Britannica Concise 2005

algebraic equation Mathematical statement of equality between algebraic expressions. An expression is algebraic if it involves a finite combination of numbers and variables and algebraic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, raising to a power, and extracting a root). Two important types of such equations are linear equations, in the form y = ax + b, and quadratic equations, in the form y = ax 2 + bx + c. A solution is a numerical value that makes the equation a true statement when substituted for a variable. In some cases it may be found using a formula; in others the equation may be rewritten in simpler form. Alge¬ braic equations are particularly useful for modeling real-life phenomena.

algebraic geometry Study of geometric objects expressed as equa¬ tions and represented by graphs in a given coordinate system. In contrast to Euclidean geometry, algebraic geometry represents geometric objects using algebraic equations (e.g., a circle of radius r is defined by x 2 + y 2 = r 2 ). Objects so defined can then be analyzed for symmetries, intercepts, and other properties without having to refer to a graph.

algebraic topology Field of mathematics that uses algebraic struc¬ tures to study transformations of geometric objects. It uses functions (often called maps in this context) to represent continuous transforma¬ tions (see topology). Taken together, a set of maps and objects may form an algebraic group, which can be analyzed by group-theory methods. A well-known topic in algebraic topology is the four-colour map problem.

Algeciras \,al-j9-'sir-9s\ Conference (Jan. 16-April 7, 1906) Confer¬ ence held at Algeciras, Spain, that resolved the first of the Moroccan crises. In 1905 William II objected to France’s efforts to exert influence in Morocco, prompting a conference of the European powers and the U.S. Superficially, the Act of Algeciras (1906) seemed to limit French penetration, but the con¬ ference’s real significance was the diplomatic support that Britain and the U.S. gave France, foreshadowing their roles in World War I.

Alger Val-jor\, Horatio, Jr. (b. Jan. 13, 1832, Chelsea, Mass., U.S.—d. July 18, 1899, Natick, Mass.) U.S. writer. The son of a Unitarian minis¬ ter, Alger graduated from Harvard with honours and then earned a degree from its divinity school. Forced to leave his pulpit after two years because of allegations of improper activities with youths, he took up writing. Beginning with Ragged Dick (1868), he wrote more than 100 books that were almost alike in preaching that through honesty, cheerful persever¬ ance, and hard work a poor but virtuous lad would have his just reward (though it was almost always precipitated by good luck). His books sold more than 20 million copies, despite consistently weak plots and dialogue, and Alger was one of the most popular and socially influential writers of the late 19th century.

Algeria officially People's Democratic Republic of Algeria

Country, North Africa. Area: 919,595 sq mi (2,381,741 sq km). Popula¬ tion (2005 est.): 32,854,000. Capital: Algiers. Most of the population is ethnically and linguistically Arab, with a large Berber (Amazigh) minor¬ ity. Languages: Arabic, Berber (both official), French. Religion: Islam (official; predominantly Sunni). Currency: Algerian dinar. Algeria has the second largest land area (after The Sudan) on the continent. The coast¬ line has numerous bays, and the country’s rivers are small and generally seasonal. Northern Algeria is mountainous and is crossed from east to west by the Atlas Mountains; its highest point, elevation 7,638 ft (2,328 m), is Mount Chelia. In central and southern Algeria is much of the north¬ ern Sahara. Algeria has a developing economy based primarily on the production and export of petroleum and natural gas. After achieving inde¬ pendence, the country nationalized much of its economy but since the 1980s has privatized parts of the economy. Algeria is a republic with two legislative bodies; its chief of state is the president, and its head of gov¬ ernment is the prime minister. Phoenician traders settled there early in the 1st millennium bc; several centuries later the Romans invaded, and by ad 40 they had control of the Mediterranean coast. The fall of Rome in the 5th century led to an invasion by the Vandals and later to a reoccupation by the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire. The Islamic invasion began in the 7th century; by 711 all of northern Africa was under the control of the caliphs of the Umayyad dynasty. Several Islamic Berber empires fol-

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Algerian Reformist ‘Ulama’ ► 'AIT I 47

lowed, most prominently the Almoravid (c. 1054-1130), which extended its domain to Spain, and the Almohad (c. 1130-1269). The Barbary Coast pirates menaced Medi¬ terranean trade for centuries; their raids served as a pretext for France to enter Algeria in 1830. By 1847 France had established military control over most of the region and by the late 19th century had instituted civil rule. Popular protest against French rule resulted in the bloody Algerian War (1954—61); independence was achieved following a referendum in 1962. Beginning in the early 1990s, Islamic fundamentalist opposition to secular rule led to an outbreak in civil violence between the army and various Islamic extremist groups.

Algerian Reformist 'Ulama’ \u-la-'ma\, Association of Group of Muslim religious scholars founded in 1931 that worked to create an Algerian Muslim identity. The 'Ulama 5 opened schools and promoted the teaching of Arabic. It was opposed by the French-educated elite and the traditional Muslim establishment, which felt threatened by its religious purist tendencies. It joined the National Liberation Front during the war of independence (1954-62) and later had a seat in Algeria’s provisional government. See also Young Algerians.

Algerian War or Algerian War of Independence (1954-62) War for Algerian independence from France. The movement for indepen¬ dence began during World War I (1914-18) and gained momentum after French promises of greater self-rule in Algeria went unfulfilled after World War II (1939-45). In 1954 the National Liberation Front (FLN) began a guerrilla war against France and sought diplomatic recognition at the UN to establish a sovereign Algerian state. Although Algerian fighters operated in the countryside—particularly along the country’s borders— the most serious fighting took place in and around Algiers, where FLN fighters launched a series of violent urban attacks that came to be known as the Battle of Algiers (1956-57). French forces (that increased to 500,000 troops) managed to regain control but only through brutal mea¬ sures, and the ferocity of the fighting sapped the political will of the French to continue the conflict. In 1959 Charles de Gaulle declared that the Algerians had the right to determine their own future. Despite terrorist acts by French Algerians opposed to independence and an attempted coup in France by elements of the French army, an agreement was signed in 1962, and Algeria became independent. See also Raoul Salan.

Algiers Arabic Al-Jaza’ir French Alger \al-'zha\ City (pop., 1998: 1,519,570), chief seaport and capital of Algeria. Located along the Bay of Algiers and first settled by Phoenicians, it was later ruled by the Romans. It was destroyed by the Vandals in the 5th century ad but revived under a Berber dynasty in the 10th century. When the Spanish threatened it in the early 16th century, the local emir appealed to the Ottoman corsair Bar-

barossa, who expelled the Spanish and placed Algiers under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. Algiers became the major base for the Barbary Coast pirates for 300 years; their activities were finally curtailed in 1818 by an American force led by Stephen Decatur. The French took the city in 1830 and made it headquarters for their African colonial empire. In World War II (1939-45), it became the Allied headquarters in northern Africa and for a time the provisional capital of France. In the 1950s it was the focal point in the drive for Algeria’s independence; after independence, Algiers grew as the country’s political, economic, and cultural centre.

ALGOL Val-,g61\ High-level algebraic computer programming language developed in the late 1950s as an international language for the expres¬ sion of algorithms (its name is derived from ALGOrithmic Language) between humans as well as between humans and machines. Used espe¬ cially in mathematical and scientific applications, ALGOL was more popular in Europe than in the U.S., but it was an important precursor of Pascal and it influenced the development of C language.

Algonquian \al-'gan-kwe-on\ languages or Algonkian

\al-'gaq-ke-3n\ languages Family of 25-30 North American Indian languages spoken or formerly spoken across a broad area of eastern and central North America. They are divided conventionally into three geo¬ graphic groups. Eastern Algonquian languages, spoken from the Gulf of St. Lawrence south to coastal North Carolina, include Micmac, East and West Abenaki, Delaware, Massachusett, and Powhatan (or Virginia Algonquian)—the latter two now long extinct. Central Algonquian lan¬ guages include Shawnee, Miami-lllinois, Sauk, Kickapoo, Potawatomi, Menominee (all spoken around the Great Lakes), Ojibwa (around the upper Great Lakes and north from eastern Quebec through Manitoba), and Cree-Montagnais-Naskapi (spoken from Labrador west to Hudson Bay and Alberta). Plains Algonquian includes the languages of the Cheyenne, Arapaho, Atsina (Gros Ventres), and Blackfoot (spoken in the central and northern Great Plains).

algorithm \ , al-g9- l ri-th3m\ Procedure that produces the answer to a question or the solution to a problem in a finite number of steps. An algo¬ rithm that produces a yes or no answer is called a decision procedure; one that leads to a solution is a computation procedure. A mathematical for¬ mula and the instructions in a computer program are examples of algo¬ rithms. Euclid’s Elements (c. 300 bc) contained an algorithm for finding the greatest common divisor of two integers. Manipulation of lists (search¬ ing for, inserting, and removing items) can be done efficiently by using algorithms.

algorithms, analysis of Basic computer-science discipline that aids in the development of effective programs. Analysis of algorithms provides proof of the correctness of algorithms, allows for the accurate prediction of program performance, and can be used as a measure of computational complexity. See also Donald Knuth.

Algren \'ol-gron. Nelson orig. Nelson Ahlgren Abraham (b.

March 28, 1909, Detroit, Mich., U.S.—d. May 9, 1981, Sag Harbor, N.Y.) U.S. writer. The son of a machinist, Algren grew up in Chicago and worked his way through the University of Illinois during the Great Depression. His novels of the poor skillfully capture the mood of the city’s underside and are lifted from routine naturalism by his vision of his char¬ acters’ pride, humour, and unquenchable yearnings. Among his popular successes were The Man with the Golden Arm (1949; film, 1956) and A Walk on the Wild Side (1956; film, 1962). He also published an admired short-story collection, The Neon Wilderness (1947).

Alhambra \al-'am-br3\ Palace of the Moorish monarchs of Granada, Spain, built (1238-1358) on a plateau above the city. Its name (Arabic: “the red”) may refer to the colour of the sun-dried bricks used in its outer walls. The Alhambra, only three parts of which remain intact, is made up of a series of rooms and gardens clustered around three principal courts, with extensive use of fountains and water basins. Its surfaces are astound- ingly ornate and varied, with outstanding examples of stalactite work.

'All (ibn Abl Talib) (b. c. 600, Mecca—d. January 661, Al-Kufah, Iraq) Cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad and fourth caliph (656- 661). 'All was a ward of Muhammad, just as Muhammad himself had been a ward of 'All’s father, Abu Talib. An early convert to Islam, he helped foil an assassination plot against Muhammad and, following the Hijrah to Medina (622), fought beside him against his enemies, gaining renown as a soldier. Since some in the early Muslim community claimed that Muhammad did not name any successor and others claimed that he

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48 I Ali ► alkali metal

named 'All, the controversy over 'All’s claim to the caliphate resulted in the fundamental schism in Islam that eventually led to the creation of the Shl'ite (from shfat 'All, “party of 'All”) and Sunnite branches of the reli¬ gion. His willingness to compromise with his adversaries during the first fitnah led some of his troops to desert and form the Kharijite sect, one of whose members later assassinated 'All. In later Islamic hagiography, 'All was held up as the paradigm of youthful chivalry and virtue by both Shl'ites and Sunnites. See also al-HusAYN ibn 'Ali; Battle of Karbala’; Mu'awiyah.

Ali, Muhammad orig. Cassius (Marcellus) Clay (b. Jan. 17, 1942, Louisville, Ken., U.S.) U.S. boxer. Cassius Clay took up boxing at the age of 12 and rose through the amateur ranks to win the Olympic light heavyweight crown in 1960.

His first professional heavyweight title win was against Sonny Liston in 1964. After defending the title nine times between 1965 and 1967, he was stripped of it for refusing induc¬ tion into the armed forces following his acceptance of the teachings of the Nation of Islam. It was then that he changed his name to Muhammad Ali. In 1974 Ali regained his title after defeating the former champion Joe Frazier and the then-current champion George Foreman. He lost to Leon Spinks in 1978 but later that year regained the title a third time, becoming the first heavyweight champion ever to do so. He retired in 1979, having lost only three of 59 fights. Attempted comebacks in 1980 and 1981 failed. Throughout his career Ali was known for his aggressive charm, invincible attitude, and colourful boasts, often expressed in doggerel verse. “I am the greatest” was his personal credo. Ali’s later years have been marked by physical decline. Damage to his brain, caused by blows to the head, has resulted in slurred speech, slowed movement, and other symptoms of Parkinson disease.

Alia lemon \al-'yak-mon\ River River, north-central Greece. Rising in the Grammos Mountains and flowing southeast then northeast for 185 mi (297 km) into the upper Gulf of Thermai, it is the longest river in Greek Macedonia. Throughout history it has served as a natural line of defense against invaders from the north.

Alicante \,a-le-'kan-ta\ City (pop., 2001: 284,580), southeastern Spain, located on Alicante Bay of the Mediterranean Sea. It was founded as a Greek colony in 325 bc and was captured in 201 bc by the Romans, who called it Lucentum. After being ruled by the Moors (718-1249), it was later incorporated into the kingdom of Aragon in 1265. The city was besieged by the French in 1709 and by the Federalists of Cartagena in 1873. Its economy is based on tourism and the export of wine and pro¬ duce.

Alice Springs Town (pop., 2001 prelim.: 26,990), Northern Territory, Australia. It lies between Darwin and Adelaide, virtually in the centre of the continent. It originated in the 1870s as a station on the Overland Tele¬ graph Line. Because of its location, it has become a major shipping point. Its mild winter climate makes it a popular tourist destination.

alien In law, one who resides in a country without becoming natural¬ ized, retaining instead the citizenship of another country. The laws of most nations have long afforded aliens certain minimum standards of civilized treatment but have also restricted their employment and ownership of property. Under U.S. law, all aliens have had to register since 1940. Reg¬ istration cards (“green cards”) entitle them to obtain employment. Like citizens, aliens are protected by the U.S. Constitution, including the Bill of Rights and the due-process clause of the 14th Amendment. They remain subject to limitations under local laws, and residence in the U.S. is not a right but a privilege granted by Congress.

Alien and Sedition Acts Four laws passed by the U.S. Congress in 1798, in anticipation of war with France. The acts, precipitated by the XYZ Affair, restricted aliens and curtailed press criticism of the govern¬ ment. Aimed at French and Irish immigrants (who were mostly pro-

France), they increased the waiting period for naturalization and authorized expulsion of aliens considered dangerous. The Alien and Sedi¬ tion Acts were opposed by Thomas Jefferson and helped propel him to the presidency. They were repealed or had expired by 1802.

alienation In the social sciences context, the state of feeling estranged or separated from one’s milieu, work, products of work, or self. The con¬ cept appears implicitly or explicitly in the works of Emile Durkheim, Fer¬ dinand Tonnies, Max Weber, and Georg Simmel but is most famously associated with Karl Marx, who spoke of workers being alienated from their work and its products under capitalism. In other contexts the term alienation, like anomie, can suggest a sense of powerlessness, meaning¬ lessness, normlessness, social isolation, or cultural- or self-estrangement brought on by the lack of fit between individual needs or expectations and the social order.

alimentary canal or digestive tract Pathway along which food travels when it is eaten and from which solid wastes are expelled. It includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intes¬ tine, and anal canal. See also digestion.

alimony See marriage law

Alitalia Italian international airline with headquarters in Rome. Although the airline no longer commands monopoly status in its country, as of 2002 the Italian government still owned a majority share of the company.

Alito, Samuel A., Jr. in full Samuel Anthony Alito, Jr. (b. April 1, 1950, Trenton, N.J., U.S.) U.S. jurist. He earned a bachelor’s degree (1972) from Princeton University and law degree (1975) from Yale Uni¬ versity. He served as an assistant to the U.S. solicitor general (1981-85), deputy assistant to the U.S. attorney general (1985-87), and U.S. attor¬ ney for the district of New Jersey (1987-90). In 1990 he was appointed by U.S. Pres. George Bush to serve as a judge on the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit, establishing a conservative judicial record. In 2005 he was appointed associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court by Pres. George W. Bush to fill the seat of retiring justice Sandra Day O'Connor; he was confirmed by the U.S. Senate the following year.

aliyah \a-‘le-ya\ Hebrew "ascending" In Judaism, the honour, accorded to a worshiper, of being called up to read an assigned passage from the Torah at Sabbath morning services; or Jewish immigration to Israel. Because the passage assigned for each Sabbath morning service is subdivided into a minimum of seven sections, at least seven different per¬ sons are called up for these readings. Aliyah in the sense of immigration to Israel is ongoing but also occurs in waves. The first two waves of immigration occurred in 1882-1914, the next three in 1919-39. The sixth aliyah (1945-48) brought many Holocaust survivors. Later waves of immigration included Falasha from Ethiopia, emigres from the former Soviet Union, and others. See also Zionism.

Alkaios See Alcaeus

alkali Val-ko-.lA Inorganic compound, any soluble hydroxide (—OH) of the alkali metals: lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, and cesium. More broadly, ammonium hydroxide (see ammonia) and soluble hydroxides of the alkaline earth metals are also called alkalies. Strong bases that turn lit¬ mus paper blue, they react with acids to yield salts, are caustic, and in con¬ centrated form corrode tissues. Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) and potassium hydroxide (caustic potash) are very important industrial chemi¬ cals, used in the manufacture of soaps, glass, and many other products. The mineral trona, a compound of sodium carbonate and bicarbonate, is one naturally occurring alkali. It may be mined or recovered from dry lake beds.

alkali feldspar Any of several common silicate minerals that often occur as whitish to variously coloured, glassy crystals. The alkali feld¬ spars may be regarded as mixtures of sodium aluminosilicate (NaAlSi 3 0 8 ) and potassium aluminosilicate (KAlSi 3 0 8 ). Both the sodium and potas¬ sium aluminosilicates have several distinct forms, each with a different structure. Alkali feldspars are used in the manufacture of glass and ceram¬ ics; transparent, highly coloured, or iridescent varieties are sometimes used as gemstones. They are primarily important, however, as constitu¬ ents of rocks (see plagioclase).

alkali metal Any of the six chemical elements in the leftmost group of the periodic table (lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, and francium). They form alkalies when they combine with other elements. Because their

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

alkaline earth metal ► Allen I 49

atoms have only one electron in the outermost shell, they are very reac¬ tive chemically (they react rapidly, even violently, with water), form numerous compounds, and are never found free in nature.

alkaline earth metal Any of the six chemical elements in the second leftmost group of the periodic table (beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, and radium). Their name harks back to medieval alchemy. Their atoms have two electrons in the outermost shell, so they react readily, form numerous compounds, and are never found free in nature.

alkaloid Basic (see base) organic compounds of plant origin, contain¬ ing combined nitrogen. Alkaloids are amines, so their names usually end in “ine” (e.g., caffeine, nicotine, morphine, quinine). Most have complex chemical structures of multiple ring systems. They have diverse, impor¬ tant physiological effects on humans and other animals, but their func¬ tions in the plants that produce them are poorly understood. Some plants (e.g., opium poppy, ergot fungus) produce many different alkaloids, but most produce only one or a few. Certain plant families, including the poppy fam¬ ily (Papaveraceae) and the nightshade family (Solanaceae), are particularly rich in them. Alkaloids are extracted by dissolving the plant in dilute acid.

Alkamenes See Alcamenes

alkane or paraffin Any of a class of hydrocarbons whose molecules consist only of carbon and hydrogen atoms joined by single covalent bonds (general formula C„H (2n + 2 ))- The simplest is methane (CH 4 ). Alkanes with more than three carbon atoms may have straight and branched isomers. Cycloalkanes have ring structures (but are not aromatic compounds) with two fewer hydrogen atoms per molecule than the cor¬ responding alkane; many have more than one ring. Commercial sources include petroleum and natural gas. Uses, often as mixtures, include fuels, solvents, and raw materials. See also paraffin.

alkene See olefin

All Saints' Day In Christianity, a day commemorating all the saints of the church, known and unknown. It is celebrated on November 1 in the Western churches and on the first Sunday after Pentecost in the Eastern churches. The first general observance of All Saints’ Day was ordered by Pope Gregory IV in 837. In medieval England the festival was called All Hallows, and its eve is still known as Halloween.

All Souls' Day In the Roman Catholic church, a day commemorating all the Christians believed to be in purgatory. Celebrated on November 2, it was first established by Odilo (d. 1049), abbot of Cluny, in the 11th century, and it was widely celebrated by the 13th century. The date fol¬ lows All Saints' Day, with the idea that remembering the saints in heaven should be followed by remembering the souls awaiting release from pur¬ gatory. Roman Catholic doctrine holds that the prayers of the faithful on earth will help cleanse these souls in order to prepare them for heaven.

Allah Arabic "God" Standard Arabic word for God, used by Arab Christians as well as by Muslims. According to the Qur’an, Allah is the creator and judge of humankind, omnipotent, compassionate, and merci¬ ful. The Muslim profession of faith affirms that there is no deity but God and emphasizes that he is inherently one: “nothing is like unto him.” Everything that happens occurs by his commandment; submission to God is the basis of Isiam. The Qur’an and the Hadith contain the 99 “most beau¬ tiful names” of God, including the One and Only, the Living One, the Real Truth, the Hearer, the Seer, the Benefactor, and the Constant For¬ given

Allahabad Va-la-ha-,bad\ ancient Prayag City (pop., 2001: metro, area, 1,042,229), south-central Uttar Pradesh state, northern India, on the Ganges (Ganga) and Yamuna rivers. An ancient holy city sacred to Hindu pilgrims, it is the site of the Pillar of Ashoka (erected c. 240 bc). The Mughal emperor Akbar founded the present-day city in 1583; it was ceded to the British in 1801. Allahabad was the scene of a serious outbreak in the 1857 Indian Mutiny. As the home of the Nehru family, it was later a centre of the Indian independence movement. It is the site of the Jami Masjid (Great Mosque) and the University of Allahabad.

Allbutt, Sir Thomas Clifford (b. July 20, 1836, Dewsbury, York¬ shire, Eng.—d. Feb. 22, 1925, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire) English phy¬ sician. He introduced the modern clinical thermometer (the thermometer had previously been a foot-long instrument that required 20 minutes to register temperature) and outlined the use of the ophthalmoscope to inspect the interior of the eye. He demonstrated the aortic origin of angina pectoris. His investigations improved treatment of arterial diseases and

resulted in, among other works, Diseases of the Arteries (1915). His chief publication was Systems of Medicine (8 vol., 1896-99).

Alleghenian orogeny V.al-o-'ga-ne-on-o-'ra-jo-n e\ formerly Appa¬ lachian Revolution Mountain-building event that affected the Appa¬ lachian Geosyncline in the late Permian period (c. 286-248 million years ago). The Alleghenian orogeny is most pronounced in the central and southern Appalachian Mountains and produced the different effects in various subregions: compressional folding and faulting of the Valley and Ridge Province, westward thrusting of the Blue Ridge, and folding and minor metamorphism and igneous intrusion in the Piedmont Province. It may have resulted from the collision (see plate tectonics) of the central and southern Appalachian continental margin with that of North Africa in the Permian period.

Allegheny \,al-3-'ga-ne\ Mountains Ranges of the Appalachian sys¬ tem in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and West Virginia, U.S., west of and generally parallel to the Blue Ridge Mountains. Part of the Allegh¬ eny Plateau that spans the entire upland area from the Cumberland Pla¬ teau to the Mohawk Valley in New York, the Allegheny Mountains extend some 500 mi (800 km) south-southwestward, with heights of more than 4,800 ft (1,460 m). The eastern slope is sometimes called the Allegheny Front.

Allegheny River River in Pennsylvania and New York, U.S. It rises in Potter county. Pa., loops northwest into New York, turns back into Pennsylvania, and unites with the Monongahela to form the Ohio River at Pittsburgh, Pa. It is 325 mi (523 km) long; its chief tributaries are the Clarion, the Kiskiminetas, and French Creek. Several dams make the river navigable from Pittsburgh to East Brady, Pa.

allegory Work of written, oral, or visual expression that uses symbolic figures, objects, and actions to convey truths or generalizations about human conduct or experience. It encompasses such forms as the fable and parable. Characters often personify abstract concepts or types, and the action of the narrative usually stands for something not explicitly stated. Symbolic allegories, in which characters may also have an identity apart from the message they convey, have frequently been used to represent political and historical situations and have long been popular as vehicles for satire. Edmund Spenser’s long poem The Faerie Queen is a famous example of a symbolic allegory.

allele \3-'lel\ Any one of two or more alternative forms of a gene that may occur alternatively at a given site on a chromosome. Alleles may occur in pairs, or there may be multiple alleles affecting the expression of a par¬ ticular trait. If paired alleles are the same, the organism is said to be homozygous for that trait; if they are different, the organism is heterozy¬ gous. A dominant allele will override the traits of a recessive allele in a heterozygous pairing (see dominance and recessiveness). In some traits, alleles may be codominant (i.e., neither acts as dominant or recessive). An individual cannot possess more than two alleles for a given trait. All genetic traits are the result of the interactions of alleles.

allemande Val-o-.mandX Processional couple dance with stately flow¬ ing steps, fashionable in the 16th century, especially in France. A line of couples extended their paired hands forward and paraded back and forth the length of the ballroom. It was revived in the 18th century as a figure dance for four couples, in which each pair performed intricate turns under each other’s arms, a figure that partly survives in the “allemand” of the U.S. square dance. In the late 17th century a stylized version of the dance in 14 time began to be used by composers as the first movement of the SUITE.

Allen, Ethan (b. Jan. 21, 1738, Litchfield, Conn.—d. Feb. 12, 1789, Burlington, Vt., U.S.) American soldier and frontiersman. After fighting in the French and Indian War (1754-63), he settled in what is now Ver¬ mont. At the outbreak of the American Revolution, his force of Green Mountain Boys (organized in 1770) helped defeat the British in the Battle of Ticonderoga (1775). As a volunteer with troops commanded by Gen. Philip Schuyler, he attempted to take Montreal but was captured by the British and held prisoner until 1778. He returned to Vermont, where he worked for statehood. Failing to achieve this, he attempted to negotiate the annexation of Vermont to Canada.

Allen, Mel orig. Melvin Allen Israel (b. Feb. 14, 1913, Birming¬ ham, Ala., U.S.—d. June 16, 1996, Greenwich, Conn.) U.S. sports broad¬ caster. As lead announcer for the New York Yankees baseball team (1940- 64), he was known for his congeniality and his catchphrase “How about

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

50 I Allen ► alligator

that!” He hosted the television program This Week in Baseball (1977-95). In 1978 Allen and Red Barber became the first broadcasters elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame.

Allen, Richard (b. Feb. 14, 1760, Philadelphia, Pa.—d. March 26, 1831, Philadelphia) U.S. religious leader. He was born to slave parents, and his family was sold to a Delaware farmer. A Methodist convert at 17, he was licensed to preach five years later. By 1786 he had purchased his freedom and settled in Philadelphia, where he joined St. George’s Meth¬ odist Episcopal Church. Racial discrimination prompted him to withdraw in 1787, and he turned an old blacksmith shop into the first black church in the U.S. Allen and his followers built the Bethel African Methodist Church, and in 1799 he was ordained as its minister. In 1816 he organized a conference of black leaders to form the African Methodist Episcopal Church, of which he was named the first bishop.

Allen, Steve orig. Stephen Valentine Patrick William Allen

(b. Dec. 26, 1921, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Oct. 30, 2000, Encino, Calif.) U.S. entertainer and songwriter. He appeared as a comedian on radio in the 1940s before moving to late-night television, where he created and hosted The Tonight Show (1954-57) and The Steve Allen Show (1956— 60). He hosted several other television shows, including Meeting of Minds (1977-81). He composed over 3,000 songs, including “Picnic” and “Impossible,” and appeared in films such as The Benny Goodman Story

(1955).

Allen, Woody orig. Allen Stewart Konigsberg (b. Dec. 1,1935, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. film director, screenwriter, and actor. After writing routines for comedians and performing as a nightclub comic, he wrote the Broadway play Don’t Drink the Water (1966). His early films, such as Bananas (1971) and Sleeper (1973), combined highbrow comedy and slapstick. Later romantic comedies such as Annie Hall (1977), which won him two Academy Awards, and Manhattan (1979) offered a bitter¬ sweet view of New York life. He continued making films into the 21st century, most notably Hannah and Her Sisters (1986), Crimes and Mis¬ demeanors (1989), and Bullets over Broadway (1994).

Allenby (of Megiddo and of Felixstowe), Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby, 1st Viscount (b. April 23, 1861, Brackenhurst, near Southwell, Nottinghamshire, Eng.—d. May 14, 1936, London) Brit¬ ish field marshal. He fought in the South African War and served as inspector general of cavalry (1910-14). In World War I, he commanded with distinction in the Middle East. His victory over the Turks at Gaza (1917) led to the capture of Jerusalem, and his victory at Megiddo, along with his capture of Damascus and Aleppo, ended Ottoman power in Syria. His success was partly due to his innovative use of cavalry and other mobile forces, and he is remembered as the last great British leader of mounted cavalry. As high commissioner for Egypt (1919-25), he steered that country to recognition as a sovereign state (1922).

Allende \a-'yen-da\ (Gossens), Salvador (b. July 26, 1908, Val¬ paraiso, Chile—d. Sept. 11, 1973, Santiago) Socialist president of Chile (1970-73). Of upper-middle-class background, Allende took a degree in medicine and in 1933 helped found Chile’s Socialist Party. He ran for president unsuccessfully three times before winning narrowly in 1970. He attempted to restructure Chilean society along socialist lines while retain¬ ing democracy, civil liberties, and due process of law, but his efforts to redistribute wealth resulted in stagnant production, food shortages, rising inflation, and widespread strikes. His inability to control his radical sup¬ porters further alienated the middle class. His policies dried up foreign credit and led to a covert campaign by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency to destabilize the government. He was overthrown in a violent military coup, during which he died by gunshot, reportedly self-inflicted. He was replaced by Gen. Augusto Pinochet. See also Eduardo Frei.

Allentown City (pop., 2000: 106,632), eastern Pennsylvania, U.S. It was laid out along the Lehigh River in 1762 and named Northampton by William Allen, later the state’s chief justice; its name was changed in 1838 to honour Allen. During the American Revolution, the Liberty Bell was moved there for safekeeping. It is a major iron and mining centre.

allergy Exaggerated reaction by the body to foreign substances that are harmless to most people. Those substances, called allergens or antigens, may include pollens, drugs, dusts, foods, and other items. Immediate aller¬ gic reactions result from genetic predisposition or sensitization by previ¬ ous exposure. Blood vessels dilate and bronchial air passages constrict. A severe reaction (anaphylaxis) can obstruct breathing and may be fatal.

Delayed allergic responses (e.g., contact dermatitis) appear 12 hours or more after exposure. Avoiding allergens and taking antihistamines can pre¬ vent or treat allergies. When avoidance is not feasible and antihistamines do not relieve symptoms, desensitization can be attempted.

alliance In international politics, a union for joint action of various powers or states. Examples include the alliance of the European powers and the U.S. against Germany and its allies during World War II and the alliance of the NATO states against the Soviet Union and its allies dur¬ ing the Cold War. Many alliances rest on the principle of collective secu¬ rity, through which an attack on one member is considered an attack on all members. Major alliances formed after World War II include the ANZUS Pact, the Arab League, ASEAN, the Organization of American States, the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, and the Warsaw Pact.

Alliance for Progress International development program. Initiated by the U.S. and joined by 22 Latin American countries in 1961, it aimed to strengthen democratic government and promote social and economic reforms in Latin America. The program, which provided loans and aid from the U.S. and the international financial community, built some schools and hospitals, but by the early 1970s it was widely viewed as a failure. Significant land reform was not achieved, population growth out¬ stripped gains in health and welfare, and the U.S. willingness to support military dictators to prevent communism from gaining a foothold sowed distrust and undermined the reforms the Alliance was intended to pro¬ mote.

Alliance Israelite Universelle Xal-'yaVis-ra-el-'et-il-ne-ver-'seL Political organization founded in France in 1860 for the purpose of pro¬ viding assistance to Jews. Its founders were a group of French Jews who had the resources to help those who were poor, offering political support, helping individuals emigrate, and eventually setting up Jewish education programs in eastern Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. In 1945 it expressed support for political Zionism (the establishment of a Jewish state), and in 1946 its diplomatic activities were taken over by the Con¬ sultative Council of Jewish Organizations in New York City.

Allied Powers or Allies Nations allied in opposition to the Central Powers in World War I or to the Axis Powers in World War II. The origi¬ nal Allies in World War I—the British Empire, France, and the Russian Empire—were later joined by many other countries, including Portugal, Japan, and Italy. Other nations joining the Allies, including the U.S. after 1917, were called Associated Powers, a term emphasized by Pres. Woo¬ drow Wilson to preserve the U.S.’s free hand in the war. In World War II the major Allied Powers were Britain, France, the Soviet Union, the U.S., and China. More generally, the Allies included all the wartime members of the United Nations, the 1942 signatories to the Declaration of the UN.

alligator Either of two species of long-snouted reptiles constituting the genus Alligator (family Alligatoridae, order Crocodilia). Alligators differ from crocodiles in snout shape and tooth placement. Living in large bod¬ ies of water such as lakes, swamps, and rivers, these lizardlike carnivores use their powerful tail for defense and swimming. The eyes, ears, and nostrils, located on top of the long head, project above the water’s sur¬ face. Alligators dig burrows in which they shelter from danger and hiber¬ nate in cold weather. The once-endangered American alligator of the southeastern U.S. may grow to 19 ft (5.7 m) long but usually ranges from 6 to 12 ft (1.8 to 3.7 m) long. The Chinese alligator of the Chang (Yangtze) River region, which grows to 5 ft (1.5 m), is critically endangered.

Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)

P. MORRIS/WDODFIN CAMP AND ASSOCIATES

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Allingham ► Almaty I 51

Allingham Val-iq-snA, Margery (Louise) (b. May 20, 1904, Lon¬ don, Eng.—d. June 30, 1966, Colchester, Essex) British detective-story writer. She published her first story at age 8, her first novel at 19, and her first detective story in her early 20s. Her stories about the fictional detec¬ tive Albert Campion became very popular, and such novels as Tiger in the Smoke (1952) and The China Governess (1962), with their intellectual style and psychological insight, helped win detective fiction consideration as a serious literary genre. The BBC produced adaptations of eight of her novels in the late 1980s.

alliteration or head rhyme Repetition of consonant sounds in two or more neighbouring words or syllables. A frequently used poetic device, it is often discussed with assonance (the repetition of stressed vowel sounds within two or more words with different end consonants) and con¬ sonance (the repetition of end or medial consonants).

allium Any plant of a large genus ( Allium ) of bulbous, onion- or garlic- scented herbs of the lily family, including the onion, garlic, chive, leek, and shallot. Allium species are found in most regions of the world except the tropics and New Zealand and Australia. Some are cultivated as ornamen¬ tal border plants.

allocation of resources Apportionment of productive assets among different uses. The issue of resource allocation arises as societies seek to balance limited resources (capital, labour, land) against the various and often unlimited wants of their members. Mechanisms of resource alloca¬ tion include the price system in free-market economies and government planning, either in state-run economies or in the public sectors of mixed economies. The aim is always to allocate resources in such a way as to obtain the maximum possible output from a given combination of resources.

Allosaurus X.al-o-'sor-osV Large carnivorous dinosaur of a group simi¬ lar to the tyrannosaurs, found as fossils primarily in Late Jurassic rocks of North America. It weighed 2 tons (1,800 kg) and grew to 35 ft (10.5 m) long. Its well-developed tail, half of its total body length, probably functioned as a counterbalance for the body. Allosaurus walked on its two hind limbs and probably used the much smaller forelimbs for grasping. Equipped with powerful, flexible jaws, allosaurs likely preyed on medium-sized dinosaurs; they were possibly scavengers that hunted in groups. Some related allosaurs ( Giganotosaurus, Carcharodonotosaurus) may have been larger than Tyrannosaurus rex.

allosteric control \,a-lo-'ster-ik\ Inhibition or activation of an enzyme by a small regulatory molecule that interacts with the enzyme at a site (allosteric site) other than the active site (at which catalytic activity occurs). The interaction changes the shape of the enzyme, thus affecting the active site of the usual complex between the enzyme and its substrate (the substance on which the enzyme acts). As a result, the enzyme’s abil¬ ity to catalyze a reaction (see catalysis) is either inhibited or enhanced. If the regulatory molecule inhibits an enzyme in the pathway of its own synthesis, the control is said to be feedback inhibition. Allosteric control enables the cell to regulate needed substances rapidly.

allotrope Va-lo-.tropX Any of two or more forms of the same chemical element. They may have different arrangements of atoms in crystals of the solid—for example, graphite and diamond for carbon —or different num¬ bers of atoms in their molecules —for example, ordinary oxygen (0 2 ) and ozone (0 3 ). Other elements that have allotropes include tin, sulfur, anti¬ mony, ARSENIC, SELENIUM, and PHOSPHORUS.

alloy Metallic substance composed of two or more elements, as either a mixture, compound, or solid solution. The components of alloys are ordi¬ narily themselves metals, though carbon is an essential nonmetal compo¬ nent of steel. Alloys are usually produced by melting the mixture of ingredients. The value of alloys was discovered in very ancient times; brass (copper and zinc) and bronze (copper and tin) were especially impor¬ tant. Today the most important are the alloy steels, which have a wide range of special properties, including hardness, toughness, corrosion resis¬ tance, magnetizability, and workability.

Allport, Gordon W(illard) (b. Nov. 11, 1897, Montezuma, Ind., U.S.—d. Oct. 9, 1967, Cambridge, Mass.) U.S. psychologist. He taught at Harvard University (1930-67), becoming noted for his theory of per¬ sonality, which focused on the adult self rather than on childhood or infantile emotions and experiences, set forth in books such as Personal¬ ity (1937). In The Nature of Prejudice (1954) he made important contri¬ butions to the analysis of prejudice.

allspice Tropical evergreen tree ( Pimento dioica) of the myrtle family, native to the West Indies and Central America and valued for its berries, the source of a highly aromatic spice.

Allspice was so named because the flavour of the dried berry resembles a combination of cloves, cinnamon, and nutmeg. It is widely used in bak¬ ing. The name is applied to several other aromatic shrubs as well, including Carolina allspice ( Caly - canthus floridus ), Japanese allspice (Chimonanthus praecox), and wild allspice, or spicebush.

Allston, Washington (b. Nov. 5, 1779, Allston plantation. Brook Green Domain on Waccamaw River, S.C., U.S.—d. July 9, 1843, Cam- bridgeport, Mass.) U.S. painter and writer. He studied at Harvard Uni¬ versity and at London’s Royal Academy (with Benjamin West). He settled in Massachusetts in 1830 and became the most important first-generation U.S. Romantic painter. His large landscapes depict the mysterious and dramatic aspects of nature. He later relied on mood and reverie in smaller, more dreamlike images. He also wrote poetry and fiction, and his theo¬ ries on art were published posthumously as Lectures on Art (1850).

alluvial deposit Material deposited by rivers. It consists of silt, sand, clay, and gravel, as well as much organic matter. Alluvial deposits are usually most extensive in the lower part of a river’s course, forming floodplains and deltas, but they may form at any point where the river overflows its banks or where the flow of a river is checked. They yield very fertile soils, such as those of the deltas of the Mississippi, Nile, Ganges and Brahmaputra, and Huang (Yellow) rivers. They contain most of the world’s supply of tin ore, as well as, in some regions, gold, plati¬ num, and gemstones.

Almagest Val-mo-jestN Astronomical and mathematical encyclopedia compiled c. ad 140 by Ptolemy. It served as the basic guide for Arab and European astronomers until the 17th century. The name derives from the Arabic for “the greatest.” Its 13 books cover such topics as the geocen¬ tric (Earth-centred), or Ptolemaic, model of the solar system; eclipses; the coordinates and sizes of certain fixed stars; and the distances to the Sun and the Moon.

Almagro \al-'ma-gro\, Diego de (b. 1475, Almagro, Castile—d. 1538, Cuzco, Peru) Spanish soldier who played a leading role in the Spanish conquest of Peru. Following service in the Spanish navy, he arrived in South America in 1524 and, with Francisco Pizarro, led the expedition that conquered the Inca empire in what is now Peru. Bitter enmity arose between the two men, and Almagro imprisoned Pizarro’s two brothers for insubordination during an Indian rebellion. Pizarro then defeated Almagro’s army and had his former friend put to death.

almanac Book or table containing a calendar of a given year, with a record of various astronomical phenomena, often with weather prognos¬ tications, seasonal suggestions for farmers, and other information. The first printed almanac appeared in the mid 15th century. Benjamin Franklin began his famous Poor Richard’s almanacs in 1732. A form of folk lit¬ erature, 18th-century almanacs furnished useful and entertaining infor¬ mation where reading matter was scarce; a surviving example is the Old Farmer’s Almanac. Modern almanacs are often annual publications con¬ taining statistical, tabular, and general information.

Alma-Tadema Val-mo-'ta-do-moV, Sir Lawrence (b. Jan. 8, 1836, Dronrijp, Neth.—d. June 25, 1912, Wiesbaden, Ger.) Dutch-British painter. After studies at the Antwerp Academy, he visited Italy (1863) and became enamoured of Greco-Roman antiquity and Egyptian archaeology; the ancient world was to provide his primary themes. After settling in London in 1870, he excelled at the accurate re-creation of ancient scenes, exotic costumes, and the sensuous depiction of beautiful women against backgrounds of marble, bronze, and silk. Such figurative images com¬ bined sentimentality and anecdote. He was elected to the Royal Academy in 1879 and knighted in 1899. Alma-Tadema’s work was immensely popular in his day, but it went out of favour after his death.

Almaty Xol-'ma-t e\formerly Alma-Ata W-'ma-o-'taV City (pop., 1999: 1,129,400), southeastern Kazakhstan. Formerly the capital of Kazakhstan, it lost its capital status in 1995 to Aqmola (now Astana). The modern city

Allspice (Pimento diocia)

J.E. CRUISE

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

52 I Almendros ► Alsace-Lorraine

was founded in 1854, when the Russians established a military fortifica¬ tion on the site of the ancient city of Almaty, destroyed by the Mongols in the 13th century. With the coming of the railroad in 1930, its popula¬ tion grew rapidly. In World War II (1939-45), heavy industry expanded widely as factories were evacuated to the site from European Russia. The city remains a major industrial centre.

Almendros \al-'men-dros\ / Nestor (b. Oct. 30, 1930, Barcelona, Spain—d. March 4, 1992, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Spanish cinematogra¬ pher. In 1948 he emigrated from Spain to Cuba, where he worked with documentary filmmakers. After moving to France in 1961, he collaborated with Eric Rohmer on My Night at Maud’s (1969) and Claire’s Knee (1970), and with Francois Truffaut on The Wild Child (1970). His work in the U.S. includes Sophie’s Choice (1982), and Billy Bathgate (1991).

Almohad \'al-mo- I had\ dynasty Arabic al-Muwahhidun ("Uni¬ tarians") (1130-1269) Berber confederation born out of religious oppo¬ sition to the Islamic doctrines of the Almoravid dynasty. The Almohad leader Ibn Tumart began his rebellion in the 1120s. Marrakech was cap¬ tured in 1147 under the leadership of his successor ‘Abd al-Mu’min. By the 1170s all of the Maghrib was under unified control for the only time in its history, and the Almohads also controlled Muslim Spain. Their rule was marked by, on the one hand, the cultivation of science and philoso¬ phy and, on the other, efforts at religious unification by compelling Jews and Christians to convert or emigrate. They lost control of Spain to the Christians in 1212 and of their North African provinces to the Hafsid dynasty in Tunis (1236) and the Marinids in Marrakech (1269).

almond Tree ( Prunus dulcis) in the rose family, native to South Asia; also its edible seed, or nut. The tree, growing somewhat larger and living longer than the peach, is strikingly beautiful when in flower. The nuts are either sweet or bitter. Sweet almonds are the edible type consumed as nuts and used in cooking. The extracted oil of bitter almonds is used to make flavouring extracts for foods and liqueurs. Almonds provide small amounts of protein, iron, calcium, phosphorus, and B vitamins and are high in fat. They are commonly used in confectionery baking and in marzipan, a traditional European candy.

Almoravid V.al-mo-'ra-vodX dynasty Arabic al-Murabitun (1056- 1147) Berber confederation that succeeded the Fajimid dynasty in the Magh¬ rib. It flourished in the 11th and early 12th centuries. Its founder, c Abd Allah ibn Yasln, was a Muslim scholar of the Malik! school who used religious reform as a means of gaining followers in the mid-11th century. The Almoravids took over Morocco and then the rest of the Maghrib fol¬ lowing the decline of the Zlrid dynasty. By 1082 they ruled Algiers. By 1110 they also controlled Muslim Spain, but the Christians began to win back territory in 1118. In the 1120s another Berber coalition, the Almo¬ hads, started a rebellion, eventually displacing the Almoravids.

aloe Any shrubby succulent plant of the genus Aloe, in the lily family. Native to Africa, most of the 200 or so species have a rosette of leaves at the base but no stem. Several are cultivated as ornamentals. The juice of some species, especially the popular potted plant known as true aloe {Aloe vera), is used as an ingredient in cosmetics, as a purgative, and as a treat¬ ment for bums.

aloe, American See century plant

Alonso, Alicia orig. Alicia Martinez Hoyo (b. Dec. 21, 1921, Havana, Cuba) Cuban ballerina, choreographer, and director. She studied in Havana and New York, where she danced with Ballet Theatre (later American Ballet Theatre; 1940-41, 1943^18, 1950-55, 1958-59). In 1948 she formed her own company, Ballet Alicia Alonso (renamed Ballet Nacional de Cuba in 1959), with which she performed frequently on tour in Latin America. Despite failing eyesight, she continued for many years to dance leading roles as a guest artist with American Ballet Theatre and other companies.

alpaca \al-'pa-k3\ South American species {Lama pacos ) in the camel family (Camelidae). The alpaca, guanaco, llama, and vicuna are closely related and are known collectively as lamoids. Domesticated several thou¬ sand years ago by Indians of the Andes Mountains, the alpaca has a slen¬ der body, a long neck and legs, a small head, a short tail, and large, pointed ears. Alpacas stand about 35 in. (90 cm) at the shoulder and weigh 120- 145 lbs (54-65 kg). They are found in central and southern Peru and western Bolivia, on marshy ground at high altitudes. They are the most important of the lamoids for wool production.

Alp-Arslan Valp-ar-'slan\ (b. c. 1030—d. November? 1072/January 1073) Second sultan of the Seljuq dynasty, who added Georgia, Armenia, and much of Anatolia to his domains of Khorasan and western Iran. He preferred conquest to governing and left the administration of his empire to his famous vizier, Nizam al-Mulk. In 1071 his victory over the Byzan¬ tine Empire at the Battle of Manzikert opened the door for the eventual Turkish conquest of Anatolia. He died a year later when mortally wounded by a prisoner during a quarrel.

Alpha Centauri Triple star in the constellation Centaurus, the faintest component of which, Proxima Centauri, is currently the closest star to the Sun (about 4.2 light-years away). The two brighter components are about 0.2 light-year farther from the Sun. As seen from Earth, the system is the third brightest star (after Sirius and Canopus); Proxima is indistinguish¬ able as a separate star to the unaided eye. Alpha Centauri can be seen from Earth’s surface only from points south of about 40° N.

alpha decay Type of radioactive disintegration (see radioactivity) in which some unstable atomic nuclei dissipate excess energy by spontane¬ ously ejecting an alpha particle. Alpha particles have two positive charges and a mass of four atomic mass units; they are identical to helium nuclei. Though they are emitted at speeds about one-tenth that of light, they are not very penetrating and have ranges in air of about 1-4 in. (2.5-10 cm). Alpha decay commonly occurs in elements with atomic numbers greater than 83 (bismuth), but can occur in some rare-earth elements in the atomic-number range of 60 (neodymium) to 71 (lutetium). Alpha decay half-lives range from about a microsecond (10 -6 second) to billions of years (10 17 seconds).

alphabet Set of symbols or characters that represent language’s sounds in writing. Each character usually represents a simple vowel, a diphthong (two vowels), or one or two consonants. A writing system in which one character represents a whole syllable is called a syllabary. The first alpha¬ bet is believed to have been the North Semitic, which originated in the eastern Mediterranean region between 1700 and 1500 bc. Alphabets that arose in the next 500 years included the Canaanite and Aramaic, from which the modern Hebrew and Arabic alphabets descended, and the Greek (ancestor of the Latin alphabet), considered the first true alphabet because it includes both consonants and vowels. Scholars have attempted to estab¬ lish an exact correspondence between each sound and its symbol in new alphabets such as the International Phonetic Alphabet.

Alpheus \al-'fe-3s\ River River, southern Greece. About 75 mi (120 km) long, it is the longest river in the Peloponnese. It rises in Arcadia and flows northwest through southern Elias into the Ionian Sea. Olympia is on its northern bank. It shares its name with the ancient river god, and it figures in Greek legend, including Hercules’ cleaning of the Augean stables, and in Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s poem “Kubla Khan.”

Alpine orogeny \o-'ra-j3-ne\ Mountain-building event that affected a broad segment of southern Europe and the Mediterranean region during the middle Tertiary period. It produced intense metamorphism, crumpling of rock strata, and uplift accompanied by faulting. It was responsible for the elevation of the present Alps, from which the name derives, the uplifting of plateaus in the Balkan Peninsula and in Corsica and Sardinia, and vol¬ canic activity in England, France, Iceland, and parts of Italy.

Alpine skiing Class of competitive ski events consisting of speed events (the downhill and the supergiant slalom) and technical events (the slalom and giant slalom). Speed events are contested in single runs down longer, steeper, faster courses, with fewer turns than those featured in the technical events. Alpine skiing was first included in the Olympic Games in 1936. See also cross-country skiing; Nordic skiing.

Alps Mountain system, south-central Europe. The Alps extend in a cres¬ cent about 750 mi (1,200 km) from the Mediterranean coast between France and Italy to Vienna and cover more than 80,000 sq mi (207,000 sq km). Several peaks rise above 10,000 ft (3,000 m); the highest is Mont Banc. The Alps form a divide between the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediter¬ ranean Sea, and the Black Sea and give rise to several major European rivers, including the Rhone, Danube, and Po. Glaciers cover about 1,500 sq mi (3,900 sq km), mostly at elevations above 10,000 ft (3,000 m). The Saint Gotthard Pass is one of the Alps’s notable tunnels. Grenoble, Inns¬ bruck, and Bolzano are major Alpine cities.

Alsace-Lorraine \al-'sas-l6-Tan\ Area, eastern France. It is now usu¬ ally considered to include the present-day French departments of Haut- Rhin, Bas-Rhin, and Moselle. The area was ceded by France to Germany

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Alsatian ► alternator I 53

in 1871 after the Franco-Prussian War. It was returned to France after World War I, occupied by the Germans in World War II, then again restored to France. French prewar governmental policies that had clashed with the region’s particularism have since been modified. The German dialect known as Alsatian remains the lingua franca, and both French and German are taught in the schools.

Alsatian See German shepherd

Altai Mountains Russian Altay \al-'t!\ Chinese Altay Shan

\al-'tl-'shan\ Mongol Altayn Nuruu Mountain system, Central Asia. The range extends about 1,200 mi (2,000 km) in a southeast-northwest direction from the Gobi Desert to the West Siberian Plain, through parts of China, Mongolia, Russia, and Kazakhstan. The highest point is the Russian peak Belukha, 14,783 ft (4,506 m) in elevation. The mountains are the source of the Irtysh and Ob rivers and are notable for their mining and hydroelectrical potential.

Altaic \al-'ta-ik\ languages Group of more than 50 languages, com¬ prising the Turkic, Mongolian, and Manchu-Tungus subfamilies. Altaic lan¬ guages are spoken across Eurasia by more than 140 million people (the overwhelming majority of whom speak Turkic languages). Most scholars consider Altaic itself to be a family, of proven genetic relationship, though a minority attribute similarities in the languages to borrowings and areal convergence. The Uralic and Altaic language families were once believed to form a superfamily, but reliable sound correspondences have not been demonstrated, and the numerous similarities between the two are now attributed to areal influences.

Altamira \,al-t3-'mir-3\ Cave near Santander, northern Spain, famous for its magnificent prehistoric paintings and engravings. The paintings, dating to 14,000-12,000 bc, were first described in 1880. Altamira cave is 890 ft (270 m) long. The roof of the main chamber is covered with paintings, chiefly of bison, in vivid red, black, and violet. Other figures, in a simpler style, include wild boars, horses, and a hind, as well as eight engraved anthropomorphic figures and various handprints and hand out¬ lines. Engraved artifacts and other material remains suggest that the site may have been a centre for seasonal gatherings. See also Magdalenian culture; rock art.

Alton \'al-tan\ or Anda \'an-da\ (d. 1583, Mongolia) Mongol khan who terrorized China in the 16th century. He established a Chinese-style gov¬ ernment in his homeland and concluded a peace treaty with Ming-dynasty China in 1571. He converted the Mongols to the reformed, or Dge-lugs- pa, sect of Tibetan Buddhism. In 1578 Altan granted the head of the sect the title of Dalai Lama. With Mongol military aid, later Dalai Lamas crushed the more established Karma-pa (Red Hat) sect in Tibet to become Tibet’s spiritual and temporal rulers. See also Gtsang dynasty.

altar Raised structure or place used for sacrifice, worship, or prayer. Altars probably originated with the belief that objects or places (e.g., a tree or spring) were inhabited by spirits or deities worthy of prayers or gifts. Sacrifice to deities required a structure on which the victim could be killed and blood channeled off or flesh burned. In ancient Israel, the altar was a rectangular stone with a hollo wed-out basin on top. The ancient Greeks placed altars (see baetylus) in homes, marketplaces, public build¬ ings, and sacred groves. Roman altars were similarly ubiquitous and were often decorated with relief sculptures. Christians at first did not use altars, but by the 3rd century the table on which the Eucharist was celebrated was regarded as an altar. It became the focus of the mass in Christian churches and in Western churches was often adorned by a baldachin and an ALTARPIECE.

altarpiece Painting, relief, sculpture, screen, or decorated wall stand¬ ing on or behind an altar in a Christian church. The images depict holy personages, saints, and biblical subjects. There are two types of altar- pieces: the reredos, which rises from the floor behind the altar, and the retable, which stands on the altar itself or on a pedestal behind it. The diptych is an altarpiece consisting of two panels; a triptych, three panels; and a polyptych, four or more panels. Altarpieces vary in size; some are small and portable, some are huge and stationary, and some have mov¬ able wings that can be opened and closed. The practice of erecting sculp¬ tural altarpieces dates from the 11th century; altar paintings became common in the 14th century.

Altdorfer Valt-.dor-farV, Albrecht (b. c. 1480—d. Feb. 12, 1538, Regensburg) German painter and printmaker. He was the leading artist of the Danube school. Most of his works depict religious subjects, but he was

one of the first artists to develop landscape painting as an independent genre, specializing in sunset lighting and ruins in twilight. His drawings demonstrate these skills in black with white highlights on dark paper. The influence of Albrecht DOrer is evident in his miniature engravings and woodcuts. From 1526 until his death he was town architect of Regens¬ burg; no architectural work of his is known to have survived.

Alte Pinakothek Val-to-.pe-na-ko-'tekX German "Old Museum of

Painting" Art museum, one of several collections within the Bavarian State Picture Galleries in Munich, Germany, and one of the great muse¬ ums of the world. It specializes in European painting from the Middle Ages through the late 18th century; its core collections once belonged to several early Bavarian electors palatine. The building is a 1957 recon¬ struction of the original 19th-century gallery, destroyed in World War II. Other state museums include the Neue (“New”) Pinakothek, which is based on the private collections of Bavarian kings and features 18th— 20th-century European paintings and sculpture; the Schack Gallery col¬ lection of late Romantic German painting; and the State Gallery of Modem Art.

alternating current (AC) Flow of electric charge that reverses peri¬ odically, unlike direct current. It starts from zero, grows to a maximum, decreases to zero, reverses, reaches a maximum in the opposite direction, returns again to zero, and repeats the cycle indefinitely. The time taken to complete one cycle is called the period (see periodic motion), and the number of cycles per second is the frequency; the maximum value in either direction is the current’s amplitude. Low frequencies (50-60 cycles per second) are used for domestic and commercial power, but frequencies of around 100 million cycles per second (100 megahertz) are used in tele¬ vision and of several thousand megahertz in radar and microwave com¬ munication. A major advantage of alternating current is that the voltage can be increased and decreased by a transformer for more efficient trans¬ mission over long distances. Direct current cannot use transformers to change voltage. See also electric current.

alternation of generations In biology, alternation of a sexual phase (gametophyte) and a nonsexual phase (sporophyte) in the life cycle of an organism. The two phases, or generations, are often distinct in structure and sometimes in chromosome makeup. Alternation of generations is com¬ mon in algae, fungi (see fungus), Mosses, ferns, and seed plants. The char¬ acter and extent of the two phases vary greatly among different groups of plants and algae. During the course of evolution, the gametophyte stage has been progressively reduced. Thus in higher (vascular) plants, the sporophyte is the dominant phase; in more primitive, nonvascular plants the gametophyte is dominant. Among animals, many invertebrates (e.g., protozoans, jellyfish, flatworms) have an alternation of sexual and asexual generations.

alternative energy Any of various renewable power sources to use in place of fossil fuels and uranium. Fusion devices (see nuclear fusion) are believed by some to be the best long-term option, because their primary energy source would be deuterium, abundant in ordinary water. Other tech¬ nologies include solar energy, wind power, tidal power, wave power, hydro¬ electric power, and geothermal energy. The amount of energy in such renewable and virtually pollution-free sources is large in relation to world energy needs, yet at present only a small portion of it can be converted to electric power at reasonable cost.

alternative medicine or complementary medicine Any of a

broad range of healing approaches not used in conventional Western medi¬ cine. Many are holistic (see holistic medicine); many also emphasize pre¬ vention and education. Alternative therapies include acupuncture, aromatherapy, Ayurveda medicine, Chinese medicine, chiropractic, herbal medicine, homeopathy, massage, meditation, naturopathy, therapeutic touch, and Yoga. Though considered alternative in the West, such medicine is the main source of health care for up to 80% of people in less-developed countries. Some alternative-medicine practices are useless or harmful; others are effective and may offer treatments in areas where conventional approaches have not succeeded (e.g., chronic disorders).

alternator Source of direct electric current in modern vehicles for igni¬ tion, lights, fans, and other uses. The electric power is generated by an alternator mechanically coupled to the engine, with a rotor field coil sup¬ plied with current through slip rings, and a stator with a three-phase winding. A rectifier converts the power from alternating to direct form. A regulator ensures that the output voltage is properly matched to the bat-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

54 I Altgeld ► Alvarado

tery voltage as engine speed varies. An inductor alternator is a special kind of synchronous generator in which both the field and the output winding are on the stator.

bearing assembly

Exploded view of an automotive alternator. The engine's turning crankshaft, con¬ nected to the alternator's pulley by a belt, turns the magnetic rotor inside the sta¬ tionary stator assembly, generating an alternating current. The diode assembly rectifies the alternating current, producing direct current, which is used to meet the demands of the vehicle's electrical system, including recharging the battery.

© MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

Altgeld, John Peter (b. Dec. 30, 1847, Niederselters, Prussia—d. March 12, 1902, Joliet, Ill., U.S.) German-bom U.S. politician, governor of Illinois (1893-97). He emigrated from Germany as a child. In the 1870s he moved to Chicago, where he accumulated a small fortune in real estate and became active in Democratic Party politics. In 1892 he won the gov¬ ernorship as a reformist candidate. In 1893, at the urging of Clarence Dar- row and labour leaders, he granted clemency to three men convicted of complicity in the Haymarket Riot. The controversial pardon provoked an outcry from conservatives and contributed to his defeat for reelection in 1896, though Altgeld’s decision later gained wide approval in judicial circles.

altimeter \al-'tim-3t-3r\ Instrument that measures the altitude of the land surface or of any object, such as an airplane. The mechanical pres¬ sure altimeter measures atmospheric pressure relative to sea level through a series of bellows, gears, and springs, which move pointers on a dial. Radio altimeters measure the distance of an aircraft above the ground rather than above sea level by indicating the time a pulse of radio energy takes to travel from the aircraft to the ground and back; they are used in automatic navigation and blind-landing systems.

Altiplano \,al-ti-'pla-n6\ Spanish "High Plateau" Region, south¬ eastern Peru and western Bolivia. Comprising a series of intermontane basins, it originates northwest of Lake Titicaca in southern Peru and extends southeast to southwestern Bolivia. The region’s wildlife originally included alpacas and llamas, both now bred for wool. The cities of Puno and Juliaca (Peru) and La Paz (Bolivia) are located in the Lake Titicaca basin, an area that has been populated since ancient times.

altitude and azimuth Vaz-motLA Two coordinates describing the position of an object above Earth in a coordinate system called the altaz¬ imuth, or horizon, system, and used in astronomy, gunnery, navigation, surveying, and other fields. Altitude in this sense is expressed as angle of elevation (up to 90°) above the horizon. Azimuth, in astronomical mea¬ surement, is the number of degrees clockwise from due north to the point on the horizon directly below the object.

altitude sickness or mountain sickness Acute reaction to a change from low altitudes to altitudes above 8,000 ft (2,400 m). Most people gradually adapt, but some have a severe reaction that can be fatal unless they return to low altitude. Normal adaptations to the reduced oxy¬ gen at high altitude (e.g., breathlessness, racing heartbeat) are exagger¬ ated; other manifestations include headache, gastrointestinal upsets, and weakness. Pulmonary edema is quickly reversed with oxygen and evacu¬ ation to a lower area.

Altman Volt-monV Robert (B.) (b. Feb. 20, 1925, Kansas City, Mo., U.S.) U.S. film director. He learned filmmaking by directing industrial films, then directed several television series before making his first fea¬ ture film, Countdown (1967). The successful antiwar comedy MAS*/7 (1970) established his reputation as an independent director whose work emphasizes character and atmosphere over plot. His most acclaimed films

include McCabe and Mrs. Miller (1971), Nashville (1976), The Player (1992), and Short Cuts (1993).

Altman, Sidney (b. May 7, 1939, Montreal, Que., Can.) Canadian- born U.S. molecular biologist. He studied at MIT and the University of Colorado and has taught at Yale University since 1971. Working inde¬ pendently, Altman and Thomas Cech discovered that RNA, previously believed to be simply a passive carrier of genetic codes between differ¬ ent parts of the living cell, could also initiate and carry out (i.e., catalyze) some reactions, opening up new fields of research and biotechnology. The two shared a 1989 Nobel Prize.

alto or contralto Voice or register that extends approximately from the F below middle C to the second D above it. The second-highest part in four-part music, it is normally sung by women. The name derives from contratenor altus , the part above the tenor part. It is used for some instru¬ ments that play principally in the alto range (alto saxophone, alto flute, etc.). See also countertenor.

Altria Group, Inc. U.S. holding company with interests in tobacco, foods, and financial services. Formerly called Philip Morris Cos., Inc., the group changed its name to Altria in January 2003. Its holdings include Kraft Foods, Inc. (including Nabisco), Philip Morris International Inc., and Philip Morris USA Inc. (see Philip Morris tobacco companies), and an interest in SABMiller PLC, which was created in 2002 from the merger of South African Breweries PLC and Miller Brewing Co. Philip Morris had acquired the Miller Brewing Co. in 1969. It continued to reduce its dependence on tobacco by acquiring General Foods (1985), Kraft Foods (1988), and Nabisco (2000), among others. In 1998, as part of the settle¬ ment of a suit brought against it and other cigarette manufacturers by 46 U.S. states, the company agreed to participate in paying more than $200 billion to the states for smoking-related health-care costs.

altruism Ethical theory that regards the good of others as the end of moral action; by extension, the disposition to take the good of others as an end in itself. The term (French, altruisme, derived from Latin alter: “other”) was coined in the 19th century by Auguste Comte and adopted generally as a convenient antithesis to egoism. Most altruists have held that each person has an obligation to further the pleasures and alleviate the pains of other people. The same argument holds if happiness, rather than pleasure, is taken as the end of life.

alum \'a-lom\ Inorganic compound, any of a class of hydrated double salts, usually consisting of aluminum sulfate, water of hydration (an essen¬ tial part of the crystal makeup), and the sulfate of another element. The most important alums are those of potassium sulfate (potassium alum, or potash alum, ^SO^Al^SO^^T^O), ammonium sulfate, and sodium sulfate. Alums occur naturally in various minerals and can be prepared and purified by crystallization from their solutions. Most are white crys¬ tals with an astringent, acid taste. They are used as paper-sizing agents, flocculating agents in water treatment, mordants in dyeing, and in pick¬ les, baking powder, fire extinguishers, and medicines.

aluminum Metallic chemical element, chemical symbol Al, atomic num¬ ber 13. A lightweight, silvery white metal, it is so reactive chemically that it always occurs in compounds. It is the most abundant metallic element in Earth’s crust, chiefly in bauxite (its principal ore), feldspars, micas, clay minerals, and laterite. It also occurs in gemstones, such as topaz, garnet, and chrysoberyl; emery, corundum, ruby, and sapphire are crystalline alumi¬ num oxide. Aluminum was first isolated in 1825, became commercially available in the late 19th century, and is now the most widely used metal after iron. Its surface oxidizes at once to a hard, tough film, deterring fur¬ ther corrosion. Uses include building and construction, corrosion-resistant chemical equipment, auto and aircraft parts, power transmission lines, photoengraving plates, cookware and other consumer goods, and tubes for ointments and pastes. Important compounds include alums; alumina (aluminum oxide), useful as corundum and as a carrier for many cata¬ lysts; aluminum chloride, a widely used catalyst for organic syntheses; and aluminum hydroxide, used to waterproof fabrics.

Alvarado \,al-va-'ra-tho\, Pedro de (b. c. 1485, Badajoz, Castile—d. 1541, in or near Guadalajara, New Spain) Spanish soldier and colonial administrator. In 1519 he accompanied the army led by HernAn Cortes that conquered Mexico. In 1522 he became the first mayor of Tenochti- tlan (Mexico City). In 1523 he conquered the native peoples of Guate¬ mala and founded the city (modern Antigua) that became the first capital of the Guatemala region, which later included much of Central America.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Alvarez ► Amar Das I 55

He was governor of Guatemala in 1527-31. In 1539 he began an explo¬ ration of central Mexico, but died while quelling an Indian uprising.

Alvarez Val-v3- l rez\, Luis W(alter) (b. June 13, 1911, San Francisco, Calif., U.S.—d. Sept. 1,1988, Berke¬ ley, Calif.) U.S. experimental physi¬ cist. He joined the faculty of the University of California at Berkeley in 1936, where he would remain until 1978. In 1938 he discovered that some radioactive elements decay when an orbital electron merges with the atom’s nucleus, producing an ele¬ ment with an atomic number smaller by one, a form of beta decay. In 1939 he and Felix Bloch (1905-83) made the first measurement of the magnetic moment of the neutron. During World War II he developed a radar guidance system for landing aircraft and participated in the Manhattan Project to develop the atomic bomb.

He later helped construct the first proton linear accelerator and constructed the liquid hydrogen bubble cham¬ ber. With his son, the geologist Walter Alvarez (b. 1940), he helped develop the theory that links the dinosaurs’ extinction with a giant asteroid or comet impact. For work that included the discovery of many subatomic particles, he received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1968.

alveolus See pulmonary alveolus

Alzheimer Valts-.hl-morN disease Degenerative brain disorder. It occurs in middle to late adult life, destroying neurons and connections in the cerebral cortex and resulting in significant loss of brain mass. The most common form of dementia, Alzheimer disease progresses from short-term memory impairment to further memory loss; deterioration of language, perceptual, and motor skills; mood instability; and, in advanced stages, unresponsiveness, with loss of mobility and control of body functions; death typically ensues in 5-10 years. Originally described in 1906 by the German neuropathologist Alois Alzheimer (1864-1915) with reference to a 55-year-old person and regarded as a presenile dementia, Alzheimer disease is now recognized as accounting for much of the senile dementia once thought normal with aging. The 10% of cases that begin before age 60 result from an inherited mutation. Neuritic plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain on autopsy are the primary features used for diagno¬ sis. No cure has been found. Most treatment targets the depression, behav¬ ioral problems, and sleeplessness that often accompany the disease.

AM in full amplitude modulation Variation of the amplitude of a carrier wave (commonly a radio wave) in correspondence to fluctuations in the audio or video signal being transmitted. AM is the oldest method of broadcasting radio programs. Commercial AM stations operate in the frequency range of 535 to 1605 kHz. Because radio waves of these fre¬ quencies are reflected back to the Earth’s surface by the ionosphere, they can be detected by receivers hundreds of miles away. In addition to com¬ mercial radio broadcasting, AM is also employed in short-wave radio broadcasts, and in transmitting the video portion of television programs. See also FM.

AMA See American Medical Association

Amadeus V.am-o-'da-osX VI known as Amadeus the Green Count

(b. 1334, Chambery, Savoy [France]—d. March 1, 1383, Castropignano [Italy]) Count of Savoy (1343-83). Ruler of Savoy from age 9, he sig¬ nificantly extended his kingdom’s territory and power. By the 1350s, after adding lands on the Italian side, he held nearly the entire western Alps. He joined a Crusade against the Turks (1366) and restored John V Palae- ologus to the Byzantine throne. A mediator of quarrels among Italian powers, he set out to rescue Queen Joan I of Naples from her enemies (1382) but died of plague during the expedition.

Amado \a-'ma-du\, Jorge (b. Aug. 10, 1912, Ferradas, near Ilheus, Braz.—d. Aug. 6, 2001, Salvador, Bahia) Brazilian novelist. Amado was born and reared on a cacao plantation. He published his first novel at age 20. His early works, including The Violent Land (1942), explore the exploitation and suffering of plantation workers. Despite imprisonment and exile for leftist activities, he continued to produce novels, many of

which have been banned in Brazil and Portugal. Later works such as Gabriela, Clove and Cinnamon (1958), Dona Flor and Her Two Hus¬ bands (1966), and The War of the Saints (1993) preserve Amado’s politi¬ cal attitude in their more subtle satire; many of his books were adapted for film and television.

Amalfi \a-'mal-fe\ Town (pop., 2000: commune, 5,527), southern Italy, on the Gulf of Salerno. It was of little importance until the mid-6th cen¬ tury, when it fell under Byzantine control. It grew into one of the first Italian maritime republics in the 9th century, becoming a rival of Venice and Genoa. Annexed by Roger II of Sicily in 1131, it was sacked by Pisa in 1135 and 1137 and rapidly declined in importance, though its maritime code, the Tavola Amalfitana, was recognized in the Mediterranean until 1570. Amalfi is now a notable tourist resort.

amalgam \3-'mal-g3m\ Alloy of mercury and one or more other metals. Those of silver, gold, and palladium occur naturally. Those with a very high mercury content are liquid; others are crystalline. Amalgams of sil¬ ver and tin, with minor amounts of copper and zinc, are used in dentistry to fill teeth. Sodium amalgam is used in manufacturing chlorine and sodium hydroxide by electrolysis of brine. Amalgams are used to recover silver and gold from their ores: The ore is shaken with mercury, the amal¬ gam is separated and heated until the mercury distills off (see distillation), and the precious metal is the residue. Amalgams are also used to silver mirrors and apply other metal coatings.

Amalric Va-'mal-rik, 'am-3l-rik\ I (b. 1136—d. July 11, 1174) King of Jerusalem (1163-74). Amalric was a strong ruler who helped break the unity of Muslims surrounding the Holy Land. He passed a law giving vas¬ sals the right to appeal to the High Court against unjust treatment by their lords. His invasion of Egypt (1163) led to a war with Nureddin of Syria, which Amalric lost despite help from Manuel I Comnenus. Though the effort to conquer Egypt failed, the Palestinian-Byzantine alliance continued.

Amalric II (b. c. 1155—d. April 1, 1205) King of Cyprus (1194-1205) and of Jerusalem (1197-1205). Amalric inherited the kingdom of Cyprus on the death of his brother, Guy of Lusignan, and formed a close alliance with the ruler of Palestine. He also became the vassal of Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI. When the ruler of Palestine died, Amalric married his widow and became king of Jerusalem. He administered Jerusalem sepa¬ rately from his other lands and made peace with his Muslim neighbours after Saladin’s death (1193).

amanita \,am-3- , ne-t3\ Any mushroom of the genus Amanita, contain¬ ing about 100 species, some of which are poisonous to humans.

Among the deadliest of all mush¬ rooms are the large, white destroying angels (A. bispongera, A. ocreata, A. verna, and A. virosa ), which are found in forests during wet periods in summer and autumn. The green or brown death cap (A. phalloides), also deadly, is found in woods in summer or early autumn. The poisonous fly agaric (A. muscaria ), found in pas¬ tures and fields in summer, was once used as a fly poison. Common edible species include A. caesarea, A. rube- scens, and A. vaginata.

Amar Das Vom-ar-'dasV (b. 1479,

Khadur?, India—d. 1574, Goindwal)

Third Sikh Guru. Much revered for his wisdom and piety, he became Guru at age 73. He was noted for his missionary efforts to spread Sikhism and for the division of the Punjab into 22 dioceses. To strengthen the faith, he ordered three great Sikh festivals each year, and he made the city of Goindwal a centre of Sikh learning. He extended the casteless langar (“free kitchen”) and required that any¬ one wanting to see him must first eat there. Advocating a middle way between the extremes of asceticism and sensuous pleasure, he purified Sikhism of Hindu practices, encouraged intercaste marriages, allowed widows to remarry, and prohibited suttee (self-immolation of a widow on her husband’s funeral pyre).

Luis Alvarez

BY COURTESY OF THE LAWRENCE RADIATION LABORATORY, THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY

Fly agaric (Amanita muscaria)

LARRY C. MOON-TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

56 I amaranth ► amberjack

amaranth Va-m3- l ranth\ family Family Amaranthaceae, which con¬ tains about 60 genera and more than 800 species of herbaceous plants and a few shrubs, trees, and vines, native to tropical America and Africa. Globe amaranth ( Gomphrena ) and cockscomb ( Celosia ) are cultivated as ornamentals. The large genus Amaranthus contains the ornamentals love- lies-bleeding (A. caudatus) and Joseph’s-coat (A. tricolor ), as well as many weedy plants known as pigweed, especially A. retroflexus. Some Amaranthus species are tumbleweeds, and some are potential high-protein grain crops.

Amaravati \,a-m9-'ra-v9-te\ sculpture Style of sculpture found in the Andhra region of southeastern India. It flourished there from about the 2nd century bc to the end of the 3rd century ad, during the rule of the Satavahana dynasty. Carved in relief on greenish-white limestone, these sculptures depict events in the life of the Buddha. The compositions are dynamic, sensuous, and dramatic, with overlapping figures and diagonals suggesting depth. The style spread from the Amaravati ruins west to Maharashtra Pradesh, to Sri Lanka (Ceylon), and to much of South Asia. The Amaravati stupa was one of the largest in Buddhist India; it was largely destroyed in the 19th century by building contractors to make lime mortar.

Amarillo City (pop., 2000: 173,627), northern Texas, U.S. The chief city of the Texas Panhandle, it originated in 1887 with the coming of the railroad. After it grew to become one of the world’s busiest cattle-shipping sites in the 1890s, agriculture became important in the region. The dis¬ covery of petroleum and natural gas in the 1920s further promoted Ama¬ rillo’s development.

Amarna, Tell el- Ancient city, Egypt. Located midway between Thebes and Memphis on the Nile River, it was built in the 14th century bc by the Egyptian king (pharaoh) Akhenaton, who moved his subjects there in order to found a new monotheistic religion. Artifacts discovered there in the 19th century included hundreds of cuneiform tablets. Archaeological finds of the late 20th century included sculptures and paintings.

amaryllis V.am-o-'ril-osN family Family Amaryllidaceae of the order Liliales, containing about 65 genera and at least 835 species of perennial herbaceous plants, found mostly in tropical and subtropical regions and prized for their showy flowers, which are borne on smooth, hollow stalks with few or no leaves. Many species are cultivated as garden ornamen¬ tals. Many tropical lily like plants also belong to the family, including the genera Haemanthus (Cape tulip, or blood lily), Alstroemeria (Peruvian lily), and Hippeastrum. Some are grown as houseplants.

Amaterasu V.am-a-'ter-o-siA (Omikami) In Shinto, the sun goddess from whom the Japanese royal family traditionally claims descent. She was given domain over heaven while her brother, the storm god Susanoo, was set to rule over the sea. The two produced children together, but Sus¬ anoo began to behave rudely and destructively, and Amaterasu withdrew in protest into a cave, plunging the world into darkness. She was lured out by the other gods and goddesses, and a rope was placed over its entrance to prevent her return. Her chief place of worship is the Grand Shrine of Ise, Shinto’s most important shrine.

Amati family Family of Italian violin makers in Cremona in the 16th and 17th centuries. Andrea (c. 1520-c. 1578) set the form of the modem violin. His two sons Antonio (c. 1550-1638) and Girolamo (1561-1630) worked together and were known as the brothers Amati. Girolamo’s son Nicolo (1596-1684), who like his forebears worked in Cremona, is regarded as the family’s finest craftsman. Among his famous pupils were Andrea Guarneri and Antonio Stradivari; Nicolo was succeeded by his son Girolamo (1649-1740). The great contribution of the Amatis to the devel¬ opment of the violin was their evolution of the flat, shallow model, which, as improved by Stradivari, is capable of producing a brilliant soprano tone.

Amazon In Greek mythology, a member of a race of women warriors. One of the labours of Heracles was to obtain the girdle of the Amazon queen Hippolyte. In another tale, Theseus attacked the Amazons, and they responded by invading Attica, where they were defeated; Theseus mar¬ ried the Amazon Antiope. In ancient Greek art, Amazons resembled Ath¬ ena (with weapons and helmet) and later Artemis (in a thin dress girded high for speed).

Amazon River Portuguese Rio Amazonas River, northern South America. It is the largest river in the world in volume and area of drain¬ age basin; only the Nile River of eastern and northeastern Africa exceeds it in length. It originates within 100 mi (160 km) of the Pacific Ocean in

the Peruvian Andes Mountains and flows some 4,000 mi (6,400 km) across northern Brazil into the Atlantic Ocean. Its Peruvian length is called the Maranon River; the stretch of river from the Brazilian border to the mouth of the Negro River is the Solimoes River. Its more than 1,000 known tributaries rise in the Guiana Highlands, the Brazilian Highlands, and (principally) the Andes; 7 of these are longer than 1,000 mi (1,600 km), and the Madeira River exceeds 2,000 mi (3,200 km). The Amazon can accommodate large freighters as far upriver as the city of Manaus, Braz., 1,000 mi (1,600 km) from the Atlantic. The first European descent was made by Francisco de Orellana in 1541-42; he is said to have given the river its name after reporting battles with tribes of women, whom he lik¬ ened to the Amazons of Greek legend. Pedro Teixeira achieved the first ascent in 1637-38, but the river remained little explored until the mid- 19th century. Many indigenous peoples originally lived along the river, but they moved inland as exploring parties and raiders (see bandeira ) sought to enslave them. The river was opened to world shipping in the mid-19th century; traffic increased exponentially with the coming of the rubber trade, which reached its height c. 1910 but soon declined. Its basin encompasses the world’s most extensive rainforest and is home to an extraordinary diversity of birds, mammals, and other wildlife. Since the 1960s the effects of economic exploitation on the region’s ecology and the destruction of the rainforest have generated worldwide concern.

Amazonia National Park Park, north-central Brazil, about halfway between the cities of Manaus and Belem, along the Tapajos River. Estab¬ lished in 1974, it has gradually expanded to cover about 3,300 sq mi (8,600 sq km) and contains an immense diversity of flora and fauna.

amban Manchu "minister" Representative of China’s Qing emperor who lived in the territory of a tributary state or dependency. In 1793 the Qing emperor Qianlong changed the procedure for selecting the Dalai Lama, and the Tibetans had to persuade the amban that they had complied. In 1904, when the British were trying to force Tibet to sign a trade treaty, the amban said he was powerless to negotiate for the Tibetans, an admis¬ sion that called into question the degree of control China exercised over Tibet. The ambans ’ role and authority continues to be debated by the Chi¬ nese government and advocates of Tibetan independence in the attempt to support their conflicting claims for Tibet’s status.

ambassador Highest-ranking diplomatic representative of one gov¬ ernment to another or to an international organization. As formally defined and recognized at the Congress of Vienna (1815), ambassadors were origi¬ nally regarded as personal representatives of their country’s chief execu¬ tive rather than of the whole country, and their rank entitled them to meet personally with the head of state of the host country. Originally, only the principal monarchies exchanged ambassadors; the U.S. did not appoint ambassadors until 1893. Since 1945 all nations have been recognized as equals, and ambassadors or their equivalents are sent to all countries with which diplomatic relations are maintained. Before the development of modern communications, ambassadors were entrusted with extensive powers; they have since been reduced to spokespeople for their foreign offices.

amber Fossil tree resin that occurs as irregular nodules, rods, or drop¬ like shapes in all shades of yellow with nuances of orange, brown, and, rarely, red. Milky-white opaque varieties are called bone amber. Hundreds of species of insects and plants are found as fossils in amber. Deeply coloured translucent to transparent amber is prized as gem material, and numerous ornamental carved objects and beads are made from amber. Amber has been found throughout the world, but the largest deposits occur along the shores of the Baltic Sea.

ambergris Vam-bor-.gris, , am-b3r-,gre\ Waxy substance (about 80% cholesterol) formed in the intestine of sperm whales, used chiefly as a spice in the East and for fixing the scent of fine perfumes in the West. It is thought to form as a collection of feces around indigestible parts of squid and other prey of the whale. Fresh ambergris is soft, black, and smelly; exposed to sunlight, air, and seawater, it hardens, fades, and develops a pleasant scent. It may wash ashore or be found floating or in the bodies of slaughtered whales. Pieces are usually small, but the largest have weighed almost 1,000 lb (450 kg).

amberjack Any of various popular marine game fishes (genus Seri- ola ), members of the jack family (Carangidae). Amberjacks are found worldwide. The greater amberjack of the tropical Atlantic is one of the largest jack species, often attaining a length of 6 ft (1.8 m).

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Ambler ► American Anti-Slavery Society I 57

Ambler, Eric (b. June 28, 1909, London, Eng.—d. Oct. 22, 1998, Lon¬ don) British author of espionage and crime novels. Among his works are The Dark Frontier (1936), Epitaph for a Spy (1938), A Coffin for Dimi- trios (1939), Journey into Fear (1940; film, 1942), and The Light of Day (1962). In contrast to earlier British spy stories, in which xenophobic, romantic heroes defeated vast conspiracies to dominate the world, Ambler’s tales were of ordinary, educated Englishmen thrust by chance or curiosity into danger. Notable for its gritty realism, Ambler’s fiction was a major influence on writers such as Graham Greene and John Le Carre.

Ambon \am-'bon\ Island of the Moluccas, Indonesia. Located in the Malay Archipelago, it is 31 mi (50 km) long and 10 mi (16 km) wide, with an area of 294 sq mi (761 sq km). Its chief port is also called Ambon (pop., 2000: 205,664). The island is subject to earthquakes and volcanic activity; Mount Salhatu (3,405 ft [1,038 m]) is its highest point. The clove trade first attracted the Portuguese, who founded a settlement in 1521. The Dutch ousted the Portuguese in 1605, took over the spice trade, and in 1623 killed English settlers in the Amboina Massacre. The British cap¬ tured Ambon in 1796 and 1810, but it was restored to the Dutch in 1814. The Japanese occupied it during World War II. Retaken by the Dutch in 1945, it became part of Indonesia in 1949. A short-lived independence movement there in 1950 was soon suppressed.

Ambrose, Saint (b. 339, Augusta Treverorum, Belgica, Gaul—d. 397, Milan; feast day December 7)

Bishop of Milan. Raised in Rome, he became a Roman provincial gover¬ nor. As a compromise candidate, he was unexpectedly elevated from unbaptized layman to bishop of Milan in 374. He established the medieval concept of the Christian emperor as subject to episcopal advice and censure when he forced the emperor Theodosius to seek for¬ giveness from the bishop, and he opposed tolerance for adherents of Arianism. He wrote theological trea¬ tises influenced by Greek philoso¬ phy, including On the Holy Spirit and On the Duties of Ministers, as well as a series of hymns. His bril¬ liant sermons and personal example converted St. Augustine.

AMC See American Motors Corp.

AME Church See African Method¬ ist Episcopal Church

Amelung Vam-9-taq\ glass U.S. glass produced between 1784 and c.

1795 by John Frederick Amelung.

Born in Bremen, Ger., he founded the New Bremen Glass Manufactory near Frederick, Md., U.S., with financial support from German and U.S. promoters. He attempted to set up a crafts community, importing glass- workers and other craftsmen from Germany, but the industry failed when Congress defeated Amelung’s petition for a loan in 1790. Few authentic pieces of Amelung glass survive, most of them presentation pieces deco¬ rated with restrained engraving.

amen Expression of agreement or confirmation used in worship by Jews, Christians, and Muslims. The word derives from a Semitic root meaning “fixed” or “sure.” The Greek Old Testament usually translates it as “so be it”; in the English Bible it is often translated as “verily” or “truly.” By the 4th century bc, it was a common response to a doxology or other prayer in the Jewish temple liturgy. By the 2nd century ad, Christians had adopted it in the liturgy of the Eucharist, and in Christian worship a final amen now often sums up and confirms a prayer or hymn. Though less common in Islam, it is used after reading of the first sura.

Amen See Amon

Amenemhet Va-mo-nom-'heA I (fl. 20th century bc) Egyptian pharaoh (r. 1938-08 bc) who founded the 12th dynasty (1938-1756) and, with provincial governors, restored unity to Egypt after the civil war that fol¬ lowed the death of his predecessor, Montuhotep IV. He moved the capi¬

tal from Thebes to near modern-day Al-Lisht, south of Memphis. He extended Egyptian control up the Nile and fortified the delta. Reaffirm¬ ing the Egyptian monarchy’s claim to divinity, he also enlarged the Temple of Amon at Thebes. In 1918 bc he made his son, Sesostris I, his coruler. He was assassinated 10 years later.

Amenhotep Va-mon-'ho-.tepV II (fl. 15th century bc) Egyptian pharaoh (r. 1514-1493 bc), son and successor of Ahmose I. Amenhotep extended Egyptian rule southward to the Third Cataract of the Nile while also main¬ taining rule in the northeast. He pio¬ neered the transition away from pyramidal tombs to rock-cut tombs in the Valley of the Kings in western Thebes. The royal mortuary temples were erected at the edge of the desert during his reign, though the location of his own tomb is unknown.

Amenhotep III (fl. 14th century bc) Egyptian pharaoh (r. 1390-53 bc) during a time of prosperity. Early in his reign he led a military campaign south of Egypt, but otherwise his rule was peaceful. His reign is noted for the expansion of diplomacy with Syria, Cyprus, Babylon, and Assyria, and the construction of public build¬ ings in Memphis, Thebes, and Nubia, including portions of the temples at Luxor and Karnak. He broke with tradition by marrying Tiy, a commoner, with whom he shared his rule. He was succeeded by his son Akhenaton.

Amenhotep IV See Akhenaton

amenorrhea \,a- 1 men-3- , re-9\

Lack of menstruation. Signs of pri¬ mary amenorrhea (failure to start menstruating by age 16) include infantile reproductive organs, lack of breasts and pubic hair, dwarfism, and deficient muscle development. In secondary amenorrhea (abnormal cessation of cycles once started), the genitals atrophy and pubic hair diminishes. Not itself a disease, amenorrhea reflects a failure in the balance among the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, ovaries, and uterus; tumours, injuries, or diseases of these can lead to amenorrhea. Other causes include systemic diseases, emotional shock, stress, hormone over- or underproduction, anorexia nervosa, absence of ovaries or uterus, pregnancy, lactation, and menopause. Infrequent menstruation or amenorrhea not resulting from organic disease is not harmful.

America See Central America, North America, South America America Online See AOL Time Warner Inc.

American Airlines Major U.S. airline. American was created through a merger of several smaller U.S. airlines and incorporated in 1934. It con¬ tinued to buy the routes of other airlines, becoming an international car¬ rier in the 1970s; its routes include South America, the Caribbean, Europe, and the western Pacific. Its parent company, AMR Corp., also has hold¬ ings in food services, hotels, and airport ground services. The company acquired Trans World Airlines in 2001.

American aloe See century plant

American Anti-Slavery Society Main activist arm of the U.S. abo¬ lition movement, which sought an immediate end to slavery in the coun-

St. Ambrose, detail from a stained- glass window; in St. Michael's Church, Kirby-le-Soken, Essex, Eng.

E & E IMAGE LIBRARY/HERITAGE-IMAGES

Amenhotep II offering sacrifices, statue, 15th century bc; in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo

BY COURTESY OF THE EGYPTIAN MUSEUM; PHOTOGRAPH, HIRMER FOTOARCHIV, MUNCHEN

Amenhotep III, head of a statue from western Thebes, c. 1390 bc

REPRODUCED BY COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

58 I American Association ► American Indian Movement

try (see abolitionism). Cofounded in 1833 by William Lloyd Garrison and Arthur Tappan, it promoted the formation of state and local auxiliaries to agitate for abolition. Despite violent opposition, by 1840 the group had 2,000 auxiliaries and more than 150,000 members, including Theodore Weld and Wendell Phillips. Its most effective public meetings featured tes¬ timony by former slaves, including Frederick Douglass and William Wells Brown. In 1839 it split into two factions: a radical group led by Garrison that denounced the Constitution as supportive of slavery and a moderate faction led by Tappan that led to the birth of the Liberty Party.

American Association of Retired Persons See AARP

American Ballet Theatre Prominent ballet company based in New York City. It was founded in 1939 as the Ballet Theatre (the name was changed in 1958) by Lucia Chase and Richard Pleasant to promote works “American in character.” Oliver Smith replaced Pleasant as codirector in 1945; Mikhail Baryshnikov served as artistic director from 1980 to 1989 after dancing with the company in the 1970s. New ballets were created for the company by Agnes de Mille, Jerome Robbins, Twyla Tharp, and Ant¬ ony Tudor; Michel Fokine revived many of his earlier works for them as well. Principal dancers have included Alicia Alonso, Erik Bruhn, Anton Doun, and Natalia Makarova.

American Bar Association (ABA) Voluntary association (founded 1878) of U.S. lawyers, judges, and other legal professionals. The largest bar association in die U.S., it seeks to improve the legal profession, ensure the availability of legal services to all citizens, and improve the admin¬ istration of justice. It conducts educational and research projects, spon¬ sors professional meetings, and publishes a monthly journal. At the beginning of the 21st century its membership exceeded 400,000.

American Broadcasting Co. See ABC

American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) Organization founded by Roger Baldwin and others in New York City in 1920 to champion consti¬ tutional liberties in the U.S. It works for three basic concepts: freedom of expression, conscience, and association; due process of law; and equal protection under the law. From its founding it has initiated test cases and intervened in cases already in the courts. It may provide legal counsel, or it may file an amicus curiae brief. The Scopes trial was one of its test cases; it provided counsel for the Sacco-Vanzetti case. In the 1950s and ’60s it opposed the blacklisting of supposed left-wing subversives and worked to guarantee freedom of worship and the rights of the accused. Its work is performed by volunteers and full-time staff, including lawyers who provide free legal counsel. See also civil liberty.

American Civil War or Civil War or War Between the States

(1861-65) Conflict between the U.S. federal government and 11 South¬ ern states that fought to secede from the Union. It arose out of disputes over the issues of slavery, trade and tariffs, and the doctrine of states’ rights. In the 1840s and ’50s, Northern opposition to slavery in the West¬ ern territories caused the Southern states to fear that existing slavehold- ings, which formed the economic base of the South, were also in danger. By the 1850s abolitionism was growing in the North, and when the anti¬ slavery Republican candidate Abraham Lincoln was elected president in 1860, the Southern states seceded to protect what they saw as their right to keep slaves. They were organized as the Confederate States of America under Jefferson Davis. The Northern states of the federal Union, under Lincoln, commanded more than twice the population of the Confederacy and held greater advantages in manufacturing and transportation capac¬ ity. The war began in Charleston, S.C., when Confederate artillery fired on Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861. Both sides quickly raised armies. In July 1861, 30,000 Union troops marched toward the Confederate capital at Richmond, Va., but were stopped by Confederate forces in the Battle of Bull Run and forced to retreat to Washington, D.C. The defeat shocked the Union, which called for 500,000 more recruits. The war’s first major campaign began in February 1862, when Union troops under Ulysses S. Grant captured Confederate forts in western Tennessee. Union victories at the battles of Shiloh and New Orleans followed. In the East, Robert E. Lee won several Confederate victories in the Seven Days' Battles and, after defeat at the Battle of Antietam, in the Battle of Fredericksburg (December 1862). After the Confederate victory at the Battle of Chancellorsville, Lee invaded the North and engaged Union forces under George Meade at the momentous Battle of Gettysburg. The war’s turning point in the West occurred in July 1863 with Grant’s success in the Vicksburg Campaign, which brought the entire Mississippi River under Union control. Grant’s command was expanded after the Union defeat at the Battle of Chicka-

mauga, and in March 1864 Lincoln gave him supreme command of the Union armies. He began a strategy of attrition and, despite heavy Union casualties at the battles of the Wilderness and Spotsylvania, began to sur¬ round Lee’s troops in Petersburg, Va. (see Petersburg Campaign). Mean¬ while William T. Sherman captured Atlanta in September (see Atlanta Campaign), set out on a destructive march through Georgia, and soon cap¬ tured Savannah. Grant captured Richmond on April 3, 1865, and accepted Lee’s surrender on April 9 at Appomattox Court House. On April 26 Sher¬ man received the surrender of Joseph Johnston, thereby ending the war. The mortality rates of the war were staggering—there were about 620,000 deaths out of a total of 2.4 million soldiers. The South was devastated. But the Union was preserved, and slavery was abolished.

American Express Co, U.S. credit card and travel services company. Founded in 1850 as an express-transportation company, American Express originally provided rapid transport of goods across New York and the Midwest. The company introduced traveler’s checks in 1891 and opened its first European office in Paris in 1895. Its contemporary busi¬ nesses include credit cards and payment-processing systems, international banking, and services for travelers (including trip planning, tour packages, and business travel management).

American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial Organizations See AFL-CIO

American Fur Co. Enterprise formed by John Jacob Astor in 1808 that dominated the U.S. fur trade early in the 19th century. The company, con¬ sidered the first U.S. business monopoly, absorbed or drove out rivals throughout the central and western U.S. Exploration by its trappers and traders helped open the frontier to settlement. By 1834, when Astor sold his company, it had become the largest commercial organization in the U.S.

American Indian or Native American or Amerindian Any

member of the various aboriginal peoples of the Western Hemisphere, with the exception of the Eskimos (Inuit) and the Aleuts. Though the term Native American is today often preferred over American Indian, particu¬ larly in the U.S., many Native American peoples continue to prefer Ameri¬ can Indian (or Indian). In Canada the name First Nation is preferred. The ancestors of the American Indians were nomadic hunters of northeast Asia who migrated over the Bering Strait land bridge into North America prob¬ ably during the last glacial period (20,000-30,000 years ago). By c. 10,000 bc they had occupied much of North, Central, and South America. See also Anasazi culture; Andean civilization; Clovis complex; Eastern Woodlands Indian; Folsom complex; Hohokam culture; Hopewell culture; Mesoamerican civilization; Mississippian culture; Mogollon culture; North¬ west Coast Indian; Plains Indian; Pueblo Indian; Southeastern Indian; South¬ west Indian; Woodland culture.

American Indian languages Languages spoken by the original inhabitants of the Americas and the West Indies and by their modem descendants. They display an extraordinary structural range, and no attempt to unite them into a small number of genetic groupings has won general acceptance. Before the arrival of Columbus, more than 300 dis¬ tinct languages were spoken in North America north of Mexico by an estimated population of two to seven million. Today fewer than 170 lan¬ guages are spoken, of which the great majority are spoken fluently only by older adults. A few widespread language families (Algonquian, Iro- quoian, Siouan, Muskogean, Athabaskan, Uto-Aztecan, Salishan) account for many of the languages of eastern and interior North America, though the far west was an area of extreme diversity (see Hokan; Penutian). It is estimated that in Mexico and northern Central America (Mesoamerica), an estimated 15-20 million people spoke more than 300 languages before Columbus. The large Otomanguean and Maya families and a single lan¬ guage, Nahuatl, shared Mesoamerica with many smaller families and lan¬ guage isolates. More than 10 of these languages and language complexes still have more than 100,000 speakers. South America and the West Indies had an estimated pre-Columbian population of 10-20 million, speaking more than 500 languages. Important language families include Chibchan in Colombia and southern Central America, Quechuan and Aymaran in the Andean region, and Arawakan, Cariban, and Tupian in northern and central lowland South America. Aside from Quechuan and Aymaran, with about 10 million speakers, and the Tupian language Guarani, most remain¬ ing South American Indian languages have very few speakers, and some face certain extinction.

American Indian Movement (AIM) Civil rights organization founded in 1968, originally to help urban American Indians displaced by

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

American Indian religions ► American Revolution I 59

government programs. It later broadened its efforts to include demands for economic independence, autonomy over tribal areas, restoration of illegally seized lands, and protection of Indian legal rights and traditional culture. Some of its protest activities involved violence and were highly publicized (see Wounded Knee). Internal strife and the imprisonment of some leaders led to the disbanding of its national leadership in 1978, though local groups have continued to function.

American Indian religions. North Religious beliefs and practices of the indigenous peoples of North America. They are characterized by a conviction that spirit moves through all things, animate and inanimate, and that the living are intimately connected with the souls of the dead. They discover recognizable beings in the natural world of animals, plants, and trees, as well as in natural features such as mountains, lakes, and clouds. Because North American religions were so highly localized, it is impossible to determine how many have existed, and their beliefs have varied widely. Whereas Iroquois elders speak of a perfectly wise and good Creator who planned the universe, the Koyukon envision the creator as Raven, a trickster god who is only one of many powerful spirits. Whereas nearly all Navajo ceremonies are performed on behalf of individuals in response to specific needs, most Pueblo ceremonies are performed com¬ munally and scheduled according to the cycles of nature. However, all native North American religions share certain features: ancestral lands and locally sacred spots are important; access to some knowledge is restricted, and initiation is required to acquire it; kinship obligations are central; the oral tradition includes narratives that record human interaction with non¬ human powers; and generosity is a religious act. Contact with Europeans led to development of new religious movements, including the Ghost Dance tradition and the Native American Church. See also Mesoamerican religions.

American Indian religions. South Religious beliefs and practices of the indigenous peoples of South America. The ancient Andean civiliza¬ tions of the Chimu and the Inca had highly developed religions. The Inca religion combined complex ceremonies, animistic beliefs, belief in objects having magical powers, nature worship, and sun worship. The Incas built monumental temples, occupied by priests and Chosen Women. Priests conducted divination, and sacrifices were offered on every important occa¬ sion. Human sacrifice was offered when the need was extreme. In present- day South America, as many as 1,500 distinct native cultures have been described, and religious beliefs vary greatly. Creation mythologies are of major importance, often describing the origin of the first world and its fate as well as the creation and destruction of subsequent worlds. Cer¬ emonial initiation into adulthood is widely practiced, both for males and females, with the initiation ceremony often acting out events from the dawn of creation. Initiations are also used to mark the ascent of individu¬ als into positions of religious authority, with priests, diviners, and spirit mediums playing special roles. The shaman specializes in inducing states of ecstasy, controlling the passage of the soul out of and back into the body. Ritual fires, musical instruments (especially the rattle), esoteric lan¬ guages, and sacred songs may be used in a theatrical performance designed to demonstrate the shaman’s command of invisible powers. Christianity has come to be a strong component of folk belief among many native peoples, but it continues to be interpreted in the light of local tra¬ dition, and elements of traditional religion continue to survive. See also Mesoamerican religions.

American Labor Party Minor political party organized in New York state in 1936. It was founded by the labour leaders Sidney Hillman and David Dubinsky and by liberal Democrats and old-line socialists. The party supported Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal programs and backed candi¬ dates who endorsed liberal social legislation. Though influential in New York City elections, after 1940 it was plagued by divisions between pro- and anti-communist factions. It was dissolved in 1956.

American League (AL) One of the two associations of professional baseball teams in the U.S. and Canada designated as major leagues; the other is the National League (NL). The AL was founded in 1900, and, beginning in 1903, the champions of the AL and NL have engaged in an annual World Series competition. There are now three divisions in the AL: Eastern (comprising the Baltimore Orioles, Boston Red Sox, New York Yankees, Tampa Bay Devil Rays, and Toronto Blue Jays), Central (Chi¬ cago White Sox, Cleveland Indians, Detroit Tigers, Kansas City Royals, and Minnesota Twins), and Western (Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, Oakland Athletics, Seattle Mariners, and Texas Rangers).

American Legion Organization of U.S. war veterans. Founded in 1919, it works for the care of disabled and sick veterans and promotes compensation and pensions for the disabled, widows, and orphans. Non¬ political and nonsectarian, its membership requirement is honourable ser¬ vice and an honourable discharge. It was instrumental in establishing veterans’ hospitals, and it sponsored the creation of the U.S. Veterans Administration in 1930. In 1944 it played an important role in the pas¬ sage of the Gl Bill. The American Legion claims about three million mem¬ bers in some 15,000 local posts, or groups.

American Medical Association (AMA) Organization of U.S. phy¬ sicians. It was founded in 1847 “to promote the science and art of medi¬ cine and the betterment of public health.” It has about 250,000 members, about half of all practicing U.S. physicians. It disseminates information to its members and the public, operates as a lobbying group, and helps set medical education standards. Its publications include Journal of the American Medical Association, American Medical News, and journals on medical specialties.

American Motors Corp. (AMC) Former U.S. automobile manufac¬ turer. AMC was formed in 1954 from the merger of two pioneering auto manufacturers, Nash-Kelvinator Corp. (successor to Nash Motor Co., founded 1916) and Hudson Motor Car Co. (founded 1909). AMC pro¬ duced AMC compact cars, AM General trucks and buses, and, until 1968, Kelvinator appliances. Jeeps joined the product line after AMC purchased the Kaiser-Jeep Corp. (dating to 1903) in 1970. AMC became a subsid¬ iary of Chrysler Corp. in 1987, which in turn merged with Daimler-Benz in 1998 to form DaimlerChrysler AG.

American Museum of Natural History Major centre of research and education on the natural sciences, established in New York City in 1869. It pioneered in staging field expeditions and creating dioramas and other lifelike exhibits showing natural habitats and their plant and animal life. Its research collections contain tens of millions of specimens, and its fossil and insect collections are among the largest in the world. It con¬ ducts research in anthropology, astronomy, entomology, herpetology, ich¬ thyology, invertebrate biology, mammalogy, mineralogy, ornithology, and vertebrate paleontology, and it maintains permanent research stations in The Bahamas and the U.S. states of New York, Florida, and Arizona. It also contains one of the world’s largest planetariums.

American Parly See Know-Nothing Party

American Protective Association (APA) Secret anti-Catholic, anti-immigrant society formed in Iowa in 1887. Its membership, consist¬ ing mainly of farmers who feared the growth and political power of immigrant-populated cities, rose to more than two million in the 1890s. Membership dwindled after the election of 1896 and the return of agri¬ cultural prosperity in the Midwest. By 1911 the society had disappeared.

American Renaissance or New England Renaissance Period from the 1830s roughly until the end of the American Civil War in which U.S. literature came of age as an expression of a national spirit. The lit¬ erary scene was dominated by New England Brahmin writers, notably Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Oliver Wendell Holmes, and James Russell Lowell. Also influential were the Transcendentalists (see Transcendental¬ ism), including Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau, as well as the great imaginative writers Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, Walt Whitman, and Edgar Allan Poe.

American Revolution or United States War of Indepen¬ dence (1775 -83) War that won political independence for 13 of Brit¬ ain’s North American colonies, which formed the United States of America. After the end of the costly French and Indian War (1763), Brit¬ ain imposed new taxes (see Stamp Act; Sugar Act) and trade restrictions on the colonies, fueling growing resentment and strengthening the colo¬ nists’ objection to their lack of representation in the British Parliament. Determined to achieve independence, the colonies formed the Continen¬ tal Army, composed chiefly of minutemen, to challenge Britain’s large, organized militia. The war began when Britain sent a force to destroy rebel military stores at Concord, Mass. After fighting broke out on April 19, 1775 (see Battles of Lexington and Concord), rebel forces began a siege of Boston that ended when American forces under Henry Knox forced out the British troops under William Howe on March 17, 1776 (see Battle of Bunker Hill). Britain’s offer of pardon in exchange for surrender was refused by the Americans, who declared themselves independent on July 4, 1776 (see Declaration of Independence). British forces retaliated by driv-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

60 I American Saddlebred ► Amhara

ing the army of George Washington from New York to New Jersey. On December 25, Washington crossed the Delaware River and won the battles of Trenton and Princeton. The British army split to cover more territory, a fatal error. In engaging the Americans in Pennsylvania, notably in the Battle of the Brandywine, they left the troops in the north vulnerable. Despite a victory in the Battle of Ticonderoga, British troops under John Burgoyne were defeated by Horatio Gates and Benedict Arnold in the Battle of Saratoga (Oct. 17, 1777). Washington quartered his 11,000 troops through a bleak winter at Valley Forge, where they received training from Frederick Steuben that gave them victory in Monmouth, N.J., on June 28, 1778. British forces in the north thenceforth chiefly concentrated near New York. France, which had been secretly furnishing aid to the Ameri¬ cans since 1776, finally declared war on Britain in June 1778. French troops assisted American troops in the south, culminating in the success¬ ful Siege of Yorktown, where Charles Cornwallis surrendered his forces on Oct. 19, 1781, bringing an end to the war on land. War continued at sea, fought chiefly between Britain and the U.S.’s European allies. The navies of Spain and the Netherlands contained most of Britain’s navy near Europe and away from the fighting in America. The last battle of the war was won by the American navy under John Barry in March 1783 in the Straits of Florida. With the Treaty of Paris (Sept. 3, 1783), Britain rec¬ ognized the independence of the U.S. east of the Mississippi River and ceded Florida to Spain.

American Saddlebred or American Saddle Horse Breed of light horse that originated in the U.S. The breed was developed by cross¬ ing Thoroughbreds, Morgans, and Standardbreds on native mares having an easy gait. It stands 15-16 hands (5-5.3 ft [1.5-1.6 m]) high, and its colours are bay, brown, black, gray, and chestnut. Two show categories are for three-gaited and five-gaited horses. The three natural gaits are walk, trot, and canter; the five-gaited horse also has two trained gaits, the rack and the slow gait, or running walk. The American Saddlebred is also well known as a fine harness horse for show.

American Samoa officially Territory of American Samoa

Unincorporated U.S. territory (pop., 2000: 57,291), southwest-central Pacific Ocean. It includes the islands of Tutuila (the largest, with over two-thirds of the territory’s land area and almost all of the population), Aunuu, Rose, Swains, and the Manua group. Area: 77 sq mi (199 sq km). Capital: Fagatogo (Pago Pago; on Tutuila). Languages: Samoan, English (both official). Religion: Christianity (mostly Protestant; also Roman Catholic, other Christians). Currency: U.S. dollar. Most of the islands are rocky, formed from extinct volcanoes, and are surrounded by coral reefs. Tutuila and the islands of Manua are dominated by central mountain ranges. Fishing and tourism are major industries, but the U.S. adminis¬ tration is the main employer. The majority of the population is of Samoan ancestry. The islands were probably inhabited by Polynesians 3,000 years ago. Dutch explorers became the first Europeans to visit the islands in 1722. Missionaries began arriving in the islands in the 1830s. The U.S. gained the right to establish a naval station at Pago Pago in 1878, and the U.S., Britain, and Germany administered a tripartite protectorate in 1889— 99. The high chiefs ceded the eastern islands to the U.S. in 1904. Ameri¬ can Samoa was administered by the U.S. Department of the Navy until 1951 and afterward by the Department of the Interior. Its current consti¬ tution was approved in 1967, and in 1978 the territory’s first elected gov¬ ernor took office.

American Stock Exchange (AMEX) Stock exchange in the U.S. Originally known as “the Curb,” it began as an outdoor marketplace in New York City c. 1850. It moved indoors to its present location in the Wall Street area in 1921. Once a marketplace for securities not reputable enough for the New York Stock Exchange, it became equally respectable, with its own listing admissions requirements. In 1998 it merged with the National Association of Securities Dealers (NASD), then-owner of the NASDAQ exchange, to form the Nasdaq-Amex Market Group. After NASD sold its interest in the NASDAQ in 2000, AMEX remained a NASD subsidiary.

American System of manufacture Production of many identical parts and their assembly into finished products. Though Eli Whitney has been credited with this development, the ideas had appeared earlier in Europe and were being practiced in arms factories in the U.S. (see armoury practice). Marc Brunel, while working for the British Admiralty (1802-08), devised a process for producing wooden pulley blocks by sequential machine operations, whereby 10 men (rather than the 110 needed previ¬ ously) could make 160,000 pulley blocks per year. Not until London’s

Crystal Palace exhibition (1851) did British engineers, viewing exhibits of machines used in the U.S. to produce interchangeable parts, begin to apply the system. Within 25 years, the American System was being widely used in making a host of industrial products. See also assembly line; factory.

American Telephone and Telegraph Co. See AT&T

America's Cup Most prestigious trophy in international yachting com¬ petition. First offered under another name in Britain in 1851, the cup was won easily by the America from New York and subsequently became known as the America’s Cup. The America’s Cup race, held about every four years, is between one defending vessel and one challenging vessel; each must be designed and built in the country it represents. The 22.6-mi (36.4-km) racecourse is divided into eight legs. The U.S. completely dominated the competition until 1983, when it was defeated by Austra¬ lia. New Zealand won the Cup in 1995 and retained it in 2000 by defeat¬ ing a challenger from Italy in the first competition without a U.S. participant.

americium V.am-o-'ri-she-omN Synthetic radioactive chemical element, chemical symbol Am, atomic number 95. The fourth transuranium element discovered, it was first produced in 1944 from plutonium-239 in a nuclear reactor. The isotope americium-241 has been prepared in kilogram quan¬ tities and is used in a variety of measuring applications that utilize its gamma radiation. Its most familiar use is in household smoke detectors.

Amerindian See American Indian

Ames, Fisher (b. April 9, 1758, Dedham, Mass.—d. July 4, 1808, Dedham, Mass., U.S.) U.S. essayist and Federalist politician. He gradu¬ ated from Harvard College in 1774 and taught school for five years before turning to the law; he was admitted to the bar in 1781. Supporting the creation of a strong central government, Ames argued for ratification of the new U.S. Constitution at the Massachusetts constitutional convention. He became known for his uncompromising advocacy of the rights of property and his protective attitude toward commercial interests, which he defended in trenchant writing and commanding speech. In 1788 he defeated Samuel Adams for a seat in the first session of the U.S. House of Representatives; he was reelected three times. His eloquent support of the treaty negotiated by John Jay to preserve peace with England (1794) con¬ vinced the House to pass an enabling appropriation.

Ames, Winthrop (b. Nov. 25, 1870, North Easton, Mass., U.S.—d. Nov. 3, 1937, Boston, Mass.) U.S. theatrical producer and manager. Born into a wealthy New England family, he traveled to Europe in 1904 to study the management of 60 opera and theatre companies. After comanaging a Boston theatre, he became managing director of New York City’s New Theatre (1908-11). He founded the Little Theatre and the Booth Theatre, where he produced and directed such successful plays as The Philanderer (1913), Beggar on Horseback (1924), and a series of Gilbert and Sulli¬ van revivals (1926-29). His Snow White (1913) was the first play pro¬ duced in the U.S. especially for children.

amesha spenta \a-'mesh-9-'spen-t9\ In Zoroastrianism, any of the six divine beings (three male, three female) created by Ahura Mazda to help govern creation. They are worshiped separately, and each has a special month, festival, and flower. The most important are Asha Vahishta (“Truth”), who presides over the sacred fire and holds out the path of jus¬ tice and spiritual knowledge, and Vohu Manah (“Good Mind”), who wel¬ comes the blessed into paradise. Khshathra Vairya (“Desirable Dominion”) presides over metal, Spenta Armaiti (“Beneficent Devotion”) over earth, and Haurvatat (“Wholeness”) and Ameretat (“Immortality”) over water and plants. In later Zoroastrianism, each is opposed by a spe¬ cific archfiend.

amethyst Transparent, coarse-grained variety of quartz that is valued as a semiprecious gem for its violet colour. It contains a little more iron oxide (Fe 2 0 3 ) than any other variety of quartz, and its colour probably arises from this iron content. Heating removes the colour or changes it to the yellow of citrine; most commercial citrine is made in this manner. Notable deposits are found in Brazil, Uruguay, Ontario, and North Caro¬ lina. The birthstone for February, amethyst is usually faceted with step cuts or emerald cuts but also has been used since ancient times for carved intaglios. See photograph on opposite page.

AMEX See American Stock Exchange

Amhara Vam-'ha-raX People of the Ethiopian central highlands. The Amhara number some 18 million and compose almost three-tenths of

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Amharic ► Amis I 61

Ethiopia’s population. Their language is Amharic, a Semitic language of the Afro-Asiatic family, and their religion is Ethiopian Orthodox. The Amhara, who have dominated the history of their country, descend from ancient Semitic conquerors who mingled with indigenous Cushitic peoples. They are agriculturalists and place great value on land owner¬ ship.

Amharic \am-'ha-rik\ language Semitic language of Ethiopia. Amharic is spoken by more than 18 million people as a first language and is used as a ungua franca throughout much of central highland Ethiopia. Its status as a de facto national language is largely due to the long domi¬ nance of the Ethiopian monarchy by Amhara sovereigns. Amharic is writ¬ ten in a modified form of the partly syllabic, partly alphabetic script used to write Ge'ez, the classical language of Christian Ethiopian civilization (see Ethiopic languages). Though manuscripts in Amharic are known from the 14th century, the language has only recently been used as a general medium for literature, journalism, and education.

Amherst, Jeffery Amherst, 1st Baron (b. Jan. 29, 1717, Sev- enoaks, Kent, Eng.—d. Aug. 3, 1797, Sevenoaks) British army com¬ mander. In the French and Indian War, he took the French fort at Louisbourg, Cape Breton Island, in 1758 and was promoted to chief of command in America. In 1760 he directed the campaign that captured Quebec and Montreal, and in 1761 he quelled the Indian uprising under Pontiac. Having secured Canada for Britain, he remained there as governor-general until 1763. Returning to England, he served as com¬ mander in chief of the British army (1772-95), but his tenure was marred by failure in the war with the American colonies and by serious abuses in the army. He was created a baron in 1776 and a field marshal in 1796. Several U.S. towns and Amherst College are named for him.

Amherst Vam-orstV College Private liberal arts college in Amherst, Massachusetts, U.S., chartered in 1825. Noah Webster was one of its founders. Consistently ranked as one of the finest colleges in the U.S., it offers a wide range of courses in the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences. Originally a men’s college, it became coeducational in 1975. It participates in an exchange program with nearby Hampshire, Mount Holyoke, and Smith colleges and the University of Massachusetts.

amicus curiae Vo-'me-kos-'kyiir-e-I, o-'ml-kos-'kyur-e-eV (Latin: “friend of the court”) One who assists a court by furnishing information or advice regarding questions of law or fact. A person (or other entity, such as a state government) who is not a party to a particular lawsuit but nevertheless has a strong interest in it may be allowed, by leave of the court, to file an amicus curiae brief, a statement of particular views on the subject matter of the lawsuit. Such briefs are often filed in cases involv¬ ing public-interest matters (e.g., entitlement programs, consumer protec¬ tion, civil rights).

Amida See Amitabha