Britannica Concise 2005

Columbia City (pop., 2000: 116,278), capital of South Carolina, U.S. Located in the centre of the state on the Congaree River, it dates from 1786, when a town was laid out to replace Charleston as the state capi¬ tal. During the American Civil War, it was a transportation centre and the seat of many Confederate agencies; in 1865 it was occupied by Union troops and virtually destroyed by fire. Rebuilt after the war, it developed a diversified economy based on government, industry, and agriculture. Cotton, peaches, and tobacco are important crops in the surrounding area. It is the seat of the University of South Carolina.

Columbia Broadcasting System See CBS

Columbia Pictures Entertainment, Inc. Major U.S. film studio. It originated in 1920 when brothers Jack and Harry Cohn formed a com¬ pany with Joe Brandt to produce short films and low-budget westerns. It became Columbia Pictures in 1924. Harry Cohn, who served as president and head of production from 1932 until his death in 1958, was the driv¬ ing force behind its success. The studio produced the 1930s films of Frank Capra and many other successful films, including All the King’s Men (1949), From Here to Eternity (1953), Lawrence of Arabia (1962), Five Easy Pieces (1970), Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977), and The Last Emperor (1987). After Columbia was purchased by the Coca-Cola Co. in 1982, it helped launch Tri-Star Pictures. The two studios merged in 1987 as Columbia Pictures Entertainment, which was bought by Sony Corp. in 1989.

Columbia River River, southwestern Canada and northwestern U.S. Rising in the Canadian Rockies, it flows through Washington state, enter¬ ing the Pacific Ocean at Astoria, Ore.; it has a total length of 1,240 mi (2,000 km). It was a major transportation artery in the Pacific Northwest until the coming of the railroads. Development of the river began in the 1930s with construction of the Grand Coulee and Bonneville dams, and within 50 years the entire river within the U.S. had been converted into a series of “stair steps” by a total of 11 dams. Its many hydroelectric power plants are basic to the power-generating network of the Pacific Northwest.

Columbia University Private university in New York City, a tradi¬ tional member of the Ivy League. Founded in 1754 as King’s College, it was renamed Columbia College when it reopened in 1784 after the Ameri¬ can Revolution. It became Columbia University in 1912. Its liberal arts college began admitting women in 1983. Neighbouring Barnard College, founded in 1889 and part of the university since 1900, remains a wom¬ en’s liberal arts school; most courses are open to students of both col¬ leges. From the outset Columbia differed from other private Eastern universities in its emphasis on such subjects as nature study, commerce, history, and government. It has strong graduate programs in the arts and sciences and several notable research institutes. Among its professional schools are those of architecture, business, education (Teachers College, Columbia University), engineering, international and public affairs, jour¬ nalism, law, medicine (including affiliations with Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center and NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital), nursing, public health, and social work.

columbine Any of approximately 70 species of perennial herbaceous plants constituting the genus Aquilegia, in the buttercup family, native to Europe and North America. They are distinctive for their five-petaled flowers with long, backward-extending spurs. Sepals and petals are brightly coloured. A. caerulea and A. chysantha are native to the Rocky Mountains. The wild columbine of North America (A. canadensis ), bear¬ ing red flowers with touches of yellow, grows in woods and on rocky ledges from southern Canada southward. Many garden hybrids are cul¬ tivated for their showy flowers.

Columbus, Christopher Italian Cristoforo Colombo Spanish Cristobal Colon (b. between Aug. 26 and Oct. 317, 1451, Genoa—d. May 20, 1506, Valladolid, Spain) Genoese navigator and explorer whose transatlantic voyages opened the way for European exploration, exploi¬ tation, and colonization of the Americas. He began his career as a young seaman in the Portuguese merchant marine. In 1492 he obtained the spon¬ sorship of the Spanish monarchs Ferdinand II and Isabella I for an attempt to reach Asia by sailing westward over what was presumed to be open

sea. On his first voyage he set sail in August 1492 with three ships—the Santa Maria, the Nina, and the Pinta —and land was sighted in the Baha¬ mas on October 12. He sailed along the northern coast of Hispaniola and returned to Spain in 1493. He made a second voyage (1493-96) with at least 17 ships and founded La Isabela (in what is now the Dominican Republic), the first European town in the New World. This voyage also began Spain’s effort to promote Christian evangelization. On his third voyage (1498-1500) he reached South America and the Orinoco River delta. Allegations of his poor administration led to his being returned to Spain in chains. On his fourth voyage (1502-04) he returned to South America and sailed along the coasts of present-day Honduras and Panama. He was unable to attain his goals of nobility and great wealth. His char¬ acter and achievements have long been debated, but scholars generally agree that he was an intrepid and brilliant navigator.

Columbus City (pop., 2000: 186,291), western Georgia, U.S. Located on the Chattahoochee River, it was founded in 1828 and by 1840 had become a leading inland cotton port with a thriving textile industry. Dur¬ ing the American Civil War it was a major supply city for the Confederacy and the site of the last battle east of the Mississippi. Now highly indus¬ trialized, Columbus is one of the South’s largest textile centres. It is home to the National Civil War Naval Museum. Fort Benning (established 1918) is nearby.

Columbus City (pop., 2000: 711,470), capital of Ohio, U.S. Located at the junction of the Scioto and Olentangy rivers, the city was planned in 1812 as a political centre and sited opposite the original 1797 settlement of Franklinton; the state government moved to the city in 1816. The arrival of roads, canals, and rail in the mid 19th century led to significant growth, and by 1900 Columbus had emerged as an important transportation and commercial centre. It is Ohio’s largest city, and its economy is supported by industry, governmental agencies, and numerous educational and research institutions, including the Ohio State University.

Columbus Platform In Reform Judaism, a declaration issued by a con¬ ference of U.S. Reform rabbis meeting in Columbus, Ohio, in 1937. It supported the use of traditional ceremonies and Hebrew in the liturgy and reemphasized the idea of the Jewish people, a dramatic revision of the Reform principles stated in the Pittsburgh Platform (1885).

Columcille See St. Columba

column In architecture, a vertical element, usually a slender shaft, that provides structural support by carry¬ ing axial loads in compression; col¬ umns are also subject to buckling.

Columns may be exposed or hidden in walls; constructed of precast con¬ crete, masonry, stone, or wood or of steel wide-flange, pipe, or tubular sections; they may be plain, fluted, or sculpted, with or without a capital and base. Columns may also be non- structural, used for decorative or monumental purposes. See also inter- COLUMNIATION, ORDER.

coma Complete lack of conscious¬ ness, with loss of reaction to stimu¬ lus and of spontaneous nervous activity. It is usually associated with cerebral injury of metabolic or physical origin. Simple concussions cause short losses of consciousness. Coma from lack of oxygen may last sev¬ eral weeks and is often fatal. Coma caused by stroke can be sudden, while that caused by metabolic abnormalities (as in diabetes melutus) or cerebral tumours comes on gradually. Treatment depends on the cause.

Comana \k3-'ma-n9\ Ancient city in Cappadocia, eastern Anatolia. Located on the Seyhan River in the Taurus Mountains, it was the centre of the cult of the mother goddess Ma-Enyo and the site of lavish celebra¬ tions. It was governed by a chief priest, usually a member of the reign¬ ing Cappadocian family, who ranked next to the king. A Roman colony in the 3rd century ad, it lay on the chief military road to the empire’s eastern frontier.

Comanche \k9-'man-che\ Nomadic North American Indian group of southwest Oklahoma, Texas, California, and New Mexico, U.S. The name Comanche is derived from a Ute word meaning “anyone who wants to fight me all the time”; the people call themselves Numunuh (meaning

Doric columns on the Greek temple at Segesta, Sicily, c. 424-416 bc

SCALA/ART RESOURCE, NY

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Comaneci ► comic book i 437

“The People”). Their language is of Uto-Aztecan stock. An offshoot of the Shoshone, they were organized into about 12 autonomous bands, local groups that lacked the lineages, clans, military societies, and tribal gov¬ ernment of most other Plains Indians. They roamed the southern Great Plains in the 18th and 19th century. Their staple food was buffalo meat. Their highly skilled horsemen set the pattern of equestrian nomadism on the Plains. In 1864 Col. Kit Carson led U.S. forces in an unsuccessful campaign against them. Treaties were signed in 1865 and 1867, but the federal government failed to keep whites off the land promised to them, which led to violent conflicts. In later years Comanche Code-Talkers, like other Native American Code-Talkers, played a notable role during both world wars. Some 10,000 people claimed sole Comanche descent in the 2000 U.S. census.

Comaneci \,ko-m9- , ne-che\ / Nadia (b. Nov. 12, 1961, Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Rom.) Romanian-born gymnast. Comaneci entered her first international competition in 1972 and won three gold medals. In the 1976 Olympic Games, the first in which a perfect score of 10 was ever awarded in an Olympic gymnastic event, she received an astounding seven perfect scores and won the gold medals for the balance beam, uneven parallel bars, and all-around competitions. In the 1980 Olympics she won gold medals for the beam and the floor exercises. She retired from competition in 1984 and defected to the U.S. in 1989.

comb jelly See ctenophore

Combes \ko n b\, (Justin-Louis-) Emile (b. Sept. 6, 1835, Roque- courbe, France—d. May 25, 1921, Pons) French politician. He became mayor of Pons in 1875 and was elected to the Senate in 1885 as a mem¬ ber of the anticlerical Radical Party. As premier (1902-05), he presided over the separation of church and state in the wake of the Alfred Dreyfus affair. He agreed to laws exiling almost all religious orders from France and dismantling major aspects of the church’s public functions, especially in education. Admired by many republicans, he later served as minister without portfolio (1915), despite his advanced age.

combination See permutations and combinations

Combination Acts British acts of 1799 and 1800 that outlawed trade unions. The laws made it illegal for any workingman to combine with another to gain an increase in wages or a decrease in hours, to solicit any¬ one else to leave work, or to object to working with any other workman. They were repealed in 1824 through the efforts of the radical reformer Francis Place (1771-1854).

combinatorics V.kam-bo-no-'tor-iksV Branch of mathematics concerned with the selection, arrangement, and combination of objects chosen from a finite set. The number of possible bridge hands is a simple example; more complex problems include scheduling classes in classrooms at a large university and designing a routing system for telephone signals. No standard algebraic procedures apply to all combinatorial problems; a sepa¬ rate logical analysis may be required for each problem. Combinatorics has its roots in antiquity, but new uses in computer science and systems management have increased its importance in recent years. See also per¬ mutations AND COMBINATIONS.

combine harvester Farm machine used, mainly in developed coun¬ tries, to harvest wheat and often other cereals. The mechanical ancestor of today’s large combines was Cyrus H. McCormick’s reaper, introduced in 1831. Threshing machines were powered first by men or animals, often using treadmills, later by steam engines and internal-combustion engines. The modern combine harvester, originally introduced in California c. 1875, came into wide use in the U.S. in the 1920s and ’30s and in Brit¬ ain in the 1940s. The self-propelled combine was introduced in 1940. The combine cuts the standing grain, threshes out the grain from the straw and chaff, cleans the grain, and empties it into bags or grain-storage facilities. It has greatly reduced harvesting time and labour; whereas in 1829 har¬ vesting an acre of wheat required 14 man-hours, the modem combine requires less than 30 minutes.

combining weight See equivalent weight

Comden, Betty orig. Elizabeth Cohen (b. May 3, 1919, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. musical-comedy writer and lyricist. Comden formed a nightclub act in 1938 with Adolph Green (b. Dec. 2, 1915, Bronx, N.Y.—d. Oct. 23, 2002, New York, N.Y.), Judy Holliday (1922-65), and others. In 1944 Comden and Green wrote the book and lyrics for Leonard Bernstein’s On the Town. They later collaborated with Jule Styne on musi¬

cals such as Peter Pan (1954), Bells Are Ringing (1956), and Hallelujah, Baby! (1967, Tony Award). Their lyrics for Wonderful Town (1953), Applause (1970), and On the 20th Century (1978) won them three more Tony Awards. Their screenplays include Singin’ in the Rain (1952) and Auntie Mame (1958). “Just in Time” and “The Party’s Over” are two of their best-known songs.

Comecon See Council for Mutual Economic Assistance

Comedie-Francaise yko-ma-'de-frau-'sezN National theatre of France. The world’s longest-established national theatre, it was founded in 1680 by the merger of two theatrical companies in Paris, one of them the troupe that had worked under Moliere. The French Revolution divided the com¬ pany’s loyalties, and the revolution’s supporters, led by Francois-Joseph Talma, moved to the theatre’s present home in 1791. The company was reconstituted in 1803. Under its rules of organization, established by Napoleon in 1812, its members share responsibilities and profits. Its illus¬ trious actors have included Sarah Bernhardt and Jean- Louis Barrault. The theatre is known for productions of the French classics, though it also performs contemporary plays.

comedy Genre of dramatic literature that deals with the light and amus¬ ing or with the serious and profound in a light, familiar, or satirical man¬ ner. Comedy can be traced to revels associated with worship in Greece in the 5th century bc. Aristophanes, Menander, Terence, and Plautus produced comedies in classical literature. It reappeared in the late Middle Ages, when the term was used to mean simply a story with a happy ending (e.g., Dante’s Divine Comedy ), the same meaning it has in novels of the last three centuries (e.g., the fiction of Jane Austen). Compare tragedy.

comedy of manners Witty, ironic form of drama that satirizes the manners and fashions of a particular social class or set. Comedies of man¬ ners were usually written by sophisticated authors for members of their own social class, and they typically are concerned with social usage and the ability or inability of certain characters to meet social standards, which are often exacting but morally trivial. The plot, usually concerning an illicit love affair or other scandalous matter, is subordinate to the play’s brittle atmosphere, witty dialogue, and pungent commentary on human foibles. Its notable exponents include William Congreve, Oliver Goldsmith, Richard Brinsley Sheridan, Oscar Wilde, and Noel Coward.

Comenius \k3-'me-ne-3s\, John Amos Czech Jan Amos Komen-

sky (b. March 28, 1592, Nivnice, Moravia—d. Nov. 15, 1670, Amster¬ dam, Neth.) Czech educational reformer and religious leader. He favoured the learning of Latin to facilitate the study of European culture but empha¬ sized learning about things rather than about grammar per se. His Janua Linguarum Reserata (1631), a textbook that described useful facts about the world in both Latin and Czech, revolutionized Latin teaching and was translated into 16 languages. He also produced one of the first illustrated schoolbooks, Orbis Sensualium Pictus (1658).

comet Any of a class of small icy objects orbiting the Sun and devel¬ oping diffuse gaseous envelopes and often long glowing tails when near the Sun. They are distinguished from other objects in the solar system by their composition, hazy appearance, and elongated orbits. Most comets originate in the Oort cloud or in the Kuiper belt. Other bodies’ gravity can alter their orbits, causing them to pass close to the Sun. Short-period comets return in 200 years or less, others in thousands of years or not at all. A comet typically consists of a small, irregular nucleus, often described as a “dirty snowball,” with dust and other materials frozen in water mixed with volatile compounds. When one nears the Sun, the heat vaporizes its surface, releasing gases and dust particles, which form a cloud (coma) around the nucleus. Material in the coma may be pushed away from the Sun by its radiation and the solar wind, forming one or more tails. Meteor showers occur when Earth passes through dust left by the passage of a comet.

comfrey Vkom-freV Any herb of the Eurasian genus Symphytum (bor¬ age family). Best known is the medicinal common comfrey (S. officinale), used to treat wounds and as a source of a gum used to treat wool. Tradi¬ tionally it was also taken internally for various complaints. Organic farm¬ ers use it to deter slugs and as a green manure. The coiled sprays of bell¬ like, hanging comfrey blooms are usually pollinated by bees. Common comfrey is about 3 ft (90 cm) tall, with winged, hairy stems and blue, purplish, or yellow flowers.

comic book Bound collection of comic strips, usually in chronological sequence, typically telling a single story or a series of different stories.

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438 i comic strip ► commode

The first true comic books were marketed in 1933 as giveaway advertis¬ ing premiums. By 1935 reprints of newspaper strips and books with origi¬ nal stories were selling in large quantities. During World War II comics dealing with war and crime found many readers among soldiers stationed abroad, and in the 1950s comic books were blamed for juvenile delin¬ quency. Though the industry responded with self-censorship, some adven¬ ture strips continued to be criticized. In the 1960s comic books satirizing the cultural underworld became popular, especially among college stu¬ dents, and comic books have been used to deal with serious subjects (e.g., Art Spiegelman’s Maus books, about the Holocaust). Japanese comic books (manga), with their great variation in content and affect, have achieved wide popularity. Today comic “’zines” represent a thriving sub¬ culture.

comic strip Series of drawings that read as a narrative, arranged together on the page of a newspaper, magazine, or book. In the 1890s several U.S. newspapers featured weekly drawings that were funny, but without indicated speech. In 1897 Rudolph Dirks’s Katzenjammer Kids, in the New York Journal, featured humorous strips containing words pre¬ sumably spoken by the characters. Soon speeches in balloons appeared in other cartoons, arranged in a series to form a strip. The comic strip arrived at its maturity in 1907 with Bud Fisher’s Mutt and Jeff, which appeared daily in the San Francisco Chronicle. Important later comic- strip artists include George Herriman, Al Capp, Walt Kelly, and Charles Schulz. See also comic book.

Cominform in full Communist Information Bureau Agency of international communism founded under Soviet auspices in 1947. Its original members were the Communist Parties of the Soviet Union, Bul¬ garia, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Yugoslavia, France, and Italy, but Yugoslavia was expelled in 1948. The Cominform’s activi¬ ties consisted mainly of publishing propaganda to encourage international communist solidarity. It was dissolved by Soviet initiative in 1956 as part of a Soviet program of reconciliation with Yugoslavia.

Comintern or Communist International or Third Interna¬ tional Association of national communist parties founded in 1919. Vladimir Ilich Lenin called the first congress of the Comintern to undermine efforts to revive the Second International. To join, parties were required to model their structure in conformity with the Soviet pattern and to expel moderate socialists and pacifists. Though the Comintern’s stated purpose was the promotion of world revolution, it functioned chiefly as an organ of Soviet control over the international communist movement. In 1943, during World War II, Joseph Stalin dissolved the Comintern to allay fears of communist subversion among his allies.

Comitia Centuriata Nko-'mish-o-.sen-.tur-e-'a-toV Ancient Roman military assembly, instituted c. 450 bc. It decided on war and peace, passed laws, elected consuls, praetors, and censors, and considered appeals of capital convictions. Unlike the older patrician Comitia Curiata, it included plebeians as well as patricians, assigned to classes and centuriae (centuries, or groups of 100) by wealth and the equipment they could provide for military duty. Voting started with the wealthier centuries, whose votes outweighed those of the poorer.

command economy Economic system in which the means of produc¬ tion are publicly owned and economic activity is controlled by a central authority. Central planners determine the assortment of goods to be pro¬ duced, allocate raw materials, fix quotas for each enterprise, and set prices. Most communist countries have had command economies; capitalist countries may also adopt such a system during national emergencies (e.g., wartime) in order to mobilize resources quickly. See also capitalism; com¬ munism.

commando In British military forces, a unit consisting of marines and soldiers organized for rapid deployment and trained to conduct special operations. The commando originated with the Boers in South Africa, where it was the administrative and tactical unit “commandeered” by law. In World War II the British adopted the term for a new specially trained amphibious raiding force. Modern commandos are units of the Royal Marines with support troops from the British Army; by extension a mem¬ ber of such a unit is also called a commando and is entitled to wear a green beret.

commedia dell'arte \k6m-'mad-ya-del-Tar-ta\ Italian theatrical form that flourished throughout Europe in the 16th—18th centuries. The char¬ acters, many portrayed by actors wearing masks—including the witty

gentleman’s valet Harlequin, the Venetian merchant Pantelone, the hon¬ est and simpleminded servant Pierrot, the maidservant Columbina, the unscrupulous servant Scaramouche, and the braggart captain or Capitano—were derived from the exaggeration or parody of regional or stock fictional types. The style emphasized improvisation within a frame¬ work of conventionalized masks and stock situations. It was acted by pro¬ fessional companies using vernacular dialects and plenty of comic action; the first known commedia dell’arte troupe was formed in 1545. Outside Italy it had its greatest success in France as the Comedie-Italienne; in England, it was adapted in the harlequinade and the Punch-and-Judy show (see Punch). See also Andreini family.

commerce clause In the Constitution of the United States (Article I, section 8), the clause that authorizes Congress “To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with Indian Tribes.” It is the legal foundation of much of the U.S. government’s regu¬ latory authority. See also interstate commerce.

commercial bank Bank that makes loans to businesses, consumers, and nonbusiness institutions. Early commercial banks were limited to accepting deposits of money or valuables for safekeeping and verifying coinage or exchanging one jurisdiction’s coins for another’s. By the 17th century most of the essentials of modern banking, including foreign exchange, the payment of interest, and the granting of loans, were in place. It became common for individuals and firms to exchange funds through bankers with a written draft, the precursor to the modern check. Because a commercial bank is required to hold only a fraction of its deposits as cash reserves, it can use some of the money deposited by its customers to extend loans. Commercial banks also offer a range of other services, including savings accounts, safe-deposit boxes, and trust services. See also bank; central bank; investment bank; savings bank.

commercial law See business law

Commercial Revolution Great increase in commerce in Europe that began in the late Middle Ages. It received stimulus from the voyages of exploration undertaken by England, Spain, and other nations to Africa, Asia, and the New World. Among the features associated with it were a surge in overseas trade, the appearance of the chartered company, accep¬ tance of the principles of mercantilism, the creation of a money economy, increased economic specialization, and the establishment of such new institutions as the state bank, the bourse, and the futures market. The Commercial Revolution helped set the stage for the Industrial Revolution.

Committee for the Defense of Legitimate Rights Arabic Lajnat al-Difa' ‘an al-Huquq al-Shar'iyyah Sunnite Muslim group opposed to the ruling Saud dynasty in Saudi Arabia. The group was founded in 1992 and consists largely of academics and lower-level Mus¬ lim clergy. It considers itself a pressure group for peaceful reform and for improving human rights in Saudi Arabia but also agitates against what it perceives as the political corruption of the Saudi government and ruling family. Its leader is a former physics professor, Muhammad ibn al-Masa c arI. In 1994, after experiencing government repression, the group moved its headquarters to London. Despite its claim to advocate peace¬ ful change, the group has been accused of aiding Islamic militants seek¬ ing to overthrow the Saudi government.

Committee of Public Safety Political body of the French Revolution that controlled France during the Reign of Terror. It was set up in April 1793 to defend France against its enemies, foreign and domestic. At first it was dominated by Georges Danton and his followers, but they were soon replaced by the radical Jacobins, including Maximilien Robespierre. Harsh measures were taken against alleged enemies of the Revolution, the economy was placed on a wartime basis, and mass conscription was undertaken. Dissension within the committee contributed to the downfall of Robespierre in July 1794, after which it declined in importance.

Committees of Correspondence Groups appointed by the legis¬ latures of all 13 American colonies to provide a means of intercolonial communication. The first standing group was formed by Samuel Adams in Boston (1772), and within three months 80 others were formed in Mas¬ sachusetts. In 1773 Virginia organized a committee with 11 members, including Thomas Jefferson and Patrick Henry. The committees were instru¬ mental in promoting colonial unity and in summoning the First Conti¬ nental Congress in 1774.

commode Piece of furniture resembling the English chest of drawers, used in France from the late 17th century. Most had marble tops, and some

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commodity exchange ► commune I 439

were fitted with pairs of doors. Andre-Charles Boulle was among the first to make commodes, which were heavy in form and elaborately decorated in marquetry veneers and ormolu. In the Louis XV period (1715-74), extravagant curves and flamboyant surface ornament became fashionable. The 19th-century commode lost its decorative features and became purely functional.

commodity exchange Organized market for the purchase and sale of enforceable contracts to deliver a commodity (such as wheat, gold, or cotton) or a financial instrument (such as U.S. treasury bills) at some future date. Such contracts are known as futures and are bought and sold in a competitive auction process on commodity exchanges (also called futures markets). The largest futures and futures-options exchange is the Chicago Board of Trade.

Commodus in full Caesar Marcus Aurelius Commodus Antoninus Augustus orig.

Lucius Aelius Aurelius Com¬ modus (b. Aug. 31, 161, Lanu- vium, Latium—d. Dec. 31, 192)

Roman emperor (ad 177-92). He ruled with his father, Marcus Aure¬ lius, until the latter’s death in 180; recalled from the frontier, Commo¬ dus plunged into a life of dissipation in Rome. After his sister tried to have him killed (182), he executed the senators involved and began ruling capriciously. His brutality stirred unrest that ended years of Roman stability and prosperity. He renamed Rome Colonia Commodiana (“Colony of Commodus”). Physi¬ cally impressive, he claimed he was Hercules and performed as a gladia¬ tor. His mistress and advisers had him strangled, ending the Antonine dynasty.

common cold See common cold

common fox See red fox common gallinule See moorhen

common law Body of law based on custom and general principles and that, embodied in case law, serves as precedent or is applied to situations not covered by statute. Under the common-law system, when a court decides and reports its decision concerning a particular case, the case becomes part of the body of law and can be used in later cases involving similar matters. This use of precedents is known as stare decisis. Common law has been administered in the courts of England since the Middle Ages; it is also found in the U.S. and in most of the British Commonwealth. It is distinguished from civil law.

common-law marriage Marriage that is without a civil or religious ceremony and is based on the parties’ agreement to consider themselves married and usually also on their cohabitation for a period of time. Most jurisdictions no longer allow this type of marriage to be formed, though they may recognize such marriages formed before a certain date or formed in a jurisdiction that permits such marriages.

common-lead dating See uranium-thorium-lead dating Common Market See European Economic Community

Common Pleas, Court of English court of law founded in 1178 to hear civil disputes. Under the Magna Carta (1215), it attained jurisdic¬ tion separate from the King’s (Queen’s) Court, though its decisions were subject to review by the latter. Beginning in the 15th century, it competed with the King’s (Queen’s) Court and the Court of Exchequer for common- law business. By the 19th century, the complexity of overlapping juris¬ dictional rules had become unbearable, and all three courts were replaced (under the Judicature Act of 1873) by the Supreme Court of Judicature, which remains the court of general jurisdiction in England and Wales.

Common Prayer, Book of See Book of Common Prayer

common rorqual See fin whale

Commoner, Barry (b. May 28, 1917, Brooklyn, N.Y.) U.S. biologist and educator. He studied at Harvard University and taught at Washington University and Queens College. His warnings, since the 1950s, of the environmental threats posed by modern technology (including nuclear weapons, use of pesticides and other toxic chemicals, and ineffective waste management) in such works as his classic Science and Survival (1966) made him one of the foremost environmentalist spokesmen of his time. He was a third-party candidate for U.S. president in 1980.

Commons, House of Popularly elected lower house of the bicameral British Parliament. Passage of legislation is its primary function. Because it alone has the power to levy taxes and allocate expenditures, it is Brit¬ ain’s chief legislative authority. It originated in the late 13th century, when landholders and other property owners began sending representatives to Parliament to present grievances and petitions to the king and to accept commitments to the payment of taxes. It was the less powerful house until 1911, when the Reform Bill of that year gave it the power to override the House of Lords. The party with the greatest representation in the Com¬ mons forms the government, and the prime minister chooses the cabinet from the party’s members. There are 646 members, elected from single¬ member districts. See also Canadian Parliament; parliamentary democracy.

Commons, John R(ogers) (b. Oct. 13, 1862, Hollandsburg, Ohio, U.S.—d. May 11, 1945, Fort Lauderdale, Fla.) U.S. economist. He taught at the University of Wisconsin (1904-32) and published works such as A Documentary History of American Industrial Society (10 vol., 1910-11) and A History of Labor in the United States (4 vol., 1918-35), in which he linked the evolution of the U.S. labour movement to changes in the market structure. He drafted reform legislation for Wisconsin and worked for the federal government in areas including civil service and worker’s compensation.

commonwealth Body politic founded on law for the common “weal,” or good. The term was often used by 17th-century writers to signify an organized political community, its meaning thus being similar to the mod¬ em meaning of state or nation. Today it primarily refers to the Common¬ wealth. Four U.S. states (Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia) call themselves commonwealths, a distinction in name only. Puerto Rico has been a commonwealth rather than a state since 1952; its residents, though U.S. citizens, have only a nonvoting representative in Congress and pay no federal taxes.

Commonwealth or Commonwealth of Nations Free associa¬ tion of sovereign states consisting of Britain and many of its former dependencies who have chosen to maintain ties of friendship and coop¬ eration. It was established in 1931 by the Statute of Westminster as the British Commonwealth of Nations. Later its name was changed and it was redefined to include independent nations. Most of the dependent states that gained independence after 1947 chose Commonwealth membership. The British monarch serves as its symbolic head, and meetings of the more than 50 Commonwealth heads of government take place every two years. See also British empire.

Commonwealth Games Quadrennial sports competition for coun¬ tries of the British Commonwealth. The inaugural meeting was called the British Empire Games and was held in Hamilton, Ont., Can., in 1930. The Games include athletics (track and field), gymnastics, bowls, and swim¬ ming events for both men and women, and boxing, cycling, shooting, weight lifting, and wrestling for men only. Rowing, badminton, and fencing have also occasionally been included.

Commonwealth of Independent States Free association of sov¬ ereign states formed in 1991, comprising Russia and 11 other republics that were formerly part of the Soviet Union. Members are Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Moldova. Its administra¬ tive center is in Minsk, Belarus. The Commonwealth’s functions are to coordinate its members’ policies regarding their economies, foreign rela¬ tions, defense, immigration policies, environmental protection, and law enforcement.

commune \,kam-,yun, ko-'myunX Group of people living together who hold property in common and live according to a set of principles usu¬ ally arrived at or endorsed by the group. The utopian socialism of Robert Dale Owen and others led to experimental communities of this sort in the early 19th century in Britain and the U.S., including New Harmony, Brook Farm, and the Oneida Community. Many communes are inspired by reli-

Commodus as Hercules, marble bust; in the Capitoline Museum, Rome.

ANDERSON-AUNARI/ART RESOURCE, NEW YORK

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440 I commune ► community property

gious principles; monastic life is essentially communal (see monasticism). B. F. Skinner’s Walden Two (1948) inspired many American attempts at communal living, especially in the late 1960s and early 1970s. See also COLLECTIVE FARM, COMMUNITARIANISM, KIBBUTZ, MOSHAV.

commune Vkam-.yun, ko-'myimX In medieval European history, a town that acquired self-governing municipal institutions. Most such towns were defined by an oath binding the citizens or burghers of the town to mutual protection and assistance. The group became an association able to own property, make agreements, exercise jurisdiction over members, and exer¬ cise governmental powers. Communes were particularly strong in north¬ ern and central Italy, where the lack of a powerful central government allowed them to develop into independent city-states. Those of France and Germany were more often limited to local government.

Commune of Paris See Paris Commune

communication theory or information theory Field of math¬ ematics that studies the problems of signal transmission, reception, and processing. It stems from Claude E. Shannon’s mathematical methods for measuring the degree of order (nonrandomness) in a signal, which drew largely on probability theory and stochastic processes and led to techniques for determining a source’s rate of information production, a channel’s capacity to handle information, and the average amount of information in a given type of message. Crucial to the design of communications sys¬ tems, these techniques have important applications in linguistics, psychol¬ ogy, and even literary theory.

communications satellite Earth-orbiting system capable of receiv¬ ing a signal (e.g., data, voice, TV) and relaying it back to the ground. Communications satellites have been a significant part of domestic and global communications since the 1970s. Typically they move in geosyn¬ chronous orbits about 22,300 mi (35,900 km) above the earth and oper¬ ate at frequencies near 4 gigahertz (GHz) for downlinking and 6 GHz for uplinking.

The satellite's solar panels are arrays of solar cells that provide the electrical energy needed for its functions/ the power being stored in batteries. Its antennas may be 8 ft (2.5 m) in diameter and may transmit wide-area-of-coverage beams or narrowly focused "spot" beams.

© MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

communism Political theory advocating community ownership of all property, the benefits of which are to be shared by all according to the needs of each. The theory was principally the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Their "Communist Manifesto" (1848) further specified a “dictatorship of the proletariat,” a transitional stage Marx called socialism; communism was the final stage in which not only class division but even the organized state—seen by Marx as inevitably an instrument of oppression—would be transcended (see Marxism). That distinction was soon lost, and “communist” began to apply to a specific party rather than a final goal. Vladimir Iuch Lenin maintained that the proletariat needed pro¬ fessional revolutionaries to guide it (see Leninism). Joseph Stalin’s version of communism (see Stalinism) was synonymous to many with totalitari¬ anism. Mao Zedong mobilized peasants rather than an urban proletariat in China’s communist revolution (see Maoism). European communism (see Eurocommunism) lost most of its following with the collapse of the Soviet Union (1991). See also Communist Party, dialectical materiausm, First Inter¬ national, Second International.

Communism Peak See Imeni Ismael Samani Peak

Communist Information Bureau See Cominform

Communist International See Comintern

Communist Manifesto Pamphlet written in 1848 by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels to serve as the platform of the Communist League. It argued that industrialization had exacerbated the divide between the capi¬ talist ruling class and the proletariat, which had become impoverished, and called on the proletariat to overthrow the capitalists, abolish private property, and take over the means of production. It predicted an eventual classless society and the gradual elimination of the need for a state. It ends by stating, “The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. Workingmen of all countries, unite.”

Communist Party Political party organized to facilitate the transition of society from capitalism through socialism to communism. Russia was the first country in which communists came to power (1917). In 1918 the Bolshevik party was renamed the All-Russian Communist Party; the name was taken to distinguish its members from the socialists of the Second International who had supported capitalist governments during World War I. Its basic unit was the workers’ council (soviet), above which were dis¬ trict, city, regional, and republic committees. At the top was the party congress, which met only every few years; the delegates elected the mem¬ bers of the Central Committee, who in turn elected the members of the Politburo and the Secretariat, though those organizations were actually largely self-perpetuating. The Soviet Union dominated communist parties worldwide through World War II. Yugoslavia challenged that hegemony in 1948 and China went its own way in the 1950s and ’60s. Communist parties have survived the demise of the Soviet Union (1991), but with reduced political influence. Cuba’s party remains in control, as does a hereditary communist party in North Korea.

Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) Major political party of Russia and the Soviet Union from the Russian Revolution of 1917 to 1991. It arose from the Bolshevik wing of the Russian Social-Democratic Workers' Party. From 1918 through the 1980s it was a monolithic, monopolistic ruling party that dominated the Soviet Union’s political, economic, social, and cultural life. The constitution and other legal docu¬ ments that supposedly regulated the government were actually subordi¬ nate to the CPSU, which also dominated the Comintern and the Cominform. Mikhail Gorbachev’s efforts to reform the country’s economy and politi¬ cal structure weakened the party, and in 1990 it voted to surrender its constitutionally guaranteed monopoly of power. The Soviet Union’s dis¬ solution in 1991 marked the party’s formal demise.

communitarianism Political and social philosophy that emphasizes the importance of community in the functioning of political life, in the analysis and evaluation of political institutions, and in understanding human identity and well-being. It was developed in the 1980s and ’90s in explicit opposition to the theoretical liberalism of thinkers such as John Rawls. According to communitarians, liberalism relies on a conception of the individual that is unrealistically atomistic and abstract; it also places too much importance on individual values such as freedom and autonomy. Its chief representatives include Amitai Etzioni, Michael Sandel, and Charles Taylor. See also collectivism.

community centre See settlement house

community college See junior college

Community of Christ formerly Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints Faction of the religion founded by Joseph Smith in 1830, whose main body became the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, or Mormon church. The sect, originally known as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, broke away in 1852, rejecting the leadership of Brigham Young in favour of Smith’s son; it also rejected the practice of polygamy and the label Mormon. Its teach¬ ings are based on the Bible, the Book of Mormon, and the Doctrine and Covenants, a book of revelations received by its prophets. In 2001 the church formally changed its name to Community of Christ. In the early 21st century it had about 250,000 members and was headquartered in Independence, Mo.

community property Property held jointly by a husband and wife. In states having a community property system, property acquired by either spouse during the marriage may be deemed to belong to each spouse as an undivided one-half interest. Some property (e.g., gifts to one spouse) may be classified as separate, but in lawsuits over the classification of property the presumption is in favour of the community category. Some jurisdictions extend community property laws to same-sex unions.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

commutative law ► compiler I 441

commutative law Two closely related laws of number operations. In symbols, they are stated: ci + b = b + a and ab = ba. Stated in words: Quantities to be added or multiplied can be combined in any order. More generally, if two procedures give the same result when carried out in arbi¬ trary order, they are commutative. Exceptions occur (e.g., in vector mul¬ tiplication). See also associative law, distributive law.

Commynes \ko-'men\, Philippe de (b. c. 1447, Comines, Flanders—d. Oct. 18, 1511, Argenton-Chateau, Fr.) Statesman and chroni¬ cler. Brought up in the Burgundian court, he was counselor to Charles the Bold (1467-72) and then to Charles’s former enemy Louis XI. He was implicated in the “Mad War” between Anne of Beaujeu, regent of France, and the duke of Orleans (later Louis XII). He was briefly imprisoned but restored to favour in 1489 by Charles VIII and later helped formulate Louis XII’s Italian policy. His Memoires (1524-28) is an eyewitness account of events that reveals much about the era and its political intrigues.

Como, Lake ancient Lacus Larius Lake, Lombardy, northern Italy. It lies at an elevation of 653 ft (199 m) in a depression surrounded by lime¬ stone and granite mountains. It is 29 mi (47 km) long and up to 2.5 mi (4 km) wide, with an area of 56 sq mi (146 sq km) and a maximum depth of 1,358 ft (414 m). Famous for its natural beauty, its shores have many resorts.

Comoros Vka-mo-.rozV officially Union of the Comoros Island country, western Indian Ocean. Area: 719 sq mi (1,862 sq km). Popula¬ tion (2005 est.): 614,000. Capital: Moroni. The people are a mixture of

GRANDE COMORE ISLAND Mbeni

i. Moroni

INDIAN OCEAN

Mount Karthala 7,746 ft.

Foumbouni

mohEli ISLAND

ANJOUAN ISLAND Mutsamudu

Moya*

Niouachoua

Mozambique Channel

£> 2002 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Ir

Malay immigrants, Arab traders, and peoples from Madagascar and continental Africa. Languages: Comorian (a Bantu language), Arabic, French (all official).

Religion: Islam (official; predominantly

Sunni). Currency: Comorian franc. Comoros comprises a group of islands between Madagascar and the eastern African mainland that includes Njazidja (Grande Comore), Mwali (Moheli), and Nzwani (Anjouan) but excludes Mayotte. They are generally rocky, with shallow soils and poor harbours, though Mwali, the smallest, has fertile valleys and forested hill¬ sides. Mount Karthala, an active volcano, is the highest point, at 7,746 ft (2,361 m). The climate is tropical. One of the world’s poorest nations, Comoros has an economy based on subsistence agriculture. It is an Islamic republic with one legislative house. The head of state and government is the president, assisted by vice presidents. Known to European navigators since the 16th century, the dominant influence on the islands was then and for long afterward Arab. In 1843 France officially took possession of Mayotte and in 1886 placed the other three islands under protection. Sub¬

ordinated to Madagascar in 1912, the Comoros became an overseas ter¬ ritory of France in 1947. In 1961 they were granted internal autonomy. In 1974 majorities on three of the islands voted for independence, which was declared in 1975. The following decade saw several coup attempts, culminating in the assassination of the president in 1989. French inter¬ vention permitted multiparty elections in 1990, but the country remained in a state of chronic instability, including secessionist movements on Nzwani and Mwali. In 1999 the army took control of the government and negotiated a constitution that took effect in 2002.

compact disc (CD) Molded plastic disc containing digital data that is scanned by a laser beam for the reproduction of recorded sound or other information. Since its commercial introduction in 1982, the audio CD has become the dominant format for high-fidelity recorded music. Digital audio data can be converted to analog form to reproduce the original audio signal (see digital-to-analog conversion). Coinvented by Philips Electron¬ ics and Sony Corp. in 1980, the compact disc has expanded beyond audio recordings into other storage-and-distribution uses, notably for comput¬ ers (CD-ROM) and entertainment systems (videodisc and DVD). An audio CD can store just over an hour of music. A CD-ROM can contain up to 680 megabytes of computer data. A DVD, the same size as traditional CDs, is able to store up to 17 gigabytes of data, such as high-definition digital video files.

Companions of the Prophet Arabic Sahaba or Ashab Follow¬ ers of Muhammad who had personal contact with him, including any Mus¬ lim contemporary who saw him. As eyewitnesses, they are the most important sources of Hadith. Sunnite Muslims regard the first four caliphs (among the 10 Companions to whom Muhammad promised paradise) as the most important. ShCite Muslims disregard the Companions, whom they consider responsible for the loss of the caliphate by the family of 'All

comparative advantage Economic theory first advanced by Rob¬ ert Torrens and David Ricardo that analyzes international trade in terms of differences in relative opportunity costs. The theory suggests that coun¬ tries should specialize in the goods they can produce most efficiently rather than trying for self-sufficiency and argues strongly in favour of free international trade.

comparative psychology Study of similarities and differences in behavioral organization among living beings. The discipline pays particu¬ lar attention to the psychological nature of humans in comparison with other animals. It began to emerge in the late 19th century and grew rap¬ idly in the 20th century, involving experimental studies on human and animal brain function, learning, and motivation. Well-known studies have included those of Ivan Pavlov on conditioning in laboratory dogs, those of Harry Harlow (1905-81) on the effects of social deprivation in monkeys, and those of various researchers on language abilities in apes.

comparator Vkom-'par-o-torV Instrument for comparing something with a similar thing or with a standard measure, in particular to measure small displacements in mechanical devices. In astronomy, the blink com¬ parator is used to examine photographic plates for signs of moving bod¬ ies. Machinists use comparators or visual gauges to centre or align work in MACHINE TOOLS.

compass In navigation or surveying, the chief device for direction find¬ ing on the Earth’s surface. Compasses may operate on magnetic or gyro¬ scopic (see gyroscope) principles or by determining the direction of the Sun or a star. The oldest and most familiar type is the magnetic compass, used in different forms in aircraft, ships, and land vehicles and by sur¬ veyors. Magnetic compasses work as they do because the Earth itself is a magnet with a north-south field (see geomagnetic field) that causes freely moving magnets to align themselves with the field.

compatibilism Thesis that free will, in the sense required for moral responsibility, is consistent with universal causal determinism. It is impor¬ tant to distinguish the question of the logical consistency of belief in uni¬ versal causal determinism with belief in free will from the question whether the thesis of free will (or that of causal determinism) is true. Compatibilists need not assert (though many have) the reality both of free will and of causal determinism. Among incompatibilists, some maintain the existence of free will and accordingly deny universal causal deter¬ minism, while others uphold universal causal determinism and deny the existence of free will. See also free will problem.

compiler Computer software that translates (compiles) source code written in a high-level language (e.g., C++) into a set of machine-language

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

442 I complement ► Compromise of 1867

instructions that can be understood by a digital computer’s CPU. Compil¬ ers are very large programs, with error-checking and other abilities. Some compilers translate high-level language into an intermediate assembly lan¬ guage, which is then translated (assembled) into machine code by an assembly program or assembler. Other compilers generate machine lan¬ guage directly.

complement In physiology, a complex system of at least 20 proteins (complement components) in normal blood serum. The binding of one component to an antigen-antibody complex begins a chemical chain reac¬ tion important in many immunological processes, including breakdown of foreign and infected cells, ingestion of foreign particles and cell debris, and inflammation of surrounding tissue. Complement components and antibodies are the substances in human serum responsible for killing bac¬ teria.

complementary medicine See alternative medicine

completeness Concept of the adequacy of a formal system that is employed both in proof theory and in model theory (see logic). In proof theory, a formal system is said to be syntactically complete if and only if every closed sentence in the system is such that either it or its negation is provable in the system. In model theory, a formal system is said to be semantically complete if and only if every theorem of the system is prov¬ able in the system.

complex number Any number consisting of both real numbers and imaginary numbers. It has the form a + bi, where a and b are real numbers and i = V—T; a is called the real part and bi the imaginary part. Because a or b can equal 0, any real or imaginary number is also a complex num¬ ber. Invented as an extension of the real numbers so that certain algebraic equations such as x 2 + 1 = 0 would have solutions, the complex numbers form an algebraic field, meaning that they obey the commutative law and the associative law (with respect to addition and multiplication), as well as certain other rules in much the same way real numbers do (see field theory).

complex variable In mathematics, a variable that can take on the value of a complex number. In basic algebra, the variables x and y generally stand for values of real numbers. The algebra of complex numbers (complex analysis) uses the complex variable z to represent a number of the form a + bi. The modulus of z is its absolute value. A complex variable may be graphed as a vector from the origin to the point (a,b) in a rectangular coordinate system, its modulus corresponding to the vector’s length. Called an Argand diagram, this representation establishes a connection between complex analysis and vector analysis. See also Euler's formula.

composite family Family Compositae, one of the largest plant fami¬ lies (also known as Asteraceae, daisy family, and aster family), which con¬ tains more than 1,100 genera and almost 20,000 species of herbaceous plants, shrubs, and trees, found throughout the world. Though diverse in habit and habitat, composites tend to grow in sunlit places in temperate and subtropical regions. The family includes many garden ornamentals, including ageratums, asters, chrysanthemums, cosmos, dahlias, marigolds, and zinnias. Some genera include weeds such as dandelion, ragweed, and thistle. Artemisia, artichoke, endive, safflower, salsify, lettuce, and sunflower are important for the products derived from their flowers, seeds, leaves, roots, or tubers. Flower heads in this family are composed of many small flowers (florets) surrounded by bracts. Bell-shaped disk florets form the centre of each head; strap-shaped ray florets extend out like petals from the centre and are sometimes reflexed (bent back). Some species have flowers with only disk or only ray florets.

composite material Solid material that results when two or more substances are combined (physically, not chemically) to create a new material whose properties are superior in a specific application to those of the original substances. The term specifically refers to a structural matrix (such as plastic) within which a fibrous material (such as silicon carbide) is embedded. Fibreglass-reinforced plastic is the best-known composite. Because of their stiffness, lightness, and heat resistance, com¬ posites are the materials of choice in numerous structural, reinforcing, and high-performance applications.

compost Mass of rotted organic matter made from decomposed plant material. It is used in agriculture and gardening generally to improve soil structure rather than as a fertilizer, because it is low in plant nutrients. When properly prepared, it is free of obnoxious odours. Composts com¬ monly contain about 2% nitrogen, 0.5-1% phosphorus, and about 2%

potassium. Lime and nitrogen fertilizers and manure may be added to speed decomposition. The nitrogen of compost becomes available slowly and in small amounts. Because of their low nutrient content, composts are applied in large amounts.

compound Any substance composed of identical molecules consisting of atoms of two or more elements. Millions are known, each unique, with unique properties. Most common materials are mixtures of compounds. Pure compounds can be obtained by physical separation methods, such as precipitation and distillation. Compounds can be broken down into their constituents to various degrees or changed into new compounds by chemi¬ cal reactions. Atoms always combine into molecules in fixed proportions, distinguishing compounds from solutions and other mechanical mixtures. Compounds are often classified as inorganic and organic compounds; coor¬ dination complexes, which contain metal atoms (usually transition ele¬ ments) bonded to ligands that may be organic, are somewhat in between. Compounds may also be classified by whether they have ionic or cova¬ lent bonds (many include both types).

comprehension Act of or capacity for grasping with the intellect. The term is most often used in connection with tests of reading skills and lan¬ guage abilities, though other abilities (e.g., mathematical reasoning) may also be examined. Specialists in administering and interpreting such tests are known as psychometricians (see psychometrics) or differential psy¬ chologists. See also dyslexia; laterality; psychological testing; speech.

compressed air Air reduced in volume and held under pressure. Force from compressed air is used to operate numerous tools and instruments, including rock drills, train brake systems, riveters, forging presses, paint sprayers, and atomizers. Bellows have been used since the Early Bronze age to provide air for smelting and forging. The 20th century witnessed a large increase in the use of compressed-air devices. The introduction of jet engines for military and passenger aircraft stimulated the use and improvement of centrifugal and axial-flow compressors. Digital-logic pneumatic-control components (developed in the 1960s) can be used in power and control systems (see pneumatic device).

compression ratio Degree to which the fuel mixture in an internal- combustion engine is compressed before ignition. It is defined as the vol¬ ume of the combustion chamber with the piston farthest out divided by the volume with the piston in the full-compression position (see piston and cylinder). A compression ratio of six means that the action of the pis¬ ton compresses the mixture to one-sixth its original volume. A high ratio promotes efficiency but may cause engine knock.

compressor Machine for increasing the pressure of a gas by mechani¬ cally decreasing its volume. Air is the most frequently compressed gas, but natural gas, oxygen, nitrogen, and other industrially important gases are also frequently compressed. There are three general types of compres¬ sors. Positive-displacement compressors are usually of the reciprocating piston type (see piston and cylinder), useful for supplying small amounts of a gas at relatively high pressures. Centrifugal compressors are particu¬ larly suited for compressing large volumes of gas to moderate pressures. Axial compressors are used for jet aircraft engines and gas turbines.

Compromise of T 850 Series of measures passed by the U.S. Con¬ gress to settle slavery issues and avert secession. The crisis arose in late 1849 when the territory of California asked to be admitted to the Union with a constitution prohibiting slavery. The problem was complicated by the unresolved question of slavery’s extension into other areas ceded by Mexico in 1848. In an attempt to satisfy pro- and antislavery forces. Sen. Henry Clay offered a series of measures that admitted California as a free state, left the question of slavery in the new territories to be settled by the local residents, and provided for the enforced return of runaway slaves and the prohibition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia. Sup¬ port from Daniel Webster and Stephen A. Douglas helped ensure passage of the compromise. Moderates throughout the Union accepted the terms, which averted secession for another decade but sowed seeds of discord.

Compromise of 1867 or Ausgleich Vaus-.gllkX Compact that established the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. The kingdom of Hun¬ gary desired equal status with the Austrian empire, which was weakened by its defeat in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. The Austrian emperor Francis Joseph gave Hungary full internal autonomy, together with a responsible ministry, and in return it agreed that the empire should still be a single great state for purposes of war and foreign affairs, thus main¬ taining its dynastic prestige abroad.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Compton effect ► computer graphics I 443

Compton effect Change in wavelength of X rays and other energetic forms of electromagnetic radiation when they collide with electrons. It is a principal way in which radiant energy is absorbed by matter, and is caused by the transfer of energy from photons to electrons. When pho¬ tons collide with electrons that are free or loosely bound in atoms, they transfer some of their energy and momentum to the electrons, which then recoil. New photons of less energy and momentum, and hence longer wavelength, are produced; these scatter at various angles, depending on the amount of energy lost to the recoiling electrons. The effect demon¬ strates the nature of the photon as a true particle with both energy and momentum. Its discovery in 1922 by Arthur Compton was essential to establishing the wave-particle duality of electromagnetic radiation.

Compton, Arthur (Holly) (b. Sept. 10, 1892, Wooster, Ohio, U.S.—-d. March 15, 1962, Berkeley, Calif.) U.S. physicist. He taught at the University of Chicago (1923—45) and later served as chancellor (1945-54) and professor (1953-61) at Washington University. He is best known for his discovery and explanation of the Compton effect, for which he shared with C.T.R. Wilson the 1927 Nobel Prize for Physics. He was later instrumental in initiating the Manhattan Project, and he directed the development of the first nuclear reactors.

Compton-Burnett, Dame Ivy (b. June 5, 1884, Pinner, Middlesex, Eng.—d. Aug. 27, 1969, London) British novelist. She graduated from the University of London and published her first novel, Dolores, in 1911. Her second, Pastors and Masters (1925), introduced the style— employing clipped, precise dialogue to reveal her characters and advance the plot—that made her name. Her novels often dealt with struggles for power: Men and Wives (1931) featured a tyrannical mother, A House and Its Head (1935) a tyrannical father. She was created Dame of the British Empire in 1967.

computational complexity Inherent cost of solving a problem in large-scale scientific computation, measured by the number of operations required as well as the amount of memory used and the order in which it is used. The result of a complexity analysis is an estimate of how rapidly the solution time increases as the problem size increases, which can be used to analyze problems and assist in the design of algorithms for their solution.

computational linguistics (CL) Use of digital computers in unguis- tics research. The simplest examples are the use of computers to scan text and produce such aids as word lists, frequency counts, and concordances. From the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s progress was made by research groups working on machine translation and information retrieval. Theo¬ retical CL deals with formal theories about linguistic knowledge, which today have reached a degree of complexity that can only be managed using powerful computers. Applied CL focuses on practical results of modeling human language use.

computed axial tomography \t3-'mag-r3-fe\ (CAT) or com¬ puted tomography (CT) Diagnostic imaging method using a low-dose beam of X-rays that crosses the body in a single plane at many different angles. Conceived by William Oldendorf and developed independently by Godfrey Hounsfleld (b. 1919) and Allan M. Cormack (b. 1924), who shared a 1979 Nobel Prize for their inventions, this major advance in imaging technology became generally available in the early 1970s. Detec¬ tors record the strength of the exiting X-rays; this information is then pro¬ cessed by computer to produce a detailed two-dimensional cross-sectional image of the body. A series of such images in parallel planes or around an axis can show the location of abnormalities (especially tumours and other masses) more precisely than can conventional X-ray images.

computer Programmable machine that can store, retrieve, and process data. Today’s computers have at least one CPU that performs most cal¬ culations and includes a main memory, a control unit, and an arithmetic logic unit. Increasingly, personal computers contain specialized graphic processors, with dedicated memory, for handling the computations needed to display complex graphics, such as for three-dimensional simulations and games. Auxiliary data storage is usually provided by an internal hard disk and may be supplemented by other media such as floppy disks or CD-ROMs. Peripheral equipment includes input devices (e.g., keyboard, mouse) and output devices (e.g., monitor, printer), as well as the circuitry and cabling that connect all the components. Generations of computers are characterized by their technology. First-generation digital computers, developed mostly in the U.S. after World War II, used vacuum tubes and were enormous. The second generation, introduced c. 1960, used transis¬ tors and were the first successful commercial computers. Third-generation

computers (late 1960s and 1970s) were characterized by miniaturization of components and use of integrated circuits. The microprocessor chip, introduced in 1974, defines fourth-generation computers. See illustration on following page.

computer, analog See analog computer computer, digital See digital computer

computer-aided software engineering See CASE

computer animation also known as computer generated images (CGI) Form of animated graphics that has replaced “stop- motion” animation of scale-model puppets or drawings. Efforts to lessen the labour and costs of animation have led to simplification and comput¬ erization. Computers can be used in every step of sophisticated animation—for example, to automate the movement of the rostrum cam¬ era or to supply the in-between drawings for full animation. When a three-dimensional figure is translated into computer terms (digitized), the computer can generate and display a sequence of images that seem to move or rotate the object through space. Hence computer animation can simulate highly complex motion for medical and other scientific research¬ ers, as well as for feature films.

computer architecture Internal structure of a digital computer, encompassing the design and layout of its instruction set and storage reg¬ isters. The architecture of a computer is chosen with regard to the types of programs that will be run on it (business, scientific, general-purpose, etc.). Its principal components or subsystems, each of which could be said to have an architecture of its own, are input/output, storage, communica¬ tion, control, and processing.

computer art Manipulation of computer-generated images (pictures, designs, scenery, portraits, etc.) as part of a purposeful creative process. Specialized software is used together with interactive devices such as digital cameras, optical scanners, styli, and electronic tablets. Because graphic images require large programs, the computers used in such work are generally among the fastest and most powerful available. Computer art has wide applications in advertising, publishing, and film.

computer-assisted instruction Use of instructional material pre¬ sented by a computer. Since the advent of microcomputers in the 1970s, computer use in schools has become widespread, from primary schools through the university level and in some preschool programs. Instructional computers either present information or fill a tutorial role, testing the stu¬ dent for comprehension. By providing one-on-one interaction and pro¬ ducing immediate responses to input answers, computers allow students to demonstrate mastery and learn new material at their own pace. A dis¬ advantage is that computerized instruction cannot extend the lesson beyond the limits of the programming.

computer chip or chip Integrated circuit or small wafer of semicon¬ ductor material embedded with integrated circuitry. Chips comprise the processing and memory units of the modem digital computer (see micro¬ processor; RAM). Chip making is extremely precise and is usually done in a “clean room,” since even microscopic contamination could render the chip defective. As transistor components have shrunk, the number per chip has doubled about every 18 months (a phenomenon known as Moore’s law), from a few thousand in 1971 (Intel Corp.’s first chip) to millions by 1989. Nanotechnology is expected to make transistors even smaller and chips correspondingly more powerful in the 21st century.

computer circuitry Complete path or combination of interconnected paths for electron flow in a computer. Computer circuits are binary in concept, having only two possible states. They use on-off switches (tran¬ sistors) that are electrically opened and closed in nanoseconds and pico¬ seconds (billionths and trillionths of a second). A computer’s speed of operation depends on the design of its circuitry. Faster rates are achieved by shortening the time it takes to open and close the switches and by developing circuit paths that can handle the increased speeds.

computer graphics Use of computers to produce visual images, or the images so produced. Creating computer graphics requires a digital computer to store and manipulate images, a display screen, input/output devices, and specialized software that enables the computer to draw, colour, and manipulate images held in memory. Common computer graphic formats include GIF and JPEG, for single images, and MPEG and Quicktime, for multiframe images. The field has widespread use in business, scientific research, and entertainment. Monitors attached to CAD/CAM systems

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

444 I computer-integrated manufacturing ► computer science

computer tower

monitor

power supply

cooling fan

external

speaker

CD/DVD- ROM drive

ribbon cable

battery

keyboard

scroll wheel

expansion slots ——

_micro¬ processor

cooling

blades

video card

mouse

mechanical mouse

(bottom view)

network card

right click switch scroll wheel —

USB

connector

motherboard

roller

internal speaker

cooling fan

encoder

left x

click

switch

ball

(rolls on surface)

read/write head

cable

hard drive

spindle.

PS/2

connector

circuit

board

saved file

optical mouse

(bottom view)

actuator

outer/

casing

camera

light beam (reflects from surface)

prism

circuit board

A typical personal computer system consists of the computer itself, a video monitor, a keyboard, a mouse, and speakers. Other peripheral devices may include a printer, scanner, camera, microphone, or external storage device. Chips and circuit boards ("cards") are plugged into the motherboard. Other components, such as disk drives, are housed in the computer case and controlled by a card called a controller. The microprocessor directs the computer's activity via the motherboard and processes data with its millions of transistors. Data and programs in use are stored in the RAM chips. The floppy and hard drives store data not in immediate use on magnetic disks. Opti¬ cal disks, such as CD-ROMs and DVDs, may store data as well. Some circuit boards are dedicated to specific functions; the sound card, for example, generates sounds and music. Additional boards, such as a modem, may be added by inserting them into an expansion slot, a row of electrical connectors into which the board is plugged. The mouse is an input device used to position a pointer on the computer's screen. On-screen selections are made by "clicking" one of the mouse's buttons, sending a signal to the computer.

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have replaced drafting boards. Computer simulation using graphically dis¬ played quantities permits scientific study and testing of such phenomena as nuclear and chemical reactions, gravitational interactions, and physiologi¬ cal systems. See also computer animation; computer art.

computer-integrated manufacturing Data-driven automation that affects all systems or subsystems within a manufacturing environ¬ ment: design and development, production (see CAD/CAM), marketing and sales, and field support and service. Basic manufacturing functions as well as materials-handling and inventory control can also be simulated

by computers before the system is built in an attempt to eliminate wast¬ age. See also artificial intelligence, expert systems, robotics.

computer network See computer network computer printer See computer printer computer program See computer program

computer science Study of computers, their design (see computer architecture), and their uses for computation, data processing, and systems control, including design and development of computer hardware and

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computer virus ► conceptual art I 445

software, and programming. The field encompasses theory, mathematical activities such as design and analysis of algorithms, performance studies of systems and their components, and estimation of reliability and avail¬ ability of systems by probabilistic techniques. Because computer systems are often too large and complicated for failure or success of a design to be predicted without testing, experimentation is built into the develop¬ ment cycle.

computer virus Computer program designed to copy itself into other programs, with the intention of causing mischief or damage. A virus will usually execute when it is loaded into a computer’s memory. On execu¬ tion, it instructs its host program to copy the viral code into any number of other programs and files stored in the computer. The corrupted pro¬ grams may continue to perform their intended functions while also execut¬ ing the virus’s instructions, thus further propagating it. The infection may transfer itself to other computers through storage devices, computer net¬ works, and on-line systems. A harmless virus may simply cause a cryptic message to appear when the computer is turned on; a more damaging virus can destroy valuable data. Antivirus software may be used to detect and remove viruses from a computer, but the software must be updated fre¬ quently for protection against new viruses.

computer vision Field of robotics in which programs attempt to iden¬ tify objects represented in digitized images provided by video cameras, thus enabling robots to “see.” Much work has been done on stereo vision as an aid to object identification and location within a three-dimensional field of view. Recognition of objects in real time, as would be needed for active robots in complex environments, usually requires computing power beyond the capabilities of present-day technology. See also pattern rec¬ ognition.

computing, quantum See quantum computing

Comstock, Anthony (b. March 7, 1844, New Canaan, Conn., U.S.—d. Sept. 21, 1915, New York, N.Y.) U.S. social reformer. He was an early agitator against abortion and pornography, lobbying successfully for the enactment (1873) of a severe federal statute outlawing the trans¬ portation of obscene matter in the mails (the Comstock Law). In that same year, he founded the Society for the Suppression of Vice, which he directed until his death. As a special agent of the U.S. Post Office (1873— 1915), he conducted spectacular raids on publishers and vendors. His books include Traps for the Young (1883) and Morals Versus Art (1888).

Comte \'ko n t\, (Isidore-) Auguste (-Marie-Francois-Xavier)

(b. Jan. 19, 1798, Montpellier,

France—d. Sept. 5, 1857, Paris)

French thinker, the philosophical founder of sociology and of positivism.

A disciple of Henri de Saint-Simon, he taught at the Ecole Polytechnique (1832—42) but gave free lectures to workingmen. He gave the science of sociology its name and established the new subject on a conceptual (though not empirical) basis, believ¬ ing that social phenomena could be reduced to laws just as natural phe¬ nomena could. His ideas influenced John Stuart Mill (who supported him financially for many years), Emile Durkheim, Herbert Spencer, and Edward Burnett Tylor. His most important works are Cours de phi- losophie positive (6 vol., 1830-42) and Systeme de politique positive (4 vol., 1851-54).

Conakry Vka-no-.kre, ko-na-'kre\

Capital (regional pop., 1999 est.: 1,764,000), largest city, and chief Atlan¬ tic port of Guinea. Located on Tombo Island and the Kaloum Peninsula, it was founded by the French in 1884. It became the capital successively of the protectorate of Rivieres du Sud (1891), the colony of French Guinea (1893), and independent Guinea (1958). Tombo Island, the site of the original settlement, is linked to the peninsula by a causeway. The city was industrialized in the 1950s after iron mining and bauxite production had been developed. It is the seat of the University of Conakry (1962).

Conall Cernach Vko-n3l-'k y er-n3k\ Legendary warrior of Celtic mythology who appears in many stories. In “Bricriu’s Feast” in the Ulster cycle, he is one of three knights challenged by a giant to let him chop their heads off after they behead him; of the three, only Cu Chulainn keeps the bargain. Conall Cernach is probably related to Cernunnos, and their names may be cognates. See also Gawain.

Conan Doyle, Sir Arthur (b. May 22, 1859, Edinburgh, Scot.—d. July 7, 1930, Crowborough, Sussex, Eng.) Scottish writer. He became a doctor and practiced until 1891, studying with Dr. Joseph Bell, who was the model for his fictional detective, Sherlock Holmes. Conan Doyle was knighted for his medical work in the second South African War and his public defense of the war. Holmes first appeared in “A Study in Scarlet” (1887). Collections of Holmes stories began with The Adventures of Sher¬ lock Holmes (1892). Tiring of Holmes, Conan Doyle devised his death in 1893, only to be forced by public demand to restore him to life. His other Holmes novels include The Sign of Four (1890), The Hound of the Basker- villes (1902), and The Valley of Fear (1915). His historical romances include The White Company (1890). Late in life, Conan Doyle devoted himself to spiritualism.

Conant Vko-n3nt\, James B(ryant) (b. March 26, 1893, Dorchester, Mass., U.S.—d. Feb. 11, 1978, Hanover, N.H.) U.S. educator and scien¬ tist, president of Harvard University (1933-53). Conant received a Ph.D. (1916) from Harvard and taught chemistry there until he was elected its president in 1933. He led the university to broaden the social and geo¬ graphic makeup of its student body. During World War II he was a cen¬ tral figure in organizing American science, including the development of the atomic bomb. In 1953 he was appointed U.S. high commissioner for West Germany, and in 1955 he was appointed ambassador. His publica¬ tions include chemistry textbooks, works on science for the lay reader, and books on educational policy.

concentration camp Internment centre established by a government to confine political prisoners or members of national or minority groups for reasons of state security, exploitation, or punishment. The prisoners are usually selected by executive decree or military order. Camps are usually built to house many people, typically in highly crowded conditions. Coun¬ tries that have used such camps include Britain during the South African War, the Soviet Union (see Gulag), the U.S. (see Manzanar Relocation Center), and Japan, which interned Dutch civilians in the Dutch East Indies during World War II. A variation, called a “reeducation camp,” was widely used in China during the Cultural Revolution and in Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge. Most notorious were the death camps of Nazi Germany, including Auschwitz, Bergen-Belsen, Buchenwald, Dachau, and Treblinka.

Concepcion \,k6n-sep-'sy6n\ City (pop., 2002 prelim.: 371,000), capi¬ tal of Bio-Bio region, south-central Chile. One of Chile’s largest cities, it was founded in 1550 on the Pacific coast, where it was twice burned by Araucanian Indians. It has also been struck by numerous earthquakes, two of which were followed by tsunamis, and in 1754 it was moved inland to its present site near the mouth of the Bio-Bio River. Despite its severe seis¬ mic activity, it has become a major commercial and industrial centre and a distribution point for southern Chile. Local industries include textiles, food products, and steel.

concept formation Process of developing abstract rules or mental constructs based on sensory experience. Concept formation figures promi¬ nently in cognitive development and was a subject of great importance to Jean Piaget, who argued that learning entails an understanding of a phe¬ nomenon’s characteristics and how they are logically linked. Noam Chom¬ sky later argued that certain cognitive structures (such as basic grammatical rules) are innate in human beings. Both scholars held that, as a concept emerges, it becomes subject to testing: a child’s concept of “bird,” for example, will be tested against specific instances of birds. The human capacity for play contributes importantly to this process by allow¬ ing for consideration of a wide range of possibilities.

Conception Bay Inlet of the Atlantic Ocean, southeastern Newfound¬ land, Canada. Named by a Portuguese explorer who visited the coast in 1500 on the Feast of the Conception, it is about 30 mi (50 km) long and 12 mi (19 km) wide. Its shore settlements, among Newfoundland’s oldest and most densely populated, support seafood canneries and beach resorts.

conceptual art Any of various art forms in which the idea for a work of art is considered more important than the finished product. The theory was explored by Marcel Duchamp from c. 1910, but the term was coined

Comte, drawing by Tony Toullion, 19th century; in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.

H. ROGER-VIOLLET

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446 I Concert of Europe ► Concordat of 1801

in the late 1950s by Edward Kienholz. In the 1960s and ’70s it became a major international movement; its leading exponents were Sol LeWitt (b. 1928) and Joseph Kosuth (b. 1945). Its adherents radically redefined art objects, materials, and techniques, and began questioning the very exist¬ ence and use of art. Its claim is that the “true” work of art is not a physi¬ cal object produced by the artist for exhibition or sale, but rather consists of “concepts” or “ideas.” Typical conceptual works include photographs, texts, maps, graphs, and image-text combinations that are deliberately rendered visually uninteresting or trivial in order to divert attention to the “ideas” they express. Its manifestations have been extremely diverse; a well-known example is Kosuth’s One and Three Chairs (1965), which combines a real chair, a photograph of a chair, and a dictionary defini¬ tion of “chair.” Conceptual art was fundamental to much of the art pro¬ duced in the late 20th century.

Concert of Europe In the post-Napoleonic era, the consensus among the European monarchies favoring preservation of the territorial and political status quo. The term assumed the responsibility and the right of the great powers to intervene in states threatened by internal rebellion. The powers discussed such intervention at several congresses, including those of Aix-la-Chapelle, Troppau, Laibach, and Verona.

concertina Portable bellows-operated musical instrument. The first concertina was patented by Sir Charles Wheatstone in London in 1829, and he later produced an instrument with full chromatic capacity. Like the accordion, its sound is produced by free reeds, but it uses buttons rather than keys. The very similar Argentinian bandoneon is square rather than hexagonal.

concerto \k3n-'cher-to\ Musical composition for solo instrument and orchestra. The solo concerto grew out of the older concerto grosso. Giuseppe Torelli’s violin concertos of 1698 are the first known solo con¬ certos. Antonio Vivaldi, the first important concerto composer, wrote more than 350 solo concertos, mostly for violin. Johann Sebastian Bach wrote the first keyboard concertos. From the Classical period on, most concer¬ tos have been written for piano, followed in popularity by the violin and then the cello. Wofgang Amadeus Mozart wrote 27 piano concertos; other notable composers of piano concertos include Ludwig van Beethoven, Felix Mendelssohn, Frederic Chopin, Franz Liszt, and Johannes Brahms. From the outset the concerto has been almost exclusively a three-movement form, with fast tempos in the first and third movements and a slow central movement. It has generally been intended to display the soloist’s virtu¬ osity, particularly in the unaccompanied and often improvised cadenzas near the ends of the first and third movements. Nineteenth-century con¬ certos were often conceived as a kind of dramatic struggle between solo¬ ist and orchestra; many later composers preferred that the soloist blend with the orchestra.

concerto grosso Principal orchestral music of the Baroque era, char¬ acterized by contrast between a small group of soloists and a larger orches¬ tra. The small group (concertino) usually consisted of two violins and continuo, the instruments of the older trio sonata, though wind instru¬ ments were also used. The larger group (ripieno) generally consisted of strings with continuo. Alessandro Stradella (1642-82) wrote the first known concerto grosso c. 1675. Arcangelo Corelli’s set of 12 (c. 1680- 90), Johann Sebastian Bach’s Brandenburg Concertos (c. 1720), and George Frideric Handel’s Opus 6 concertos (c. 1740) are the most cel¬ ebrated examples. From 1750 the concerto grosso was eclipsed by the solo CONCERTO.

conch Vkaqk, 'kanch\ Marine snail whose shell has a broadly triangular outer whorl and a wide lip, often jut¬ ting toward the uppermost point.

True conchs (family Strombidae) feed on fine plant matter in warm waters. The queen conch ( Strombus gigas), found from Florida to Brazil, has an ornamental shell; the pink opening into the first whorl of the shell may be 12 in. (30 cm) long. The clam-eating fulgur conchs (family Melongenidae) include the chan¬ neled conch ( Busycon canalicula- twri) and the lightning conch ( B. contrarium), both about 7 in. (18 cm)

long and common on the U.S. Atlantic coast. See also whelk.

Conchobar mac Nessa Vka-nii-or-mok-'ne-so, 'kaq-ko-or-mok-'ne- so\ or Conor \'ka-nor\ In ancient Irish Gaelic literature, the reputed king of the Ulaids of northeastern Ireland at the beginning of the 1st century bc. In the Ulster cycle he is the ideal Irish king. In The Book of Leinster (c. 1160), Conor fell in love with the beauty Deirdre. Deirdre, however, was in love with Nofsi, with whom she eloped and lived in Scotland; Conor’s slaying of his rival caused a revolt in Ulster, and Deirdre killed herself.

Conciliar Movement Vkon-'si-le-orX (1409^19) In Roman Catholi¬ cism, an effort to strengthen the authority of church councils over that of the papacy. Originally aimed at ending the Western Schism, the Conciliar Movement had its roots in legal and intellectual circles in the 13th cen¬ tury but emerged as a force at the Council of Pisa (1409), which elected a third pope in an unsuccessful attempt to reconcile the parties of the existing pope and antipope. A second council, the Council of Constance (1414—18), ended the schism by voiding all papal offices and electing a new pope. Participants hoped to play an ongoing role in the church, but the popes continued to seek supremacy, and the Council of Basel (1431— 49) ended fruitlessly.

conclave In the Roman Catholic church, the assembly of cardinals gath¬ ered to elect a new pope and the system of strict seclusion to which they submit. From 1059 the election became the responsibility of the cardi¬ nals. When, after the death of Clement IV (1268), the cardinals dithered for more than two years, the local magistrate locked them in the episco¬ pal palace and fed them only bread and water until they elected Gregory X. The system of meeting in closed conclave was codified in 1904 by Pius X. Voting is by secret ballot; one ballot is held on the first afternoon of the conclave and four on each subsequent day, two in the morning and two in the afternoon, until a new pope is chosen. In 1996 John Paul II declared that, after 30 ballots, the traditional requirement of a two-thirds majority plus one for the election of a pope could be superseded, at the discretion of the cardinals, by election by a simple majority. Ballots are burned in a stove after each vote, and the smoke produced by their burn¬ ing, which issues from a special pipe through a window, indicates to the crowd assembled in St. Peter’s Square whether a new pope has been elected: if there is a new pope, the smoke will be white; if no majority has yet been reached, the smoke will be black. In addition, bells will be rung to confirm the signal. Additives are mixed with the ballots to ensure the proper colour of the smoke.

Concord Vkan-kord, 'kan-,k6rd\ City (pop., 2000: 121,780), western California, U.S. Located near San Francisco, it was laid out in 1868 as Todos Santos and renamed in 1869 for Concord, Mass. Developed as an orchard and poultry centre after the railroad reached it in 1912, it is now mainly residential.

Concord Town (pop., 2000: 16,993), eastern Massachusetts, U.S. Founded in 1635, it was the first inland Puritan settlement. In 1775 the British were marching to seize its storehouse of military supplies when they were checked by minutemen (see Battles of Lexington and Concord). In the 19th century it was a noted cultural centre and the home of writers Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Louisa May Alcott (all buried there). Several historic houses are now muse¬ ums; Walden Pond, where Thoreau lived and wrote, is nearby.

Concord City (pop., 2000: 40,687), capital of New Hampshire, U.S. It lies along the Merrimack River above Manchester. Settled in 1727, the community was incorporated in 1733 by Massachusetts as Rumford but, following bitter litigation, was determined in 1762 to be within the juris¬ diction of New Hampshire. Renamed Concord in 1765, it was made the capital in 1808. Printing, carriage making, and granite quarrying were important in its early development; Concord granite is still quarried.

Concord, Battles of Lexington and See Battles of Lexington and Concord

Concordat of 1801 Agreement between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII that defined the status of the Roman Catholic Church in France and ended the breach caused by the church reforms of the French Revolution (see Civil Constitution of the Clergy). The Roman Catholic faith was acknowl¬ edged as the religion of the majority of the French people but was not proclaimed as the established religion of the state. Napoleon gained the right to nominate bishops, but their offices were conferred by the pope. The government agreed to pay the clergy, but confiscated church prop¬ erty was not restored. The Concordat remained in effect until 1905.

Z'lft

a

jtfy *• * .... -

Florida horse conch (Pleuroploca gigantea)

© E.R. DEGGINGER, THE NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCIETY COLLECTION/PHOTO RESEARCHERS, INC.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Concorde ► conducting I 447

Concorde First supersonic, passenger-carrying, commercial airplane. Built jointly by British and French manufacturers, it entered regular ser¬ vice in 1976. Its maximum cruising speed is 1,354 mph (2,179 kph), more than twice the speed of sound; the London-New York flight takes less than four hours and can cost close to $10,000.

concrete Artificial stone made of a mixture of cement, aggregate (hard material), and water. In addition to its potential for immense compressive strength and its ability, when poured, to adapt to virtually any form, con¬ crete is fire-resistant and has become one of the most common building materials in the world. The binder usually used today is Portland cement. The aggregate is usually sand and gravel. Additives called admixtures may be used to accelerate the curing (hardening) process in low temperature conditions. Other admixtures trap air in the concrete or slow shrinkage and increase strength. See also precast concrete, prestressed concrete, rein¬ forced CONCRETE.

concubinage Nkon-'kyii-bo-nijX Cohabitation of a man and a woman without the full sanctions of legal marriage. In the Judeo-Christian tradi¬ tion, the term concubine has been generally applied exclusively to women; Western studies of non-Western societies use it to refer to partners who are sanctioned by law but lack the status of full wives. See also common- law marriage; harem; polygamy.

concurrent programming Computer programming designed for execution on multiple processors, where more than one processor is used to execute a program or complex of programs running simultaneously. It is also used for programming designed for a multitasking environment, where two or more programs share the same memory while running con¬ currently.

concussion Period of nervous-function impairment that results from relatively mild brain injury, often with no bleeding in the cerebral cortex. It causes brief unconsciousness, followed by mental confusion and physi¬ cal difficulties. These effects usually clear up within hours, but in some cases disturbance of consciousness continues, and there may be residual symptoms. Some level of amnesia often accompanies concussion. Recov¬ ery from concussion is almost always complete unless more serious injury, such as skull fracture, accompanies it.

Conde \ko n -'da\, Louis II de Bourbon, 4th prince de known as the Great Conde (b. Sept. 8, 1621, Paris, France—d. Dec. 11, 1686, Fontainebleau) French military leader. He distinguished himself in battles with Spain in the Thirty Years’ War, and in 1649 he helped suppress the Fronde uprising. After being arrested by Mazarin in 1650, he rebelled and led the second Fronde, fighting from Spain until he was defeated at the Battle of the Dunes in 1658. Pardoned the next year, he again became one of Louis XIV’s greatest generals, winning numerous battles in Spain, Germany, and Flanders. He was a man of great courage, unconventional habits, and sound independence of mind; broadly cultivated, he counted Mouere and Jean Racine among his friends. See also Conde family.

Conde \k6n-'da\ family Important French branch of the house of Bour¬ bon, whose members played a significant role in French dynastic politics. The line began with Louis I de Bourbon (1530-69), 1st prince de Conde, a military leader of the Huguenots in France’s Wars of Religion. The fami¬ ly’s most prominent member was the 4th prince de Cond£, one of Louis XIV’ s greatest generals. The princely line died out when Louis-Antoine- Henri de Bourbon-Conde (1772-1804), duke d’Enghien and sole heir of the last prince de Conde, was falsely arrested and, on Napoleon’s orders, shot for treason.

condensation Formation of a liquid or solid from its vapour. Conden¬ sation usually occurs on a surface that is cooler than the adjacent gas. A substance condenses when the pressure exerted by its vapour exceeds the vapour pressure of its liquid or solid phase at the temperature of the sur¬ face where the condensation is to occur. The process causes the release of thermal energy. Condensation occurs on a glass of cold water on a warm, humid day when water vapour in the air condenses to form liquid water on the glass’s colder surface. Condensation also accounts for the forma¬ tion of dew, fog, rain, snow, and clouds.

condenser Device for reducing a gas or vapour to a liquid. Condens¬ ers are used in power plants to condense exhaust steam from turbines and in refrigeration plants to condense refrigerant vapours, such as ammonia and Freons. The petroleum and chemical industries use condensers for hydrocarbons and other chemical vapours. In distillation, a condenser transforms vapour to liquid. All condensers work by removing heat from

the gas or vapour. In some, the gas passes through a long tube of heat- conductive metal, such as copper (usually arranged in a coil or other compact shape), and heat escapes into the surrounding air. Large indus¬ trial condensers use water or some other liquid to remove the heat. The term condenser also refers to a device attached to carding machines in textile factories to collect fibres into roving for spinning machines.

Condillac \ko n -de-'yak\, Etienne Bonnot de (b. Sept. 30, 1715, Grenoble, France—d. Aug. 2/3, 1780, Flux) French philosopher, psy¬ chologist, and economist. He was ordained a priest in 1740. In his Essay on the Origin of Human Knowledge (1746), he systematically discussed the empiricism of John Locke. In Treatise on Sensations (1754), he ques¬ tioned Locke’s doctrine that intuitive knowledge is available directly through the senses. In his works Logic (1780) and The Language of Cal¬ culation (1798), he emphasized the importance of language in logical rea¬ soning and stressed the need for a scientifically designed language. His economic views, presented in Commerce and Government (1776), were based on the notion that value depends on utility rather than labour. The need for something useful, he argued, gives rise to value, while prices result from the exchange of valued items.

conditioning Process in which the frequency or predictability of a behavioral response is increased through reinforcement (i.e., a stimulus or a reward for the desired response). Classical, or respondent, condition¬ ing, which involves stimulus substitution, is based on the work of Ivan Pavlov, who conditioned dogs by ringing a bell each time the aroma of food was presented. Eventually the dogs salivated when the bell rang, even if no food odour was present; salivation was thus the conditioned response. In instrumental, or operant, conditioning, a spontaneous (oper¬ ant) behaviour is either rewarded (reinforced) or punished. When rewarded, a behaviour increases in frequency; when punished, it decreases. Operant conditioning was studied in detail by B.F. Skinner.

condominium In modern property law, individual ownership of one dwelling unit within a multidwelling building. Unit owners have undi¬ vided ownership interest in the land and those portions of the building shared in common. This type of ownership has been present in Europe since the end of the Middle Ages; in the U.S. it dates to the latter half of the 19th century and has been popular in crowded urban areas. An alter¬ native to the condominium is the cooperative, in which residents own a share of a corporation, with each share entitling the owner to reside in a particular unit in the building.

condor Either of two species of large New World vultures. Two of the largest flying birds, each is about 4 ft (1.2 m) long. Both feed on dead animals. The Andean condor ( Vultur gryphus ), which ranges from the Pacific coast of South America to the high Andes Mountains, has slightly longer wings (10 ft [3 m]) and is black with a white ruff and bare pinkish head and neck. The California condor ( Gymnogyps californianus) is nearly black, with white wing linings, a bare yellow head, and a red neck. It hovered on the brink of extinction in the 1980s, and every California condor was captured. Careful nurturing has since led to the release of more than 200 condors into the wild.

Condorcet \k6 n -d6r-'se\, Marie-Jean-Antoine-Nicolas de Car- itat, marquis de (b. Sept. 17, 1743, Ribemont, France—found dead March 29, 1794, Bourg-la-Reine) French mathematician, statesman, and revolutionary. He showed early promise as a mathematician and was a protege of Jean Le Rond d'Alembert. In 1777 he became secretary of the Academy of Sciences. In sympathy with the French Revolution, he was elected to represent Paris in the Legislative Assembly (1791-92), where he called for a republic. His opposition to the arrest of the moderate Girondins led to his being outlawed (1792). While in hiding he wrote his famous Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind, in which he advanced the idea of the continuous progress of the human race to an ultimate perfection. He was captured and subsequently found dead in prison.

conducting Art of leading a group of musical performers. Simple coor¬ dination of a group does not always require a conductor (members of a Renaissance choir kept together by one tapping another on the shoulder, for example, and musicians in a recording studio listen to a “click track” on headphones). Before c. 1800, the first violinist usually gave the few necessary signals with his bow; the keyboard player might also lead the orchestra, using his hands and head. In the 19th century the larger size of ensembles and growing complexity of music, including its varying tem¬ pos and heightened expressiveness, made it necessary for a person to

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

448 I conduction ► Confucianism

coordinate and interpret the music for the group. The first conductors, including Felix Mendelssohn, Hector Berlioz, and Richard Wagner, were composers themselves. By the end of the 19th century, conducting had become a specialty and the great conductors had become celebrities in their own right.

conduction See thermal conduction

conductor Any of various substances that allow the flow of electric cur¬ rent or thermal energy. A conductor is a poor insulator because it has a low resistance to such flow. Electrical conductors are used to conduct electric current, as in the metal wires of an electric circuit. Electrical conductors are usually metallic. Thermal conductors allow thermal energy to flow because they do not absorb radiant heat; they include materials such as metal and glass.

cone or strobilus \stro-'bI-l9s, 'stro-b9-bs\ In botany, a mass of scales or bracts, usually ovate, containing the reproductive organs of certain non-flowering plants. A distinguishing feature of pines and other conifers, the cone is roughly analogous to the flower of other plants. Cones (stro- bili) are also found on club mosses and horsetails.

conef lower Any of three genera ( Echinacea , Ratibida, and Rudbeckia). They are weedy plants in the composite family, native to North America. Some species in each genus have reflexed ray flowers. The purple- flowered perennials E. angustifolia and E. purpurea are often cultivated as border plants; they have strong-smelling black roots and hairy stems. These two species, along with E. pallida, are used to prepare an herbal cold and flu remedy called echinacea. Ratibida species have yellow ray flowers and brownish disk flowers. Prairie coneflowers {Ratibida colum- naris and R. pinnata ) are grown in wildflower gardens. Rudbeckia spe¬ cies have yellow ray flowers and brown or black disk flowers. Black-eyed Susan {Rudbeckia hirta ), thimble-flower {R. bicolor ), and cutleaf cone- flower {R. laciniata) are grown as border plants.

Conestoga wagon Horse-drawn covered freight wagon. It originated in the 18th century in the Conestoga Creek region of Pennsylvania. It had a flat body and low sides; with its floor curved up at each end to prevent freight from shifting, it was well suited for travel over early American roads. It became famous as later adapted by westward-traveling pioneers for hauling their possessions; with its tall white canvas top, it resembled a sailing ship from a distance, which earned it the name “prairie schooner.”

coney See cony

Coney Island Amusement area, southern Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S. It was an island in the Atlantic Ocean until its creek silted up and it became part of Long Island. The first pavilion and bathhouse were erected in 1844, and it gained popularity with the coming of the subway in 1920. It has a 3.5-mi (5.6-km) boardwalk and an amusement park known for its roller coaster (the Cyclone). It is also the site of the New York Aquarium.

Confederate States of America or Confederacy Government of the 11 Southern states that seceded from the Union in 1860-61 until its defeat in the American Civil War in 1865. In the months following Abraham Lincoln’s election as president in 1860, seven states of the Deep South (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Caro¬ lina, and Texas) seceded. After the attack on Fort Sumter in April 1861, Arkansas, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia joined them. The gov¬ ernment was directed by Jefferson Davis as president, with Alexander H. Stephens as vice president. Its principal goals were the preservation of states' rights and the institution of slavery. The government’s main con¬ cern was raising and maintaining an army. It counted on the influence of King Cotton to exert financial and diplomatic pressure on the Union from sympathetic European governments. Battlefield victories for the South in 1861-62 gave the Confederacy the moral strength to continue fighting, but from 1863 dwindling finances and battlefield reverses increasingly led to demoralization. The surrender at Appomattox Court House by Gen. Rob¬ ert E. Lee precipitated its dissolution.

Confederation, Articles of See Articles of Confederation

Confederation of the Rhine (1806-13) Union of all the states of Germany, except Austria and Prussia, under the aegis of Napoleon. Napo¬ leon’s primary interest in the confederation, which enabled the French to unify and dominate the country, was as a counterweight to Austria and Prussia. The confederation was abolished after Napoleon’s fall from power, but the consolidation it entailed contributed to the movement for German unification.

Confessing Church German Bekennende Kirche Movement for revival within the German Protestant churches that developed in the 1930s in resistance to Adolf Hitler’s attempt to make the churches an instrument of Nazi propaganda and politics. The Confessing Church, whose leaders included Martin Niemoller and Dietrich Bonhoeffer, opposed Hitler’s “Ger¬ man Christians” and was forced underground as Nazi pressure intensi¬ fied. The movement continued in World War II, though it was hampered by the conscription of clergy and laity. In 1948 the church ceased to exist when the reorganized Evangelical Church was formed.

confession In the Judeo-Christian tradition, acknowledgment of sin¬ fulness, in public or private, regarded as necessary for divine forgiveness. In the Temple period, Yom Kippur included a collective expression of sin¬ fulness, and the day continues in Judaism as one of prayer, fasting, and confession. The early Christian Church followed John the Baptist’s prac¬ tice of confession before baptism, but soon instituted confession and pen¬ ance for the forgiveness of sins committed after baptism. The fourth Lateran Council (1215) required annual confession. The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches consider penance a sacrament, but most Protestant churches do not.

confidential communication See privileged communication

configuration In chemistry, the arrangement in space of the atoms in a molecule. It is especially important in organic chemistry (see organic compound), in which each carbon atom in a molecule can form from two to four covalent bonds (see bonding) with as many as four other atoms. A carbon atom with four single bonds, for example, lies at the centre of a tetrahedron, with one bond extending to each comer; if three or all four atoms bonded to the carbon are different, the structure that results has two different mirror-image (see optical activity; isomer) forms, similar to left- and right-handed gloves. Configuration issues also apply to some inor¬ ganic compounds. Until late in the 20th century, chemists struggled to determine the true three-dimensional form (absolute configuration) of a molecule experimentally, but modem optical and chemical methods have greatly simplified the task. The term electronic configuration refers to the number of electrons in the various shells of an atom, which defines its chemical reactivity and the type of bonding in which it participates.

confirmation Christian rite in which believers reaffirm the faith into which they were baptized as infants or young children. The rite admitting adults to full membership in the community of the faithful did not exist as a distinct ceremony in the early church but probably coincided with baptism, since those who joined did so as adults and were baptized after instruction. As baptism of infants became common, some means of ascer¬ taining their knowledge and commitment as young adults became neces¬ sary. A period of instruction was introduced, after which the candidates were examined and confirmed. In Roman Catholicism confirmation became a sacrament, usually performed by a bishop. The rite is also used in the Anglican and Lutheran churches.

confiscation In law, the act of seizing property without compensation and submitting it to the public treasury. Illegal items such as narcotics or firearms, or profits from the sale of illegal items, may be confiscated by the police. Additionally, government action (e.g., zoning or rate setting) that reduces the value of property to an owner so as to make it nearly worthless has been held to constitute confiscation. See also eminent domain, SEARCH AND SEIZURE.

conflict In psychology, a struggle resulting from incompatible or oppos¬ ing needs, drives, wishes, or demands. Interpersonal conflict represents such a struggle between two or more people, while internal conflict is a mental struggle. A child experiencing internal conflict, for example, may be dependent on his mother but fear her because she is rejecting and puni¬ tive. Conflicts that are not readily resolved may cause the person to suf¬ fer helplessness and anxiety. See also learned helplessness.

conformal map In mathematics, a transformation of one graph into another in such a way that the angle of intersection of any two lines or curves remains unchanged. The most common example is the Mercator map, a two-dimensional representation of the surface of the earth that pre¬ serves compass directions. Other conformal maps, sometimes called orth- omorphic projections, preserve angles but not shapes.

Confucianism Scholarly tradition and way of life propagated by Con¬ fucius in the 6th-5th century bc and followed by the Chinese for more than two millennia. Though not organized as a religion, it has deeply influenced East Asian spiritual and political life in a comparable manner.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Confucius ► Congo I 449

The core idea is ren (“humaneness,” “benevolence”), signifying excellent character in accord with li (ritual norms), zhong (loyalty to one’s true nature), shu (reciprocity), and xiao (filial piety). Together these constitute de (virtue). Mencius, Xunzi, and others sustained Confucianism, but it was not influential until Dong Zhongshu emerged in the 2nd century bc. Con¬ fucianism was then recognized as the Han state cult, and the Five Classics became the core of education. In spite of the influence of Daoism and Bud¬ dhism, Confucian ethics have had the strongest influence on the moral fab¬ ric of Chinese society. A revival of Confucian thought in the 11th century produced Neo-Confucianism, a major influence in Korea during the Choson dynasty and in Japan during the Tokugawa period.

Confucius Chinese Kongfuzi or K'ung-fu-tzu Vkuq-'fu-'dzoV (b. 551 bc, Ch’ii-fu, state of Lu—d. 479, Lu) Ancient Chinese teacher, phi¬ losopher, and political theorist. Born into a poor family, he managed stables and worked as a bookkeeper while educating himself. Mastery of the six arts—ritual, music, archery, charioteering, calligraphy, and arithmetic—and familiarity with history and poetry enabled him to begin a brilliant teaching career in his thirties. Confucius saw education as a process of constant self-improvement and held that its primary function was the training of noblemen (junzi ). He saw public service as the natu¬ ral consequence of education and sought to revitalize Chinese social insti¬ tutions, including the family, school, community, state, and kingdom. He served in government posts, eventually becoming minister of justice in Lu, but his policies attracted little interest. After a 12-year self-imposed exile during which his circle of students expanded, he returned to Lu at age 67 to teach and write. His life and thoughts are recorded in the Lunyu C Analects ). See also Confucianism.

Congaree Vkaq-go-reV National Park Natural area, central South Carolina, U.S. Authorized as a national monument in 1976 and as a national park in 2003, it covers 35 sq mi (90 sq km) of alluvial floodplain on the Congaree River. It contains the last significant tract of virgin South¬ ern bottomland hardwoods in the southeastern U.S., including loblolly pine, water tupelo, hickory, and oak, some of record size.

congenital disorder Structural abnormality (e.g., atresia, agenesis), functional problem (e.g., cystic fibrosis, phenylketonuria), or disease present at birth. Almost all are due to genetic factors (inherited or spontaneous mutations, chromosomal disorders), environmental influences during preg¬ nancy (rubella or other maternal factors, exposure to toxins or radiation), or both. The most sensitive period is the first eight weeks after concep¬ tion, during which time the human embryo is essentially formed. Major congenital malformations form during this period. Some inherited disor¬ ders result from simple Mendelian dominance or recessiveness. Others may involve multiple genes. Chromosomal disorders are rare, because few affected fetuses survive to be bom. Environmental influences may affect only one of a pair of identical twins. At least 30 significant defects prob¬ ably occur per 1000 births. See also birth defect; Down syndrome.

congenital heart disease Deformity of the heart. Examples include septal defect (opening in the septum between the sides of the heart), atre¬ sia (absence) or stenosis (narrowing) of one or more valves, tetralogy of Fallot (with four components: ventricular septal defect, pulmonary valve stenosis, right ventricular enlargement, and positioning of the aorta so that it receives blood from both ventricles), and transposition of the great vessels (so the pulmonary and systemic circulations each receive blood from the wrong side of the heart). Such defects can prevent enough oxy¬ gen from reaching the tissues, so the skin has a bluish cast. Many are fatal if not corrected surgically soon after birth—or, rarely, before birth, if detected prenatally. Abnormalities of the large vessels are usually less serious (see aorta, coarctation of; ductus arteriosus).

conger eel Any of about 100 species of marine eels (family Congridae) with no scales, a large head, large gill slits, a wide mouth, and strong teeth. Conger eels are usually grayish to blackish, with a paler belly and black-edged fins. Found in all oceans, sometimes in deep water, they may grow about 6 ft (1.8 m) long. Conger eels are carnivores. Many species, such as the European conger (Conger conger ), are valued as food. The American conger, or sea eel (C. oceanicus), is a fierce game fish.

congestive heart failure Heart failure resulting in the accumulation of fluid in the lungs and other body tissues. It is related mainly to salt and water retention in the tissues rather than directly to reduced blood flow. Blood pools in the veins (vascular congestion) because the heart does not pump efficiently enough to allow it to return. It may vary from the most minimal symptoms to sudden pulmonary edema or a rapidly lethal shock¬

like state (see shock). Chronic states of varying severity may last years. Symptoms tend to worsen as the body’s attempts to compensate for the condition create a vicious circle. The patient has trouble breathing, at first during exertion and later even at rest. Treatment is directed toward increasing the strength of the heart’s muscle contraction, reduction of fluid accumulation, and elimination of the underlying cause of the failure.

conglomerate Vkon-'gla-mo-rsA In petrology, lithified sedimentary rock consisting of rounded fragments larger than 0.08 in. (2 mm) in diam¬ eter. It is commonly contrasted with breccia. Conglomerates are usually subdivided according to the average size of their constituent materials into pebble (fine), cobble (medium), and boulder (coarse).

conglomerate In business, a widely diversified company, especially a corporation that acquires other firms whose activities are unrelated to its primary activity. Conglomerate mergers are undertaken for many reasons, including the prospect of making additional use of existing facilities, improving the corporation’s overall marketing position, decreasing the risk of relying on a single type of product, and effecting corporate reor¬ ganization. The practice was widespread in the 1960s and 1980s, but in the 1990s many conglomerates began to sell off unwanted subsidiaries.

Congo, Democratic Republic of the known as Congo (Kin¬ shasa) formerly (1971-97) Republic of Zaire Country, central Africa. Area: 905,354 sq mi (2,344,858 sq km). Population (2005 est.):

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57,549,000. Capital: Kinshasa. Bantu speakers, including the Mongo, Kongo, and Luba, form a majority of the country’s population; among non-Bantu speakers are Sudanese groups of the north. Languages: French, English (both official), Lingala, Swahili, Kongo, others. Reli¬ gions: Christianity (Roman Catholic, Protestant, other Christians); also traditional beliefs, Islam. Currency: Congolese franc. The country, hav¬ ing the third largest land area in Africa, occupies the heart of the Congo River basin and is largely surrounded by high plateaus. At its narrow strip of Atlantic coast, the Congo River empties into the sea. The country straddles the Equator; its climate is humid and tropical. It is among the poorest countries in the world. Its economy is based on mining and agri¬ culture. Exports include diamonds, petroleum, and coffee; mining pro¬ duces copper, cobalt, and industrial diamonds. The country has a transitional government; the head of state and government is the presi¬ dent, assisted by four vice presidents. Prior to European colonization, several kingdoms had emerged in the region, including the 16th-century Luba kingdom and the Kuba federation, which reached its peak in the 18th century. European development began late in the 19th century when King Leopold II of Belgium financed Henry Morton Stanley’s exploration

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

450 I Congo ► Congreve

of the Congo River. The 1884-85 Berlin West Africa Conference recog¬ nized the Congo Free State with Leopold as its sovereign. The growing demand for rubber helped finance the exploitation of the Congo, but abuses against local peoples outraged Western nations and forced Leopold to grant the Free State a colonial charter as the Belgian Congo (1908). Independence was granted in 1960. The postindependence period was marked by unrest, culminating in a military coup that brought Gen. Mobutu Sese Seko to power in 1965. He changed the country’s name to Zaire in 1971. Mismanagement, corruption, and increasing violence dev¬ astated the infrastructure and economy. Mobutu was deposed in 1997 by Laurent Kabila, who restored the country’s name to Congo. Instability in neighbouring countries, an influx of refugees from Rwanda, and a desire for Congo’s mineral wealth led to military involvement by various Afri¬ can countries. Unrest continued into the beginning of the 21st century.

Congo, Republic of the known as Congo (Brazzaville) formerly Middle Congo Republic, west-central Africa. Area: 132,047 sq mi (342,000 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 3,602,000. Capital: Brazzaville.

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2002 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

CONGO

Roughly half of the population belongs to one of the Kongo tribes. The Teke are less numerous, as are the Mboshi and several other peoples. Languages: French (offi¬ cial), various Bantu languages. Religions:

Christianity (mostly Roman Catholic, also other Christians, Protestant); also traditional beliefs. Currency: CFA franc. A narrow coastal plain edges Congo’s 100-mi (160-km) stretch of Atlantic coastline, rising into low mountains and plateaus that slope eastward in a vast plain to the Congo River. The country straddles the Equator; rainforests cover nearly two- thirds of the land, and wildlife is abundant. Congo has a mixed, devel¬ oping economy. Mining products, crude petroleum, and natural gas account for more than 90% of the country’s exports. A 1997 transitional constitution vested executive power in the president and legislative power in a national transitional council. In precolonial days the area was home to several thriving kingdoms, including the Kongo, which had its begin¬ nings in the 1st millennium ad. The save trade began in the 15th century with the arrival of the Portuguese; it supported the local kingdoms and dominated the area until its suppression in the 19th century. The French arrived in the mid-19th century and established treaties with two of the kingdoms, placing them under French protection prior to their becoming part of the colony of French Congo. In 1910 it was renamed French Equa¬ torial Africa, and the area of the Congo became known as Middle (Moyen) Congo. In 1946 Middle Congo became a French overseas territory, and in 1958 it voted to become an autonomous republic within the French Community. Full independence came two years later. The area has suffered from political instability since independence. Congo’s first president was

ousted in 1963. A Marxist party, the Congolese Labor Party, gained strength, and in 1968 another coup, led by Major Marien Ngouabi, cre¬ ated the People’s Republic of the Congo. Ngouabi was assassinated in 1977. A series of military rulers followed, at first militantly socialist but later oriented toward social democracy. Fighting between local militias in 1997 badly disrupted the economy; a peace process was under way at the beginning of the 21st century.

Congo Free State See Democratic Republic of the Congo

Congo River or Zaire \za-'ir\ River River, west-central Africa. Ris¬ ing in Zambia as the Chambeshi and flowing 2,900 mi (4,700 km) through the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the Atlantic Ocean, it is the second longest river in Africa. It flows through three contrasting regions: the upper Congo, characterized by lakes, waterfalls, and rapids; the middle Congo, with seven cataracts known as Boyoma (Stanley) Falls; and the lower Congo, which divides into two branches forming a vast lake area called the Malebo (Stanley) Pool.

Congregationalism Movement that arose among English Protestant Christian churches in the late 16th and early 17th century. It developed as one branch of Puritanism and emphasized the right and duty of each congregation to govern itself independent of higher human authority. Its greatest influence and numbers were in the U.S., where Puritans first established it at Plymouth Colony. The HalfWay Covenant (1662) loos¬ ened requirements for church membership, and the Great Awakening led U.S. Congregationalism away from its Calvinist roots. Many churches defected to Unitarianism. In general, Congregationalists eschew creeds and emphasize preaching over sacraments, accepting only baptism and the Eucharist. English Congregationalists are now part of the United Reform Church. Most American Congregationalists are now part of the United Church of Christ. Baptist, Disciples of Christ, and Unitarian Universalist churches also practice congregational polity.

Congress of the United States Legislature of the U.S., separated structurally from the executive and judicial (see judiciary) branches of gov¬ ernment. Established by the Constitution of the United States, it succeeded the unicameral congress created by the Articles of Confederation (1781). It consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Representa¬ tion in the Senate is fixed at two senators per state. Until passage of the 17th Amendment (1913), senators were appointed by the state legisla¬ tures; since then they have been elected directly. In the House, represen¬ tation is proportional to each state’s population; total membership is restricted (since 1912) to 435 members (the total rose temporarily to 437 following the admission of Hawaii and Alaska as states in 1959). Con¬ gressional business is processed by committees: bills are debated in com¬ mittees in both houses, and reconciliation of the two resulting versions takes place in a conference committee. A presidential veto can be over¬ ridden by a two-thirds majority in each house. Congress’s constitutional powers include the setting and collecting of taxes, borrowing money on credit, regulating commerce, coining money, declaring war, raising and supporting armies, and making all laws necessary for the execution of its powers. All finance-related legislation must originate in the House; pow¬ ers exclusive to the Senate include approval of presidential nomina¬ tions, ratification of treaties, and adjudication of impeachments. See also BICAMERAL SYSTEM.

Congress Party See Indian National Congress

Congreve, William (b. Jan. 24,

1670, Bardsey, near Leeds, York¬ shire, Eng.—d. Jan. 19, 1729, Lon¬ don) English dramatist. He was a young protege of John Dryden when his first major play. The Old Bache- lour (1693), met with great success.

Later came The Double-Dealer (1693), Love for Love (1695), and The Way of the World (1700), his masterpiece. Other works include the once-popular tragedy The Mourning Bride (1697), many poems, transla¬ tions, and two opera librettos. Con¬ greve shaped the English comedy of

William Congreve, oil painting by Sir Godfrey Kneller, 1709; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, LONDON

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

conic section ► Connery i 451

manners with his brilliant comic dialogue, satirical portrayal of fashion¬ able society, uproarious bawdiness, and ironic scrutiny of the affectations of his age. See also Restoration uterature.

conic section Any two-dimensional curve traced by the intersection of a right circular cone with a plane. If the plane is perpendicular to the cone’s axis, the resulting curve is a circle. Intersections at other angles result in ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas. The conic sections are studied in Euclidean geometry to analyze their physical properties and in analytic geometry to derive their equations. In either context, they have useful applications to optics, antenna design, structural engineering, and architecture.

conifer Any member of the order Coniferales, woody plants that bear their seeds and pollen on separate, coNE-shaped structures. They constitute the largest division of gymnosperms, with more than 550 species. Most are evergreen, upright trees and shrubs. They grow throughout the world (except in Antarctica) and prefer temperate climate zones. Conifers include the pines ( Pinus ), junipers ( Juniperus ), spruces ( Picea ), hemlocks ( Tsuga ), firs (Abies), larches (Larix), YEWS ( Taxus ), cypresses ( Cupressus ), bald cypress cypresses ( Taxodium ), Douglas firs (Pseudotsuga), arborvitaes (Thuja), and related groups. They include the world’s smallest and tallest trees. Conifers supply softwood timber used for general construction, mine timbers, fence posts, poles, boxes and crates, and other articles, as well as pulpwood for paper. The wood is also used as fuel and in the manufacture of cellulose products, plywood, and veneers. The trees are the source of resins, volatile oils, turpentine, tars, and pharmaceuticals. Conifer leaves vary in shape but generally have a reduced surface area to minimize water loss. Especially in the pines, firs, and spruces, the leaves are long and stiff and are commonly referred to as needles. Cypresses, cedars, and others have smaller, scalelike leaves. Conifers were the domi¬ nant type of vegetation just before the advent of angiosperms (see flow¬ ering PLANT).

conjoined twins or Siamese twins Identical twins (see multiple birth) whose embryos did not separate completely. Conjoined twins are physically joined (typically along the trunk or at the front, side, or back of the head) and often share some organs. Symmetrical conjoined twins usually have no birth anomalies except at the areas of fusion and can sometimes be separated by surgery. In asymmetrical conjoined twins, one is fairly well developed, but the other is severely underdeveloped and dependent on the larger twin for nutrition. The underdeveloped twin may have to be surgically separated to save the larger twin. The term origi¬ nally referred to Chang and Eng, bom in 1811 in Siam, who were joined by a ligament from breastbone to navel. Widely exhibited, they married two sisters and fathered several children.

conjugation Interaction of adjacent bonds in a chemical compound having alternating single and double covalent bonds. The conjugated bonds show modified characteristics because of increased electron delo¬ calization and sharing. Conjugation occurs, for example, within a mol¬ ecule containing a chain of carbon atoms linked by alternating single and double bonds. Such a conjugated system often gives rise to substances with intense colours—e.g., the biological pigments called carotenes. Another example is the carboxyl group (see carboxylic acid; functional group), in which the double bond of the carbonyl group (—C=0) is adjacent to the single bond attaching the hydroxyl group (—OH) to the carbon atom.

conjunctivitis Inflammation of the conjunctiva, the delicate lining of the eyelids and the front of the white of the eye. It may be caused by infec¬ tion (when it is commonly called “pink eye”), chemical burn, physical injury, or allergy. Often the cornea is also inflamed (keratoconjunctivitis). Infectious causes include several viruses and bacteria, including those that cause trachoma and gonorrhea, both of which can lead to blindness. Con¬ junctivitis from erythema multiforme, a skin eruption, can also cause blindness.

conjuring Art of entertaining by giving the illusion of performing impossible feats. The conjurer is an actor who combines psychology, manual dexterity, and mechanical aids to effect the desired illusion. The form was established by the medieval era, when traveling conjurers per¬ formed at fairs and in the homes of the nobility. In the 19th-20th centuries, conjuring was performed on stage by magicians such as Jean-Eugene Robert-Houdin, Harry Houdini, and Harry Blackstone. In the late 20th cen¬ tury magicians such as Doug Henning and David Copperfield performed colourful spectacles on television, while the postmodern team Penn and Teller offered a quieter brand of magic that emphasized irony and illusion.

Conkling, Roscoe (b. Oct. 30, 1829, Albany, N.Y., U.S.—d. April 18, 1888, New York, N.Y.) U.S. politician. He was a lawyer, orator, and leader of the Whig Party. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1859— 65) and Senate (1867-81). As a leader of the Radical Republicans, he sup¬ ported severe Reconstruction measures. Resisting efforts by Pres. Rutherford B. Hayes to achieve civil service reform, he retained control of New York state’s patronage system. At the 1880 Republican convention, he led the Stalwart faction in supporting former Pres. Ulysses S. Grant. In 1881 he resigned from the Senate in a patronage dispute with Pres. James Garfield.

Connacht or Connaught Vka-,n6t\ Province (pop., 2002 prelim.: 464,050), northwestern Ireland. It is composed of the counties of Galway, Leitrim, Mayo, Roscommon, and Sligo and has an area of 6,611 sq mi (17,122 sq km). An ancient kingdom, Connacht was Christianized by St. Patrick in the 5 th century. Dominated from the 11th century by the O’Connors of Roscommon, it endured an Anglo-Norman invasion in the 12th century.

Connecticut State (pop., 2000: 3,405,565), northeastern U.S. The south¬ ernmost of the New England states, it lies on Long Island Sound and is bor¬ dered by Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and New York. It covers 5,006 sq mi (12,966 sq km); its capital is Hartford. The original inhabitants were Algonquian- speaking Indians. The area was colonized by English Puritans from the Massachusetts Bay Colony during the 1630s. One of the original states of the Union, it was the fifth to ratify the U.S. Constitution. It was an agricultural region until the early 19th century, when textile factories were established, and by 1850 employment in manufacturing exceeded agricul¬ ture; the state remains a manufacturing centre. New Haven, home of Yale University, is one of New England’s largest ports, while Stamford is the headquarters for some of the U.S.’s largest corporations. New London is home to the U.S. Coast Guard Academy. Highways and railways traverse Connecticut and serve the densely settled coastal and Connecticut River val¬ ley regions. The state abounds with historical sites and memorials, and there are numerous state forests and state parks.

Connecticut River River, New England, northeastern U.S. Rising in the Connecticut Lakes in northern New Hampshire, it flows south for a course of 407 mi (655 km) to empty into Long Island Sound. It forms the entire boundary between Vermont and New Hampshire. The lower 60 mi (97 km) of the river are tidal. The longest river in New England, it is extensively developed for hydroelectric power.

connectionism In cognitive science, an approach that proposes to model human information processing in terms of a network of interconnected units operating in parallel. The units are typically classified as input units, hidden units, or output units. Each unit has a default activation level that can vary as a function of the strength of (1) the inputs it receives from other units, (2) the different weights associated with its connections to the other units, and (3) its own bias. Connectionism, unlike traditional com¬ putational models in cognitive science, holds that information is distrib¬ uted throughout entire networks instead of being localized in functionally discrete, semantically interpretable states.

connective tissue Tissue in the body that maintains the form of the body and its organs and provides cohesion and internal support, includ¬ ing BONE, LIGAMENTS, TENDONS, CARTILAGE, ADIPOSE TISSUE, and aponeuroses. Its major components are different kinds of cells and extracellular fibres and ground substance, which varies in consistency from thin gel to rigid struc¬ ture. Various combinations of these elements make up the different kinds of connective tissue. Connective tissue diseases are either genetic disor¬ ders, attacking one of its elements (e.g., Marfan syndrome), or acquired inflammatory or immune-system diseases (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis, OSTEOARTHRITIS, systemic LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS, and RHEUMATIC FEVER).

Connelly, Marc(us Cook) (b. Dec. 13, 1890, McKeesport, Pa., U.S.—d. Dec. 21, 1980, New York, N.Y.) U.S. playwright, screenwriter, and director. He covered theatrical news as a journalist in Pittsburgh and New York City. He collaborated with George S. Kaufman on the play Dulcy (1921), which they followed with the comedies To the Ladies (1922) and Beggar on Horseback (1924) and the librettos for the musi¬ cals Helen of Troy, New York (1923) and Be Yourself ( 1924). Connelly went on to write Green Pastures (1930, Pulitzer Prize; film, 1936), his best-known work, and The Farmer Takes a Wife (1934; film, 1935).

Connery, Sir Sean orig. Thomas Connery (b. Aug. 25, 1930, Edinburgh, Scot.) Scottish actor. He worked at odd jobs and entered body-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

452 I Connolly ► conscription

building competitions before making his London stage debut in the cho¬ rus of South Pacific (1951). After several minor roles, Connery starred as James Bond in the film version of Ian Fleming’s Dr. No (1962) and went on to play secret agent 007 in six other films. A compelling character actor as well as a perennial sex symbol, he acted in films such as The Man Who Would Be King (1975), The Name of the Rose (1986), The Untouchables (1987, Academy Award), and Finding Forrester (2000).

Connolly, Maureen (Catherine) (b. Sept. 17, 1934, San Diego, Calif., U.S.—d. June 21, 1969, Dallas, Texas) U.S. tennis player. She became the youngest winner of the National Girl’s Tournament at age 14. “Little Mo” won her first National Women’s title in 1951. In 1953 she became the first woman to win the grand-slam (the Wimbledon, U.S., Australian, and French singles competitions). Her career was ended in 1954 by a horseback-riding accident.

Connor, Ralph orig. Charles William Gordon (b. Sept. 13,1860, Indian Lands, Glengarry county, Ont., Can.—d. Oct. 31, 1937, Winnipeg, Man.) Canadian novelist. Ordained a Presbyterian minister in 1890, Con¬ nor became a missionary to mining and lumber camps in the Canadian Rocky Mountains; this experience and memories of his childhood in Glen¬ garry, Ont., provided material for his novels, including The Sky Pilot (1899) and The Prospector (1904), which, combining adventure with reli¬ gious messages and wholesome sentiment, made him the best-selling Canadian novelist of the early 20th century. His best books are considered to be The Man from Glengarry (1901) and Glengarry School Days (1902).

Connors, Jimmy in full James Scott Connors (b. Sept. 2, 1952, East St. Louis, Ill., U.S.) U.S. tennis player. In 1974 he won three grand- slam tournaments (U.S. Open, Australian Open, and Wimbledon) but was barred from the French Open because he had joined World Team Tennis. Known for his aggressive play and fiery temper, Connors won the Wim¬ bledon and U.S. doubles (with Ilie Nastase) titles in 1975, the Wimble¬ don singles in 1982, and the U.S. singles in 1976, 1978, 1982, and 1983.

conodont Vko-no-.dantX Minute toothlike fossil composed of the min¬ eral apatite (calcium phosphate); conodonts are among the most fre¬ quently encountered fossils in marine sedimentary rocks of Paleozoic age. They are the remains of animals that lived 543-248 million years ago that are believed to have been small marine invertebrates living in the open oceans and coastal waters throughout the tropical and temperate zones.

Conor See Conchobar mac Nessa

conquistador Vkan-'kes-to-.dorN Any of a small group of adventurers who took part in the Spanish conquest of South and Central America in the 16th century. Under Hernan Cortes a force of some 500 men with 16 horses conquered Mexico’s Aztec empire. A force under Pedro de Alva¬ rado subsequently subdued Guatemala. Francisco Pizarro defeated the Inca in Peru with 180 men and 37 horses; his companion Diego de Alma- gro led an expedition to Chile. Further expeditions extended Spanish rule over much of South America. Though renowned for their bravery, the conquistadores remain notorious for their avarice and the destruction they wrought on native populations and civilizations. They were soon replaced by administrators and settlers from Spain.

Conrad I (d. Dec. 23, 918) German king (911-918). The duke of Fran¬ conia and a member of the powerful Franconian dynasty known as the Conradines, Conrad was elected king on the death of the last of the East Frankish Carolingian rulers. His reign was a bitter struggle to maintain the traditions of Carolingian kingship against the growing power of Saxon, Bavarian, and Swabian dukes. Conrad failed to gain the support of the church, and his military campaigns were unsuccessful. Unable to establish his family as the royal house of the eastern Franks, he is reported to have proposed his opponent, Henry of Saxony, as his successor.

Conrad II (b. c. 990—d. June 4, 1039, Utrecht, Ger.) German king (1024-39) and emperor (1027-39), founder of the Salian (or Franconian) dynasty. In 1016 he married a duchess to whom he was distantly related, and the emperor Henry II used the marriage as a pretext to have him exiled. The two men were later reconciled, and Conrad was crowned king of Germany in 1024. A rebellion of German nobles and princes of Lombardy collapsed (1025), and Conrad was made successively king of Italy (1026) and emperor (1027). He instituted legislative reforms, issuing a new set of feudal constitutions for Lombardy. His son Henry was elected king in 1028 and became his chief counselor. Conrad defeated Poland (1028), regaining lands lost earlier. He inherited Burgundy (1034) and resolved dissensions among the great princes in Italy (1038).

Conrad III (b. 1093—d. Feb. 15, 1152, Bamberg, Ger.) German king (1138-52), the first of the Hohenstaufen dynasty. Nephew of Emperor Henry V of Germany, he revolted when he was passed over as heir by the electors, and he was crowned antiking at Niimberg (1127) and king of Italy (1128). Returning to Germany in 1132, he fought the German king Lothar II until 1135, when Conrad submitted and was pardoned. He became king when Lothar died, quelling resistance in Bavaria and Sax¬ ony. Conrad set out for Palestine on the Second Crusade (1147) and vis¬ ited Constantinople (1148), where he cemented an alliance with Manuel I Comnenus. Unable to visit Rome, he never received the imperial crown.

Conrad, Joseph orig. Jozef Teodor Konrad Korzeniowski

(b. Dec. 3, 1857, Berdichev, Ukraine, Russian Empire—d. Aug. 3, 1924, Canterbury, Kent, Eng.) Polish-British novelist and short-story writer. His father was a Polish patriot who was exiled to northern Russia, and Con¬ rad was an orphan by age 12. He managed to join the French merchant marine and in 1878 the British merchant navy, where he pursued a career for most of the next 15 years; his naval experiences would provide the material for most of his novels. Though he knew little English before he was 20, he became one of the master English stylists. He is noted for tales in rich prose of dangerous life at sea and in exotic places, settings he used to reveal his real concern, his deeply pessimistic vision of the human struggle. Of his many novels, which include Almayer’s Folly (1895), The Nigger of the “Narcissus” (1897), Lord Jim (1900), Nostromo (1904), The Secret Agent (1907), and Under Western Eyes (1911), several are regarded as masterpieces. He also published seven story collections; the novella “Heart of Darkness” (1902) is his most famous shorter work and the basis for Francis Ford Coppola’s film Apocalypse Now (1979). Conrad’s influ¬ ence on later novelists has been profound.

Conrad von Hotzendorf Vkon-.rat-fon-'hcet-son-.dorfV, Franz (Xaver Josef), Count (b. Nov. 11, 1852, Penzing, Austria—d. Aug. 25, 1925, Mergentheim, Ger.) Austrian soldier. A career officer in the Austro-Hungarian army, he became chief of staff in 1906. A conservative propagandist for Austria-Hungary, he advocated preventive wars against Serbia and Italy, for which he was briefly dismissed in 1911. In World War I, he planned the successful Austro-German offensive of 1915, but he was later hampered by German domination and lack of military resources. He was dismissed when Charles I took command in 1916.

Conrail in full Consolidated Rail Corp. U.S. railroad company created by the federal government in 1973 to take over six bankrupt northeastern railroads. Conrail began operations in 1976 with major por¬ tions of the Central Railroad Co. of New Jersey, Erie Lackawanna Rail¬ way Co., Lehigh & Hudson River Railway Co., Lehigh Valley Railroad Co., Penn Central Transportation Co., and Reading Co. The resulting net¬ work carried freight traffic to 15 states, from the Atlantic Ocean to St. Louis, Mo., and from the Ohio River north to Canada. Its passenger traf¬ fic was turned over to Amtrak and regional transportation authorities in 1983. Its stock was put up for sale to the public in 1987, and in 1999 most of Conrail’s assets were acquired by CSX and Norfolk Southern railroads.

conscientious objector One who opposes participation in military service, on the basis of religious, philosophical, or political belief. A fea¬ ture of Western society since the beginning of the Christian era, consci¬ entious objection developed as a doctrine of the Mennonites (16th century), the Society of Friends (17th century), and others. Exemptions may be unconditional, conditioned on alternative civilian service, or lim¬ ited to combat duty. Those who refuse conscription may face imprison¬ ment. Philosophical or political reasons are acceptable grounds for exemption in many European countries, but the U.S. recognizes only membership in a religious group that endorses pacifism.

consciousness Quality or state of being aware. As applied to the lower animals, consciousness refers to the capacity for sensation and, usually, simple volition. In higher animals, this capacity may also include think¬ ing and emotion. In human beings, consciousness is understood to include “meta-awareness,” an awareness that one is aware. The term also refers broadly to the upper level of mental life of which the person is aware, as contrasted with unconscious processes. Levels of consciousness (e.g., attention vs. sleep) are correlated with patterns of electrical activity in the brain (brain waves). See also philosophy of mind.

conscription or draft Compulsory enrollment for service in a coun¬ try’s armed forces. It has existed at least since the Egyptian Old King¬ dom in the 27th century bc. It usually takes the form of selective service rather than universal conscription. (The latter generally refers to compul-