first settlers landed on Sao Tiago, founding the city of Ribeira Grande. The city’s importance grew with the development of the slave trade, and its wealth attracted attacks so often that it was abandoned in 1712. The prosperity of the Portuguese- controlled islands vanished with the decline of the slave trade in the 19th century, when they were made a coaling and submarine cable station. In 1951 the colony became an overseas province of Portugal. Many island¬ ers preferred outright independence, which was granted in 1975. Once associated politically with Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde split from it in

Capek Vcha-pek\, Karel (b. Jan. 9, 1890, Male Svatonovice, Bohemia, Austria-Hungary—d. Dec. 25, 1938, Prague, Czech.) Czech novelist, short-story writer, and playwright. Capek’s “black utopias,” works show¬ ing the dangers of technological progress, include the cautionary play R.U.R.: Rossum’s Universal Robots (1920), a depiction of a society dependent on mechanical workers called robots (a term he coined from a Czech word for forced labour). The comic fantasy The Insect Play (1921; with his brother Josef) satirizes human greed. The Makropoulos Affair (1922) was made into an opera by Leos JanAcek. Capek explored aspects of knowledge in the novel trilogy Hordubal (1933), Meteor (1934), and An Ordinary Life (1934).

caper Any of the low prickly shrubs that make up the genus Capparis (family Capparaceae), of the Mediterranean region. The European caper- bush (C. spinosa) is known for its flower buds, which are pickled in vin¬ egar and used as a spicy condiment. The term caper also refers to one of the pickled flower buds or young berries. Buds of C. decidua are eaten as potherbs, and curries are prepared from seeds and fruits of C. zeylandica.

Capernaum Vko-'por-na-omN Ancient city, Palestine. Located on the northwestern shore of the Lake Tiberias (Sea of Galilee), it was the home of Jesus for much of his ministry. His disciples Peter, Andrew, and Mat¬ thew were from Capernaum, and he was said to have performed many of his miracles there. Excavations begun in 1905 indicated that the cite of the ancient city is likely near modem Kefer Nahum, Israel. Among the remains discovered was a synagogue dating from the 2nd-3rd century ad.

Capet, Hugh See Hugh Capet

Capetians Vko-'pe-shonsN or Capets \'ka-pots\ Ruling house of France (987-1328), who laid the foundation of the French state. Descended from Robert the Strong (died 866), they included Hugh Capet (r. 987-96), the first Capetian king; Philip II Augustus (r. 1180-1223); and Louis IX (r.1226- 70). Capetians also ruled as dukes of Burgundy and Brittany, emperors of Constantinople, counts of Artois and Provence, kings and queens of Naples, and kings of Hungary and Navarre.

capillarity \,ka-p3-'lar-9-te\ Rise or fall of liquid in a small passage or tube. When a glass tube of small internal diameter is inserted into water, the surface water molecules are attracted to the glass and the water level in the tube rises. The narrower the tube, the higher the water rises. The water is said to “wet” the tube. Water will also be drawn into the fibres of a towel, even if the towel is in a horizontal position. Conversely, if a glass tube is inserted into mercury, the level of the liquid in the tube falls. The mercury does not wet the tube. Capillarity is caused by the differ¬ ence in attraction of the liquid molecules to each other and the attraction of the liquid molecules to those of the tube.

capillary Vka-po-.ler-eX Any of the minute blood vessels that form net¬ works where the arterial and venous circulation (see artery, vein) meet for exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and wastes with body tissues. Capillaries are just large enough for red blood cells to pass through in single file. Their thin walls are semipermeable, allowing small molecules to pass

through in both directions. The smallest lymphatic vessels and minute bile channels in the liver are also called capillaries.

capital In architecture, the crowning member of a column, pier, pilas¬ ter, or other vertical form, providing a structural support and transition for the horizontal member (entablature) or arch above. In Classical styles, the capital is the architectural member that most readily identifies the order. Simple stone capitals have been found in the earliest known pyramids of ancient Egypt (c. 2890-2686 bc), at Saqqarah.

capital In economics, the stock of resources that are used to produce other goods now and in the future. In classical economics the three fac¬ tors of production are capital, labour, and land. Capital embodies the man-made resources, which include the buildings, plant, equipment, and inventories created by all three factors. In this sense, capital goods may be contrasted with consumer goods. The creation of capital goods means that consumption is forgone, resulting in saving. The flow of saving becomes a flow of investment. Expenditures on education and training are often referred to as investment in human capital (see Gary S. Becker). Financial capital is the term given to the stocks and bonds issued in order to finance the acquisition of capital goods.

capital gains tax Tax levied on gains realized from the sale or exchange of capital assets. Though capital gains have been taxed in the U.S. since the advent of the federal income tax, certain capital gains are taxed less heavily than regular income, while others are exempted from taxation. This preferential treatment is intended to encourage investment and thereby stimulate economic growth. In theory the tax break encour¬ ages investors to risk their capital in new ventures. Critics argue that pref¬ erential treatment results in distorted patterns of investment because regular income is converted into capital gains in order to avoid paying income tax. See also corporate income tax.

capital goods See producer goods

capital levy Direct tax assessed simultaneously on the capital resources of all persons possessing taxable wealth in excess of a minimum value and paid at least partly out of capital resources. It aims at capturing a substantial portion of the taxpayers’ wealth to enable the government to cope with a major emergency or to redistribute wealth. Capital levies were adopted in many European nations after World Wars I and II.

capital punishment or death penalty Execution of an offender sentenced to death after conviction by a court of law of a criminal offense. Capital punishment for murder, treason, arson, and rape was widely employed in ancient Greece, and the Romans also used it for a wide range of offenses. It also has been sanctioned at one time or another by most of the world’s major religions. In 1794 the U.S. state of Pennsylvania became the first jurisdiction to restrict the death penalty to first-degree murder, and in 1846 Michigan abolished capital punishment for all mur¬ ders and other common crimes. In 1863 Venezuela became the first coun¬ try to abolish capital punishment for all crimes. Portugal was the first European country to abolish the death penalty (1867). By the mid-1960s some 25 countries had abolished the death penalty for murder. During the last third of the 20th century, the number of abolitionist countries increased more than threefold. Despite the movement toward abolition, many countries have retained capital punishment, and some have extended its scope. In the U.S., three-fourths of the states and the federal government retain the death penalty, and death sentences are regularly carried out in China, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, and Iran. Supporters of the death penalty claim that life imprisonment is not an effective deterrent to criminal behaviour. Opponents maintain that the death penalty has never been an effective deterrent, that errors sometimes lead to the execution of innocent persons, and that capital punishment is imposed inequitably, mostly on the poor and on racial minorities.

capitalism or free-market economy or free-enterprise sys¬ tem Economic system in which most of the means of production are pri¬ vately owned, and production is guided and income distributed largely through the operation of markets. Capitalism has been dominant in the Western world since the end of mercantilism. It was fostered by the Ref¬ ormation, which sanctioned hard work and frugality, and by the rise of industry during the Industrial Revolution, especially the English textile industry (16th—18th centuries). Unlike earlier systems, capitalism used the excess of production over consumption to enlarge productive capacity rather than investing it in economically unproductive enterprises such as palaces or cathedrals. The strong national states of the mercantilist era

Capitol ► Capuchin I 331

provided the social conditions, such as uniform monetary systems and legal codes, necessary for the rise of capitalism. The ideology of classi¬ cal capitalism was expressed in Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations (1776), and Smith’s free-market theories were widely adopted in the 19th cen¬ tury. In the 20th century the Great Depression effectively ended laissez-faire economics in most countries, but the demise of the state-run command economies of eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union (see communism) and the adoption of some free-market principles in China left capitalism unrivaled (if not untroubled) by the beginning of the 21st century.

Capitol, United States Meeting place of the U.S. Congress. In 1792 a competition for its design was won by William Thornton (1759-1828); his revised Federal-style design of 1795 was executed as the exterior of the wings adjacent to the central rotunda. Benjamin H. Latrobe, as Surveyor of Public Buildings (1803), followed Thornton’s conception of the exterior but used his own interior designs; perhaps his best-known contribution was his invention of tobacco-leaf and corn-cob capitals. After the British set fire to the Capitol in 1814, Latrobe began its reconstruction, but resigned in 1817. By 1827 his successor, Charles Bulfinch, had joined the two wings and built the first dome and the rotunda. In 1850 Thomas Ustick Walter (1804-1887) won a competition to expand the wings; he also designed the 287-ft- (87-m-) high cast-iron dome (1855-66), which was based on Michelangelo’s dome for St. Peter's Basilica. The marble and sandstone building contains about 540 rooms and stands in a 131-acre (53-hectare) park.

Capitol Reef National Park Park, south-central Utah, U.S. Occu¬ pying 378 sq mi (979 sq km), it comprises great buttressed cliffs of coloured Navajo sandstone extending for 100 mi (160 km) along the western edge of the Waterpocket Fold. Established as a national monu¬ ment in 1937, it became a national park in 1971. It is so named because its rock towers reminded geologists of coral reefs, while its dome-shaped formations suggest capitol architecture. The cliff walls are covered with pre-Columbian petroglyphs.

Capone, Al(phonse) (b. Jan. 17, 1899, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.—d. Jan. 25, 1947, Palm Island, Fla.) U.S. gangster. Quitting school after the sixth grade, he joined the James Street Boys gang, led by Johnny Torrio. In a youthful fight in a brothel-saloon he was slashed across the left cheek, prompting the later nickname “Scarface.” In 1919 he joined Torrio in Chicago to help run prostitution there. When Torrio retired (1925), Capone became the city’s crime czar, running gambling, prostitution, and bootlegging rackets. He expanded his territory by killing his rivals, most famously in the St. Valentine’s Day Massacre, in which members of the Bugs Moran gang were machine-gunned in a garage on Feb. 14, 1929. In 1931 Capone was convicted for income-tax evasion and sentenced to 11 years in prison; eventually he served time in the new Alcatraz prison (see Alcatraz Island). Granted an early release from prison in 1939, in part because he suffered from an advanced stage of syphilis, he died a powerless recluse at his Florida estate.

Caporetto, Battle of (Oct. 24, 1917) Italian military disaster in World War I in which Italian troops retreated before an Austro-German offen¬ sive near Trieste on the Isonzo front (see Battles of the Isonzo). More than 600,000 Italian soldiers either deserted or surrendered. The defeat prompted Italy’s allies, France and Britain, to send reinforcements and eventually to establish the Supreme War Council to unify the Allied war effort.

Capote \ko-'po-te\, Truman orig. Truman Streckfus Persons (b.

Sept. 30, 1924, New Orleans, La., U.S.—d. Aug. 25, 1984, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. novelist, short-story writer, and playwright. Capote spent much of his youth in small towns in Louisiana and Alabama. His early works, in the Southern Gothic tradition, include the novels Other Voices, Other Rooms (1948) and The Grass Harp (1951) and the story collection A Tree of Night (1949). His later journalistic style was exemplified in the highly successful “nonfiction novel” In Cold Blood (1966), an account of a multiple murder. Other works include the novella Breakfast at Tiffany’s (1958; film, 1961), the musical House of Flowers (1954; with Harold Arlen), and the collections The Dogs Bark (1973) and Music for Chame¬ leons (1980).

Capp, Al orig. Alfred Gerald Caplin (b. Sept. 28, 1909, New Haven, Conn., U.S.—d. Nov. 5, 1979, New Haven, Conn.) U.S. cartoon¬ ist. He studied landscape architecture before turning to cartooning. His comic strip Li’l Abner first appeared in the New York Mirror in 1934 and was soon being syndicated throughout the country. Set in the backwoods

community of Dogpatch, U.S.A., it featured Li’l Abner, a shy, awkward woodsman; Daisy Mae, a persistent maiden who succeeded in catching Abner after a 17-year pursuit; and a host of colourful characters.

Cappadocia V.ka-pa-'do-shoV Ancient district, eastern Anatolia. It is a mountainous area located in present-day Turkey; its earliest records date from the 6th century bc, when it was a Persian satrapy. A period of semi¬ autonomy followed Alexander the Great’s conquest of the Persian empire (330 bc). Important as a Roman ally and client, it was annexed by the emperor Tiberius in ad 17 and made a Roman province. With its command over strategic passes in the Taurus Mountains, the area was a bulwark of the Byzantine Empire until the 11th century. Part of the district was desig¬ nated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1985.

Capra, Frank (b. May 18, 1897, near Palermo, Sicily, Italy—d. Sept. 3, 1991, La Quinta, Calif., U.S.) U.S. film director. At age six he immi¬ grated with his family to the U.S. After holding various jobs in the film industry, he emerged as a major director with That Certain Thing (1928) and Platinum Blonde (1931). He won Academy Awards for It Happened One Night (1934) and Mr. Deeds Goes to Town (1936), stories that por¬ tray naive idealists who triumph over more worldly types. He chose the same theme for his next film, Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (1939) but departed from his usual style in Lost Horizon (1937) and Meet John Doe (1941). Capra also won a third Academy Award for You Can’t Take It with You (1938). He made the documentary series Why We Fight during World War II and the Christmas classic It’s a Wonderful Life (1946).

Capri Vka-pre, ko-'pre\ Island, southern Italy. Located at the southern entrance to the Bay of Naples, it has an area of 4 sq mi (10 sq km). Cliffs rise in the west to a height of 1,932 ft (589 m). It was a colony of ancient Greece; later it became a favourite resort of Roman emperors. In the Middle Ages it belonged to the abbey of Montecassino and to the repub¬ lic of Amalfi before passing to the kingdom of Naples. Its rocky shores abound with caves, notably the famous Blue Grotto. Capri is one of Ita¬ ly’s most popular resorts.

Capricorn or Capricornus (Latin: “Goat horn”) In astronomy, the constellation lying between Aquarius and Sagittarius; in astrology, the tenth sign of the zodiac, governing approximately the period December 22-January 19. It is represented as a goat with what appears to be a fish¬ tail. One explanation for this odd depiction is that it derives from the Greek myth of Pan. To avoid the monster Typhon, Pan jumped into the water just as he was changing into animal shape. The half of his body above water became a goat, while the submerged half took the shape of a fish. Another relates the form to the Mesopotamian deity Enki (see Ea).

Capricorn, Tropic of See Tropic of Capricorn

Caprivi \ka-'pre-ve\, (Georg) Leo, count von (b. Feb. 24, 1831, Berlin-Charlottenburg, Prussia—d. Feb. 6, 1899, near Crossen-an-der- Oder, Ger.) German soldier and politician. A distinguished soldier, he served as chief of the admiralty (1883-88). He succeeded Otto von Bis¬ marck as Germany’s imperial chancellor (1890-94) and Prussian minis¬ ter president (1890-92). His achievements included an Anglo-German agreement concerning spheres of influence in Africa, commercial treaties with Austria, Romania, and other states, and the reorganization of the German army.

capsicum See pepper

capstan Mechanical device used chiefly on board ships or in shipyards for moving heavy weights by means of ropes, cables, or chains. A cap¬ stan consists of a drum, driven either manually or by steam or electricity, that rotates about a vertical axis to wind in a line wrapped around it. The grip between the line and the drum depends on friction and on the num¬ ber of times the line is wrapped around the drum. A notched track (ratchet) on the base plate and pawls attached to the drum prevent backward rota¬ tion.

capsule In botany, a dry fruit that opens when ripe. It splits from top to bottom into separate segments known as valves, as in the iris, or forms pores at the top (e.g., poppy), or splits around the circumference, with the top falling off (e.g., pigweed and plantain). The spore-forming organ (see sporophyte) of liverworts and mosses is also called a capsule.

Capuchin Vka-pyo-shonX Member of the Order of Friars Minor Capu¬ chin, an autonomous branch of the Franciscans. It began in 1525 as a reform movement led by Matteo da Bascio (c. 1495-1552), who wanted the Franciscans to return to strict observance of the Rule of St. Francis.

332 I capuchin ► carbohydrate

He and his followers wore robes with pointed hoods (Italian, cappuccino ), went barefoot, and lived in extreme poverty. Other Franciscans harassed them, and the pope forbade them to extend their membership outside Italy. The new order was nearly ruined by the defection of their vicar-general, Bernardino Ochino, to Protestantism in 1542, but it later grew quickly, reaching a membership of 17,000 by 1571. It was active in the Counter- Reformation in keeping the common people loyal to Catholicism. An inde¬ pendent order since 1619, they are known for their missionary and social work.

capuchin (monkey) Vka-pyo-shon, ko-'pyii-shonX Any of four species of tropical monkeys (genus Cebus ) found from Nicaragua to Paraguay. Considered among the most intelligent New World monkeys, capuchins are named for their cap of crown hair, which resembles the cowl of Capu¬ chin monks. These stocky, round-headed monkeys are 12-22 in. (30-55 cm) long, with a hairy, prehensile tail of about the same length, and are brown or black, sometimes with white markings. Capuchins live in troops, often in the treetops. They eat fruit and small animals and sometimes raid plantations for oranges and other food. Easily trained, they are valued as gentle pets.

capybara \ka-pi-'bar-o\ Semiaquatic rodent ( Hydrochoerus hyrdrocha- eris) of Central and South America. Classified as the only species in its family, it is related to the cavy and the guinea pig. Capybaras are the largest living rodents, growing as large as 50 in. (1.25 m) long and weighing 110 lbs (50 kg) or more. They are sparsely haired and brownish, with a blunt snout, short legs, small ears, and almost no tail. Capybaras are shy and associate in groups along the banks of lakes and rivers. Herbivorous, they can become pests when they eat cultivated melons, grain, and squash. They swim and dive readily and commonly enter water to elude predators.

caracal Vkar-3-,kal\ Short-tailed cat ( Caracal caracal) found in hills, deserts, and plains of Africa, the Middle East, and Central and South Asia. It is sleek and short-haired, with a reddish brown coat and long tufts of black hairs on its pointed ears. Long-legged and short-tailed, it stands 16-18 in. (40^15 cm) tall and is 26-30 in. (66-76 cm) long, excluding its tail. Generally solitary and nocturnal, it preys on birds and mammals, including peafowl, gazelles, and hares. In Asia, where it has become rare, it has been trained as a hunting animal.

Caracalla X.kar-o-'ka-taV officially Marcus Aurelius Severus Antoninus Augustus orig. Septimius Bassianus (b. April 4, ad 188, Lugdunum [Lyon], Gaul—d. April 8, 217, near Carrhae, Meso¬ potamia) Roman emperor (198-217). He was nicknamed Caracalla for a Gallic cloak he allegedly designed. Until 211 he ruled with his father, Sep¬ timius Severus, a North African who became emperor in 193. To assure his undisputed rule, Caracalla killed his brother Geta and many of his friends. He built colossal baths in Rome, which still stand. He gave Roman citi¬ zenship to all free inhabitants of the empire (212) but showed extreme cruelty toward all who opposed him, and he massacred Germans, Parthians, and Alexandrians. He was murdered by the praetorian prefect. He is regarded as one of Rome’s most bloodthirsty tyrants, and his reign contributed to the empire’s decay.

Caracas \ka-'ra-kas, ko-Ta-kosV City (pop. 2001: 1,836,000), capital of Venezuela. Its Caribbean Sea port is La Guaira. Lying at an elevation of about 3,000 ft (900 m), Caracas is one of the most developed cities in Latin America. It was founded in 1567 by Diego de Losada. It is the birthplace of Simon Bolivar (1783), under whose leadership it became the first colony to revolt against Spain (c. 1810). Caracas has become the country’s primary centre of industry, commerce, education, and culture.

Caramanlis, Constantine See Konstantinos Karamanlis

Caravaggio \,kar-3-'va-jo\ orig. Michelangelo Merisi (b. 1571?, Milan?—d. July 18, 1610, Port’Ercole, Tuscany) Italian painter. He was orphaned at 11. After an apprenticeship in Milan, he went to Rome in 1590, where he won the patronage of a cardinal. A series of large paint¬ ings (1599-1603) on the life of St. Matthew established him as the most renowned and controversial painter in Rome of his era. Breaking with conventional formulas used in depicting saints, he used ordinary people as models and painted them with unforgiving realism; his inclination against tradition gave new meaning to the interpretation of traditional themes in religious painting. His use of tenebrism—dramatic, selective illumination of form out of deep shadow to heighten the emotional ten¬ sion, focus the details, and isolate the figures—became the most outstand¬ ing feature of his style and a hallmark of the Baroque period. After c. 1600

he received many commissions, including the monumental The Deposition of Christ (1602-04) and Death of the Virgin (1605-06), which was refused by the Carmelites because of the Virgin’s plebeian fea¬ tures, bared legs, and swollen belly.

His reputation and income increased despite harsh criticism and a turbu¬ lent lifestyle. He had an enormous impact on painting throughout Europe.

caravan Group of merchants, pil¬ grims, or travelers journeying together, usually for mutual protec¬ tion, in deserts or other hostile regions. The camel was the most common means of transport. Cara¬ vans have been described since the beginning of recorded history, and they were a major factor in the growth of settlements along their routes. One caravan trail developed into the Silk Road. During the height of caravan travel, which lasted until the 19th century, a single caravan of Muslim pilgrims journeying from Cairo and Damascus to Mecca might employ as many as 10,000 camels.

caravansary \,kar-9-'van-s3-re\ or caravanserai \,kar-3-'van-s9- ,ri\ Public building used for sheltering caravans and other travelers in the Middle East. The structure is quadrangular in form and enclosed by a massive wall that has small windows near the top and a few narrow air holes near the bottom. The central court, surrounded by an arcade and storerooms, is usually large enough to contain 300-400 camels. It is open to the sky and has a well with a fountain basin in its center. There are rooms upstairs for lodging.

caraway Dried fruit, commonly called the seed, of Carum carvi, a biennial herb of the parsley family. Native to Europe and western Asia, it has been cultivated since ancient times. It has a distinctive aroma and a warm, slightly sharp taste. It is used as a seasoning, and the oil is used to flavor alcoholic beverages and as a medicine.

carbamide See urea

carbide Inorganic compound, any of a class of chemical compounds in which carbon is combined with a metal or semimetallic element. The nature of the second element (its position in the periodic table) determines the carbide’s type of bonding and its properties. Calcium carbide is use¬ ful as a source of acetylene. Carbides of tungsten, silicon (see Carborun¬ dum), and boron, called refractory carbides, are extremely hard, remain stable when heated, and have a high melting point and chemical resis¬ tance. They are used as abrasives and in cutting tools, as furnace linings, and in other high-temperature applications. Iron carbide (cementite) is an important constituent of steel and cast iron.

carbine Light, short-barreled rifle. The first carbines, from the muzzle¬ loading muskets of the 18th century to the lever-action repeaters of the 19th, were chiefly cavalry weapons or saddle firearms for mounted fron¬ tiersmen. During World War II carbine versions of standard bolt-action or semiautomatic infantry rifles were carried by some officers, artillerymen, and other specialists. Carbine versions of modern assault rifles (such as the Russian AK-47 or the U.S. Ml 6 rifle) are intended for close-quarter fighting, partly replacing the submachine gun. Carbine versions of hunting and target rifles are also made.

carbohydrate Any member of a very abundant and widespread class of natural organic compounds that includes sugars, starch, and cellulose. They are commonly classified as monosaccharides (simple sugars; e.g., glucose, fructose), disaccharides (2-unit sugars; e.g., sucrose, lactose), oli¬ gosaccharides (3-10 or so sugars), and polysaccharides (large molecules with up to 10,000 monosaccharide units, including cellulose, starch, and glycogen). Green plants produce carbohydrates by photosynthesis. In most animals, carbohydrates are the quickly accessible reservoir of energy, and oxidation (see oxidation-reduction) of glucose in tissues supplies energy for metabolism. Many (but by no means all) carbohydrates have the gen-

Ajfe ** * f

The Deposition of Christ, oil on canvas 3y Caravaggio, 1602-04; in the Vati- :an Museum.

iCALA/ART RESOURCE, NEW YORK

carbolic acid ► carbonation I 333

eral chemical formula C„(H 2 0) n . The carbon (C) atoms are bonded to hydrogen atoms (—H), hydroxyl groups (—OH; see functional group), and carbonyl groups (—C=0), whose combinations, order, and geomet¬ ric arrangement lead to a large number of isomers with the same chemi¬ cal formula but different properties. The class is further enlarged because each isomer has various derivatives: uronic acids, sugars with an oxidized group; sugar alcohols, sugars with a reduced group; glycosides, com¬ pounds of sugars with other molecules containing a hydroxyl group; and amino sugars, sugars with an amino group (see amino acid).

carbolic acid \kar-'ba-lik\ or phenol Vfe-.nol, 'fe-,n6l\ Organic com¬ pound, simplest member of the class of phenols. A colourless liquid with a bland, sweetish odour, it is toxic and caustic. It is a high-volume industrial chemical used chiefly in the manufacture of phenol-formaldehyde resins (see formaldehyde; plastics), epoxy resins, nylon, herbicides, biocides, other synthetic chemicals and pharmaceuticals, and dyes. It is also a solvent and general disinfectant. The phenol coefficient is a number that expresses the germicidal action of a chemical compared with that of phenol.

carbon Nonmetallic chemical element, chemical symbol C, atomic num¬ ber 6. The usual stable isotope is carbon-12; carbon-13, another stable iso¬ tope, makes up 1% of natural carbon. Carbon-14 is the most stable and best known of five radioactive isotopes (see radioactivity); its half-life of approximately 5,730 years makes it useful in carbon-14 dating and radi¬ olabeling of research compounds. Carbon occurs in four known allotropes: diamond, graphite, carbon black (amorphous carbon including coal, coke, and charcoal), and hollow cage molecules called fullerenes. Carbon forms more compounds than all other elements combined; several million car¬ bon compounds are known. Each carbon atom forms four bonds (four single bonds, two single and one double bond, two double bonds, or one single and one triple bond) with up to four other atoms. Multitudes of chain, branched, ring, and three-dimensional structures can occur. The study of these carbon compounds and their properties and reactions is organic chemistry (see organic compound). With hydrogen, oxygen, nitro¬ gen, and a few other elements whose small amounts belie their important roles, carbon forms the compounds that make up all living things: pro¬ teins, CARBOHYDRATES, LIPIDS, and NUCLEIC ACIDS. BIOCHEMISTRY is the Study of how those compounds are synthesized and broken down and how they associate with each other in living organisms. Organisms consume car¬ bon and return it to the environment in the carbon cycle. Carbon dioxide, produced when carbon is burned and from biological processes, makes up about 0.03% of the air, and carbon occurs in Earth’s crust as carbonate rocks and the hydrocarbons in coal, petroleum, and natural gas. The oceans contain large amounts of dissolved carbon dioxide and carbonates.

carbon cycle Circulation through nature of carbon in the form of the simple element and its compounds. The source of carbon in living things is carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) from air or dissolved in water. Algae and green plants (producers) use C0 2 in photosynthesis to make carbohydrates, which in turn are used in the processes of metabolism to make all other compounds in their tissues and those of animals that consume them. The carbon may pass through several levels of herbivores and carnivores (consumers). Ani¬ mals and, at night, plants return the C0 2 to the atmosphere as a by-product of respiration. The carbon in animal wastes and in the bodies of organisms is released as C0 2 in a series of steps by decay organisms (decomposers), chiefly bacteria and fungi (see fungus). Some organic carbon (the remains of organisms) has accumulated in Earth’s crust in fossil fuels, limestone, and coral. The carbon of fossil fuels, removed from the cycle in prehis¬ toric times, is being returned in vast quantities as C0 2 via industrial and agricultural processes, some accumulating in the oceans as dissolved car¬ bonates and some staying in the atmosphere (see greenhouse effect).

carbon dioxide Inorganic compound, a colourless gas with a faint, sharp odour and a sour taste when dissolved in water, chemical formula C0 2 . Constituting about 0.03% of air by volume, it is produced when carbon-containing materials burn completely, and it is a product of fer¬ mentation and animal respiration. Plants use C0 2 in photosynthesis to make carbohydrates. C0 2 in Earth’s atmosphere keeps some of the Sun’s energy from radiating back into space (see greenhouse effect). In water, C0 2 forms a solution of a weak acid, carbonic acid (H 2 C0 3 ). The reaction of C0 2 and ammonia is the first step in synthesizing urea. An important industrial material, C0 2 is recovered from sources including flue gases, limekilns, and the process that prepares hydrogen for synthesis of ammonia. It is used as a refrigerant, a chemical intermediate, and an inert atmosphere; in fire extinguishers, foam rubber and plastics, carbonated beverages (see carbonation), and aerosol sprays; in water treatment, welding, and cloud

seeding; and for promoting plant growth in greenhouses. Under pressure it becomes a liquid, the form most often used in industry. If the liquid is allowed to expand, it cools and partially freezes to the solid form, dry ice.

carbon-14 dating or radiocarbon dating Method of determin¬ ing the age of once-living material, developed by U.S. physicist Willard Libby in 1947. It depends on the decay of the radioactive isotope carbon-14 (radiocarbon) to nitrogen. All living plants and animals continually take in carbon: green plants absorb it in the form of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and it is passed to animals through the food chain. Some of this carbon is radioactive carbon-14, which slowly decays to the stable isotope nitrogen-14. When an organism dies it stops taking in carbon, so the amount of carbon-14 in its tissues steadily decreases. Because carbon-14 decays at a constant rate, the time since an organism died can be estimated by measuring the amount of radiocarbon in its remains. The method is a useful technique for dating fossils and archaeological speci¬ mens from 500 to 50,000 years old and is widely used by geologists, anthropologists, and archaeologists.

carbon monoxide Inorganic compound, a highly toxic, colourless, odourless, flammable gas, chemical formula CO. It is produced when car¬ bon (including coal and coke) or carbon-containing fuel (including petro¬ leum hydrocarbons; e.g., gasoline, fuel oil) does not burn completely to carbon dioxide, because of insufficient oxygen. CO is present in the exhaust gases of internal combustion engines and furnaces. It is toxic because it binds to hemoglobin in blood much more strongly than does oxygen and thus interferes with transport of oxygen from lungs to tissues (see hypoxia; respiration). Symptoms of CO poisoning range from headache, nausea, and syncope to coma, weak pulse, respiratory failure, and death. CO is used industrially as a fuel and in synthesis of numerous organic compounds, including methanol, ethylene, and aldehydes.

carbon steel Alloy of iron and carbon in which the carbon content may range from less than 0.015% to slightly more than 2%. Adding this tiny amount of carbon produces a material that exhibits great strength, hard¬ ness, and other valuable mechanical properties. Carbon steels account for about 90% of the world’s steel production. They are used extensively for automobile bodies, appliances, machinery, ships, containers, and the structures of buildings. Carbon steel, formerly made by the Bessemer, cru¬ cible, or open-hearth process, is now made by the basic oxygen process, or by an arc furnace.

Carbonari \,kar-b3-'na-re\ (Italian dialect: “Charcoal Burners”) Mem¬ bers of a secret society (the Carbonaria) in early-19th-century Italy. Advo¬ cating liberal and patriotic ideas, the Carbonari favored constitutional and representative government and aimed to protect Italian interests against foreigners. They helped lead the unsuccessful revolts of 1820 and 1831 and were gradually absorbed into the Young Italy movement. Their influ¬ ence prepared the way for the Risorgimento.

carbonate Any member of two classes of chemical compounds—one inorganic and the other organic—that are derived from carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) or its water solution, carbonic acid (H 2 C0 3 ). Inorganic carbonates (MC0 3 or M 2 C0 3 , where M is a metal atom of, e.g., calcium or sodium) are salts of carbonic acid. The shells and other hard parts of shellfish are calcium carbonate, as is the limestone they turn into. Many other miner¬ als, including calcite, dolomite, and aragonite, consist of or contain car¬ bonates. Sodium carbonate is one of the world’s most important basic chemical commodities. Organic carbonates are esters of carbonic acid and various alcohol groups (methyl, ethyl, or phenyl). These are liquids used as solvents and to synthesize plastics and other compounds.

carbonate mineral Any member of a family of minerals that con¬ tains the carbonate ion, C0 3 2- , as the basic structural unit. The carbon¬ ates are among the most widely distributed minerals in the earth’s crust; the most common are calcite, dolomite, and aragonite. Dolomite replaces calcite in limestones; when this replacement is extensive, the rock is called dolomite. Other relatively common carbonate minerals are siderite, rhodo- chrosite, strontianite (strontium-rich); smithsonite (zinc-rich); witherite (barium-rich); and cerussite (lead-rich).

carbonation Addition of carbon dioxide gas to a beverage, imparting sparkle and a tangy taste and preventing spoilage. The liquid is chilled and cascaded down in an enclosure containing carbon dioxide (either as dry ice or a liquid) under pressure. Increasing pressure and lowering tem¬ perature maximize gas absorption. Carbonated beverages do not require PASTEURIZATION.

334 I Carboniferous Period ► Cardin

Carboniferous Period Interval of geologic time 354-290 million years ago, marked by great changes in world geography. All the land- masses drew closer together as a result of tectonic plate movements. The supercontinent Gondwana occupied much of the Southern Hemisphere. By the end of the period, present-day North America, Greenland, and northern Europe were also part of Gondwana. Siberia and China (includ¬ ing Southeast Asia) remained individual continents located at high lati¬ tudes in the Northern Hemisphere. During this period, swamp forests became widespread, and enormous coal deposits formed. Plants made great advances in the complex forests, and vertebrates were undergoing extensive evolution. Amphibians became widespread and diverse, and reptiles appeared for the first time and rapidly adapted to many habitats.

carbonyl chloride See phosgene

Carborundum V.kar-bo-'ron-domV Trademark name of silicon carbide, an inorganic compound discovered in the 1880s by E.G. Acheson. Car¬ borundum has a crystal structure like that of diamond and is almost as hard. It is used as an abrasive for cutting, grinding, and polishing, as an antislip additive, and as a refractory.

carboxylic acid \,kar-bak-'si-lik\ Any organic compound with the gen¬ eral chemical formula —COOH in which a carbon (C) atom is bonded to an oxygen (O) atom by a double bond to make a carbonyl group (—C=0; see functional group) and to a hydroxyl group (—OH) by a single bond (see bonding). The fourth bond on the carbon links it to a hydrogen (H) atom (for formic acid), a methyl (—CH 3 ) group (for acetic acid), or another natural or synthetic monovalent group. Carboxylic acids occur widely in nature. In fatty acids, the fourth group is a hydrocarbon chain. In aromatic acids (see aromatic compound), it is a ring-structured hydrocarbon. In amino acids, it contains a nitrogen atom. Carboxylic acids participate in chemical reactions as acids, usually fairly weak. Many car¬ boxylic acids (acetic acid, citric acid, lactic acid) are intermediates in metabolism and can be found in natural products; others (e.g., salicylic acid) are used as solvents and to prepare many chemical compounds. Important carboxylic-acid derivatives include esters, anhydrides, amides, halides (see halogen), and salts (see soap).

carburetor \'kar-b3-,ra-t3r\ Device for supplying a spark-ignition engine with a mixture of fuel and air. Carburetors are used in small gaso¬ line engines, such as lawn mowers and chainsaws. Once an essential com¬ ponent in all gasoline engines, automobile carburetors were displaced by electronic fuel injection systems from the late 1970s through 1990. Car¬ buretors for automobile engines usually contained a storage chamber for liquid fuel, a choke, an idling jet, a main jet, an airflow restriction, and an accelerator pump. The quantity of fuel in the storage chamber was controlled by a valve actuated by a float. The choke, a butterfly valve, reduced the intake of air so that a fuel-rich charge was drawn into the cylinders when a cold engine was started. As the engine warmed up, the choke was gradually opened. Reduced pressure near the partially closed throttle valve caused the fuel to flow from the idling jet into the intake air. Further opening the throttle valve activated the main fuel jet. Then the venturi-shaped airflow restriction created reduced pressure, drawing fuel from the main jet into the airstream at a rate related to the airflow so that a nearly constant fuel-air ratio was obtained. The accelerator pump injected fuel into the inlet air when the throttle was opened suddenly. See also GASOLINE ENGINE; VENTURI TUBE.