Britannica Concise 2005

ileum Vi-le-amV Final and longest segment of the small intestine. It is the site of absorption of vitamin B 12 (see vitamin B complex) and reabsorption of about 90% of conjugated bile salts. It extends about 13 ft (4 m), from

the jejunum (middle section of the small intestine) to the ileocecal valve, where it joins the large intestine. Disorders produce vitamin B 12 deficiency and extensive diarrhea (since bile salts in the large intestine interfere with water absorption).

Iliamna \,i-le-'am-n3\ Lake Lake, Alaska, U.S. The largest lake in Alaska and the second largest freshwater lake entirely within the U.S., it is 80 mi (129 km) long and 25 mi (40 km) wide and covers an area of 1,000 sq mi (2,600 sq km). Located west of Cook Inlet in southwestern Alaska, it drains southwest into Bristol Bay and the Bering Sea. The active Iliamna Volcano, 10,016 ft (3,053 m) high, lies northeast of the lake. It was named by Tanaina Indians, whose mythology held that it was inhab¬ ited by a giant blackfish capable of biting holes in canoes.

Ilium See Troy

Illinois State (pop., 2000: 12,419,293), midwestem U.S. Bordered by Wisconsin, Indiana, Kentucky, Missouri, and Iowa, it covers 57,918 sq mi (150,008 sq km). Its capital is Springfield. The Mississippi River forms the state’s western boundary, the Ohio River and Wabash River form its south¬ eastern border, and the Illinois River traverses the state; Lake Michigan lies to the northeast. Located on its northeastern border is Chicago, the nation’s third largest city. Indian settlement dates from 8000 bc. The Mis¬ sissippi culture was centred at Cahokia c. ad 1300; all the tribes inhab¬ iting the area at the time of European settlement were of Algonquian stock. The French explorers Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet entered the ter¬ ritory in 1673. France controlled it until 1763, when it passed to Britain after the French and Indian War. It became part of the Northwest Terri¬ tory in 1783 and part of Indiana Territory in 1800; Illinois Territory was formed in 1809, and it became the 21st state in 1818. Although politically divided during the American Civil War, Illinois remained part of the Union. In the 20th century, intense party rivalry (between Republicans and Demo¬ crats) and the state’s large electoral vote made it a major battleground in presidential elections (see Republican Party; Democratic Party). It is one of the largest U.S. industrial centres and a top manufacturer of nonelectrical machinery. It is also a major insurance centre.

Illinois Central Gulf Railroad Co. (1C) U.S. railroad formed by the merger of the Illinois Central Railroad Co. and the Gulf, Mobile, and Ohio Railroad Co. The Illinois Central was chartered in 1851, and its first line was built from Galena to Cairo, Ill. A spur line to Chicago was built as part of the acquisition of a federal land grant. It eventually absorbed more than 100 smaller railroads across the Midwest and south to the Gulf of Mexico. After merging with the Gulf, Mobile, and Ohio in 1972, the rail¬ road operated in 13 states. In 1985 it sold its line extending from Chicago to Iowa and Nebraska. The IC ships freight and operates passenger trains for Amtrak. It was a subsidiary of IC Industries, Inc. (later Whitman Corp.), a holding company formed in 1962. The railroad was privatized in 1989 and merged with Canadian National Railway Co. (CN) in 1999.

Illinois River River, northeastern Illinois, U.S. Formed by the junction of the Des Plaines River and Kankakee River in Illinois, it flows southwest across the state, joining the Mississippi River after a course of 273 mi (440 km). It drains an area of 25,000 sq mi (65,000 sq km) and occasionally broadens into wide expanses, such as Peoria Lake.

illuminated manuscript Hand¬ written book decorated with gold or silver, brilliant colours, elaborate designs, or miniature paintings.

“Illumination” originally denoted embellishment of text with gold or silver, which gave the impression that the page had been literally illu¬ minated. In the Middle Ages those who “historiated” (illustrated texts with paintings) were differentiated from those who “illuminated”

(embellished the initial capital letters with gold leaf or powder). Today the term denotes the illustration and decoration of early manuscripts in general, whether or not with gold.

With the development of printing in Europe in the 15th century, illumina¬ tion was superseded by printed illus¬ trations.

Kuxtan -htmtb* orrtuT eft dcararc .

pL^I VNTOwpL.X 1N Ifcfc ban \Fm> 4' lNCOirLiKK l«R«we.lVort*trre

Illuminated initial "U" for "Uerba" "Verba") in the book of Jeremiah, from the Winchester Bible, English, 12th century; in the Cathedral Library, Win¬ chester, England (MS. 17, fol. 148R)

BY PERMISSION OF THE DEAN AND CHAPTER OF WINCHESTER; COPYRIGHT THE WARBURG INSTITUTE, THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Illustrated London News ► immune system I 929

Illustrated London News Historic magazine of news and the arts, published in London. Founded in 1842 as a weekly, it became a monthly in 1971. A pioneer in the use of various graphic arts, it was London’s first illustrated periodical, the first periodical to make extensive use of wood- cuts and engravings, and the first to use photographs. In 1912 it became the first periodical using rotogravure to publish an integrated picture and text section. Initially focused mainly on English social life, it later broad¬ ened its scope to embrace general news and cultural activities.

illuviation Accumulation of dissolved or suspended soil materials in one area or layer as a result of leaching (percolation) from another. Usu¬ ally clay, iron, or humus wash out and form a line with a different con¬ sistency and color. These lines are important for studying the composition and ages of rock strata.

Illyria \9-'lir-e-9\ Ancient country, northwestern Balkan Peninsula, south¬ eastern Europe. It was inhabited from the 10th century bc by the Illyrians, an Indo-European people who later practiced piracy on Roman shipping. After a series of wars with Rome, it was defeated in 168 bc and estab¬ lished as the Roman province of Illyricum. When the Roman Empire was divided in ad 395, Illyria east of the Drina River became part of the East¬ ern Empire. It was occupied by the Slavs from the 6th century, and its name changed in the 8th-11th centuries to Arberi and finally to Albania.

Illyrian \3-'lir-e-9n\ Provinces Former territory, Dalmatian coast of Europe. When the French victory in 1809 compelled Austria to cede part of its southern Slav lands to France, Napoleon combined Carniola, West Carinthia, Gorz, Istria, and parts of Croatia, Dalmatia, and Ragusa to form the Illyrian Provinces, which he incorporated into his empire. The end of the French administration in 1814 returned them to the Austrian Empire.

‘ilm al-hadith Vilm-al-ha-'dethX Form of analysis established by 9th- century Muslim traditionalists to verify the merits of the Hadith. Of the many accounts of Muhammad’s statements and actions that constituted the Hadith, some were thought to be forgeries or of doubtful reliability. Schol¬ ars judged their merit by scrutinizing the isnads that detailed the chain of authority through which the story had been handed down.

Ilmen ViP-monA, Lake Lake, northwestern Russia. It occupies the cen¬ tre of the Ilmen Plain, a glacial lowland drained by nearly 50 rivers, includ¬ ing the Msta, Pola, and Lovat, that flow into the lake; the lake in turn provides the headwaters of the Volkhov River. Its area—between 283 and 807 sq mi (733 and 2,090 sq km)—varies according to river flow. The lake is navigable in summer and has an average depth of 33 ft (10 m).

ilmenite \ , il-m3- l nlt\ Iron-black, heavy, metallic oxide mineral, composed of iron and titanium oxide (FeTi0 3 ), which is the major source of tita¬ nium. It is found disseminated or in veins in gabbro, diorite, or anorthosite, as in Quebec, New York state, and Norway. It also forms large masses, as in Iron Mountain, Wyoming, and in the Ilmen Mountains, Russia, from which it derives its name. Smaller quantities are present in copper-ore veins, pegmatites, black beach sands, and placer deposits.

Iloilo \,e-lo-'e-lo\ City (pop., 2000: 365,820), Panay island, Philippines. Pre-Spanish settlement was extensive, but the seaport remained small until 1855, when it was opened to foreign trade. For a time it rivaled Cebu City as the main port of the Visayan Islands. It is a major fishing port and is known also for its raw-silk and pineapple-fibre fabrics.

Ilorin \e-'lo-ren\ City (pop., 2002 est.: 756,400), western Nigeria. It is located on a minor tributary of the Niger River. Founded by the Yoruba in the late 18th century and the capital of a Yoruba kingdom, it passed to Britain in 1897. Surrounded by a mud wall and mainly inhabited by Muslim Yoruba people, it is an industrial, commercial, and educational centre.

Ilumquh \i-Tum-ku\ Arabian god of the moon. Deemed superior to the gods associated with the sun and Venus, he was the protector of cities and patron god of the capital cities of southern Arabia. Pilgrimages were made to his temples, where worshipers often sought divine guidance from oracles. He had many different names and epithets, including Wadd, Amm, and Sin.

image processing Set of computational techniques for analyzing, enhancing, compressing, and reconstructing images. Its main components are importing, in which an image is captured through scanning or digital photography; analysis and manipulation of the image, accomplished using various specialized software applications; and output (e.g., to a printer or monitor). Image processing has extensive applications in many areas,

including astronomy, medicine, industrial robotics, and remote sensing by satellites. See also pattern recognition.

imaginary number Any number of the form bi where b is a real number, i is the square root of -1, and b is not zero. See also complex NUMBER.

Imagism Vim-i-Jiz-omX Movement in U.S. and English poetry charac¬ terized by the use of concrete language and figures of speech, modern subject matter, metrical freedom, and avoidance of romantic or mystical themes. It grew out of the Symbolist movement and was initially led by Ezra Pound, who, inspired by the criticism of T. E. Hulme (1883-1917), for¬ mulated its credo c. 1912; Hilda Doolittle was also among the founders. Around 1914 Amy Lowell largely took over leadership of the group. Imag¬ ism influenced the works of Conrad Aiken, T. S. Eliot, Marianne Moore, D. H. Lawrence, Wallace Stevens, and others.

imam \i-'mam\ Head of the Muslim community. In Sunnite Islam the imam was identical with the caliph, designating the political successor of Muhammad. The Sunnites held the imam to be a man capable of error but deserving obedience provided he maintained the ordinances of Islam. In ShTite Islam the imam became a figure of absolute religious authority, possessed of unique insights into the Qur’an and divinely appointed and preserved from sin. With the historical disappearance of the last imam, there arose a belief in the hidden imam, who is identified with the mahdi. The term imam is also given to Muslims who lead prayers in mosques and has been used as an honorary title.

Imam Bondjol Vbon-joL (b. 1772, Kampung Tandjung Bunga, Sumatra—d. Nov. 6, 1864, Manado, Celebes) Leader in a religious war that divided the Minangkabau people of Sumatra. A convert to reformist Wahhabi Islam, known in Sumatra as the Padri sect, he established the fortified community of Bondjol, from which he took his name, as a cen¬ tre from which to wage holy war. The secular government called on the Dutch to help, but the Dutch were preoccupied with the Java War (1825— 30), and Imam Bondjol’s forces expanded the area under their control. The Dutch eventually turned their attention to the Padris and defeated them; Imam Bondjol surrendered (1837), and the Minangkabau territory was added to the Dutch colonial holdings.

imamis See Ithna Ashariya

Imeni Ismail Samani Peak formerly Communism Peak or Stalin Peak Peak, western Pamirs, northeastern Tajikistan. Located in the Akademiya Nauk Range, it rises to 24,590 ft (7,495 m) and is the highest point in Tajikistan and in the range. It was first climbed by a Rus¬ sian team in 1933.

IMF See International Monetary Fund

Imhotep \im-'ho-,tep\ Greek Imouthes (fl. 27th century bc, Memphis, Egypt) Egyptian sage and astrologer, later worshiped as the god of medi¬ cine. In Greece he was identified with Asclepius. Imhotep was chief min¬ ister to the Egyptian king Djoser and is remembered as a skilled physician as well as the architect of the step-pyramid at Saqqara in Memphis. Dei¬ fied around the time of the Persian conquest in 525 bc, he was said to be the son of Ptah and the war goddess Sekhmet. The cult of Imhotep reached its zenith in Greco-Roman times, when sick people slept in his temples with the hope that the god would reveal remedies to them in dreams.

Immaculate Conception In Roman Catholicism, the dogma that Mary was not tainted by original sin. Early exponents included St. Justin Mar¬ tyr and St. Irenaeus; St. Bonaventure and St. Thomas Aquinas were among those who opposed it. In 1439 the Council of Basel stated that the belief was in accordance with Catholic faith, and in 1709 Pope Clement XI made the feast of the Immaculate Conception a holy day of obligation. In 1854 Pius IX issued a papal bull making it official church dogma. See also Vir¬ gin Birth.

immune system Cells, cell products, organs, and structures of the body involved in the detection and destruction of foreign invaders, such as bacteria, viruses, and cancer cells. Immunity is based on the system’s ability to launch a defense against such invaders. For the system to func¬ tion properly, it must be able to distinguish between the material of its own body (self) and material that originates outside of it (nonself). Fail¬ ure to make this distinction can result in autoimmune diseases. An exagger¬ ated or inappropriate response by the immune system to nonharmful substances (e.g., pollen, animal dander) can result in allergies. The sys¬ tem’s principal cells include lymphocytes that recognize antigens and

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

930 I immunity ► impala

related accessory cells (such as phagocytic macrophages, which engulf and destroy foreign material). Lymphocytes arise in the bone marrow from stem cells, with T lymphocytes (T cells) migrating to the thymus to mature and B lymphocytes (B cells) maturing in the bone marrow. Mature lym¬ phocytes enter the bloodstream, and many become lodged, along with accessory cells, in various body tissues, including the spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, and intestinal lining. Organs or tissues containing such concen¬ trations are termed lymphoid. Within these organs and tissues the lym¬ phocytes are confined within a delicate network of connective tissue that channels them so they come into contact with antigens. T cells and B cells can mature and multiply further in lymphoid tissue when suitably stimu¬ lated. Fluid (lymph) draining from lymphoid tissues is conveyed to the blood through lymphatic vessels. Lymph nodes distributed along these vessels filter the lymph, exposing macrophages and lymphocytes con¬ tained within to any antigen present. The spleen plays a similar role, sam¬ pling the blood for the presence of antigens. The capability of lymphocytes to pass between lymphoid tissue, the blood, and lymph is an important element in the system’s functioning. See also immunodeficiency; IMMUNOLOGY.

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Acquired immunity depends on the activities of T and B lymphocytes (T and B cells). One part of acquired immunity, humoral immunity, involves the production of anti¬ bodies by B cells. The other part, cell-mediated immunity, involves the actions of T cells. When an antigen (such as a bacterium) enters the body, it is attacked and engulfed by macrophages, which process and display parts of it on their cell sur¬ face. A helper T cell, recognizing the antigen displayed, initiates maturation and proliferation of other T cells. Cytotoxic (killer) T cells develop and attack foreign and infected cells. B cells stimulated by the presence of antigen are activated by helper T cells to divide and form antibody-producing cells (plasma cells). Released antibody binds to antigen, marking the cell for destruction. Helper T cells also induce the development of memory T and B cells needed to mount future immune responses on reinfection with the same pathogen.

© MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

immunity Ability to resist attack or overcome infection by invading microbes or larger parasites. Immunity is based on the proper function¬ ing of the body’s immune system. In natural or innate immunity, immune mechanisms present at birth work against a wide variety of microbes whether or not they have been encountered before. Acquired immune responses, tailored to act against a specific microbe or its products, are stimulated by the prior presence of that microbe. Previous infection with a particular pathogen, as well as vaccines, produce this type of immunity. The mechanisms of innate immunity include physical barriers (including

the skin) and chemical barriers (such as bactericidal enzymes present in saliva). Microbes that penetrate the body’s natural barriers encounter sub¬ stances (such as interferon) that inhibit their growth or reproduction. Phagocytes (particle-engulfing cells) surround and destroy invading microbes, and natural killer cells pierce the microbe’s outer membrane. Innate immunity does not confer lasting resistance, or immunity, to the body. Acquired immunity is based on the recognition of antigen by B CELLS and T cells and is activated when innate mechanisms are insufficient to stem further invasion by pathogens. Killer or cytotoxic T cells destroy infected and foreign cells. Helper T cells induce B cells stimulated by the presence of antigen to proliferate into antibody-secreting cells, or plasma cells. Antibodies produced by plasma cells bind to antigen-bearing cells, marking them for destruction. Acquired immunity relies on the long-term survival of sensitized T and B memory cells, which can proliferate quickly upon reinfection by the same pathogen. See also immunodeficiency; immu¬ nology; leukocyte; reticuloendothelial system.

immunity In law, exemption or freedom from liability. Under interna¬ tional treaty, a diplomatic representative is exempt from local laws, both civil and criminal. In many countries, judges, legislators, and government officials, including the heads of state, enjoy limited or absolute immunity at home to protect them from personal liability for wrongful acts or omis¬ sions that arise from the performance of their duties. A public prosecutor may grant immunity from prosecution to a witness who is suspected of criminal activity in return for testimony against other suspected criminals.

immunodeficiency Defect in immunity that impairs the body’s ability to resist infection. The immune system may fail to function for many rea¬ sons. Immune disorders caused by a genetic defect are usually evident early in life. Others can be acquired at any age through infections (e.g., AIDS) or immunosuppression. Aspects of the immune response that may be affected include lymphocytes, other leukocytes, antibodies, and complement. Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID), which arises from several different genetic defects, disrupts all of these. Depending on the cause, treatment for immunodeficiency may be administration of immunoglob¬ ulins, bone-marrow transplant, or therapy for the underlying disease.

immunology Science dealing with the body’s defenses against disease- causing microorganisms and disorders of those defenses. Starting with Edward Jenner’s use of a vaccine against smallpox in 1796, immunology has arrived at a comprehensive and sophisticated understanding of the role of microorganisms in disease and of the formation, mobilization, action, and interaction of antibodies and antigen-reactive cells. It covers treatment of allergies, immunosuppression after organ transplants to prevent rejection, and study of autoimmune diseases and immunodeficiencies. AIDS has stimu¬ lated intensive research in the last of these.

immunosuppression Suppression of immunity with drugs, usually to prevent rejection of an organ transplant. Its aim is to allow the recipient to accept the organ permanently with no unpleasant side effects. In some cases the dosage can be reduced or even stopped without causing rejec¬ tion. Other uses are in the treatment of certain autoimmune diseases and for prevention of erythroblastosis fetalis. Its main drawback is the increased risk of infection for the duration of treatment and of lymphoma in the case of long-term immunosuppression.

impact test Test of the ability of a material to withstand impact, used by engineers to predict its behaviour under actual conditions. Many mate¬ rials fail suddenly under impact, at flaws, cracks, or notches. The most common impact tests use a swinging pendulum to strike a notched bar; heights before and after impact are used to compute the energy required to fracture the bar (see strength of materials). In the Charpy test, the test piece is held horizontally between two vertical bars, much like the lin¬ tel over a door. In the Izod test, the specimen stands erect, like a fence post. See also testing machine.

impala \im-’pa-b\ Swift-running, graceful antelope (Aepyceros me lam- pus) found in large herds, usually near water, on the savannas and open woodlands of central and southern Africa. Impalas are noted for their jumping ability; when alarmed, they bound off in leaps up to 30 ft (9 m) long and 10 ft (3 m) high. Lightly

Herd of male impalas (Aepyceros melampus) in Nairobi National Park, Kenya

JAMES P. ROWAN

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

impatiens ► Impressionism I 931

built, the impala stands 30-40 in. (75-100 cm) high at the shoulder. It has a golden to reddish brown coat, white underparts, a vertical black stripe on each thigh, and a black tuft behind each hind hoof. The male has long, lyre-shaped horns.

impatiens \im-'pa-sh3ns\ Any of about 900 species of herbaceous plants in the genus Impatiens (balsam family), so named because the seed- pod bursts when slightly touched. Garden balsam (/. balsamina ), native to the tropics of Asia, is a favourite showy annual in U.S. gardens; its flowers are irregular, single or clustered, and of almost every colour but blue. Familiar related weeds in eastern North America are spotted jew- elweed (/. biflora or I. capensis ) and pale touch-me-not. Most impatiens have weak, hollow stems and require high moisture. Close relatives are GERANIUMS and NASTURTIUMS.

impeachment Criminal proceeding instituted against a public official by a legislative body. In the U.S. the president, vice president, and other federal officers, including judges, may be impeached by the U.S. House of Representatives. The House draws up articles of impeachment that itemize the charges and their factual bases. Once approved by a majority of House members, the articles are submitted to the Senate, which holds a trial. At its conclusion, each member votes for or against conviction on each article; conviction requires a two-thirds majority. A convicted official can be removed from office. The Constitution of the United States specifies that an officer is to be impeached for “high crimes and misdemeanors”; experts agree that impeachment is permitted for noncriminal misconduct (e.g., vio¬ lation of the Constitution). Two U.S. presidents, Andrew Johnson and Bill Clinton, were impeached; both were acquitted. In 1974, articles of impeachment were drawn up against Pres. Richard Nixon, who resigned before formal proceedings could begin. In Britain, where the House of Commons prosecutes and the House of Lords judges impeachment proceed¬ ings, impeachment was formerly a means by which Parliament could get rid of unpopular ministers, usually court favourites protected by the mon¬ arch. The procedure fell into disuse in the early 19th century, when cabinet ministers became responsible to Parliament rather than to the sovereign.

Imperial Chemical Industries PLC (ICI) Major British chemical corporation. It was founded in 1926 as Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd. to amalgamate four major British chemical companies. Between World Wars I and II, ICI was a major competitor of IG Farben. Today it produces industrial chemicals, paints, and explosives; its drug, pesticide, and spe¬ cialty chemical concerns were split off into a new corporation, Zeneca Group PLC, in 1993. ICI’s headquarters are in London.

Imperial Conferences Periodic meetings held between 1907 and 1937 by the dominions within the British Empire and later the Common¬ wealth. Convened to discuss mutual defense and economic issues, they passed nonbinding resolutions. However, the Statute of Westminster imple¬ mented decisions made at the 1926 and 1930 conferences that described the self-governing dominions (Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Ireland, and Newfoundland) as “autonomous communities within the British empire.” After World War II, meetings between the countries’ prime ministers replaced the conferences.

Imperial Valley Valley extending from southeastern California, U.S., to Mexico. It forms part of the Colorado Desert. Intensive irrigation began in 1901 with the opening of the Imperial Canal, which diverted water from the Colorado River. Floodwaters in 1905-07 destroyed the irrigation chan¬ nels and created the Salton Sea. The valley is now watered by the Hoover Dam and the All-American Canal. With 3,000 mi (4,800 km) of irrigation canals, it contains 500,000 acres (200,000 hectares) of cultivated land.

imperialism State policy, practice, or advocacy of extending power and dominion, especially by direct territorial acquisition or by gaining political and economic control of other areas. Because imperialism always involves the use of power, often in the form of military force, it is widely considered morally objectionable, and the term accordingly has been used by states to denounce and discredit the foreign policies of their opponents. Imperialism in ancient times is clear in the unending succession of empires in China, western Asia, and the Mediterranean. Between the 15th century and the middle of the 18th, England, France, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain built empires in the Americas, India, and the East Indies. Russia, Italy, Ger¬ many, the United States, and Japan became imperial powers in the period from the middle of the 19th century to World War I. The imperial designs of Japan, fascist Italy, and Nazi Germany in the 1930s culminated in the outbreak of World War II. After the war the Soviet Union consolidated its military and political control of the states of eastern Europe (see Iron Cur¬

tain). From the early 20th century the U.S. was accused of imperialism for intervening in the affairs of developing countries in order to protect the interests of U.S.-owned international corporations (see United Fruit Co.). Economists and political theorists have debated whether imperialism ben¬ efits the states that practice it and whether such benefits or other reasons ever justify a state in pursuing imperialist polices. Some theorists, such as Niccolo Machiavelli, have argued that imperialism is the justified result of the natural struggle for survival among peoples. Others have asserted that it is necessary in order to ensure national security. A third justification for imperialism, offered only infrequently after World War II, is that it is a means of liberating peoples from tyrannical rule or bringing them the bless¬ ings of a superior way of life. See also colonialism; sphere of influence.

impetigo Xim-po-'tl-.go, im-po-'te-.goV Bacterial inflammatory skin dis¬ ease, the most common skin infection in children. Initial blisters rupture, drying to a crust. Caused by staphylococcus or streptococcus, it is very contagious in newborns, becoming less so with age. Poor hygiene, crowd¬ ing, and humid, hot weather may promote its spread. A broad-spectrum antibiotic applied to the blisters can treat simple impetigo; more exten¬ sive cases, especially in infants, may require a systemic antibiotic.

Imphal Vimp-.hoA City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 217,275), capital of Manipur state, northeastern India. Located east-northeast of Kolkata (Calcutta), it lies in the Manipur River valley at an elevation of 2,500 feet (760 meters). It was the seat of the kings of Manipur before the region came under Brit¬ ish rule. In 1944 it was the site of a victory for the Anglo-Indian forces over the Japanese on the Burmese front. Imphal is a major trade centre, noted for its weaving, brass ware, and bronze ware.

implication In logic, a relation that holds between two propositions when they are linked as antecedent and consequent of a true conditional proposition. Logicians distinguish two main types of implication, mate¬ rial and strict. Proposition p materially implies proposition q if and only if the material conditional p z> q (read “if p then q ”) is true. A proposi¬ tion of the form p q is false whenever p is true and q is false; it is true in the other three possible cases (i.e., p true and q true; p false and q true; p false and q false). It follows that whenever p is false, p z> q is auto¬ matically true: this is a peculiarity that makes the material conditional inadequate as an interpretation of the meaning of conditional sentences in ordinary English. On the other hand, proposition p strictly implies proposition q if and only if it is impossible for p to be true without q also being true (i.e., if the conjunction of p and not-# is impossible).

impotence Vim-po-tonsV Inability to achieve or maintain erection of the penis; hence, inability to participate fully in sexual intercourse. Erectile impotence (failure to achieve erection) may have either physical causes (e.g., alcoholism, endocrine disease) or psychological ones (e.g., anxiety, hostility toward the partner). Ejaculatory impotence (inability to reach orgasm, sometimes with an erection maintained for a long time) nearly always has an emotional cause. See also Viagra.

Impressionism Movement in art that developed in France in the late 19th century. In painting it included works produced c. 1867-86 by a group of artists who shared approaches, techniques, and discontent with academic teaching, originally including Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Camille Pissarro, Alfred Sisley, and Berthe Morisot. Later Edouard Manet, whose earlier style had strongly influenced several of them, Mary Cassatt, Edgar Degas, Paul Cezanne and others joined them. The identi¬ fying feature of their work was an attempt to record a scene accurately and objectively, capturing the transient effects of light on colour and tex¬ ture. To this end they abandoned the traditional muted browns, grays, and greens in favour of a lighter, more brilliant palette; stopped using grays and blacks for shadows; built up forms out of discrete flecks and dabs of colour; and often painted out of doors, rather than in the studio. They abandoned traditional formal compositions in favour of a more casual and less contrived disposition of objects within the picture frame, and their subject matter included landscapes, trees, houses, and even urban street scenes and railroad stations. After the French Academy’s Salon consis¬ tently rejected most of their works, they held their own exhibition in 1874; seven others followed. A critic described them derisively as “impression¬ ists,” and they adopted the name as an accurate description of their intent. Before dissolving in the late 1880s, the group had revolutionized West¬ ern painting. See also Post-Impressionism; Salon des Independants.

Impressionism In music, a style initiated by French composer Claude Debussy at the end of the 19th century. The term, which is somewhat vague in reference to music, was introduced by analogy with contemporaneous

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932 I impressment ► incest

French painting; it was disliked by Debussy himself. Elements often termed impressionistic include static harmony, emphasis on instrumental timbres that creates a shimmering interplay of “colours,” melodies that lack directed motion, surface ornamentation that obscures or substitutes for melody, and an avoidance of traditional musical form. Impressionism can be seen as a reaction against the rhetoric of Romanticism, disrupting the forward motion of standard harmonic progressions. The other com¬ poser most often associated with Impressionism is Maurice Ravel. Impres¬ sionistic passages are common in earlier music by Frederic Chopin, Franz Liszt, and Richard Wagner, and in music by later composers such as Charles Ives, Bela Bartok, and George Gershwin.

impressment Enforcement of military or naval service on unwilling men. Until the early 19th century, it flourished in port towns everywhere, as “recruiters” searched through waterfront boardinghouses, brothels, and taverns. They often chose vagabonds or prisoners. Impressed men were forced into service through violence or coercion and were held to their duty by brutal discipline. In the early 19th century, Royal Navy ships halt¬ ing U.S. vessels to search for British deserters frequently impressed natu¬ ralized U.S. citizens, one cause of the War of 1812. Impressment declined in the 19th century as states adopted more systematic recruiting methods. See also conscription.

imprinting Form of learning wherein a very young animal fixes its attention on the first object with which it has visual, auditory, or tactile experience and thereafter follows that object. In nature, the object is almost always a parent; in experiments, other animals and inanimate objects have been used. Imprinting has been studied extensively only in birds, but a comparable form of learning apparently takes place among many mammals and some fishes and insects. Ducklings and chicks, which can imprint in a few hours, lose receptivity to imprinting stimuli within 30 hours of hatching.

improvisation Creation of music in real time. Improvisation usually involves some preparation beforehand, particularly when there is more than one performer. Despite the central place of notated music in the Western tradition, improvisation has often played a role, from the earli¬ est organum through the use of continuo (partially improvised accompa¬ niment played on a bass line) in the 17th and 18th centuries. It has taken forms such as creation of a melody over a bass line for dancing, elabo¬ rate ornamentation added to a repeated section in an aria, keyboard varia¬ tions on popular songs, concerto cadenzas, and free solo fantasias. Perhaps at its lowest ebb in the 19th century, improvisation returned to concert music in “experimental” compositions and in “authentic” performances of older music. Its most important contemporary Western form is jazz. It is also a defining feature of the raga.

in vitro fertilization (IVF) \in-'ve-tro\ or test-tube conception

Procedure, used to overcome infertility, in which eggs are removed from a woman, fertilized with sperm outside the body, and inserted into the uterus of the same or another woman. The first child thus conceived was bom in 1978. IVF includes extraction of eggs, collection of sperm, fertiliza¬ tion in culture, and introduction into the uterus at the eight-cell stage. In a successful procedure, the embryo is implanted in the uterine wall, and pregnancy begins. The most com¬ mon problem is failed implantation.

IVF has been a source of moral, ethi¬ cal, and religious controversy since its development.

Inari \e-'na-re\ In Japanese mythol¬ ogy, the patron god of rice cultiva¬ tion and prosperity. He was worshiped especially by merchants and tradesmen, and he also served as patron deity of swordsmiths, broth¬ els, and entertainers. Inari was vari¬ ously depicted as a bearded old man riding a fox or as a woman with long hair, carrying sheaves of rice. The fox is sometimes identified as his messenger. The god’s most popular shrine is the Fushimi Inari Shrine near Kyoto.

inbreeding Mating of closely related individuals. The opposite is out- breeding, the mating of unrelated organisms. Inbreeding is useful in keep¬ ing desirable characteristics or eliminating undesirable ones, but it often results in decreased vigour, size, and fertility of the offspring because of the combined effect of harmful genes that were recessive in both parents (see recessiveness). The closest type of inbreeding is self-fertilization. In linebreeding, mates are selected on the basis of their relationships to a certain superior ancestor. The backcross (crossing a first-generation hybrid with one of the parental types) is a common method of inbreed¬ ing.

Inca Group of South American Indians who ruled an empire that extended along the Pacific coast and Andes Mountains from what is now northern Ecuador to central Chile. According to tradition (the Inca left no written records), the founder of the Incan dynasty led the tribe to Cuzco, which became their capital. Under the fourth emperor, they began to expand, and under the eighth they began a program of permanent con¬ quest by establishing garrisons among the conquered peoples. Under Topa Inca Yupanqui and his successor, the empire reached its southernmost and northernmost extent. By the early 16th century the Inca controlled an empire of some 12 million subjects. They constructed a vast network of roads, their architecture was highly developed, and the remains of their irrigation systems, palaces, temples, and fortifications are still in evidence throughout the Andes. Incan society was highly stratified and featured an aristocratic bureaucracy. Their pantheon, worshiped in a highly organized state religion, included a sun god, a creator god, and a rain god. The Incan empire was overthrown in 1532 by the Spanish coNQUiSTADORes, who made great use of the Incan road system during their conquests. The Inca’s descendants are the Quechua-speaking peasants of the Andes (see Que- chua). In Peru nearly half the population is of Incan descent. They are primarily farmers and herders living in close-knit communities. Their Roman Catholicism is infused with belief in pagan spirits and divinities. See also Andean civilization; Atahuallpa; Aymara; Chimu; Francisco Pizarro.

incandescent lamp Any of various devices that produce light by heating a suitable material to a high temperature. In an electric incandes¬ cent lamp, or lightbulb, a filament is enclosed in a glass shell that is either evacuated or filled with an inert gas. The filament gives off light when heated by an electric current. The first practical electric incandescent lamps were independently produced in the late 1870s by Joseph Swan and Thomas Alva Edison. Edison has received the major credit because of his development of the power lines and other equipment needed for a light¬ ing system. Inefficient in comparison with fluorescent lamps and electric discharge lamps, incandescent lighting is today reserved mainly for domes¬ tic use. See also halogen lamp.

Incarnation Central Christian doctrine that God became man in the form of Jesus, the son of God and the second person of the Holy Trinity. In Jesus the divine and human nature are joined but neither is changed or diminished. This difficult doctrine gave rise to a variety of heresies, some denying Jesus’s divine nature, others his human nature. For orthodox believers the conflict was settled at the Councils of Nicaea (ad 325) and Chalcedon (ad 451).

incense Grains of resins (sometimes mixed with spices) that burn with a fragrant odor, widely used as religious offerings. Historically, the chief substances used as incense have been resins such as frankincense and myrrh, along with fragrant wood and bark, seeds, roots, and flowers.

incest Sexual relations between persons who, because of the nature of their kinship ties, are prohibited by law or custom from intermarrying. The incest taboo is generally universal, although it is imposed differently in different societies. Usually, the closer the genetic relationship between two people, the stronger and more highly charged is the taboo prohibit¬ ing or discouraging sexual relations. Some sociobiologists consider that inbred populations have diminished reproductive success and become gene pools for hereditary disorders. Some cultural anthropologists argue instead that the incest prohibition, with the corresponding rules of exogamy, acts to require males to seek sexual and marital partners outside the group, thereby establishing useful alliances. Other theories emphasize the need to control sexual jealousies within the family or to prepare chil¬ dren to function with restraint in adult society. No single explanation seems satisfactory, causing some to question whether incest should be treated as a unitary subject. Most cases of incest that come before crimi¬ nal courts concern sexual intercourse between fathers and relatively young daughters (see child abuse).

Inari, wood figurine, Tokugawa period (1603-1867); in the Musee Guimet, Paris

COURTESY OF THE MUSEE GUIMET, PARIS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

inch ► India I 933

inch Unit of measure equal to 1/36 yard and since 1959 defined officially as 2.54 cm (see metre). David I of Scotland (c. 1150) defined the inch as the breadth of a man’s thumb at the base of the nail; usually the thumb breadths of three men—one small, one medium, and one large—were added and then divided by three. During the reign of England’s Edward II, the inch was defined as “three grains of barley, dry and round, placed end to end lengthwise.” At various times it has also been defined as the combined lengths of 12 poppy seeds. See also foot; International System of Units; measurement; metric system.

In'chdn Vin-.chaM or Incheon formerly Jinsen Vjin-.senX or Chemulpo \j3-'mul-po\ Seaport city (pop., 2002 est.: 2,596,102), South Korea, near Seoul. A fishing port since the 14th century, it was a Korean treaty port in 1883 and developed as an international commercial port before the Japanese occupation (1910—45). During the Korean War it was the site of a successful UN troop landing in 1950. It now has metropoli¬ tan city (provincial) status. Its industries produce iron and steel, glass, chemicals, and lumber.

inch worm See looper

incidental music Music composed to accompany a play. The practice dates back to ritualistic Greek drama, and it is thus connected to the use of music in other kinds of ritual. Sometimes limited to the role of intro¬ duction or interlude (setting a mood or a historical period, for example), it may also accompany spoken dialogue (see melodrama). Film and tele¬ vision music is sometimes considered incidental music.

Inclan, Ramon Maria del Valle- See Ramon Maria del Valle-InclAn

income statement In accounting, the activity-oriented financial state¬ ment issued by businesses. Covering a specified time, such as three months or one year, the income statement is a summary of revenues and expenses. It also lists gains and losses from other transactions, such as the sale of assets or the repayment of debt. Standard accounting rules govern the procedures for recording each item.

income tax Levy imposed by public authority on the incomes of per¬ sons or corporations within its jurisdiction. In nations with an advanced system of private enterprise, income taxes represent the chief source of government revenue. Income tax levied on individuals or family units is known as personal income tax. In 1799 Britain enacted a general income tax to finance the Napoleonic Wars. In the U.S. an income tax was first tried during the Civil War; the Supreme Court held it to be constitutional in 1881 but declared another income tax unconstitutional in 1894. In 1913 the 16th Amendment to the Constitution made the personal income tax permanent. The fairness of personal income taxation is based on the premise that one’s income is the best single index of one’s ability to con¬ tribute to the support of the government; most personal income taxes are conceived on the theory that when people’s financial circumstances dif¬ fer, their tax liabilities should also differ. Thus U.S. income taxes are pro¬ gressive TAXes, falling more heavily on those who earn more money, and individual income tax deductions are allowed for items such as interest paid on home mortgage debt, unusual medical expenses, philanthropic contributions, and state and local income and property taxes. Enforcement has been facilitated by withholding the tax from wages and salaries. See also CAPITAL GAINS TAX; CAPITAL LEVY; CORPORATE INCOME TAX; REGRESSIVE TAX; SALES

tax; value-added tax.

incomes policy Collective governmental effort to control the incomes of labour and capital, usually by limiting increases in wages and prices. The term often refers to policies directed at the control of inflation, but it may also indicate efforts to alter the distribution of income among workers, industries, locations, or occupational groups. See also wage-price control.

incontinence Inability to control excretion. Starting and stopping uri¬ nation relies on normal function in pelvic and abdominal muscles, dia¬ phragm, and control nerves. Babies’ nervous systems are too immature for urinary control. Later incontinence may reflect disorders (e.g., neural tube defect causing “neurogenic bladder”), paralysis of urinary system muscles, long-term bladder distension, or certain urogenital malforma¬ tions. Weak pelvic muscles can allow small urine losses on coughing or sneezing (“stress incontinence”). Uncontrolled defecation can result from spinal or bodily injuries, old age, extreme fear, or severe diarrhea. See also ENURESIS.

incubus and succubus Demons (male and female, respectively) who seek to have sexual intercourse with sleeping humans. In medieval Europe

some believed that union with an incubus resulted in the birth of witches, demons, and deformed human offspring. Merlin was said to have been fathered by an incubus.

incunabulum V.in-kyo-'nab-yo-tamV Book printed before 1501. The date, though convenient, is arbitrary and unconnected to any development in the printing art. The term was probably first applied to early printing in general c. 1650. The total number of editions produced by 15th-century European presses is generally estimated at above 35,000, excluding ephemeral literature (e.g., single sheets, ballads, and devotional tracts) that is now lost or exists only in fragments in places such as binding lin¬ ings.

Independants, Salon des See Salon des Independants

Independence City (pop., 2000: 113,288), western Missouri, U.S. Settled in 1827, it served as the starting point for the Santa Fe Trail and the Oregon Trail and was a rendezvous for wagon trains during the Cali¬ fornia gold rush. Home of a Mormon colony (1831-33), it is now the world headquarters of the Community of Christ (formerly Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints). It was occupied by Union troops during the American Civil War and was the scene of two skirmishes with Confederates. The hometown of Pres. Harry Truman, it is the site of the Harry S. Truman Library and Museum.

Independence, Declaration of See Declaration of Independence

Independence Day or Fourth of July Anniversary of the adoption of the U.S. Declaration of Independence by the Second Continental Con¬ gress (July 4, 1776). It is the greatest secular holiday in the country. Cel¬ ebrating the day became common only after the War of 1812. Thereafter, civic-minded groups worked to link the ideals of democracy and citizen¬ ship to the patriotic spirit of the day.

independent counsel formerly special prosecutor Official appointed by the court at the request of the U.S. attorney general to inves¬ tigate and prosecute criminal violations by high government officials, members of Congress, or directors of a presidential election campaign after an investigation by the attorney general finds evidence that a crime may have been committed. The counsel is intended to ensure an impar¬ tial investigation in situations in which the attorney general would face a conflict of interest. The law establishing the office was passed after the firing of Archibald Cox by Pres. Richard Nixon during the Watergate scandal. Independent counsels played a prominent role in the Iran-Contra Affair in the 1980s. In 1999, in the wake of controversy over perceived abuses of the office during the Whitewater investigation of Pres. Bill Clin¬ ton, Congress declined to renew the independent counsel law.

independent school See public school (British)

Independent States, Commonwealth of See Commonwealth of Independent States

indeterminacy principle See uncertainty principle

Index librorum prohibitorum y'in-deks-ll-'bro-ram-pro-.hi-ba-'to- rom\ Latin Index of Forbidden Books List of books considered dangerous to the faith or morals of Catholics. Compiled by official Roman Catholic censors, the Index was never a complete catalog of forbidden reading; it contained only works that the ecclesiastical authority was asked to act on. Though the church’s concern over books is much older, the first catalog of banned books to be called an index was published in 1559. Publication of the list ceased in 1966, and it was relegated to the status of a historic document.

indexation Comparison of price levels over time. In fiscal policy, index¬ ation is used as a means of offsetting the effect of inflation or deflation on social security payments and taxes by measuring the real value of money from a fixed point of reference, usually a price index. Without indexing, recipients of social security benefits, for example, would suffer during times of inflation if their benefits remained at a fixed rate. Indexation is used in some countries to offset “bracket creep,” which occurs in any pro¬ gressive tax system when inflation pushes taxpayers into higher tax brack¬ ets. Indexation may also refer to the linking of wage rates and financial instruments to a price index.

India officially Republic of India Country, South Asia. It fronts the Bay of Bengal on the southeast and the Arabian Sea on the southwest. Area: 1,222,559 sq mi (3,166,414 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 1,103,371,000. Capital: New Delhi. The peoples of India comprise widely

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934 I India rubber plant ► Indian Ocean

varying mixtures of ethnic strains drawn from peoples settled in the subcontinent before the dawn of his¬ tory or from invaders. Languages:

Hindi, English (both official), and other Indo-European languages, including Bengali, Kashmiri, Mar¬ athi, and Urdu; Dravidian languages; hundreds from several other lan¬ guage families. Religions: Hindu¬ ism; also Islam, Christianity,

Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism. Cur¬ rency: rupee. India has three major geographic regions: the Himalayas, along its northern border; the Indo- Gangetic Plain, formed by the allu¬ vial deposits of three great river systems, including the Ganges (Ganga); and the southern region, noted for the Deccan plateau. Agri¬ cultural products include rice, wheat, cotton, sugarcane, coconut, spices, jute, tobacco, tea, coffee, and rubber.

The manufacturing sector is highly diversified and includes both heavy and high-technology industries.

India is a republic with two legisla¬ tive houses; its chief of state is the president, and the head of govern¬ ment is the prime minister. India has been inhabited for thousands of years. Agriculture in India dates to the 7th millennium bc, and an urban civilization, that of the Indus valley, was established by 2600 bc. Buddhism and Jainism arose in the 6th century bc in reaction to the caste-based soci¬ ety created by the Vedic religion and its successor, Hinduism. Muslim invasions began c. ad 1000, estab¬ lishing the long-lived Delhi sultanate in 1206 and the Mughal dynasty in 1526. Vasco da Gama’s voyage to India in 1498 initiated several centuries of commercial rivalry between the Portuguese, Dutch, English, and French. British conquests in the 18th and 19th centuries led to the rule of the British East India Co., and direct administration by the British Empire began in 1858. After Mohandas K. Gandhi helped end British rule in 1947, Jawaharlal Nehru became India’s first prime minister, and Nehru, his daughter Indira Gandhi, and his grand¬ son Rajiv Gandhi guided the nation’s destiny for all but a few years until 1991. The subcontinent was partitioned into two countries—India, with a Hindu majority, and Pakistan, with a Muslim majority—in 1947. A later clash with Pakistan resulted in the creation of Bangladesh in 1971. In the 1980s and ’90s, Sikhs sought to establish an independent state in Punjab, and ethnic and religious conflicts took place in other parts of the country as well. The Kashmir region in the northwest has been a source of con¬ stant tension.

vice of the English East India Company. The mutiny began when sepoys refused to use new rifle cartridges (which were thought to be lubricated with grease containing a mix¬ ture of pigs’ and cows’ lard and thus reli¬ giously impure). They were shackled and imprisoned, but their outraged comrades shot their British officers and marched on Delhi. The ensuing fighting was ferocious on both sides and ended in defeat for the muti¬ neers. Its immediate result was that the East India Company was abol¬ ished in favour of direct rule of India by the British government; in addition, the British government began a policy of consultation with Indi¬ ans. British-imposed social measures that had antagonized Hindu society (e.g., a proposed bill that would remove legal obstacles to the remarriage of Hindu women) were also halted.

India rubber plant See rubber plant Indian buffalo See water buffalo

Indian law Legal practices and institutions of India. Indian law draws on a number of sources, beginning with the customs of the ancient Vedas and later accretions of Hindu law, which largely concern social matters such as marriage and succession. After the Arab invasions of the 8th cen¬ tury, Islamic law (see Shari'ah) was introduced in some areas, particularly in the north. English common law became the residual law in jurisdictions under British colonial control, while the Portuguese and French used their own laws in their colonies. Since independence (1947), India has aimed at developing a unified civil code and updating its criminal code.

Indian licorice See rosary pea

Indian Mutiny or Sepoy Mutiny (1857-58) Widespread rebellion against British rule in India begun by Indian troops (sepoys) in the ser¬

Indian National Congress or Congress Party Broadly based political party of India, founded in 1885. The Congress Party was a mod¬ erate reform party until 1917, when it was taken over by its “extremist” Home Rule wing (see Bal Gangadhar Tilak). In the 1920s and ’30s, under Mohandas K. Gandhi, it promoted noncooperation to protest the feeble¬ ness of the constitutional reforms of 1919. During World War II, the party announced that India would not support the war until granted complete independence. In 1947 an Indian independence bill became law, and in 1950 the constitution took effect. Jawaharlal Nehru dominated the party from 1951 to 1964. The Indian National Congress formed most of India’s governments from 1947 to 1996, but at the end of the 20th century, its support plummeted. After several years out of power, it returned to gov¬ ernment in 2004.

Indian Ocean Body of salt water stretching between Africa in the west, Australia in the east, Asia in the north, and Antarctica in the south. With an area of 28,360,000 sq mi (73,440,000 sq km), it covers approximately

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Indian paintbrush ► Indies I 935

one-seventh of the Earth’s surface, and it is the smallest of the world’s three major oceans (see Atlantic Ocean; Pacific Ocean). Its greatest depth (24,442 ft [7,450 m]) is in the Java Trench. Its chief marginal seas include the Red Sea, Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf, Andaman Sea, Bay of Bengal, and the Great Australian Bight. Its major islands and island groups include Madagascar, Sri Lanka, and the Mascarenes.

Indian paintbrush or paintbrush Any plant of the genus Castilleja (snapdragon family), which contains about 200 species of partially or wholly parasitic wildflowers that obtain nourishment from the roots of other plants. The small, tubular, two-lipped flowers are surrounded by brightly coloured upper leaves, giving the plant the appearance of having been dipped in a pot of red, orange, yellow, pink, or white paint.

Indian philosophy Any of the numerous philosophical systems developed on the Indian subcontinent, including both orthodox ( astika ) systems, namely, the Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, and Vedanta schools of philosophy, and unorthodox ( nastika ) systems, such as Buddhism and Jainism. The history of Indian philosophy may be divided into three periods: the prelogical (to the beginning of the Christian era), the logical (lst-llth century), and the ultralogical (11th—18th century). What Dasgupta calls the prelogical stage covers the pre-Mauryan and the Mauryan periods (c. 321-185 bc) in Indian history. The logical period begins roughly with the Kusanas (1 st-2nd century ad) and was developed most fully in the Gupta era (3rd-5th century) and in the age of imperial Kanauj (7th century). In the 19th century, newly founded universities introduced Indian intellectuals to Western thought, particularly British empiricism and utilitarianism. Indian philosophy in the early 20th century was influenced by German idealism. Later Indian philosophers made significant contributions to analytic philosophy.

Indian pipe Nongreen herbaceous plant (Monotropa uniflora ) that is saprophytic (living on the remains of dead plants). Clusters grow in moist, shady, wooded areas of North America and Asia. The entire plant is white or grayish, occasionally pink, and turns black as it dries out. A single odourless, cup-shaped flower droops from the tip of a stalk 6-10 in. (15-25 cm) tall. The leaves, which lack chlorophyll and do not perform photosynthesis, are small scales. The name reflects the resemblance of this plant to a miniature Indian peace pipe with its stem stuck in the ground.

Indian Removal Act (May 28, 1830) First major legislation that reversed the U.S. policy of respecting the rights of American Indians. The act granted tribes unsettled western prairie land in exchange for their ter¬ ritories within state borders, mainly in the Southeast. Some tribes refused to trade their land, and U.S. troops forced tribes such as the Cherokee to march westward in what became known as the Trail of Tears (1838-39). In Florida the Seminoles fought resettlement in the Seminole Wars (1835—

42).

Indian Reorganization Act (June 18, 1934) Measure enacted by the U.S. Congress to decrease federal control of American Indians and to increase tribal self-government. The act sought to strengthen tribal struc¬ ture by encouraging written constitutions and to undo the damage caused by the Dawes General Allotment Act by returning surplus lands to the tribes rather than homesteaders. It gave Indians the power to manage their inter¬ nal affairs and established a revolving credit fund for tribal land purchases and educational assistance. It remains the basic legislation concerning Indian affairs.

Indian Territory Former territory, U.S. West, including most of mod¬ em Oklahoma. The Choctaw, Creek, Seminole, Cherokee, and Chickasaw tribes were forcibly moved to this area between 1830 and 1843, and an 1834 act set aside the land as Indian country. In 1866 its western half was ceded to the U.S.; this portion was opened to white settlers in 1889 and became the Territory of Oklahoma in 1890. The two territories were united and admitted to the Union as the state of Oklahoma in 1907.

Indiana State (pop., 2000: 6,080,485), midwestem U.S. Bordered by Michigan, Ohio, Kentucky, and Illinois, it covers 36,420 sq mi (94,328 sq km). Its capital is Indianapolis. The Wabash River and the Ohio River define its southwestern and southern borders, respectively; Lake Michi¬ gan lies to the northwest. Indiana was originally inhabited by Indians speaking Algonquian languages, including the Miami, Potawatomi, and Delaware peoples. The French explorer La Salle explored the region in 1679 and claimed it for France. It passed to Britain in 1763 and then to the U.S. in 1783, and it became a territory in 1800. In 1811 U.S. forces won a final victory over the Indians at the Battle of Tippecanoe. After it

was admitted to the Union as the 19th state in 1816, its population began to grow. From 1850 its agriculture expanded, as did industrialization after the American Civil War. For much of the 20th century, steelmaking (see Gary) was important economically.

Indiana, Robert orig. Robert Clark (b. Sept. 13,1928, New Castle, Ind., U.S.) U.S. painter, sculptor, and graphic artist. After studies at the Art Institute of Chicago, he settled in New York City and became a lead¬ ing exponent of Pop art. He achieved wide recognition for paintings and prints featuring geometric shapes emblazoned with lettering and vivid colours. In 1964 he collaborated with Andy Warhol on the film Eat and was commissioned to produce an EAT sign for the New York pavilion at the New York World’s Fair. His most famous image, LOVE, first lettered on canvas in 1965, became a universal symbol for the hippie generation.

Indiana Dunes State park and national lakeshore, southern shore of Lake Michigan, northern Indiana, U.S. The state park (founded 1925) comprises 2,182 acres (883 hectares) of shoreline, marshland, dunes, and forests. At the Big Blowout in the eastern end of the park, lake winds drift sands over a wooded area, creating a “graveyard of trees”; the dunes may reach heights of 200 ft (60 m). The national lakeshore (founded 1966) encloses the state park on three sides. Now covering more than 12,857 acres (5,205 hectares), it includes beaches and wooded ravines.

Indianapolis City (pop., 2000: 791,926) and capital of Indiana, U.S. Located on the White River near the centre of the state, it was founded in 1821 and made the state capital in 1825. It is a hub of road, rail, and air transportation. It is a leading grain market and an industrial centre, with manufactures including pharmaceuticals, machinery, and transpor¬ tation and electrical equipment. The annual Indianapolis 500 automobile race is an international event; the Speedway Hall of Fame Museum is located there. Indianapolis is the site of several colleges and universities.

Indianapolis 500 U.S. automobile race. It has been held annually since 1911 at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, a 2.5-mi (4-km) asphalt oval with banked quarter-mile turns. The “Indy 500” is a 500-mi (805- km) race for top international competitors using specially designed For¬ mula One cars (open-wheel, open-cockpit, rear-engine vehicles). Traditionally held on or near Memorial Day, the race is one of the most prestigious on the international racing circuit, drawing large crowds (about 300,000) and offering substantial prizes (more than $1.5 million).

Indie writing systems Set of several dozen scripts used now or in the past to write many South and Southeast Asian languages. Aside from the Kharoshthi (Kharosthi) script, used c. 4th century BC-3rd century ad, all extant writing of the region descends from the Brahmi script, first attested in the Middle Indo-Aryan rock inscriptions of Ashoka (3rd cen¬ tury bc). In the first six centuries after Ashoka, Brahmi appears to have diversified into northern and southern variants. The northern types gave rise to the so-called Gupta scripts (4th-5th centuries), which are ultimately the progenitors of the Devanagari script (now used to write Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, and Nepali), the Bengali and Oriya scripts, and Gurmukhi, the script of the Sikh scriptures, used also for modern Punjabi in India. The southern types gave rise to the Sinhalese, Telugu, and Kannada scripts on the one hand, and to the Pallava script on the other. The latter formed the basis of numerous other scripts, including those of the Tamil and Malay- alam languages, a host of Southeast Asian scripts (e.g., those used to write Mon, Burmese, Khmer, Thai, and Lao), and a number of Austronesian lan¬ guages.

indicator, economic See economic indicator

indictment In criminal law, a formal written accusation of a crime affirmed by a grand jury and handed up to the court for trial of the accused. In the U.S., the indictment is one of three principal methods of charging offenses, the others being the information (a written accusation resem¬ bling an indictment, prepared and presented to the court by a prosecuting official) and, for petty offenses, a complaint by the aggrieved party or by a police officer. An indictment may contain several counts.

Indies, Laws of the Entire body of law promulgated by the Spanish crown in the 16th—18th centuries for the governance of its colonies. It consists of a compendium of decrees on church government and educa¬ tion, upper and lower courts, political and military administration, Indi¬ ans, finance, navigation, and commerce. A summary promulgated in 1681 contained 6,377 laws; though criticized for its inconsistencies, for exces¬ sive attention to unenforceable details, and for depriving colonists of a responsible role in government, it was the most comprehensive law code

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936 I Indigenismo ► Indo-Aryan languages

ever instituted for a colonial empire, and it set forth humane (if often ignored) principles for treatment of Indians.

Indigenismo \en-,de-ha-'nes-mo\ Latin American movement pressing for a dominant social and political role for Indians in countries where they constitute a majority. Its adherents draw a sharp distinction between Indi¬ ans and people of European ancestry, who have dominated the Indian majorities since the 16th-century Spanish and Portuguese conquest. The movement became influential in Mexico with the revolution of 1910-20; it was particularly strong during the presidency of Lazaro Cardenas (1934— 40), who made serious efforts to reconstitute the country in accordance with its Indian heritage. In Peru it is associated with the APRA move¬ ment.

indigo \'in-di-,go\ Blue vat dye, obtained until about 1900 entirely from some species of the indigo plant. Extraction of the dye was important to the economy of colonial America and remained so in India until the early 20th century. Synthetic indigo has replaced the natural dye; it is reduced chemically to the soluble yellow compound leucoindigo, in which form it is applied to textile fibres and reoxidized to indigo (see oxidation- reduction).

indigo plant Any shrub or herb in the genus Indigofera of the pea family (see legume). Most occur in warm climates and are silky or hairy. The leaves are usually divided into smaller leaflets. Small rose, purple, or white flowers are borne in spikes or clusters. The fruit is a pod. Some species, particularly I. sumatrana and 7. arrecta, were once an important source of indigo dye, a deep navy blue.

indigo snake Non venomous snake (Drymarchon corals, family Col- ubridae) found from the southeastern U.S. to Brazil. The largest snake in the U.S., it has a record length of 9.2 ft (2.8 m). In the U.S. it is blue- black; southward it may have brown foreparts, and in the tropics it is often called brown snake. It kills small vertebrates, including venomous snakes, by crushing with its jaws and the weight of its coils, but is not a con¬ strictor. In defense it hisses and vibrates its tail but rarely strikes. It may share a burrow with a gopher tortoise, for which it is often called gopher snake. It has been listed as an endangered species since the 1970s.

Indigo snake (Drymarchon corais)

LEONARD LEE RUE III

indiscernibles, identity of See identity of indiscernibles

indium Metallic chemical element, chemical symbol In, atomic number 49. Of a brilliant, silvery-white lustre, it is so soft that it can be scratched with a fingernail. Its most common isotope, indium-115, is very weakly radioactive, with a half-life measured in billions of years. Like tin, the pure metal emits a high-pitched “cry” when bent, and, like gallium, molten indium wets glass and other surfaces, which makes it valuable for pro¬ ducing seals between glass, metals, quartz, ceramics, and marble. The metal is used in coating high-performance engine bearings and is an ingre¬ dient in low-melting-point alloys for sprinkler heads, fire-door links, and fusible plugs. In various combinations with elements such as gallium, phosphorus, and arsenic, it forms compounds having semiconductor prop¬ erties useful in electronics, including solid-state light-emitting devices. Transparent electrodes made from an oxide of indium and tin are widely employed in liquid crystal displays.

individualism Political and social philosophy that emphasizes indi¬ vidual freedom. Modern individualism emerged in Britain with the ideas of Adam Smith and Jeremy Bentham, and the concept was described by Alexis de Tocqueville as fundamental to the American temper. Individualism

encompasses a value system, a theory of human nature, and a belief in certain political, economic, social, and religious arrangements. According to the individualist, all values are human-centred, the individual is of supreme importance, and all individuals are morally equal. Individualism places great value on self-reliance, on privacy, and on mutual respect. Negatively, it embraces opposition to authority and to all manner of con¬ trols over the individual, especially when exercised by the state. As a theory of human nature, individualism holds that the interests of the nor¬ mal adult are best served by allowing him maximum freedom and respon¬ sibility for choosing his objectives and the means for obtaining them. The institutional embodiment of individualism follows from these principles. All individualists believe that government should keep its interference in the lives of individuals at a minimum, confining itself largely to main¬ taining law and order, preventing individuals from interfering with oth¬ ers, and enforcing agreements (contracts) voluntarily arrived at. Individualism also implies a property system according to which each person or family enjoys the maximum of opportunity to acquire property and to manage and dispose of it as he or they see fit. Although economic individualism and political individualism in the form of democracy advanced together for a while, in the course of the 19th century they eventually proved incompatible, as newly enfranchised voters came to demand governmental intervention in the economic process. Individual¬ istic ideas lost ground in the later 19th and early 20th century with the rise of large-scale social organization and the emergence of political theo¬ ries opposed to individualism, particularly communism and fascism. They reemerged in the latter half of the 20th century with the defeat of fascism, the fall of communism in the Soviet Union and eastern Europe, and the worldwide spread of representative democracy. See also libertarianism.

individuation Determination that an individual identified in one way is numerically identical with or distinct from an individual identified in another way (e.g., Venus, known as “the morning star” in the morning and “the evening star” in the evening). Since the concept of an individual seems to require that it be recognizable as such in several possible situ¬ ations, the problem of individuation is of great importance in ontology and logic. The problem of identifying an individual existing at two dif¬ ferent times (transtemporal identity) is one of many forms that the prob¬ lem of individuation can take: What makes that caterpillar identical with this butterfly? What makes the person you are now identical with the per¬ son you were a decade ago? In modal logic, the problem of transworld individuation (or transworld identity) is of importance because the stan¬ dard model of theoretic semantics for systems of modal logic assumes that it makes sense to speak of the same individual existing in more than one possible world.

Indo-Aryan languages or Indie languages Major subgroup of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. Indo-Aryan languages are spoken by more than 800 million people, principally in India, Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. The Old Indo-Aryan period is represented by Sanskrit. Middle Indo-Aryan (c. 600 bc-ad 1000) consists principally of the Prakrit dialects, including Pali. Modern Indo- Aryan speech is largely a single dialect continuum spread over an undi¬ vided geographical space, so demarcations between languages and dialects are somewhat artificial. Complicating the situation are compet¬ ing distinctions between languages with an old literary tradition, local language identification by native speakers (as in censuses), supraregional languages such as Modern Standard Hindi and Urdu, and labels introduced by linguists, particularly those of George Abraham Grierson. In the centre of the Indo-Aryan speech area (the “Hindi zone”), covering northern India and extending south as far as Madhya Pradesh, the most common lan¬ guage of administration and education is Modem Standard Hindi. Impor¬ tant regional languages in the northern Indian plain are Haryanvi, Kauravi, Braj, Awadhi, Chhattisgarhi, Bhojpuri, Magahi, and Maithili. Regional languages in Rajasthan include Marwari, Dhundhari, Harauti, and Malvi. In the Himalayan foothills of Himachal Pradesh are Grierson’s Pahari languages. Surrounding the Hindi zone, the most significant languages are, moving clockwise, Nepali (East Pahari), Assamese, Bengali, Oriya, Marathi, Gujarati, Sindhi, the speech of southern, northwestern, and northern Punjab province in Pakistan (called West Punjabi or Lahnda by Grierson), Punjabi, and Dogri. In Jammu and Kashmir and the far north of Pakistan are the Dardic languages; the most important are Kashmiri, Kohistani, Shina, and Khowar. The Nuristani languages of northwestern Afghanistan are sometimes considered a separate branch of Indo-Iranian. Sinhalese (spoken in Sri Lanka), Divehi (spoken in the Maidive Islands), and Romany are also Indo-Aryan languages.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Indo-European languages ► induction I 937

Indo-European languages Family of languages with the greatest number of speakers, spoken in most of Europe and areas of European settlement and in much of southwestern and southern Asia. They are descended from a single unrecorded language believed to have been spo¬ ken more than 5,000 years ago in the steppe regions north of the Black Sea and to have split into a number of dialects by 3000 bc. Carried by migrating tribes to Europe and Asia, these developed over time into sepa¬ rate languages. The main branches are Anatolian, Indo-Iranian (including Indo-Aryan and Iranian), Greek, Itauc, Germanic, Armenian, Celtic, Alba¬ nian, the extinct Tocharian languages, Baltic, and Slavic. The study of Indo-European began in 1786 with Sir William Jones’s proposal that Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, Germanic, and Celtic were all derived from a “common source.” In the 19th century linguists added other languages to the Indo-European family, and scholars such as Rasmus Rask established a system of sound correspondences. Proto-Indo-European has since been partially reconstructed via identification of roots common to its descen¬ dants and analysis of shared grammatical patterns.

Indo-Gangetic Plain See Gangetic Plain

Indochina or Indochinese Peninsula Region of mainland South¬ east Asia. The term, now largely superseded by the name Southeast Asia, was used mainly by Westerners to describe the intermingling of Indian and Chinese cultural influences in the region. Indochinese Peninsula typi¬ cally referred to Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam (see French Indochina), though it was sometimes expanded to include Myanmar (Burma), Thai¬ land, and the mainland portion of Malaysia.

Indochina wars 20th-century conflicts in Vietnam, Laos, and Cam¬ bodia. The first conflict (1946-54; often called the French Indochina War) involved France, which had ruled Vietnam as its colony (French Indoch¬ ina), and the newly independent Democratic Republic of Vietnam under Ho Chi Minh; the war ended in Vietnamese victory in 1954. Vietnam was then divided into the communist-dominated north and the U.S.-supported south; war soon broke out between the two. North Vietnam won the war (the Vietnam War) despite heavy U.S. involvement, and the country was reunited in 1976. Cambodia experienced its own civil war between com¬ munists and noncommunists during that period, which was won by the communist Khmer Rouge in 1975. After several years of horrifying atroci¬ ties under Pol Pot, the Vietnamese invaded in 1979 and installed a pup¬ pet government. Fighting between the Khmer Rouge and the Vietnamese continued throughout the 1980s; Vietnam withdrew its troops by 1989. In 1993 UN-mediated elections established an interim government, and Cambodia’s monarchy was reestablished. In Laos, North Vietnam’s vic¬ tory over South Vietnam brought the communist Pathet Lao into com¬ plete control in Laos.

Indonesia officially Republic of Indonesia formerly Nether¬ lands East Indies Archipelago country, located off the coast of main¬ land Southeast Asia. It comprises some 17,500 islands, of which about 6,000 are uninhabited. Area: 730,024 square miles (1,890,754 square km). Population (2005 est.): 222,781,000. Capital: Jakarta (on Java). Indone¬ sia has more than 300 ethnic groups, which in the western islands fall into three broad divisions: the inland rice-growing peoples of Java and neigh¬ bouring islands; the Muslim coastal peoples, including the Malays of Sumatra; and the Dayak and other tribal groups. In the east the distinc¬ tion is between coastal and interior peoples. Languages: Bahasa Indone¬ sia (official), some 250 languages from different ethnic groups. Religions: Islam; also Christianity, Hinduism, traditional beliefs. Currency: rupiah. The Indonesian archipelago stretches 3,200 miles (5,100 km) from west to east. Major islands include Sumatra, Java (with more than half of Indo¬ nesia’s population), Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, about three-fourths of Borneo (Kalimantan), Celebes (Sulawesi), the Moluccas, and the western portions of Timor and New Guinea. The islands are characterized by rugged vol¬ canic mountains and tropical rainforests. Geologically unstable, Indone¬ sia has frequent earthquakes and 220 active volcanoes, including Krakatoa (Krakatau). Roughly one-fifth of its land is arable, and rice is the staple crop. Petroleum, natural gas, timber products, garments, and rubber are major exports. Indonesia is a republic with two legislative houses; its head of state and government is the president.

Austronesian-speaking peoples began migrating to Indonesia about the 3rd millennium bc. Commercial relations were established with Africa about the 1st century ad, and Hindu and Buddhist cultural influences from India began to take hold. Indian traders also brought Islam to the islands, and by the 13th century it was spreading throughout the islands—except Bali, which retained its Hindu religion and culture. Indonesia now has the

largest Muslim population of any country. European influence began in the 16th century, and the Dutch gradually established control of Indone¬ sia from the late 17th century until 1942, when the Japanese invaded. Sukarno declared Indonesia’s independence in 1945, which the Dutch granted, with nominal union to The Netherlands, in 1949; Indonesia dis¬ solved this union in 1954. The suppression of an alleged coup attempt in 1965 resulted in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of people the gov¬ ernment claimed to be communists, and by 1968 Gen. Suharto had taken power. His government forcibly incorporated East Timor into Indonesia in 1975-76, with much loss of life. In the 1990s the country was beset by political, economic, and environmental problems, and Suharto was deposed in 1998. Muslim leader Abdurrahman Wahid was elected presi¬ dent in 1999 but was replaced in 2001 by his vice president, Megawati Sukarnoputri, the eldest daughter of Sukarno. In 2004 she was succeeded by Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono. In 1999 the people of East Timor voted for independence from Indonesia, which was granted; after a period under UN supervision, it achieved full sovereignty in 2002. In 2004 a large tsu¬ nami generated by an earthquake off the western coast of Sumatra caused widespread death and destruction. See map on following page.

Indonesian language See Malay language

Indore \in-'dor\ City (pop., 2001 prelim.: metro, area, 1,639,044), west¬ ern Madhya Pradesh state, central India. Located northeast of Mumbai (Bombay), it was founded in 1715 as a trade market by local landown¬ ers, who erected Indreshwar Temple, from which the city’s name is derived. It became the capital of the princely state of Indore belonging to the Maratha Holkars. Under the British, it served as the headquarters of the British Central India Agency. The largest city in the state, it is an important commercial and industrial centre.

Indra In the ancient Vedic religion of India, chief of the gods and patron of warriors. Armed with lightning and thunderbolts and strengthened by drinking the elixir soma, he vanquished demonic enemies and killed the dragon that kept the monsoon rains from breaking. In later Hinduism Indra was demoted to a rain god and regent of the heavens. He was father to Arjuna, hero of the A^ahabharata. Indra also appears in Buddhist and Jain mythologies.

Indre River Va n dr 3 \ River, central France. It is a tributary of the Loire River. Rising on the northern flanks of the plateau region known as the Massif Central, it flows northwest through agricultural lands and joins the Loire after a total course of 165 mi (265 km).

inductance Property of a conductor, sometimes in the shape of a coil, that is measured by the size of the electromotive force (emf), or voltage, induced in it, compared with the rate of change of the electric current that produces the voltage. A steadily changing electric current produces a varying magnetic field, which induces an emf in a conductor that is present in the field. The magnitude of this voltage is proportional to the rate of change of the current. The inductance is the proportionality factor. The unit of inductance is the henry, named after Joseph Henry; one henry is equivalent to one volt divided by one ampere per second.

induction In logic, a type of nonvalid inference or argument in which the premises provide some reason for believing that the conclusion is true. Typical forms of inductive argument include reasoning from a part to a whole, from the particular to the general, and from a sample to an entire population. Induction is traditionally contrasted with deduction. Many of the problems of inductive logic, including what is known as the problem of induction, have been treated in studies of the methodology of the natu¬ ral sciences. See also John Stuart Mill; philosophy of science; scientific

METHOD.

induction See electromagnetic induction, electrostatic induction

induction, problem of Problem of justifying the inductive inference from the observed to the unobserved. It was given its classic formulation by David Hume, who noted that such inferences typically rely on the assumption that the future will resemble the past, or on the assumption that events of a certain type are necessarily connected, via a relation of causation, to events of another type. (1) If we were asked why we believe that the sun will rise tomorrow, we would say that in the past the Earth turned on its axis every 24 hours (more or less), and that there is a uni¬ formity in nature that guarantees that such events always happen in the same way. But how do we know that nature is uniform in this sense? We might answer that, in the past, nature has always exhibited this kind of uniformity, and so it will continue to be uniform in the future. But this

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

938 I induction Heating ► Indus River

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inference is justified only if we assume that the future must resemble the past. How do we justify this assumption? We might say that in the past, the future turned out to resemble the past, and so in the future, the future will again turn out to resemble the past. The inference is obviously circular: it succeeds only by tacitly assuming what it sets out to prove, namely that the future will resemble the past. (2) If we are asked why we believe we will feel heat when we approach a fire, we would say that fire causes heat—i.e., there is a “necessary connection” between fire and heat, such that whenever one occurs, the other must follow. But, Hume asks, what is this “neces¬ sary connection”? Do we observe it when we see the fire or feel the heat? If not, what evidence do we have that it exists? All we have is our obser¬ vation, in the past, of a “constant conjunction” of instances of fire being followed by instances of heat. This observation does not show that, in the future, instances of fire will continue to be followed by instances of heat; to say that it does is to assume that the future must resemble the past. But if our observation is consistent with the possibility that fire may not be followed by heat in the future, then it cannot show that there is a neces¬ sary connection between the two that makes heat follow fire whenever fire occurs. Thus we are not justified in believing that (1) the sun will rise tomorrow or that (2) we will feel heat when we approach a fire. It is important to note that Hume did not deny that he or anyone else formed beliefs about the future on the basis of induction; he denied only that we could know with certainty that these beliefs are true. Philosophers have responded to the problem of induction in a variety of ways, though none has gained wide acceptance.

induction heating Method of raising the temperature of an electri¬ cally conductive material by subjecting it to an alternating electromagnetic field. Energy in the electric currents induced in the object is dissipated as heat. Induction heating is used in metalworking to heat metals for solder¬ ing, tempering, and annealing, and in induction furnaces for melting and processing metals. The principle of the induction-heating process resembles that of the transformer. A water-cooled coil (inductor), acting as the primary winding of a transformer, surrounds the material to be heated (the workpiece), which acts as the secondary winding. Alternating current flowing in the primary coil induces eddy currents in the work- piece, causing it to become heated. The depth to which the eddy currents penetrate, and therefore the distribution of heat within the object, depend

on the frequency of the primary alternating current and the magnetic per¬ meability, as well as the resistivity, of the material.

indulgence In Roman Catholicism, the remission of temporal punish¬ ment for a sin after the sin has been forgiven through the sacrament of penance. The theology of indulgences is based on the concept that, even though the sin and its eternal punishment are forgiven through penance, divine justice demands that the sinner pay for the crime either in this life or in purgatory. The first indulgences were intended to shorten times of penance by substituting periods of fasting, private prayers, almsgiving, and monetary payments that were to be used for religious purposes. Pope Urban II granted the first plenary, or absolute, indulgence to participants in the First Crusade, and subsequent popes offered indulgences on the occasion of the later Crusades. After the 12th century they were more widely used, and abuses became common as indulgences were put up for sale to earn money for the church or to enrich unscrupulous clerics. Jan Hus opposed them, and Martin Luther’s Ninety-five Theses (1517) were in part a protest against indulgences. In 1562 the Council of Trent put an end to the abuses but not to the doctrine itself.

Indus civilization (c. 2500-c. 1700 bc) Earliest known urban culture of the Indian subcontinent and the most extensive of the world’s three earliest civilizations. It stretched from near the present-day Iran-Pakistan border on the Arabian Sea in the west to near Delhi in the east, and 500 mi (800 km) to the south and 1,000 mi (1,600 km) to the northeast. It is known to have included two large cities, Harappa and Mohenjo Daro (in what is now Pakistan), whose large size suggests centralization in two large states or one state with two capitals. Alternatively, Harappa may have succeeded Mohenjo Daro. It was a literate civilization; the language has been tentatively identified as Dravidian. Wheat and barley were grown, many animals (including cats, dogs, and cattle) were domesticated, and cotton was cultivated. The best-known artifacts are seals depicting real and imaginary animals. How and when the civilization came to an end is unclear; Mohenjo Daro was attacked and destroyed in the mid-2nd millennium bc, but in the south there was continuity between the Indus civilization and the Copper Age civilizations of central and western India.

Indus River Trans-Himalayan river of southern Asia. It is one of the world’s longest rivers, with a length of 1,800 mi (2,900 km). Its annual flow of 272 billion cu yd (207 billion cu m) is twice that of the Nile. It rises in southwestern Tibet and flows northwest through valleys of the

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

industrial and organizational relations ► industry I 939

Himalayas. After crossing into the Kashmir region, it continues northwest¬ ward through the Indian- and Pakistani-administered areas and then turns south into Pakistan. Swelled by tributaries from the Punjab region, includ¬ ing the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej rivers, it widens and flows more slowly. It has supplied water for irrigation on the plains of Pakistan since early times.

industrial and organizational relations or organizational relations Study of human behaviour in the workplace, focusing espe¬ cially on the influence such relations have on an organization’s produc¬ tivity. Classical economics viewed workers as instruments of production, subject to the laws of supply and demand. Industrial relations did not become the subject of scholarly attention until the late 1920s, when Elton Mayo (1880-1949) studied productivity at Western Electric Co.’s Haw¬ thorne Works. Concluding that merely being chosen to participate in the study improved workers’ productivity (the “Hawthorne effect”), Mayo became the first scholar to show workers responding to psychosocial stimuli. Other aspects of industrial and organizational relations include human resources management, which involves the development of job descriptions and organizational structures; recruiting, training, and gen¬ eral oversight of employees; negotiating terms of employment, planning for the future, and the study of managerial styles.

industrial design Design of products made by large-scale industry for mass distribution. Among the considerations for such products are structure, operation, appearance, and conformance to production, distri¬ bution, and selling procedures; appearance is the principal consideration in industrial design. The International Council of Societies of Industrial Design was founded in London in 1957 and within 25 years had mem¬ bers in more than 40 countries. Two significant trends have persisted: streamlining, a design principle pioneered by Raymond Loewy and others in the 1930s; and planned obsolescence, design changes that tempt own¬ ers to replace goods with new purchases more frequently than would nor¬ mally be necessary.

industrial ecology Discipline that traces the flow of energy and mate¬ rials from their natural resources through manufacture, the use of prod¬ ucts, and their final recycling or disposal. Research in industrial ecology began in the early 1990s. Life-cycle analysis traces the flow of materials; design for the environment works to minimize energy use, pollution, and waste. Industrial ecologists aim to create industries in which every waste is a raw material for another product.

industrial engineering Application of engineering principles and techniques of scientific management to the maintenance of high levels of productivity at optimum cost in industrial enterprises. Frederick W. Taylor pioneered in the scientific measurement of work, and Frank (1868-1924) and Lillian (1878-1972) Gilbreth refined it with time-and-motion studies. As a result, production processes were simplified, enabling workers to increase production. The industrial engineer selects tools and materials for production that are most efficient and least costly to the company. The engineer may also determine the sequence of production and the design of plant facilities or factories. See also ergonomics.

industrial espionage Acquisition of trade secrets from business competitors. Industrial spying is a reaction to the efforts of many busi¬ nesses to keep secret their designs, formulas, manufacturing processes, research, and future plans. Trade secrets may find their way into the open market through disloyal employees or through various other means. Pen¬ alties against those found guilty range from an injunction against further use of the knowledge to substantial damages. See also patent.

industrial medicine or occupational medicine Branch of medi¬ cine dealing with workers’ health and the prevention and treatment of diseases and injuries in the workplace. Workplace hazards include expo¬ sure to dangerous materials including asbestos and coal dust, radiation exposure, and machinery capable of causing injuries ranging from minor to life-threatening. Industrial medical programs mandate protective devices around machines’ moving parts, proper ventilation of work areas, use of less toxic materials, containment of production processes, and pro¬ tective equipment and clothing. Good industrial medical programs improve labour-management relations, increase workers’ overall health and productivity, and reduce insurance costs.

industrial melanism Vme-lo-.ni-zonA Darkness of the skin, feathers, or fur developed by a population of animals living in an industrial region where the environment is soot-darkened. The melanization of a popula¬

tion increases the probability that its members will survive and reproduce because it offers protection in the form of camouflage; it takes place over the course of many generations as the result of natural selection of the lighter, more conspicuous animals by predators.

industrial-organizational psychology or 1-0 psychology

Application of the concepts and methods of experimental, clinical, and social psychology to the workplace. 1-0 psychologists are concerned with such matters as personnel evaluation and placement, job analysis, worker- management relations (including morale and job satisfaction), workforce training and development (including leadership training), and productiv¬ ity improvement. They may work closely with business managers, indus¬ trial engineers, and human-resources professionals.

Industrial Revolution Process of change from an agrarian, handicraft economy to one dominated by industry and machine manufacture. It began in England in the 18th century. Technological changes included the use of iron and steel, new energy sources, the invention of new machines that increased production (including the steam engine and the spinning jenny), the development of the factory system, and important develop¬ ments in transportation and communication (including the railroad and the telegraph). The Industrial Revolution was largely confined to Britain from 1760 to 1830 and then spread to Belgium and France. Other nations lagged behind, but, once Germany, the U.S., and Japan achieved indus¬ trial power, they outstripped Britain’s initial successes. Eastern European countries lagged into the 20th century, and not until the mid-20th century did the Industrial Revolution spread to such countries as China and India. Industrialization effected changes in economic, political, and social orga¬ nization. These included a wider distribution of wealth and increased international trade; political changes resulting from the shift in economic power; sweeping social changes that included the rise of working-class movements, the development of managerial hierarchies to oversee the division of labour, and the emergence of new patterns of authority; and struggles against externalities such as industrial pollution and urban crowding.

Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) known as the Wob- blies Radical labour organization founded in Chicago in 1905. The founders, who opposed the moderate policies of the AFL (see AFL-CIO), included William Haywood of the Western Federation of Miners, Daniel De Leon of the Socialist Labor Party, and Eugene V. Debs. In 1908 the IWW split, and a militant group led by Haywood prevailed. To reach its goal of worker control of the means of production, it advocated general strikes, boycotts, and sabotage. Its tactics led to arrests and adverse publicity, though it made gains through strikes in the mining and lumber industries. It opposed U.S. participation in World War I, and some of its leaders were prosecuted. By the 1920s membership had dwindled greatly.

industrialization Process of converting to a socioeconomic order in which industry is dominant. The changes that took place in Britain dur¬ ing the Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and 19th century led the way for the early industrializing nations of western Europe and North America. Industrialization entailed both technology and profound social develop¬ ments. The freeing of labourers from feudal and customary obligations created a free market in labour, with a pivotal role for the entrepreneur. Cities attracted large numbers of people, massing workers in new indus¬ trial towns and factories. Later industrializers attempted to manipulate some of the elements: the Soviet Union eliminated the entrepreneur; Japan stimulated and sustained the entrepreneur’s role; Denmark and New Zealand industrialized primarily by commercializing and mechanizing agriculture.

industry Group of productive organizations that produce or supply goods, services, or sources of income. In economics, industries are cus¬ tomarily classified as primary, secondary, and tertiary; secondary industries are further classified as heavy and light. Primary industry includes agricul¬ ture, forestry, fishing, mining, quarrying, and extracting minerals. Second¬ ary or manufacturing industry processes the raw materials supplied by primary industries into consumer goods, or further processes goods from other secondary industries, or builds capital goods used to manufacture consumer and nonconsumer goods; secondary industry also includes energy-producing industries and the construction industry. Tertiary or ser¬ vice industry includes banking, finance, insurance, investment, and real estate services; wholesale, retail, and resale trade; transportation, informa¬ tion, and communications services; professional, consulting, legal, and personal services; tourism, hotels, restaurants, and entertainment; repair

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

940 I Indy ► inflation

and maintenance services; education and teaching; and health, social wel¬ fare, administrative, police, security, and defense services.

Indy \a n -'de\, (Paul-Marie-Theodore-) Vincent d' (b. March 27, 1851, Paris, France—d. Dec. 1, 1931, Paris) French composer and teacher. Trained in organ and composition, he rejected the prevailing French style as frivolous by comparison with the German musical tradition. He wrote several important stage works, including Fervaal (1895) and The Legend of Saint Christopher (1915), but orchestral works such as Symphony on a French Mountain Air (1886), Summer Day in the Mountains (1905), and Istar (1896) remain better known. In 1894 he cofounded the music academy called the Schola Cantorum in Paris, where many of France’s foremost composers and musicians would be trained.

inequality In mathematics, a statement of an order relationship— greater than, greater than or equal to, less than, or less than or equal to—between two numbers or algebraic expressions. Inequalities can be posed either as questions, much like equations, and solved by similar techniques, or as statements of fact in the form of theorems. For example, the triangle inequality states that the sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is greater than or equal to the length of the remaining side. Mathematical analysis relies on many such inequalities (e.g., the Cauchy- Schwarz inequality) in the proofs of its most important theorems.

inert gas See noble gas

inertia U-'nor-shoV Inherent property of a body that makes it oppose any force that would cause a change in its motion. A body at rest and a body in motion both oppose forces that might cause acceleration. The inertia of a body can be measured by its mass, which governs its resistance to the action of a force, or by its moment of inertia about a specified axis, which measures its resistance to the action of a torque about the same axis.

inertia, moment of Quantitative measure of the rotational inertia of a body. As a rotating body spins about an external or internal axis (either fixed or unfixed), it opposes any change in the body’s speed of rotation that may be caused by a torque. It is defined as the sum of the products obtained by multiplying the mass of each particle of matter in a given body by the square of its distance from the axis of rotation.

inertial guidance system An electronic system that continuously monitors the position, velocity, and acceleration of a vehicle, usually a submarine, missile, or airplane, and thus provides navigational data or control. The basic components of an inertial guidance system are gyro¬ scopes, accelerometers, and a computer.

infancy In humans, the period of life between birth and the acquisition of language usually one to two years later. The average newborn infant weighs 7.5 lbs (3.4 kg) and is about 20 in (51 cm) long. At birth, infants display a set of inherited reflexes involving such acts as sucking, blink¬ ing, and grasping. They are sensitive to light-dark visual contrasts and movements and show a noticeable preference for gazing at the human face; they also begin to recognize the human voice. By 4 months of age most babies are able to sit up, and most begin crawling in 7-10 months; by 12 months most are able to start walking. Virtually all infants begin to comprehend some words several months before they themselves speak their first meaningful words.

infanticide Killing of the newborn. Infanticide has often been inter¬ preted as a primitive method of birth control and a means of ridding a group of its weak or undesirable children; but most societies actively wel¬ come children and put them to death (or allow them to die) only under exceptional circumstances—e.g., when there is little or no likelihood of being able to provide support. As late as the 18th century in European countries unwanted infants were disposed of by abandonment and expo¬ sure. Firstborn sacrifice, or the offering of one’s most precious possession to the deities, is known from the Bible and from the histories of Egypt, Greece, Rome, and India.

infantile paralysis See poliomyelitis

infantry Troops who fight on foot. The term applies both to soldiers armed with hand weapons such as the spear and sword in ancient times and to troops armed with automatic rifles and rocket launchers in mod¬ ern times. Their objective has always been to seize and hold ground and, when necessary, to occupy enemy territory. Apart from the temporary dominance of cavalry in the feudal period, it has been the largest single element in Western armies since ancient times.

infection Invasion of the body by various agents—including bacteria, fungi (see fungus), protozoans, viruses, and worms —and its reaction to them or their toxins. Infections are called subclinical until they percepti¬ bly affect health, when they become infectious diseases. Infection can be local (e.g., an abscess), confined to one body system (e.g., pneumonia in the lungs), or generalized (e.g., septicemia). Infectious agents can enter the body by inhalation, ingestion, sexual transmission, passage to a fetus dur¬ ing pregnancy or birth, wound contamination, or animal or insect bites. The body responds with an attack on the invader by leukocytes, produc¬ tion of antibodies or antitoxins, and often a rise in temperature. The anti¬ bodies may result in short-term or lifelong immunity. Despite significant progress in preventing and treating infectious diseases, they remain a major cause of illness and death, particularly in regions of poor sanita¬ tion, poor nutrition, and crowding.

inferiority complex Acute sense of personal inferiority, often result¬ ing in either timidity or (through overcompensation) exaggerated aggres¬ siveness. Though once a standard psychological concept, particularly among followers of Alfred Adler, it has lost much of its usefulness through imprecise popular misuse.

infertility Inability of a couple to conceive and reproduce. It is defined as failure to conceive after one year of regular intercourse without con¬ traception. Inability to conceive when desired can result from a defect at any of the stages required for fertility (see reproductive system). About one in every eight couples is infertile. Most cases involve the female partner, 30^40% involve the male, and 10% are caused by unknown factors. In women, causes include ovulation or hormone problems, fallopian-tube disorders, and a chemical balance that is hostile to sperm; in men, causes include impotence, low sperm count, and sperm abnormalities. Either part¬ ner can have a blockage of the pathways the sperm must travel, often treatable by surgery. Emotional factors may contribute; return of normal fertility may require only counseling. Fertility drugs can stimulate the release of eggs (often more than one, leading to multiple births). Low sperm count may be overcome by limiting intercourse to the time of ovulation, the most fertile period. If these methods are unsuccessful, couples may try ARTIFICIAL insemination, in vitro fertilization, or SURROGATE motherhood, or they may choose adoption instead.

infinite series In mathematics, the sum of infinitely many numbers, whose relationship can typically be expressed as a formula or a function. An infinite series that results in a finite sum is said to converge (see con¬ vergence). One that does not, diverges. Mathematical analysis is largely taken up with studying the conditions under which a given function will result in a convergent infinite series. Such series (e.g., the Fourier series) are particularly useful in solving differential equations.

infinity In mathematics, the useful concept of a process with no end. As represented by the symbol «>, it is often mistakenly thought to be the largest number or a place on the real number line. Instead, it is the idea of a limit, as in the expression x —> ©°, which suggests that the variable x increases without bound. For example, the function/(x) = l/x, or the reciprocal of x, tends toward 0 as x approaches infinity as a limit. This process of approach¬ ing is crucial to the definition of the derivative and the integral in calculus, as well as to many other concepts of mathematical analysis.

inflammation Local reaction of living tissues to injury or illness, including burns, pneumonia, leprosy, tuberculosis, and rheumatoid arthri¬ tis. Its major signs are heat, redness, swelling, and pain. The process begins with brief contraction of nearby arterioles (see arteries). Dilation follows, flushing the capillaries with blood, from which fluid, plasma pro¬ teins, and leukocytes pass into the injured tissues, causing swelling as they attack the cause of injury. Initial acute inflammation can have any of four outcomes: resolution (return to normal), organization (new tissue buildup; see scar), suppuration (pus formation; see abscess), or chronic inflamma¬ tion. Sometimes treatment—including antibiotics for bacteria, or surgical removal of an irritating foreign body—can eliminate the cause. If not, anti-inflammatory drugs (e.g., cortisone or aspirin) may be given, or simple remedies (e.g., hot or cold compresses) may be applied.

inflation In cosmology, a hypothesized period of exponential expansion of the universe, shortly after the big bang, which may account for some of the universe’s observed properties, such as the distribution of energy and matter. Grand unified theories of the forces of nature suggest that infla¬ tion could have occurred during the first 10 -32 second after the universe began, when the strong force was decoupling from the weak and electro¬ magnetic forces. During this time, the universe would have expanded by

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inflation ► Ingres I 941

more than 100 orders of magnitude. Interpreted in the context of general relativity, inflation occurred while the universe existed in a state of non¬ zero energy density (false vacuum).

inflation In economics, increases in the level of prices. Inflation is gen¬ erally thought of as an inordinate rise in the general level of prices. Four theories are commonly used to explain inflation. The first and oldest, the quantity theory, promoted in the 18th century by David Hume, assumes that prices will rise as the supply of money increases. Milton Friedman refined the quantity theory in the mid-20th century, arguing that the prescription for stable prices is to increase the money supply at a rate equal to that at which the economy is expanding. A second approach is John Maynard Keynes’s theory of income determination, which assumes that inflation occurs when the demand for goods and services is greater than the sup¬ ply. It calls for the government to control inflation by adjusting levels of spending and taxation and by raising or lowering interest rates. A third approach is the cost-push theory. It traces inflation to a phenomenon known as the price-wage spiral, in which workers’ demands for wage increases lead employers to increase prices to reflect their higher costs, thereby sowing the seeds of a further round of wage demands. A fourth approach is the structural theory, which emphasizes structural maladjust¬ ments in the economy, as when in developing countries imports tend to increase faster than exports, pushing down the international value of the developing country’s currency and causing prices to rise internally. See also DEFLATION, PRICE INDEX.

inflorescence \,in-fl9-'re-s 3 ns\ Cluster of flowers on one or a series of branches, which together make a large showy blossom. Categories depend on the arrangement of flowers on an elongated main axis (peduncle) or on sub-branches from the main axis, and on the timing and position of flowering. In determinate inflorescences, the youngest flowers are at the bottom or outside (e.g., onion flowers). In indeterminate inflorescences, the youngest flowers are at the top or in the center (e.g., snapdragon, lily of the valley, and Astilbe flowers). Other indeterminate inflorescences are the dangling male and female catkins of oak trees, the spike of barley, and the flat head (capitulum) of the dandelion.

influenza or flu or grippe Acute viral infection of the upper or lower respiratory tract. Influenza viRUSes A (the most common), B, and C pro¬ duce similar symptoms, but infection with or vaccination against one does not give immunity against the others. Chills, fatigue, and muscle aches begin abruptly. The temperature soon reaches 38-40 °C (101-104 °F). Head, muscle, abdominal, and joint aches may be accompanied by sore throat. Recovery starts in three to four days, and respiratory symptoms become more prominent. Bed rest, high fluid intake, and aspirin or other antifever drugs are standard treatment. Influenza A tends to occur in wave¬ like annual pandemics. Mortality is usually low, but in rare outbreaks (see influenza epidemic of 1918-19) it reaches immense proportions. Most deaths result from pneumonia or bronchitis.

influenza epidemic of 1918-19 or Spanish influenza epi¬ demic Most severe influenza outbreak of the 20th century. It apparently started as a fairly mild strain in a U.S. army camp in early March 1918. Troops sent to fight in World War I spread the virus to western Europe. Outbreaks occurred in nearly every inhabited part of the world, spread¬ ing from ports to cities along transportation routes. Pneumonia often devel¬ oped quickly and killed within two days. Among the most deadly epidemics in history, it left an estimated 25 million dead; unusually, half the deaths were among 20- to 40-year-olds.

information processing Acquisition, recording, organization, retrieval, display, and dissemination of information. Today the term usu¬ ally refers to computer-based operations. Information processing consists of locating and capturing information, using software to manipulate it into a desired form, and outputting the data. An Internet search engine is an example of an information-processing tool, as is any sophisticated INFORMATION-RETRIEVAL system. See also DATA PROCESSING.

information retrieval Recovery of information, especially in a data¬ base stored in a computer. Two main approaches are matching words in the query against the database index (keyword searching) and traversing the database using hypertext or hypermedia links. Keyword searching has been the dominant approach to text retrieval since the early 1960s; hyper¬ text has so far been confined largely to personal or corporate information- retrieval applications. Evolving information-retrieval techniques, exemplified by developments with modern Internet search engines, com¬ bine natural language, hyperlinks, and keyword searching. Other tech¬

niques that seek higher levels of retrieval precision are studied by researchers involved with artificial intelligence.

information science Discipline that deals with the processes of stor¬ ing and transferring information. It attempts to bring together concepts and methods from such varied disciplines as library science, computer science and engineering, linguistics, and psychology to develop tech¬ niques and devices to aid in the handling of information. In its early stages in the 1960s, information science was concerned primarily with applying the then-new computer technology to the processing and managing of documents. The applied computer technologies and theoretical studies of information science have since permeated many other disciplines. Com¬ puter science and engineering still tend to absorb its theory- and technology-oriented subjects, and management science tends to absorb information-systems subjects.

information theory See communication theory

infrared V.in-fro-'redX astronomy Study of astronomical objects by observing the infrared radiation they emit. Its techniques enable examina¬ tion of many celestial objects that give off energy at wavelengths in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum but that cannot otherwise be seen from Earth because they do not emit much visible light or because that light is blocked by dust clouds, which infrared radiation can penetrate. Infrared astronomy originated in the early 19th century with the work of William Herschel (see Herschel family), who discovered infrared radiation while studying sunlight. The first systematic infrared observations of other stars were made in the 1920s; modem techniques, such as the use of inter¬ ference filters for ground-based telescopes, were introduced in the early 1960s. Because atmospheric water vapour absorbs many infrared wave¬ lengths, observations are carried out with telescopes sited on high moun- taintops and from airborne and space-based observatories. Infrared astronomy allows studies of the dust-obscured core of the Milky Way Gal¬ axy and the hearts of star-forming regions and has led to many discoveries including brown dwarf candidates and disks of matter around certain stars.

infrared radiation Portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that extends from the microwave range to the red end of the visible light range. Its wave¬ lengths vary from about 0.7 to 1,000 micrometres. Most of the radiation emitted by a moderately heated surface is infrared, and it forms a continu¬ ous spectrum. Molecular excitation produces extensive infrared radiation but in a discrete spectrum of lines or bands. Infrared wavelengths are useful for night-vision equipment, heat-seeking missiles, molecular spectroscopy, and infrared astronomy, among other things. The trapping of infrared radia¬ tion by atmospheric gases is also the basis of the greenhouse effect.

Inge \'inj\, William (Motter) (b. May 3, 1913, Independence, Kan., U.S.—d. June 10, 1973, Hollywood Hills, Calif.) U.S. playwright and screenwriter. He worked as a schoolteacher (1937—49) and moonlighted as drama editor of the St. Louis Star-Times (1943—46). His first play. Far¬ ther Off from Heaven (1947), was revised for Broadway as The Dark at the Top of the Stairs (1957; film, 1960). He is best known for his plays Come Back, Little Sheba (1950; film, 1952), Picnic (1953, Pulitzer Prize; film, 1956), and Bus Stop (1955; film, 1956), and for his original screen¬ play for Splendor in the Grass (1961, Academy Award). He was one of the first dramatists to explore small-town life in the Midwest.

Inglewood City (pop., 2000: 112,580), southwestern California, U.S., situated southwest of Los Angeles. Settled by Daniel Freeman in 1873, it was laid out by the Centinela-Inglewood Land Co. in 1887 and incorpo¬ rated in 1908. It developed along with the Los Angeles metropolitan area and is the site of Hollywood Park racetrack.

ingot Viq-gat\ Mass of metal cast into a size and shape such as a bar, plate, or sheet convenient to store, transport, and work into a semifinished or finished product. The term also refers to a mold in which metal is so cast. Steel ingots range in size from small rectangular blocks weighing a few pounds (or kilograms) to huge, tapered, octagonal masses weighing more than 500 tons (450 metric tons).

Ingres \'a n gr 3 \, Jean-Auguste-Dominique (b. Aug. 29, 1780, Montauban, France—d. Jan. 14, 1867, Paris) French painter. He studied with Jacques- Louis David in Paris before attending the Ecole des Beaux- Arts (1799-1801), where he won a Prix de Rome scholarship. Critics condemned one of his first public works, the awe-inspiring portrait Napo¬ leon on His Imperial Throne (1806), as stiff and archaic, but its style was one he developed intentionally. In Italy (1806-24) he prospered with por¬ traits and history paintings. His small-scale portrait drawings are meticu-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

942 I inheritance ► Innes

lously rendered. Back in Paris he received critical acclaim at last and won admission to the academy with The Vow of Louis XIII (1824). He succeeded David as the leader of French Neoclassical painting, a style that was the antithesis of the lush Romanticism of contemporary artists such as Eugene Delacroix, Ingres’s chief rival. In 1825 he opened a teaching studio, which became one of the largest in Paris. By the mid 1840s he was France’s most sought- after society portraitist. Some of his most notable later works are female nudes, which are often notable for their elongated distortion. None of his many students attained distinc¬ tion, but his influence is seen in the work of Edgar Degas, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, and Pablo Picasso.

inheritance Devolution of prop¬ erty on an heir or heirs upon the death of its owner. In civil law juris¬ dictions it is called succession. The concept depends on a common acceptance of the notion of private own¬ ership of goods and property. Under some systems, land is considered communal property and rights to it are redistributed, rather than bequeathed, on the death of a community member. In many countries, a minimum portion of the decedent’s estate must be assigned to the sur¬ viving spouse and often to the progeny as well. Intestacy laws, which govern the inheritance of estates whose distribution is not directed by a will, universally view kinship between the decedent and the beneficiary as a primary consideration. Inheritance usually entails payment of an inheritance tax. See also inheritance tax; intestate succession; probate.

inheritance tax Levy on the property accruing to each beneficiary of the estate of a deceased person. Inheritance tax may be more difficult to administer than estate tax because the value passing to each beneficiary must be fixed, and this often requires complex actuarial calculations. Inheritance taxes date back to the Roman Empire. In the U.S. inheritance taxes have always been collected by the individual states, while the fed¬ eral government has imposed an estate tax. The first state inheritance tax was imposed by Pennsylvania in 1826.

inhibition In enzymology, a phenomenon in which a compound (an inhibitor), usually similar in structure to the substance on which an enzyme acts (substrate), interacts with the enzyme so that the resulting complex cannot undergo the usual reaction or cannot form the usual product. The inhibitor may function by combining with the enzyme at the site at which the reaction usually occurs (competitive inhibition) or at another site (non¬ competitive inhibition). See also allosteric control, feedback inhibition,

REPRESSION.

inhibition In psychology, the conscious or unconscious suppression of free or spontaneous thought or behaviour through the operation of psycho¬ logical impediments, including internalized social controls. Inhibition serves useful social functions such as protecting oneself and others from harm and enabling the delay of gratification from pleasurable activities. Both extreme lack of inhibition and excessive inhibition can be personally destructive. Inhibition also plays an important role in learning, since an organism must learn to restrain certain instinctual behaviours or previously learned patterns in order to master new patterns. In physiological psychol¬ ogy, inhibition refers to the suppression of neural electrical activity.

initiation See rite of passage, secret society

injunction In civil proceedings, a court order compelling a party to do or to refrain from doing a specified act. It is an equitable remedy for harm for which no adequate remedy exists in law. Thus it is used to prevent a future harmful action (e.g., disclosing confidential information, institut¬ ing a national labour strike, or violating a group’s civil rights) rather than to compensate for an injury that has already occurred. It also provides relief from harm for which an award of money damages is not a satisfac¬ tory solution. A defendant who violates an injunction may be cited for contempt. See also equity.

ink Fluid or paste of various colours (usually black or dark blue) used for writing and printing, composed of a pigment or dye in a liquid “vehicle.” Early inks used lampblack (a form of carbon) or coloured juices, extracts, or suspensions of plant, animal, and mineral substances. Modern writing inks usually contain ferrous sulfate (see iron) with a small amount of an acid; on paper, they darken and bond, becoming permanent. Coloured and washable inks usually contain soluble synthetic dyes. Printing inks are formulated for various requirements (including colour, opacity, fade resis¬ tance, pliability, odourlessness, drying behaviour, and health and environ¬ mental safety) for uses in offset, letterpress, screen, ink-jet, laser, and other printing.

Inkatha \in-'ka-to\ Freedom Party Political party in South Africa consisting largely of the Zulu. It originated in 1924 as a cultural move¬ ment under King Dinizulu. His grandson, Mangosuthu G. Buthelezi, revived it in 1974 as a political party after breaking with the African National Congress (ANC). Under Buthelezi, Inkatha advocated a struggle against apartheid but a willingness to accept power-sharing arrangements short of majority rule. From the late 1980s Inkatha and ANC followers were regularly involved in bloody clashes with strong ethnic (Zulu v. non-Zulu) overtones. In 1991 the white South African government admit¬ ted that it had secretly subsidized Inkatha.

Inland Passage See Inside Passage

Inn River Major tributary of the Danube River. It rises in Switzerland and flows 317 mi (510 km) northeast across western Austria and southern Germany. Its Swiss section is called the Engadin. In Austria it travels past Innsbruck and along the Bavarian Alps, entering Germany in Bavaria, where it flows northeast. It forms part of the Austro-German border as it joins the Danube at Passau.

inner ear or labyrinth of the ear Part of the ear containing organs of hearing and equilibrium. The bony labyrinth has three sections (semi¬ circular canals, vestibule, and cochlea); within each structure is a corre¬ sponding part of the membranous labyrinth (semicircular ducts, two saclike structures in the vestibule, and cochlear duct). Sound vibrations are transmitted from the middle ear through the membrane-covered oval window to fluid in the snail-shell-shaped cochlea, whose motion stimu¬ lates hair cells in the cochlea. The hair cells trigger nerve impulses that travel to the brain, which interprets them as sound. The vestibule and semicircular canals also have organs with hair cells. Those in the vesti¬ bule indicate the head’s position with respect to the rest of the body (see proprioception). The three semicircular canals, at right angles to each other, signal motion of the head in three-dimensional space. Continued stimu¬ lation after motion stops causes a mismatch with visual input, experienced as dizziness or motion sickness.

Inner Mongolia Chinese Nei Mongol Vna-'muq-'goB or Nei- meng-ku Vna-'moq-'gtA Autonomous region (pop., 2002 est.: 23,790,000), China. Stretching some 1,800 mi (2,900 km) across north- northeastern China, it has an area of 454,600 sq mi (1,177,500 sq km); its capital is Hohhot. Mongols and Chinese make up the bulk of the popu¬ lation, most of which is concentrated in the agricultural belt near the Huang He (Yellow River). Inner Mongolia is an inland plateau lying at an elevation of about 3,300 ft (1,000 m); it is fringed by mountains and valleys. Its northern portion lies within the Gobi Desert, and its southern border is partly marked by the Great Wall. Inner Mongolia was separated from Mongolia (Outer Mongolia) in 1912 and was established as an autonomous region in 1947. Its harsh climate restricts intensive agricul¬ ture; some industrial development has occurred there.

inner product space In mathematics, a vector space or function space in which an operation for combining two vectors or functions (whose result is called an inner product) is defined and has certain properties. Such spaces, an essential tool of functional analysis and vector theory, allow analysis of classes of functions rather than individual functions. In math¬ ematical analysis, an inner product space of particular importance is a Hil¬ bert space, a generalization of ordinary space to an infinite number of dimensions. A point in a Hilbert space can be represented as an infinite sequence of coordinates or as a vector with infinitely many components. The inner product of two such vectors is the sum of the products of cor¬ responding coordinates. When such an inner product is zero, the vectors are said to be orthogonal (see orthogonality). Hilbert spaces are an essen¬ tial tool of mathematical physics. See also David Hilbert.

Innes, Michael See J.I.M. Stewart

Valpin^on Bather, oil painting by Jean- Auguste-Dominique Ingres, 1808; in the Louvre, Paris.

GIRAUDON/ART RESOURCE

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Inness ► insanity I 943

Inness, George (b. May 1, 1825, Newburgh, N.Y., U.S.—d. Aug. 3, 1894, Bridge of Allen, Stirling, Scot.) U.S. landscape painter. He was largely self-taught. His early paintings were influenced by the Hudson River school. He spent much time in Europe studying the works of the Barbizon school, and from c. 1855 to 1874 he developed the luminous, atmospheric quality for which his landscapes are known. The influence of Camille Corot is evident in his intimately rendered images of far- reaching expanses. His later works are marked by the ascendancy of colour over form. His sense of mysticism intensified over time, and the pictures tended to dissolve into shimmering colour with no outlines or formal construction. See also luminism.

Inniskilling See Enniskillen

Innocent III orig. Lothar of Segni (b. 1160/61, Gavignano Castle, Campagna di Roma, Papal States—d. July 16, 1216, Perugia) Pope (1198- 1216). Innocent, who was trained in both theology and law, brought the medieval papacy to the height of its prestige and power. He crowned Otto IV as Holy Roman emperor, but Otto’s determination to unite Germany and Sicily angered him, and in 1212 he gave his support to the Hohen- staufen candidate, Frederick II. After Innocent excommunicated King John of England for refusing to recognize Stephen Langton as archbishop of Canterbury, John was obliged to submit and to declare England a fief of the Holy See (1213). Innocent launched the Fourth Crusade, which cap¬ tured Constantinople, and the Albigensian Crusade, which attempted to suppress heresy in southern France. He approved the Mendicant orders founded by St. Dominic and St. Francis of Assisi, and he convoked the fourth Lateran Council, which promulgated the doctrine of transubstantia- tion and endorsed annual confession for all Christians.

Innocent IV orig. Sinibaldo Fieschi (b. 12th century, Genoa—d. Dec. 7, 1254, Naples) Pope (1243-54). His clash with Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II formed an important chapter in the conflict between papacy and empire. Frederick wanted the newly elected pope to lift his excommunication, but Innocent interrupted the negotiations and fled Rome for France (1244); he later condemned Frederick and urged the election of a new emperor. Concerned with the evangelization of the East, he persuaded Louis IX to lead a Crusade and sent a mission to the Mon¬ gols. He returned to Rome in 1253 and gave the Sicilian throne to Edmund, son of Henry III of England, but the papal army was defeated by Manfred, Frederick’s son, in 1254.

innovation In technology, an improvement to something already exist¬ ing. Distinguishing an element of novelty in an invention remains a con¬ cern of patent law. The Renaissance was a period of unusual innovation: Leonardo da Vinci produced ingenious designs for submarines, airplanes, and helicopters and drawings of elaborate trains of gears and of the pat¬ terns of flow in liquids. Technology provided science with instruments that greatly enhanced its powers, such as Galileo’s telescope. New sci¬ ences have also contributed to technology, as in the theoretical prepara¬ tion for the invention of the steam engine. In the 20th century, innovations in semiconductor technology increased the performance and decreased the cost of electronic materials and devices by a factor of a million, an achievement unparalleled in the history of any technology.

Inns of Court Four societies of British students and practitioners of law that have the exclusive right to admit people to practice. The four are Lincoln’s Inn, Gray’s Inn, Inner Temple, and Middle Temple. All are located in London and trace their origins to the Middle Ages. Until the 17 th century, when the Inn of Chancery developed (for training in the framing of writs and other legal documents used in the courts of chan¬ cery, or equity courts), the Inns of Court had a monopoly over legal edu¬ cation. By the 19th century, modem law schools had emerged.

Innsbruck City (pop., 2001: 113,392), on the Inn River in western Aus¬ tria, southwest of Salzburg. A small market town in the 12th century, it was located beside a bridge ( Briicke) over the Inn. It was chartered in 1239, passed to the Habsburgs in 1363, and in 1420 became the capital of Tirol. Napoleon gave the city to Bavaria in 1806, and in 1809 it was the site of an uprising of Tirolian patriots against the Bavarians and the French. The old town has narrow streets lined with medieval houses and arcades. A winter sports centre, Innsbruck was the site of the Winter Olympic Games in 1964 and 1976.

Inonu \i-nce-'mE\ A Ismet (b. Sept. 24, 1884, Smyrna, Ottoman Empire—d. Dec. 25, 1973, Ankara, Tur.) Turkish army officer and states¬ man. On the surrender of the Ottoman Empire in World War I (1918), he

was undersecretary of war. He became prime minister in 1923, and presi¬ dent and permanent chairman of the Republican People’s Party in 1938 on Mustafa Kemal AtatOrk’s death. In 1950 he was replaced as president by Celal Bayar and led the opposition, assuming the role of defender of democracy. Following a 1960 coup d’etat, he formed three coalition gov¬ ernments, but in the 1965 and 1969 elections his party suffered over¬ whelming defeats.

inorganic compound Any substance in which two or more chemi¬ cal elements other than carbon are combined, nearly always in definite proportions (see bonding), as well as some compounds containing carbon but lacking carbon-carbon bonds (e.g., carbonates, cyanides). Inorganic compounds may be classified by the elements or groups they contain (e.g., oxides, sulfates). The major classes of inorganic polymers are silicones, silanes, silicates, and borates. Coordination compounds (or complexes), an important subclass of inorganic compounds, consist of molecules with a central metal atom (usually a transition element) bonded to one or more nonmetallic ligands (inorganic, organic, or both) and are often intensely coloured. See also organic compound.

inosilicate Un-o-'si-b-kot, .I-no-'si-ta-koA or chain silicate Any of a class of inorganic compounds that have structures characterized by sili¬ cate tetrahedrons (a central silicon atom surrounded by four oxygen atoms at the corners of a tetrahedron) arranged in chains. Two of the oxygen atoms of each tetrahedron are shared with other tetrahedrons, forming a chain that is potentially infinite in length. Mineral examples include the pyroxenes and the amphiboles.

Inoue Enryd Ve-'no-ii-e-'en-'ryoX (b. March 18, 1858, Echigo province, Japan—d. June 6, 1919, Dairen, Manchuria) Japanese philosopher. After studying at the main temple of Pure Land Buddhism in Japan, he earned a degree in philosophy at Tokyo Imperial University. He opposed the Westernization of Japan and the conversion of officials to Christianity. He founded the Philosophical Institute in 1887 to promote the study of Bud¬ dhism. As part of his campaign to rid Japan of superstitions associated with folklore and mythology, he established the Ghost Lore Institute in Tokyo.

input-output analysis Economic analysis developed by Wassily Leontief, in which the interdependence of an economy’s various productive sectors is observed by viewing the product of each industry both as a com¬ modity for consumption and as a factor in the production of itself and other goods. For example, input-output analysis will break down a nation’s total production of trucks, showing that some trucks are used in the production of more trucks, some in farming, some in the production of houses, and so on. An input-output analysis is usually summarized in a gridlike table showing what various industries buy from and sell to one another.

Inquisition In the Middle Ages, a judicial procedure that was used to combat heresy; in early modern times, a formal Roman Catholic judicial institution. Inquisito, a Latin term meaning investigation or inquest, was a legal procedure that involved the assemblage of evidence and the pros¬ ecution of a criminal trial. Use of the procedure against the heresies of the Cathari and Waldenses was approved by Pope Gregory IX in 1231. Suspected heretics were arrested, interrogated, and tried; the use of tor¬ ture was approved by Innocent IV in 1252. Penalties ranged from prayer and fasting to imprisonment; convicted heretics who refused to recant could be executed by lay authorities. Medieval inquisitors functioned widely in northern Italy and southern France. The Spanish Inquisition was authorized by Sixtus IV in 1478; the pope later tried to limit its powers but was opposed by the Spanish crown. The auto-da-fe, the public ceremony at which sentences were pronounced, was an elaborate celebration, and the grand inquisitor Tomas de Torquemada was responsible for burning about 2,000 heretics at the stake. The Spanish Inquisition was also intro¬ duced into Mexico, Peru, Sicily (1517), and the Netherlands (1522), and it was not entirely suppressed in Spain until the early 19th century.

insanity In criminal law, a disease, defect, or condition of the mind that renders one unable to understand the nature of a criminal act or the fact that it is wrong. Tests of insanity are not intended as medical diagnoses but rather only as determinations of whether a person may be held criminally responsible for his or her actions. The most enduring definition of insanity in Anglo-American law was that proposed by Alexander Cockburn (1843). Many U.S. states and several courts have adopted a standard under which the accused must lack “substantial capacity either to appreciate the crimi¬ nality of his conduct or to conform his conduct to the requirements of the law.” Some states have abolished the insanity plea, and others allow a find¬ ing of “guilty but mentally ill.” See also diminished responsibility.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

944 I insect ► Institutional Revolutionary Party

insect Any member of the class Insecta, the largest arthropod class, including nearly 1 million known species (about three-fourths of all ani¬ mals) and an estimated 5-10 million undescribed species. Insect bodies have three segments: head, thorax (which bears three pairs of legs and usu¬ ally two pairs of wings), and many-segmented abdomen. Many species undergo complete metamorphosis. There are two subclasses: Apterygota (primitive, wingless forms, including silverfish and bristletails) and Ptery- gota (more advanced, winged or secondarily wingless forms). The approxi¬ mately 27 orders of Pterygota are generally classified by wing form: e.g., Coleoptera (beetles), Diptera (dipterans), Heteroptera (bugs). Insects are found in almost all terrestrial and freshwater and some marine habitats.