Britannica Concise 2005

Caulaincourt ► Cavallini I 355

politically unstable conditions and the long experience of armed conflict led to the emergence in many of the new countries of strongmen who were often charismatic and whose hold on power depended on control over armed followers, patronage, and vigilance. Because their power was based on violence and personal relations, the legitimacy of the caudillos’ rule was always in doubt, and few could withstand the challenges of new leaders who emerged among their own followers and wealthy patrons. See also machismo; personalismo.

Caulaincourt \,ko-,la n - , kur\ / Armand (-Augustin-Louis), mar¬ quis de (b. Dec. 9, 1773, Caulaincourt, France—d. Feb. 19, 1827, Paris) French general and diplomat. He became aide-de-camp to Napoleon (1802) and was the emperor’s loyal master of horse from 1804. He later served as ambassador to Russia (1807-11) and foreign minister (1813— 14, 1815). Created duke de Vicence (1808), he was at Napoleon’s side in his great battles. His Memoires provide an important source for the period 1812 to 1814.

cauliflower Form of cabbage ( Brassica oleracea, Botrytis group) in the mustard family, consisting of a com¬ pact terminal mass of greatly thick¬ ened, modified, and partially developed flower structures, together with their embracing fleshy stalks.

This terminal cluster forms a firm, white, succulent “curd” that is served as a cooked vegetable and is highly nutritious. The separated flower structures are also eaten raw.

Caulkins, Tracy (b. Jan. 11,1963,

Winona, Minn., U.S.) U.S. swimmer.

In 1978 she became (at age 15) the first woman to swim the 200-yd medley in under two minutes. By 1982 she had surpassed Johnny Weissmuller’s record of 36 U.S. national titles and had won more titles than any other U.S. amateur ath¬ lete. After the 1984 Olympics, where she won three gold medals, she retired having won 48 national titles and having set 66 world or U.S. records. Caulkins is the only swimmer to set U.S. records in every stroke.

causation Relation that holds between two temporally simultaneous or successive events when the first event (the cause) brings about the other (the effect). According to David Hume, when we say of two types of object or event that “X causes Y” (e.g., fire causes smoke), we mean that (i) Xs are “constantly conjoined” with Ys, (ii) Ys follow Xs and not vice versa, and (iii) there is a “necessary connection” between Xs and Ys such that whenever an X occurs, a Y must follow. Unlike the ideas of contiguity and succession, however, the idea of necessary connection is subjective, in the sense that it derives from the act of contemplating objects or events that we have experienced as being constantly conjoined and succeeding one another in a certain order, rather than from any observable properties in the objects or events themselves. This idea is the basis of the classic problem of induction, which Hume formulated. Hume’s definition of cau¬ sation is an example of a “regularity” analysis. Other types of analysis include counterfactual analysis, manipulation analysis, and probabilistic analysis.

caustic soda Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), an inorganic compound. The alkalies called caustic soda and caustic potash (potassium hydroxide) are very important industrial chemicals, with uses in the manufacture of soaps, glass, and numerous other products. They have been easily extracted since ancient times by soaking wood ashes in water (see lye). Industrial methods of caustic-soda production developed in the 18th cen¬ tury (the Leblanc process) and 19th century (the Solvay, or ammonia-soda, process) have been largely displaced by electrolysis.

Cauvery River See Kaveri River

Cavafy \k9-'vaf-e\, Constantine orig. Konstantinos Petrou K a vans (b. April 17, 1863, Alexandria—d. April 29, 1933, Alexandria) Poet of Turkish-Greek ancestry. Born to Greek parents, Cavafy worked as an obscure civil servant in Alexandria his entire adult life. His small body of work, some 200 poems in an intimate, realistic, lyrical style, is written in a strange combination of classically based and modern Greek. Many deal with history, principally the Hellenistic era; many others reflect

Cavafy’s homosexual life. His poems became popular and influen¬ tial after his death, and he is now widely regarded as one of the great¬ est of modern Greek poets.

Cavaignac \ka-ven-'yak\/ Louis- Eugene (b. Oct. 15, 1802, Paris,

France—d. Oct. 28, 1857, Sarthe)

French general. He served with dis¬ tinction in the French conquest of Algeria in the 1840s. In the Revolu¬ tions of 1848 he was appointed min¬ ister of war. In June he suppressed a workers’ revolt, becoming known as “the butcher of June” (see June Days). That month he was named chief executive of France. In Decem¬ ber he lost the presidential election to Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte (later Napoleon III) but remained a leader of the opposition.

Cavaille-Coll \k3-vI-ya-'kol\, Aristide (b. Feb. 4, 1811, Montpellier, France—d. Oct. 13, 1899, Paris) French organ builder. He settled in Paris in 1833 at Gioacchino Rossini’s suggestion and with his brother and father built almost 500 organs in France, Belgium, The Netherlands, and else¬ where, including those in the Paris churches of Notre-Dame, La Madeleine, Ste. Clotilde, and La Trinite. With the goal of achieving an orchestral richness and variety of timbre, he introduced countless inno¬ vations; he is regarded as the creator of the French Romantic organ (which had great influence elsewhere as well), and composers such as Cesar Franck, Camille Saint-Saens, and Olivier Messiaen wrote particularly with the Cavaille-Coll sound in mind.

Cavalcanti X.ka-val-'kan-teV Guido (b. c. 1255, Florence—d. Aug. 27/28, 1300, Florence) Italian poet. Born into an influential Florentine family, he studied with the philosopher and scholar Brunetto Latini, who had earlier taught Dante, Cavalcanti’s close friend. After Dante, he is con¬ sidered the greatest Italian poet and personality in 13th-century Italian lit¬ erature. He left about 50 poems, many addressed to two women and on the theme of love. His language demonstrates the grace and directness of the dolce stil nuovo (“sweet new style”). Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Ezra Pound translated his poems.

Cavalier \,kav-3-'lir\ In the English Civil Wars, the name adopted by Charles I’s supporters, who contemptuously called their opponents Round- heads (a reference to the short-haired apprentices who had formed part of an anti-Cavalier mob). The term (similar to the French chevalier) origi¬ nally meant a rider or cavalryman. At the Restoration, the court party pre¬ served the name Cavalier, which survived until the rise of the term Tory. See also Cavalier poet.

Cavalier \,kav-3-'lir\ poets Group of English gentlemen poets who were Cavaliers (supporters of Charles I during the English Civil Wars). The term embraces Sir John Suckling, Edmund Waller, Robert Herrick, Thomas Carew (15947-16407), and Richard Lovelace (1618-57). Accomplished as soldiers, courtiers, gallants, and wits, they wrote polished and elegant lyrics, typically on love and dalliance and sometimes on war, honour, and duty to the king.

Cavalli \ka-'val-le\, (Pier) Francesco orig. Pietro Francesco Caletti-Bruni (b. Feb. 14, 1602, Crema, Republic of Venice—d. Jan. 14, 1676, Venice) Italian opera composer. In his teens he was a singer under Claudio Monteverdi at St. Mark's Basiuca, Venice. Also an organist, he would rise to the post of maestro di cappella there in 1668. He wrote some 30 operas for Venice’s public opera houses. The most popular opera composer of the decades following Monteverdi’s death, he was the lat¬ ter’s leading successor, his chief rival for that status being Antonio Cesti (1623-69). His most celebrated operas were Egisto (1643), Giasone (1649), Xerse (1654), and Erismena (1655).

Cavallini V.ka-val-'le-neV Pietro (b. c. 1250, Rome—d. c. 1330) Ital¬ ian painter and mosaicist active mainly in Rome. His major surviving works are mosaics depicting scenes from the life of the Virgin for the Roman church of Santa Maria in Trastevere (1290s) and fragments of a fresco cycle, including a Last Judgment, for the church of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere (c. 1293). He was the first to break with the stylizations of

Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea, Botrytis group).

DEREK FELL

Constantine Cavafy.

DIMITRI PAPADIMOS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

356 I cavalry ► Cayenne

Byzantine art; his figures have a sense of weight and three-dimensionality. Cavallini had many students, and his work was an important influence on his great contemporary Giotto.

cavalry Vka-v9l-re\ Military force mounted on horseback, formerly an important element in the armies of all major powers. When used in com¬ bination with other military forces, its main duties included gathering information about the enemy, screening movements of its own army, pur¬ suing a defeated enemy, striking suddenly at detected weak points, turn¬ ing exposed flanks, and exploiting a penetration or breakthrough. In the late 19th century, largely because of the introduction of repeating rifles and machine guns, cavalry lost much of its former value. By World War I, a cavalry charge against a line of entrenched troops with rapid-firing small arms was suicidal. Armoured vehicles soon replaced horses, and by the 1950s no modern army had horse-mounted units. Today’s units des¬ ignated “cavalry” employ helicopters and light armoured vehicles in ways analogous to horse cavalry.

cave Naturally formed underground cavity. A cave often consists of a number of underground chambers, constituting a series of caverns. An assemblage of such caverns interconnected by smaller passageways makes up a cave system. Primary caves, such as lava tubes and coral caves, develop during the time when the host matrix is solidifying or being depos¬ ited. Secondary caves, such as marine grottoes, originate after the host matrix has been deposited or consolidated. Most caves are of the latter type, including solution caves formed by the chemical dissolution of a soluble host rock that has been weakened by fracturing and mechanical erosion; Mammoth Cave and Carlsbad Caverns are examples of solution caves.

Cavell Yka-volV Edith (Louisa) (b. Dec. 4, 1865, Swardeston, Nor¬ folk, Eng.—d. Oct. 12, 1915, Brus¬ sels, Belg.) English nurse and heroine of World War I. She began her nursing career in 1895 and in 1907 became first matron of a hos¬ pital in Brussels, where she greatly improved the standard of nursing.

After the German occupation of Bel¬ gium (1914), she became involved in an underground group that helped about 200 Allied soldiers escape to The Netherlands. She was subse¬ quently arrested and executed by the Germans.

Cavendish \'kav-on-dish\, Henry (b. Oct. 10, 1731, Nice, France—d.

Feb. 24, 1810, London, Eng.)

English physicist and chemist. A mil¬ lionaire by inheritance, he lived as a recluse most of his life. He discov¬ ered the nature and properties of hydrogen, the specific heat of certain substances, and various properties of electricity. He measured the density and mass of the Earth by the method now known as the Cavendish experi¬ ment. He discovered the composition of air, work that led to the discov¬ ery that water is a compound rather than an element and to the discovery of nitric acid. He anticipated Ohm’s law and independently discovered Coulomb’s law of electrostatic attraction. He left his fortune to relatives who later endowed the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cam¬ bridge (1871).

Cavendish Vkav-on-.dishV experiment Measurement of the force of gravitational attraction between pairs of lead spheres, which allowed the first calculation of the value of the universal gravitational constant, G. Performed in 1797-98 by the British scientist Henry Cavendish (1731— 1810) using a torsion balance, the experiment was popularly known as “weighing Earth,” because determination of G permitted calculation of Earth’s mass.

caviar Eggs, or roe, of sturgeon preserved with salt. Most true caviar is produced in Russia and Iran, from fish taken from the Caspian and Black seas. The best grade, beluga, is prepared from large black or gray eggs; fresh beluga is relatively scarce and thus expensive. Caviar may be pas¬ teurized for longer storage. Lesser grades are made from smaller, denser eggs. In the U.S., the roe of salmon, whitefish, lumpfish, and paddlefish is sometimes sold under the name caviar.

Edith Cavell

SYNDICATION INTERNATIONAL LTD.

cavitation Formation of vapour bubbles within a liquid at low-pressure regions that occur in places where the liquid has been accelerated to high velocities, as in the operation of centrifugal pumps, water turbines, and marine propellers. Cavitation is undesirable because it produces extensive erosion of the rotating blades, additional noise from the resultant knock¬ ing and vibrations, and a significant reduction of efficiency because it dis¬ torts the flow pattern. The cavities form when the pressure of the liquid has been reduced to its vapour pressure; they expand as the pressure is further reduced along with the flow, and they suddenly collapse when they reach regions of higher pressure.

cavity wall In architecture, a double wall consisting of two wythes (vertical layers) of masonry separated by an air space and joined together by metal ties. The cavity allows moisture that penetrates the exterior wythe to drain. Cavity walling is used as both non-load-bearing infill for framed buildings and for bearing-wall construction.

Cavour \k3-'vur\, Camillo Benso, count di (b. Aug. 10, 1810, Turin, Piedmont, French Empire—d. June 6, 1861, Turin, Italy) Italian statesman, leading figure of the Risorgimento. Influenced by revolutionary ideas from an early age, he traveled to Paris and London and in 1847 founded the liberal newspaper II Risorgimento, and he helped persuade Charles Albert to grant a liberal constitution. Elected to Parliament in 1848, Cavour held several cabinet posts before becoming prime minister of Piedmont (1852-59, 1860-61). His exploitation of international rival¬ ries and of revolutionary movements brought about the unification of Italy under the house of Savoy, with himself as the first prime minister of the new kingdom (1861).

cavy Vka-ve\ Any of several species of South American rodents consti¬ tuting the family Caviidae. Species in the genera Cavia, Kerodon, Galea, and Microcavia resemble the guinea PIG. They are stout, gray or brown, and 10-12 in. (25-30 cm) long, with short ears and legs and no visible tail.

The Patagonian and salt desert cav- ies ( Dolichotis) are more long- legged and rabbitlike. Cavies are social animals found in various habi¬ tats, including plains, marshes, and rocky areas. They live in burrows (which sometimes weaken the ground above so much that it col¬ lapses when walked on), and they feed on grass, leaves, and other vegetation.

Cawnpore See Kanpur

Caxton, William (b. c. 1422, Kent, Eng.—d. 1491, London) First British printer. He was a prosperous mercer when he began to translate French literature and learn printing. He set up a press in Belgium and published his translation The Recuyell of the Historyes ofTroye (1475), the first book printed in English. Returning to England, he set up another press and produced the first dated book printed in English, Dictes and Sayenges of the Phylosophers (1477). His varied output—about 100 items, including books on chivalric romance, morality, and history and an encyclopaedia that was the first illustrated English book (1481)—shows that he catered to a general public as well as to wealthy patrons.

Cayce \'ka-se\, Edgar (b. March 18, 1877, near Hopkinsville, Ky., U.S.—d. Jan. 3, 1945, Virginia Beach, Va.) U.S. faith healer. He received little formal education. He began his cures in the 1920s, often accom¬ plishing them long-distance. In 1925 he settled in Virginia Beach, Va., where he established a hospital (1928) and the Association for Research and Enlightenment (1931). He also made prophecies (including of the destruction of New York City and California) and claimed to be able to recall past lives. He believed in the existence of a great civilization in Atlantis some 12,000 years ago.

Cayenne \k!-'en\ Seaport (pop., 1999: 50,594), capital of French Gui¬ ana. The city was founded by the French in 1643 on northwestern Cay¬ enne Island, which is formed by the estuaries of the Cayenne and Mahury rivers. In the mid-19th century it became a centre of French penal settle¬ ments in Guiana and was known as the “city of the condemned” (see Dev¬ ils Island). The prisons were closed in 1945.

Patagonian cavy, or mara (Dolichotis patagona).

GEORGE HOLTON-PHOTO RESEARCHERS

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Cayley ► Cecilia I 357

Cayley, Sir George (b. Dec. 27, 1773, Scarborough, Yorkshire, Eng.—d. Dec. 15, 1857, Brompton, Yorkshire) British pioneer of aerial navigation and founder of the science of aerodynamics. By 1799 he had established the basic configuration of the modern airplane. He built his first model glider in 1804, and in 1809 he published his groundbreaking aerodynamic research. Further research into the effects of streamlining, stability, and wing design led to his construction of the first full-size glider, which flew briefly in 1853. Cayley also invented the caterpillar tractor (1825) and founded a polytechnic school in London (1839).

Cayman Islands British overseas territory (pop., 2005 est.: 47,000), Caribbean Sea. Located about 180 mi (290 km) northwest of Jamaica, it has a total land area of 118 sq mi (306 sq km). The islands include Grand Cayman (the largest and the location of the capital, George Town), Little Cayman, and Cayman Brae. Though discovered by Christopher Columbus in 1503, the islands were never occupied by the Spanish. Ceded to the British in 1670, they were subsequently settled by the English arriving from Jamaica. The islands were administered as a dependency of Jamaica until Jamaican independence in 1962; a constitution was enacted in 1972. The governor of the Cayman Islands is appointed by the British crown. The islands are a popular tourist area and a financial centre.

CBS Television Network Major U.S. broadcasting company and net¬ work. It began in 1928 as the Columbia Broadcasting System, a small radio network directed by William S. Paley. By offering programming free to affiliated stations in return for their agreement to broadcast sponsored shows, Paley built the network from 22 stations to 114 in 10 years. Such stars as Fred Allen, Bing Crosby, and Kate Smith increased audience ratings into the 1940s. Jack Benny, Ed Sullivan, Lucille Ball, Mary Tyler Moore, and Walter Cronkite made CBS the dominant television network into the 1970s. The company diversified into several other fields, but only Colum¬ bia Records was successful, and the corporation sold all its other divi¬ sions in 1985 to concentrate on broadcasting. A decline in ratings and in the number of affiliated stations led to its sale to Westinghouse Electric Corp. in 1995. CBS Corp. was purchased by Viacom Inc. in 2000.

ccc See Civilian Conservation Corps

CCD in full charge-coupled device Semiconductor device in which the individual semiconductor components are connected so that the elec¬ trical charge at the output of one device provides the input to the next device. Because they can store electrical charges, CCDs can be used as memory devices, but they are slower than RAMs. CCDs are sensitive to light, and are therefore used as the light-detecting components in video and digital cameras and in optical scanners.

CD See certificate of deposit CD See compact disc

CD-ROM in full compact disc read-only memory Type of com¬ puter storage medium that is read optically (e.g., by a laser). A CD-ROM drive uses a low-power laser beam to read digitized (binary) data that have been encoded onto an optical disc in the form of tiny pits, then feeds the data to a computer for processing. Because it uses digital data, a CD-ROM can store images and sound in addition to text and is thus used in video and audio devices to store music, graphics, and movies (see compact disc). Unlike conventional magnetic- storage technologies (e.g., hard disks), CD-ROM drives cannot write information (that is, accept the input of new data), hence the tag “read¬ only.” Recordable compact discs (called CD-R) must be written on a CD-R recorder and can be played on any CD-ROM drive.

CDC See Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Ceausescu\chau-'shes-kii\,Nico-

lae (b. Jan. 26, 1918, Scornice§ti,

Rom.—d. Dec. 25, 1989, near Bucharest) Romanian politician.

Prominent in the Romanian Commu¬ nist Party, in 1965 he succeeded Ghe- orghe Gheorghiu-Dej as the party’s leader. In 1967 he became head of

state and in 1974 president of Romania. He charted an independent, nationalistic course but also maintained rigidly repressive controls over free speech and internal dissent. His harsh economic policies and grand building projects reduced Romania from relative prosperity to near star¬ vation. He was overthrown in a revolution in 1989, and, after a hasty trial, he and his wife were executed by firing squad.

Cebu \sa-'bu\ Island (pop., 2000 : 2,377,588) and (with adjacent islets) province, central Philippines. It is 139 mi (224 km) long and about 20 mi (32 km) wide, with an area of 1,707 sq mi (4,421 sq km). Its chief city is Cebu City. A mountain chain extends its entire length. It is separated from Bohol Island by Bohol Strait and from Negros Island by Tanon Strait. Visited by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521, it was occupied by the Spanish in 1565. It is one of the Philippines’ most densely populated islands; it produces coal and copper.

Cebu City City (pop., 2000: 718,821), capital of Cebu province, Phil¬ ippines. Located on the eastern coast of Cebu Island, it is the oldest Span¬ ish city in the Philippines. It possesses an excellent harbour, sheltered by Mactan Island. Attracted by Cebu’s focal position, Ferdinand Magellan landed there in 1521 and converted the ruler to Christianity; in a later war expedition on the ruler’s behalf, Magellan was killed on Mactan Island. Occupied by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi in 1565, it was until 1571 the capital of Spanish possessions in the Philippines. It remained the primary Spanish bastion in the south and had prominent roles in insurrections against both Spain and the U.S. Having recovered from heavy damage sustained in World War II, Cebu City is now a cultural and commercial centre.

Cech \'chek\, Thomas (Robert) (b. Dec. 8, 1947, Chicago, Ill., U.S.) U.S. biochemist, molecular biologist, and Nobel laureate. He received his Ph.D. from UC-Berkeley in 1975. In 1982 he became the first to show that an RNA molecule could catalyze a chemical reaction. He and Sidney Altman were awarded a 1989 Nobel Prize for their independent discov¬ eries that RNA, previously thought to be only a messenger of genetic information, can also catalyze cellular chemical reactions essential to life.

Cecil Vse-sslV Robert, 1st earl of Salisbury (b. June 1, 1563, London, Eng.—d. May 24, 1612, Marlborough, Wiltshire) English states¬ man. Trained in statesmanship by his father, William Cecil, Robert entered the House of Commons in 1584. He became acting secretary of state in 1590 and was formally appointed to the post by Elizabeth I in 1596. He succeeded his father as chief minister in 1598 and guided the peaceful succession of Elizabeth by James I, for whom he continued as chief min¬ ister from 1603 and lord treasurer from 1608. He negotiated the end of the war with Spain in 1604 and allied England with France.

Cecil (of Chelwood), (Edgar Algernon) Robert Gascoyne- Cecil, 1st Viscount (b. Sept. 14, 1864, London, Eng.—d. Nov. 24, 1958, Tunbridge Wells, Kent) British statesman. The son of the marquess of Salisbury, he served during World War I as minister of blockade and as assistant secretary of state for foreign affairs. He was one of the principal draftsmen of the League of Nations covenant in 1919 and, as president of the League of Nations Union (1923^15), one of the League’s most loyal workers until it was superseded by the United Nations. In 1937 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

Cecil, William, 1st Baron Burghley Vbor-le\ (b. Sept. 13, 1520, Bourne, Lincolnshire, Eng.—d. Aug. 5, 1598, London) English statesman, principal adviser to Elizabeth I through most of her reign and a master of Renaissance statecraft. Having served as a councillor and cosecretary to Edward VI, he was appointed Elizabeth’s sole secretary when she became queen in 1558. A dedicated and skillful adviser to the queen, Cecil was created Baron Burghley in 1571 and appointed lord high treasurer (1572— 98). He obtained the trial and execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, thus securing the Protestant succession, and his preparations enabled England to survive the Spanish Armada. But he failed to induce Elizabeth to marry or to reform her church along more Protestant lines.

Cecilia, Saint (fl. 3rd century, Rome; feast day November 22) Early Christian martyr and patron saint of music. According to a late 5th-century tradition, she was a noble Roman who had dedicated her virginity to God as a child and was married against her will to Valerian, a noble pagan. She told him of her vow, and he promised he would let her keep it if he could see the angel with whom she conversed. After being baptized, Vale¬ rian saw Cecilia talking to the angel. Valerian’s brother also converted, and both were eventually martyred. Cecilia’s good works infuriated the

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

358 I cedar ► celestial mechanics

Roman prefect, who ordered her burned at the stake; when the flames did not harm her, she was beheaded. Her relics were discovered in the 9th century by Pope Paschal I, who moved them to the church in Rome that bears her name.

cedar Any of four species of tall ornamental and timber evergreen conif¬ erous trees of the genus Cedrus, in the pine family. Three cedars are native to mountainous areas of the Mediterranean region and one to the western Himalayas. These “true” cedars are the Atlas cedar (C. atlan- tica ), the Cyprus cedar (C. brevifo- lia), the deodar (C. deodara), and the cedar of Lebanon (C. libani ). Cedar- wood is light, soft, resinous, and durable, even when in contact with soil or moisture. Many other conifers known as cedars resemble true cedars in being evergreen and in hav¬ ing aromatic, often red or red-tinged wood that in many cases is decay- resistant and insect-repellent. The giant arbor vitae, incense cedar, and some junipers (red cedar) provide the familiar “cedarwood” of pencils, chests, closet linings, and fence posts. See also white cedar.

Cedar Breaks National Monument Preserve, southwestern Utah, U.S. Established as a national monument in 1933, it consists of a vast natural amphitheatre (10 sq mi [26 sq km]) eroded in a limestone escarp¬ ment. Iron and manganese oxide impurities in the cliff produce an amaz¬ ing variety of colours that change constantly.

Cedar Rapids City (pop., 2000: 120,758), eastern Iowa, U.S. Origi¬ nally called Rapids City, it was settled in the 1830s next to rapids of the Cedar River, a source of waterpower. With the coming of the railroads, it developed as a grain and livestock market. Neighbouring Kingston was annexed in 1870, and Kenwood Park in 1926. Its manufactures include electronic equipment and farm machinery. It was the home of the artist Grant Wood.

Cedar River River, northern central U.S. Flowing from southeastern Minnesota southeasterly across Iowa, it joins the Iowa River about 20 mi (32 km) from the Mississippi River. Over its 329-mi (529-km) course it passes through many cities, including Cedar Rapids. The river is named for the stands of red cedar along its lower course.

ceiling Overhead surface of a room, and the underside of a floor or roof. Suspended ceilings, which hang from the beams above, are used to con¬ ceal construction, mechanical equipment, wiring, and light fixtures. Dur¬ ing the Renaissance, ceilings were often coffered (see coffer), vaulted (see vault), or transformed into one large framed painting.

Cela (Trulock) Vtha-la\, Camilo Jose (b. May 11, 1916, Iria Flavia, Spain—d. Jan. 17, 2002, Madrid) Spanish writer. As a young man Cela served with Francisco Franco’s forces in the Spanish Civil War; his lit¬ erary works, however, represent a renunciation of his former Falangist sympathies. Primarily novels, short narratives, and travel diaries of Spain and Latin America, they are characteristically experimental and innova¬ tive in form and content. He is sometimes credited with establishing tre- mendismo, a narrative style tending to emphasize violence and grotesque imagery. He is perhaps best known for his first novel. The Family of Pas - cual Duarte (1942); other works include The Hive (1951) and the avant- garde San Camilo, 1936 (1969). In 1989 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature.

celadon Chinese, Korean, Siamese, and Japanese stoneware decorated with glazes the colour range of which includes greens of various shades, olive, blue, and gray. The colours are the result of a wash of slip (lique¬ fied clay) containing a high proportion of iron that is applied to the body before glazing. The iron interacts with the glaze during the firing and colours it. Celadons were prized in Eastern cultures long before their comparatively late introduction to the West. A wide demand led to their export to India, Persia, and Egypt in the Tang dynasty (618-907) and to most of Asia in the Song (960-1279) and Ming (1368-1644) dynasties. The ware was popular because of its beauty, because of a superstition that a celadon dish would break or change colour if poisoned food were put

into it, and because, to the Chinese, it resembled jade. Yue ware, first made in the Han dynasty (206 bc-ad 220), is the earliest celadon.

Celan Vtsa-.lanV Paul orig. Paul Antschel (b. Nov. 23, 1920, Cer- nauti, Rom.—d. May 1, 1970, Paris, France) Romanian poet who wrote in German. When Romania came under Nazi control during World War II, Celan, a Jew, was sent to a forced-labour camp; his parents were mur¬ dered. He moved to Vienna in 1947 and published his first volume of poetry, The Sand from the Urns, in 1948. His second volume, Poppy and Memory (1952), established his reputation in West Germany. He produced seven more volumes before taking his own life by drowning in the Seine. Celan’s dense and complex verse is marked by his experience of World War II; his early poem “Todesfuge” is one of the most famous poetic expressions of the Holocaust.

Celebes \'se-lo- l bez\ or Sulawesi \,su-l3-'wa-se\ Island (pop., includ¬ ing nearby islands, 2000: 14,946,488), Indonesia. One of the Greater Sunda Islands, it lies in the Malay Archipelago east of Borneo and has an area (including adjacent islands) of 74,005 sq mi (191,671 sq km). The island is mountainous; its tallest peak, Mount Rantekombola, reaches 11,335 ft (3,455 m). Muslims arrived in the 15th century. The Portuguese first visited in 1512 while developing the spice trade of the Moluccas. The first foreign settlement, in 1607 by the Dutch at Makasar (now Ujung Pandang), initiated a power rivalry with the native sultans that lasted into the 20th century. Celebes joined Indonesia in 1950, though various rebel¬ lions against the central government have been ongoing.

Celebes black macaque or Celebes crested macaque

\mo-'kak\ Stump-tailed arboreal monkey ( Macaca nigra ) found in the rain¬ forests of Sulawesi (Celebes), Bacan, and nearby islands. Because it lacks a long tail, this macaque has often been incorrectly referred to as an ape. It has overhanging brows, a hairless black face, and a long, flat muzzle. It is 22-26 in. (55-65 cm) long without the 0.4-0.8-in. (1-2-cm) tail and has dark brown or black fur. The male, especially, bears a longitudinal crest of crown hair. It spends much of its time in trees, where it feeds on fruit. Certain peoples look on it as their ancestor.

Celebes Vse-l3-,bez\ Sea Part of the western Pacific Ocean. It is bor¬ dered by the Sulu Archipelago, Mindanao, the Sangihe Islands, Celebes, and Borneo. It extends 420 mi (675 km) north-south and 520 mi (837 km) east-west, occupying about 110,000 sq mi (280,000 sq km). It is connected with the Java Sea by the Makassar Strait. More than half of it is below 13,000 ft (4,000 m) deep, and its maximum depth is 20,406 ft (6,220 m). Traders and pirates from Borneo and nearby islands controlled the sea until it came under colonial rule in the late 19th century.

celeriac \s3-'ler-e-,ak\ or celery root Type of celery ( Apium graveo- lens, variety rapaceum) grown for its knobby edible root, which is used as a raw or cooked vegetable. Originally cultivated in the Mediterranean and in northern Europe, it was introduced into Britain in the 18th century.

celery Herb ( Apium graveolens) of the parsley family, native to the Medi¬ terranean and the Middle East. The varieties with large, fleshy, succulent, upright leafstalks were developed in the late 18th century. Celery is usu¬ ally eaten cooked in Europe but raw in the U.S. The tiny fruit, or seed, of the celery resembles the plant itself in taste and aroma and is used as a seasoning.

celestial coordinates Set of numbers used to pinpoint the position in the sky (see celestial sphere) of a celestial object. Coordinate systems used include the horizon system (altitude and azimuth), galactic coordinates, the ecliptic system (measured relative to the orbital plane of Earth), and the equatorial system (right ascension and declination, directly analogous to terrestrial latitude and longitude).

celestial mechanics Branch of astronomy that deals with the math¬ ematical theory of the motions of celestial bodies. Johannes Kepler’s laws of planetary motion (1609-19) and Newton's laws of motion (1687) are fundamental to it. In the 18th century, powerful methods of mathemati¬ cal analysis were generally successful in accounting for the observed motions of bodies in the solar system. One branch of celestial mechanics deals with the effect of gravitation on rotating bodies, with applications to Earth (see tide) and other objects in space. A modem derivation, called orbital mechanics or flight mechanics, deals with the motions of space¬ craft under the influence of gravity, thrust, atmospheric drag, and other forces; it is used to calculate trajectories for ascent into space, achieving orbit, rendezvous, descent, and lunar and interplanetary flights.

Cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus libani )

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celestial sphere ► Cellini I 359

celestial sphere Apparent surface of the heavens, on which the stars seem to be fixed. For the purpose of establishing celestial coordinate sys¬ tems to mark the positions of heavenly bodies, it can be thought of as a real sphere at an infinite distance from Earth. Earth’s rotational axis, extended to infinity, touches this sphere at the northern and southern celestial poles, around which the heavens seem to turn. The intersection of the plane of Earth’s Equator with the sphere marks the celestial equator.

celiac \'se-le-,ak\ disease or nontropical sprue Digestive disor¬ der in which people cannot tolerate gluten, a protein constituent of wheat, barley, malt, and rye flours. In celiac disease, gluten generates an immune response that damages the mucous lining of the small intestine; it is believed that a deficiency of gluten-digesting enzymes may underlie the disease. Poor nutrient absorption causes foul, bulky, fatty stools; malnu¬ trition; stunting of growth; and anemia similar to pernicious anemia. It can run in families. Children begin having intermittent intestinal upset, diarrhea, and wasting at 6-21 months. In adults it usually begins after 30, with appetite loss, depression, irritability, and diarrhea. Symptoms in advanced cases stem from nutritional deficiencies and may require sup¬ portive measures. A high-protein diet low in glutens and saturated fats usually relieves symptoms.

celibacy Vse-b-b3-se\ The deliberate abstinence from sexual activity, usually in connection with a religious role or practice. It has existed in some form in most world religions. It may indicate a person’s ritual purity (sexual relations being viewed as polluting) or may be adopted to facili¬ tate spiritual advancement (as sexual activity would take place only within the bonds of matrimony, marriage and family were seen as an entangling distraction). In shamanistic religions, shamans are often celibate. In Hin¬ duism, “holy men” (or women) who have left ordinary secular life to seek final liberation are celibate. Buddhism began as a celibate order, though many sects have since given up celibacy. Chinese taoism has monastics and independent celibate adepts. Islam has no institutional celibacy, but individuals may embrace it for personal spiritual advancement. Judaism has prescribed periods of abstinence, but long-term celibacy has not played a large role. The early Christian church tended to regard celibacy as superior to marriage. Since the 12th century it has been the rule for Roman Catholic clergy, though clerical celibacy was never adopted by Protestantism.

Celine \sa-'len\, Louis-Ferdinand orig. Louis-Ferdinand Destouches (b. May 27, 1894, Courbevoie, near Paris, France—d. July 1, 1961, Meudon) French writer. Celine was born into poverty. In World War I he suffered wounds and shell shock, the mental and physical effects of which lingered throughout his life. From 1924 he practiced medicine. His Journey to the End of Night (1932), about a man’s tortured search for meaning, is written in a vehement and disjointed style that marked him as a major innovator. Death on the Installment Plan (1936) is a bleak portrayal of a world bereft of value, beauty, and decency. He thereafter became increasingly conservative, anti-Semitic, and misanthropic. After World War II he fled to Denmark as a suspected Nazi collaborator, but he was later exonerated. His works include the trilogy Castle to Castle (1957), North (1960), and Rigadoon (1969).

cell In biology, the basic unit of which all living things are composed; the smallest structural unit of living matter that is able to function inde¬ pendently. A single cell can be a complete organism in itself, as in bac¬ teria and protozoans. Groups of specialized cells are organized into tissues and organs in multicellular organisms such as higher plants and animals. There are two distinct types of cells: prokaryotic cells, found only in bac¬ teria (including blue-green algae, or cyanobacteria) , and eukaryotic cells, composing all other life-forms. Though the structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ (see prokaryote, eukaryote), their molecular com¬ positions and activities are very similar. The chief molecules in cells are nucleic acids, proteins, and polysaccharides. A cell is bounded by a membrane that enables it to exchange certain materials with its surroundings. In plant cells, a rigid cell wall encloses this membrane. See illustration above.

cell division See meiosis, mitosis

cell(ular) phone Wireless telephone that permits telecommunication within a defined area that may include hundreds of square miles, using radio waves in the 800-900 megahertz (MHz) band. To implement a cell¬ phone system, a geographic area is broken into smaller areas, or cells, usually mapped as uniform hexagrams but in fact overlapping and irregu¬ larly shaped. Each cell is equipped with a low-powered radio transmitter and receiver that permit propagation of signals among cell-phone users.

rough endoplasmic reticulum

ribosomes

nucleoplasm nucleolus nuclear pore nuclear envelope _ smooth

reticulum Golgi complex apparatus)

cell membrane (plasma membrane) secretory vesicles

lysosome

peroxisome

mitochondrion

Principal structures of an animal cell. Cytoplasm surrounds the cell's specialized structures, or organelles. Ribosomes, the sites of protein synthesis, are found free in the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum, through which materials are transported throughout the cell. Energy needed by the cell is released by the mitochondria. The Golgi complex, stacks of flattened sacs, processes and packages materials to be released from the cell in secretory vesicles. Digestive enzymes are contained in lysosomes. Peroxisomes contain enzymes that detoxify dangerous sub¬ stances. The centrosome contains the centrioles, which play a role in cell division. The microvilli are fingerlike extensions found on certain cells. Cilia, hairlike struc¬ tures that extend from the surface of many cells, can create movement of surround¬ ing fluid. The nuclear envelope, a double membrane surrounding the nucleus, contains pores that control the movement of substances into and out of the nucleo¬ plasm. Chromatin, a combination of DNA and proteins that coil into chromosomes, makes up much of the nucleoplasm. The dense nucleolus is the site of ribosome pro¬ duction.

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cella Vse-b\ or naos Vna-,as\ Enclosed body of a temple (as distinct from the portico), in which the image of the deity was housed. In early Greek and Roman architecture it was usually rectangular, with an entrance at one end; the side walls were often extended to form a porch. In larger temples the cella was sometimes open to the sky. In the Byzantine archi¬ tectural tradition, the naos is the area of a central-plan church where the liturgy is performed.

cellar Portion of a building beneath ground level, used for utilitarian and storage purposes. It is often called a basement, especially when con¬ structed as part of a foundation. A cellar used for food storage (e.g., a root cellar) may be beneath a house or located outdoors, partly underground, with the upper part mounded over with earth to maintain fairly constant temperature and humidity; the entire enclosure may be concrete, or the floor may be of dirt and the ceiling of timber.

Cellini Vcho-’le-neV Benvenuto (b. Nov. 1, 1500, Florence—d. Feb. 13, 1571, Florence) Italian sculptor and goldsmith active principally in Florence. Early in his career he worked in Rome, producing coins, medallions, seals, vessels, and a vari¬ ety of other objects in precious and semiprecious metals. In 1540 he began his most famous work of this type, a gold saltcellar encrusted with enamel, for Francis I at Fontaineb¬ leau; other royal commissions fol¬ lowed. For Cosimo I he produced large-scale sculpture in the round; the bronze Perseus (1545-53) in the Loggia dei Lanzi in Florence is his masterpiece. His fame owes as much to his autobiography as to his work as an artist; it achieved immediate

Saltcellar of Francis I, encrusted enamel and gold, by Benvenuto Cellini, 1540; in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.

COURTESY OF THE KUNSTHISTORISCHES MUSEUM, VIENNA

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360 I cello ► Cennini

popularity for its lively account of his tumultuous life and its vivid pic¬ ture of Renaissance Italy.

cello \'che-,lo\ or violoncello Bowed, stringed instrument, the bass member of the violin family. Its full name means “little violone”—i.e., “little big viol.” Its proportions resemble those of the violin. Players hold its body between the legs, its weight supported by a metal spike that touches the floor. It has four strings, tuned an octave below those of the viola. The cello was developed in the early 16th century along with the violin and viola; later innovations increased its power. It gradually dis¬ placed the bass viola da gamba in the 18th century, especially as a con- tinuo instrument. It has been essential to chamber music ensembles for 250 years. The modern orchestra includes 6 to 12 cellos. In the 19th and 20th centuries it was increasingly used as a solo instrument.

cellular automata (CA) Simplest model of a spatially distributed process that can be used to simulate various real-world processes. Cellu¬ lar automata were invented in the 1940s by John von Neumann and Stanis¬ lav/ Ulam at Los Alamos National Laboratory. They consist of a two- dimensional array of cells that “evolve” step-by-step according to the state of neighbouring cells and certain rules that depend on the simulation. Though apparently simple, CAs are universal computers—that is, they can do any computer-capable computation. The best-known cellular automa¬ ton, John Conway’s “Game of Life” (1970), simulates the processes of life, death, and population dynamics.

celluloid \'sel-y3-,l6id\ Name for the first synthetic plastic material, developed in 1869. Made of a colloid of cellulose nitrate (nitrocellulose) plasticized with camphor, it is tough, cheap to produce, and resistant to water, oils, and dilute acids. It found a great variety of uses in combs, films, toys, and many other mass-produced consumer goods. Though it has been replaced in many uses by nonflammable synthetic polymers (origi¬ nally cellulose acetate and Bakelite, then a host of others), it is still manu¬ factured and used.

cellulose Complex carbohydrate (polysaccharide) consisting of 1,000- 3,000 or more glucose units in a linear chain structure that can pack into fibres of great tensile strength. The basic structural component of plant cell walls, cellulose is the most abundant of all naturally occurring organic compounds (90% of cotton and 50% of wood). Mammals (including humans) cannot digest cellulose, but bacteria in the rumens of cattle and other ruminants and protozoans in the gut of termites produce enzymes that can break it down. Soil fungi can also break down cellulose. Its most important uses are in wood, paper, and fibre products, as an ethanol and methanol source, and specialized applications. Cellulose derivatives are used in plastics, photographic films, rayon fibres, cellophane, coatings, explosives (e.g., nitrocellulose), and foods (e.g., the stabilizer and thick¬ ener carboxymethylcellulose).

Celsius Vsel-se-3s\, Anders (b. Nov. 27, 1701, Uppsala, Swed.—d. April 25, 1744, Uppsala) Swedish astronomer. He taught at the Univer¬ sity of Uppsala from 1730 to his death. In 1733 he published a collection of 316 observations of the aurora borealis. In 1744 he built the Uppsala Observatory. He is best known for his invention of the Celsius (often called centigrade) thermometer scale (1742), which set the freezing point of water at 0° and the boiling point of water at 100°.

Celsus \'sel-s9s\, Aulus Cornelius (fl. 1st century ad) Roman medi¬ cal writer. His famous treatise De medicina, a major source of knowledge of early medicine, shows that it was remarkably advanced, urging clean¬ liness and use of antiseptics, describing facial skin grafting, and stating the four cardinal signs of inflammation. The book’s three parts discuss diseases requiring diet, drug, or surgical therapy.

Celt Vkelt, 'selt\ Any member of an early Indo-European people who spread over much of Europe from the 2nd millennium to the 1st century bc. They were absorbed into the Roman Empire as Britons, Gauls, Boii, Galatians, and Celtiberians. Early archaeological evidence (c. 700 bc) comes from the Hallstatt site in Austria. People of this Iron Age culture controlled trade routes along the Rhone, Seine, Rhine, and Danube riv¬ ers. As they moved west, Hallstatt warriors introduced the use of iron, which helped them dominate other Celtic tribes. By the mid 5th century bc, the La Tene culture emerged along the Rhine and moved into eastern Europe and the British Isles. Celts sacked Rome c. 390 and raided the whole peninsula, then settled south of the Alps (Cisalpine Gaul) and men¬ aced Rome until they were defeated in 225 bc. In the Balkans, they sacked Delphi in 279 but were defeated by the Aetolians. They crossed to Ana¬

tolia and looted until they were subdued by Attalus I about 230 bc. Rome controlled Cisalpine Gaul by 192 and in 124 took territory beyond the Alps. In Transalpine Gaul, from the Rhine and the Alps west, the Celts were pressed by Germanic tribes from the west and Romans from the south. By 58 Julius Caesar had begun campaigns to annex all of Gaul. Celtic settlement of Britain and Ireland is deduced from archaeological and linguistic evidence. The Celtic social system comprised a warrior aristocracy and freemen farmers; Druids, with magico-religious duties, ranked higher than warriors. They had a mixed farming economy. Their oral literary composition was highly developed, as was their art; they manufactured gold and silver jewelry, swords and scabbards, and shields inlaid with enamel.

Celtiberia \,sel-t9- , bir-e-9\ Mountainous district, ancient Spain. Located in northeastern Spain between the Ebro and Tagus rivers, it had long been inhabited before it was occupied in the 3d century bc by tribes of mixed Iberian and Celtic stock. The Celtiberians first submitted to Rome in the early 2nd century bc but were not completely dominated until 133 bc. Exca¬ vated horse bits, daggers, and shield fittings attest to their warlike nature.

Celtic \'kel-tik\ languages Branch of the Indo-European language fam¬ ily spoken across a broad area of western and central Europe by the Celts in pre-Roman and Roman times, now confined to small coastal areas of northwestern Europe. Celtic can be divided into a continental group of languages (all extinct) and an insular group. Attestation of Insular Celtic begins around the time Continental Celtic fades from the scene as Celtic tongues gave way to Latin and other languages on the European conti¬ nent. The Insular Celtic languages are conventionally divided into Goidelic (Irish, Manx, and Scottish Gaelic) and Brythonic (Welsh, Cornish, and Breton). Traditional Cornish was supplanted by English at the end of the 18th century. Manx, spoken on the Isle of Man, expired in the 20th century with the death of the last reputed native speaker in 1974. Both Manx and Cornish have been revived by enthusiasts, though neither can be considered community languages.

Celtic religion Beliefs and practices of the ancient Celts of Gaul and the British Isles. Celtic worship centred on the interplay of the divine ele¬ ment with the natural world. Springs, rivers, and hills were thought to be inhabited by guardian spirits, usually female. Some gods were widely worshiped; lesser deities were associated with particular tribes or places. The most honoured god was Lugus, who was skilled in all the arts. Cer- nunnos was lord of the animals; the goddess of mares and fertility was called Epona (Gaul), Macha (Ireland), or Rhiannon (Britain). Goddesses often came in groups of three. The priests of Celtic religion were the Dru¬ ids; they maintained an oral tradition and left no writings. Seasonal fes¬ tivals included Samhain (November 1), which marked summer’s end and served as a feast of the dead, and Beltane (May 1). Oak trees, holly, and mistletoe were considered sacred. The Celts believed in life after death as well as transmigration of souls. See also Bran; Brigit.

cement Agent that binds concrete and mortar. Cements are finely ground powders that, when mixed with water, set to a hard mass. The cement of 2,000 years ago was a mixture of ash and lime. Volcanic ash mined near the city of Puteoli (now Pozzuoli), near Naples, was particularly rich in essential aluminosilicate minerals, giving rise to the pozzolana cement of the Roman era. See also Portland cement.

cementation In geology, the hardening and welding of clastic sedi¬ ments (those formed from preexisting rock fragments) by the precipitation of mineral matter in the pore spaces. It is the last stage in the formation of sedimentary rock. Many minerals may act as cements; the most common is silica (generally quartz), but calcite and other carbonates also occur, as do iron oxides, barite, anhydrite, zeolites, and clay minerals.

Cenis \s9-'ne\, Mount French Mont Cenis V.mc^-so-'neV Italian Moncenisio Vmon-cha-'ne-zyoX Massif and pass, Alps. Located in southeastern France west of Turin, Italy, the pass was an invasion route from earliest times and is traversed by a road 24 mi (38 km) long, built by Napoleon in 1803-10. The road climbs to Mount Cenis Pass (eleva¬ tion 6,834 ft [2,083 m]) and passes between two peaks more than 8,200 ft (2,500 m) high. The Mount Cenis railway tunnel, 8.5 mi (14 km) long, was the first great tunnel through the Alps (opened 1871). The road tun¬ nel, about 8 mi (13 km) long, opened in 1980.

Cennini \chan-'ne-ne\, Cennino (d'Andrea) (b. c. 1370, near Florence—d. c. 1440, Florence) Italian painter and writer active in Flo¬ rence. A few surviving paintings are attributed to him, but he is best known

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cenotaph ► Central African Republic I 361

as the author of II libro dell’arte (1437; The Craftsman’s Handbook), the most important sourcebook on artistic practice in the late Middle Ages. His detailed descriptions of tempera and fresco painting reflect the tech¬ nical procedures of the great Florentine painting tradition. He believed that painting held a high place among occupations because it combined theory or imagination with the skill of the hand.

cenotaph Vse-no-.tafA (Greek: “empty tomb”) Monument, sometimes in the form of a tomb, to a person buried elsewhere. Ancient Greek writ¬ ings tell of many cenotaphs, none of which survives. Existing cenotaphs of this type are found in churches (e.g., in Santa Croce, Florence, where there are memorials to Dante, Niccolo Machiavelli, and Galileo). The term is now applied to national war memorials.

Cenozoic \,se-n3-'zo-ik\ Era Third of the major eras of Earth history, and the interval of time during which the continents assumed their mod¬ ern configurations and geographic positions. It was also the time when the Earth’s flora and fauna evolved toward those of the present. The Cen¬ ozoic, from the Greek for “recent life,” began c. 65 million years ago and is divided into two periods, the Tertiary (65-1.8 million years ago) and the Quaternary (1.8 million years ago to the present).

censor In ancient eastern Asia, a government official whose primary duty was to scrutinize the conduct of officials and rulers. During the Qin (221-206 bc) and Han (206 bc-ad 220) dynasties, the censor’s function was to criticize the emperor’s acts, but in later periods the censorate was expanded and became an instrument for imperial control of the bureau¬ cracy. Censors checked important documents, supervised construction projects, reviewed judicial proceedings, kept watch over state property, and looked for cases of subversion and corruption.

censorship Act of changing or suppressing speech or writing that is considered subversive of the common good. In the past, most govern¬ ments believed it their duty to regulate the morals of their people; only with the rise in the status of the individual and individual rights did cen¬ sorship come to seem objectionable. Censorship may be preemptive (pre¬ venting the publication or broadcast of undesirable information) or punitive (punishing those who publish or broadcast offending material). In Europe, both the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches practiced censorship, as did the absolute monarchies of the 17th and 18th centuries. Authoritarian governments such as those in China, Cuba, Saudi Arabia, and the former Soviet Union have employed pervasive censorship, which is generally opposed by underground movements engaged in the circula¬ tion of samizdat literature. In the U.S. in the 20th century, censorship focused largely on works of fiction deemed guilty of obscenity (e.g., James Joyce’s Ulysses and D.H. Lawrence’s Lady Chatterley’s Lover), though periodic acts of political censorship also occurred (e.g., the effort to purge school textbooks of possible left-wing content in the 1950s). In the late 20th century, some called for censorship of so-called hate speech, lan¬ guage deemed threatening (or sometimes merely offensive) to various subsections of the population. Censorship in the U.S. is usually opposed by the American Civil Liberties Union. In Germany after World War II it became a crime to deny the Holocaust or to publish pro-Nazi publica¬ tions. See also Pentagon Papers.

census Enumeration of people, houses, firms, or other important items in a country or region at a particular time. The first U.S. population cen¬ sus was taken in 1790 to establish a basis for representation in Congress. Censuses were taken in England, France, and Canada in 1801, 1836, and 1871, respectively. China was the last major country to report a census, in 1953. Census information is obtained by using a fixed questionnaire covering such topics as place of residence, sex, age, marital status, occu¬ pation, citizenship, language, ethnicity, religious affiliation, and educa¬ tion. From the responses demographers derive data on population distribution, household and family composition, internal migration, labor- force participation, and other topics. See also demography.

centaur Vsen-,t6r\ In Greek mythology, one of a race of creatures, part horse and part man, living in the mountains of Thessaly and Arcadia. They were best known for their battle with the Lapiths, occasioned by their attempt to carry off the bride of a Lapith prince. Centaurs were often depicted drawing Dionysus' chariot or ridden by Eros, in reference to their drunken and amorous habits. Their king Chiron, however, was notable for being civilized, gentle, and the tutor of heroes.

Centaur object Icy body, similar to an asteroid in size but to a comet in composition, that orbits the Sun mainly between the orbits of Jupiter

and Neptune. The first known Centaur object, Chiron, was found in 1977, but its affinity with comets was not recognized until more than a decade later. Subsequently, dozens of Centaur objects have been reported. They are thought to have originated in the Kuiper belt, a vast reservoir of comet nuclei beyond Neptune’s orbit.

Center Party German political party formed to support Roman Catho¬ lic interests. It was active in the Second Reich from the 1870s, when it came into conflict with Otto von Bismarck in the Kulturkampf, to 1933, when it was dissolved by the Nazi-dominated government. It was the first party of imperial Germany to cut across class and state lines, but because it represented the Roman Catholics, who were concentrated in southern Germany, it never won a parliamentary majority.

centering See falsework

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Agency of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, headquartered in Atlanta, whose mission is “to promote health and quality of life by pre¬ venting and controlling disease, injury, and disability.” Part of the Public Health Service, it was founded in 1946 as the Communicable Disease Center to fight malaria and other contagious diseases. As its scope wid¬ ened to polio, smallpox, and disease surveillance, the name was changed to the Center for Disease Control and later pluralized. It now subsumes health statistics, infectious diseases, and environmental health; a National Immunization Program; and an Office on Smoking and Health. It con¬ solidates disease-control data, health promotion, and public health pro¬ grams, and it provides grants for studies and programs, health information to health care professionals and the public, and publications on epidemi¬ ology. Today it is regarded as perhaps the world’s foremost epidemio¬ logical centre.

centipede Any of about 2,800 species (class Chilopoda) of long, flat¬ tened, many-segmented arthropods having one pair of legs on each seg¬ ment except the hindmost. Centi¬ pedes remain under stones, bark, and ground litter by day; at night they prey on other small invertebrates.

They move rapidly on 14-177 pairs of legs and have one pair of long, many-jointed antennae and a pair of jawlike, venomous claws just behind the head. The 1-in. (2.5-cm) house centipede of Europe and North America is the only species common in dwellings. The largest centipedes, found in the tropics, may grow as long as 11 in. (28 cm) and can inflict severe bites.

CENTO See Central Treaty Organization

Central African Republic formerly Ubangi-Shari \u-,bag-ge- ‘shar-e\ Republic, central Africa. Area: 240,324 sq mi (622,436 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 4,038,000. Capital: Bangui. The people form het¬ erogeneous ethnic groups, with the Banda, Baya (Gbaya), Mandjia, and Ngbaka constituting more than two-thirds of the inhabitants. Languages: French, Sango (both official), several others. Religions: Christianity (mostly other Christians [largely unaffiliated and independent]; also Roman Catholic, Protestant), Islam, traditional beliefs. Currency: CFA franc. A landlocked country, it consists of a large rolling plateau. The northern half is characterized by savanna and is drained by tributaries of the Chari River. The southern half is densely forested. The country has a developing free-enterprise economy of mixed state and private structure, with agriculture as the main component. It is a republic with one legis¬ lative body; its chief of state is the president, assisted by the prime min¬ ister. For several centuries before the arrival of Europeans, the territory was exploited by slave traders. The French explored and claimed central Africa and in 1889 established a post at Bangui. They subsequently par¬ titioned the territory into several colonies, one of which was Ubangi-Shari (Oubangui-Chari), the future Central African Republic; it later became part of French Equatorial Africa. Ubangi-Shari became a French overseas territory in 1946. It became an autonomous republic within the French Community in 1958 and achieved independence in 1960. In 1965 the mili¬ tary overthrew a civilian government and installed Jean-Bedel Bokassa, who in 1976 renamed the country the Central African Empire. He was overthrown in 1979 and the former name was restored, but the military

E.S. ROSS

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362 I Central America ► Central Pacific Railroad

Central America Southern portion of North America (pop., 2005 est.: 39,806,000). It extends from the southern border of Mexico to the north¬ western border of Colombia and from the Pacific Ocean to the Caribbean Sea. It includes Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. Some geographers also include five states of Mexico: Quintana Roo, Yucatan, Campeche, Tabasco, and Chiapas. Area: 201,594 sq mi (522,129 sq km). Two-thirds of the population is of mixed American Indian and Spanish ancestry. Language: Spanish (official), except Belize (English, official); also American Indian languages. Reli¬ gion: chiefly Roman Catholicism. The region is largely hilly or moun¬ tainous, with humid swamps and lowlands extending along both coasts. Tajumulco Volcano, in western Guatemala, is the highest point, elevation 13,845 ft (4,220 m). The region has some 40 volcanoes, many of them active, and is prone to severe seismic activity. The volcanic zones have fertile soil and are productive agricultural areas. Central America was long inhabited by indigenous peoples, including the Maya, before the Spanish arrived and conquered the region in the early 16th century; they contin¬ ued to rule for about 300 years. Christopher Columbus skirted the Atlantic coast from Honduras to the Gulf of Darien in 1502; the first European settlement (1510) was on the gulf. Spain organized the region (except Panama) into the Captaincy General of Guatemala (c. 1543). The English arrived in the 17th century, settling what became British Honduras (Bel¬ ize). Independence from Spanish rule came in 1821, and in 1823 the United Provinces of Central America was formed (Guatemala, El Salva¬ dor, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica). British Honduras, still a colony, did not join the federation, and Panama remained part of Colom¬ bia. In 1824 the federation adopted a constitution, but in 1838 Costa Rica, Honduras, and Nicaragua seceded, thus effectively terminating the fed¬ eration. Treaties of amity were drawn up at a conference of Central Ameri¬ can states in Washington, D.C. (1923). The Central American Common Market was established in 1960 to create a customs union and promote economic cooperation.

Central Asian arts Literary, performing, and visual arts of Afghani¬ stan, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Nepal, Tibet, Turk¬ menistan, Uzbekistan, and parts of China and Russia. The term usually denotes only those traditions not influenced by the Islamic arts. Tibetan developed as a literary language from the 7th century as a result of cul¬ tural contacts with neighbouring Buddhist countries to the south, on the Indian subcontinent. Most works produced between the 7th and 13th cen¬ turies are skillful translations of Buddhist works from Sanskrit, after

which a vast body of orthodox Buddhist works of purely Tibetan origin was built up. Mongolian literature began in the 13th century with chronicles of Genghis Khan and his successors, but from the late 16th cen¬ tury Mongolian literature was profoundly influenced by Buddhism. The variety of musical styles in Central Asia ranges from the systematically organized classical music of the Turkic peoples, to the notated religious chants of Buddhists in Tibet, to the highly varied folk music styles of the Mongols, Siberians, and numerous other ethnic groups. Two main types of performance predominate throughout Tibet, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and Mongolia: those related to shamanism and those derived from Bud¬ dhism. Music performed on drums and stringed instruments accompanied shamanistic trances. The performance of Buddhist monastic dances and morality plays is also accompanied by various drums and horn instru¬ ments. The performing arts of the Turkic peoples are very different from these other traditions because of the influence of Islam. The tribes of Cen¬ tral Asia shared, for the most part, a “nomadic” Scytho-Altaic visual art that favoured animal and hunting motifs in objects such as belts and jew¬ elry. Contacts with the Greco-Roman world and with India, Iran, and China also left their mark; Hellenistic influence culminated in the Kus- han style of Gandhara. The most important pre-Islamic influence on Cen¬ tral Asia’s visual arts, however, was Buddhism, which was reflected in the subject matter of sculptures and bas-reliefs. Nepal’s traditions in archi¬ tecture and painting were adaptations of those of India, whether the themes were Hindu or Buddhist. Buddhist religious art was gradually introduced into Tibet from the 8th century, and a distinctive Tibetan imag¬ ery was subsequently developed. See also Gandhara art; Kushan art; Scythian art.

central bank Institution, such as the U.S. Federal Reserve System, charged with regulating the size of a nation’s money supply, the availabil¬ ity and cost of credit, and the foreign exchange value of its currency (see foreign exchange). Central banks act as the fiscal agent of the government, issuing notes to be used as legal tender, supervising the operations of the commercial banking system, and implementing monetary policy. By increasing or decreasing the supply of money and credit, they affect inter¬ est rates, thereby influencing the economy. Modem central banks regu¬ late the money supply by buying and selling assets (e.g., through the purchase or sale of government securities). They may also raise or lower the discount rate to discourage or encourage borrowing by commercial banks. By adjusting the reserve requirement (the minimum cash reserves that banks must hold against their deposit liabilities), central banks con¬ tract or expand the money supply. Their aim is to maintain conditions that support a high level of employment and production and stable domestic prices. Central banks also take part in cooperative international currency arrangements designed to help stabilize or regulate the foreign exchange rates of participating countries. Central banks have become varied in authority, autonomy, functions, and instruments of action, but there has been consistent increased emphasis on the interdependence of monetary and other national economic policies, especially fiscal policies and debt management policies. See also bank; investment bank; savings bank.

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Principal intelligence and coun¬ terintelligence agency of the U.S., established in 1947 as a successor to the World War II-era Office of Strategic Services. The law limits its activi¬ ties to foreign countries; it is prohibited from gathering intelligence on U.S. soil, which is a responsibility of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Officially a part of the U.S. Defense Department, it is responsible for pre¬ paring analyses for the National Security Council. Its budget is kept secret. Though intelligence gathering is its chief occupation, the CIA has also been involved in many covert operations, including the expulsion of Mohammad Mosaddeq from Iran (1953), the attempted Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba (1961), and support of the Nicaraguan contras in the 1980s.

central limit theorem In statistics, any of several fundamental theo¬ rems in probability. Originally known as the law of errors, in its classic form it states that the sum of a set of independent random variables will approach a normal distribution regardless of the distribution of the indi¬ vidual variables themselves, given certain general conditions. Further, the mean (see mean, median, and mode) of the normal distribution will coin¬ cide with the (arithmetic) mean of the (statistical) means of each random variable.

central nervous system See nervous system

Central Pacific Railroad U.S. railroad company founded in 1861 by a group of California merchants including Mark Hopkins and Leland Stan-

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Central Park ► ceramics I 363

ford. It was built with land grants and subsidies from the Pacific Railway Act (1862); thousands of Chinese labourers were hired to build it. Its tracks joined with those of the Union Pacific on May 10, 1869, in Prom¬ ontory, Utah, forming North America’s first transcontinental railroad. From 1884 it was leased to the Southern Pacific Co., with which it merged in 1959.

Central Park Public park, New York, New York, U.S. Located in Man¬ hattan, it occupies an area of 840 acres (340 hectares). It was designed by Frederick Law Olmsted and opened in 1876; it was artificially landscaped to create an impression of wild and varied terrain. It includes footpaths and bicycle paths, athletic fields, boating lakes, and a zoo. Free public concerts and performances are frequent, notably the Shakespeare in the Park series at an open-air theatre. The Metropolitan Museum of Art adjoins the park.

Central Powers World War I coalition that was defeated by the Allied Powers. Its primary members were the German empire and Austria- Hungary, the “central” European states that were at war from August 1914 against France, Britain, and Russia. The Ottoman empire entered the war on the side of the Central Powers in October 1914, followed by Bulgaria in October 1915.

central processing unit See CPU

Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) originally Middle East Treaty Organization or Baghdad Pact Organization Mutual- security organization, originally composed of Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, and Britain. It was formed in 1955, at the urging of the U.S. and Britain, to counter the threat of Soviet expansion into the Middle East. CENTO was never very effective. Iraq withdrew after its anti-Soviet monarchy was overthrown in 1959. In that same year the U.S. became an associate member, and CENTO’s headquarters were moved to Ankara, Tur. After the fall of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi in 1979, Iran withdrew and CENTO was dissolved.

Central Valley Spanish Valle Central \'ba-ya-sen-'tral\ Valley, Chile. Located in central Chile between the Western Cordillera of the Andes Mountains and the coastal range, it extends about 400 mi (650 km) from the Chacabuco Range in the north to the Bio-Bio River in the south. The agricultural heartland of Chile, it was the original centre of European colonization beginning in the mid-1500s, and it continues to be home to most Chileans. Santiago is at its northern end.

Central Valley Valley, California, U.S. Located between the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Ranges, it is more than 400 mi (640 km) long and 20-50 mi (32-80 km) wide. The Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers, which run through the valley, are fed by abundant rains and melting snows of the Sierras. Because of the irrigation made possible by numerous dams and canals, the area now contains some of the richest farmland in the U.S.

centrifugal \sen-'trif-y3-g3l\ force Fictitious force, peculiar to circu¬ lar motion, that is equal but opposite to the centripetal force that keeps a particle on a circular path (see centripetal acceleration). For example, a stone attached to a string and whirling in a horizontal circular path is accelerated toward the centre of its path by the tension in the string, the only force acting on the string. However, in a reference frame at rest with the stone, another force—the centrifugal force—must be introduced for Newton's laws of motion to apply. Centrifugal force is a useful concept in analyzing behaviour in rotating systems.

centrifugal \sen-'trif-y3-g9l\ pump Machine for moving liquids and gases. Its two major parts are the impeller (a wheel with vanes) and the cir¬ cular pump casing around it. In the most common type, called the volute centrifugal pump, fluid enters the pump at high speed near the centre of the rotating impeller and is thrown against the casing by the vanes. The cen¬ trifugal pressure forces the fluid through an opening in the casing; this out¬ let widens progressively in a spiral fashion, which reduces the speed of the fluid and thereby increases pressure. Centrifugal pumps are used for many purposes, such as pumping liquids for water supply, irrigation, and sewage disposal systems. They are also used as gas compressors.

centrifuge Vsen-tro-.fyujV Machine that applies a sustained centrifugal force. Effectively, the centrifuge substitutes a similar, stronger force for that of gravity. Every centrifuge contains a spinning vessel; there are many configurations, depending on use. A revolving object exerts a force away from the centre of rotation (see Newton's laws of motion), called the cen¬ trifugal force; it is usually stated as so many “times gravity” or so many

“G,” and may range from a few G for the basket in a home washing machine or an industrial separator to hundreds of thousands of G for cen¬ trifuges to separate isotopes of uranium or to purify vaccines.

centripetal \sen-'trip-3-t3l\ acceleration Property of the motion of an object traveling in a circular path. Centripetal describes the force on the object, directed toward the centre of the circle, which causes a con¬ stant change in the object’s direction and thus its acceleration. The mag¬ nitude of centripetal acceleration a is equal to the square of the object’s velocity v along the curved path divided by the object’s distance r from the centre of the circle, or a = v 2 /r.

centroid In geometry, the centre of mass of a two-dimensional figure or three-dimensional solid. Thus the centroid of a two-dimensional fig¬ ure represents the point at which it could be balanced if it were cut out of, for example, sheet metal. The centroid of a circle or sphere is its cen¬ tre. More generally, the centroid represents the point designated by the mean (see mean, median, and mode) of the coordinates of all the points in a set. If the boundary is irregular, finding the mean requires using calcu¬ lus (the most general formula for the centroid involves an integral).

centromere Vsen-tro-.mhA Structure in a chromosome that holds together the two chromatids. It is the point of attachment to the structure that pulls the chromatids to opposite ends of the cell during cell division (see mitosis). During the middle stage of mitosis, the centromere dupli¬ cates and the chromatid pair separates, each chromatid becoming a sepa¬ rate chromosome. Thus, when the cell divides, both daughter cells have complete sets of chromosomes.

century plant or American aloe or maguey \m9-'ga\ Species of AGAVE (Agave americana), of Mexico and the southwestern U.S. It takes many years (from five to 100) to mature, flowers only once, and then dies. It is widely cultivated for its large spiny leaves and enormous flower clus¬ ter, and may reach 20 ft (6 m) in height. Century plants provide the dis¬ tinctive ingredient for the alcoholic drinks pulque and mescal.

Cephalonia or Cephallenia Largest of the Ionian Islands, western Greece. With Ithaca and smaller nearby islands, it forms the Kefallima department. The mountainous island occupies 302 sq mi (781 sq km) and rises to 5,341 ft (1,628 m) at Mount Amos. Argostolion, the chief town and a port on the southwestern coast, is the department capital. The island was an important Mycenaean centre, which the Romans seized in 189 bc. In the Middle Ages it was captured by Robert Guiscard. Later it was ruled by various Neapolitan and Venetian families. In 1809 it was taken by the British, then ceded to Greece in 1864. It experienced a devastating earth¬ quake in 1953.

cephalopod Vse-fo-lo-.padX Any marine mollusk of the class Cepha¬ lopoda (e.g., cuttlefish, nautilus, octopus, and squid), which includes the most active and largest living invertebrates. Cephalopods are bilaterally symmetrical and typically have a highly developed centralized nervous system. Their image-forming eyes are similar in structure to vertebrate eyes, and their heads are armed with tentacles that have rows of round suction disks. Most cephalopods can change skin colour to blend in with their surroundings. All can swim, propelling themselves backward by expelling water forcefully. Most are carnivores that feed on fish, crusta¬ ceans, and other mollusks.

Cepheid \'sef-e-od\ variable One of a class of variable stars whose period of variation is closely related to its luminosity and is therefore use¬ ful in measuring the distances to clusters of stars and galaxies. Named for the prototype of this class found in the constellation Cepheus, classical Cepheids have periods from about 1.5 days to over 50 days and are Popu¬ lation I stars (see Populations I and II). The longer the period of such a star, the greater its natural brightness; this relationship was discovered in 1912 by the American astronomer Henrietta Leavitt (b. 1868—d. 1921).

Ceram or Seram Vsa-.rairA Island of the central Moluccas, Indonesia. It has an area of 6,621 sq mi (17,148 sq km). The terrain is mountainous and covered with tropical forests; seismic activity is common. Portuguese missionaries arriving in the 15th century found Hindu and Islamic influ¬ ences present; the island came under nominal Dutch control c. 1650. Dur¬ ing World War II the Japanese occupied it; after the war it became part of Indonesia.

ceramics Traditionally, objects created from such naturally occurring raw materials as clay minerals and quartz sand, by shaping the material and then hardening it by firing at high temperatures to make the object

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364 I Ceratium ► cerium

stronger, harder, and less permeable to fluids. The principal ceramic prod¬ ucts are containers, tableware, bricks, and tiles. See also earthenware, por¬ celain, POTTERY, STONEWARE, TERRA-COTTA.

Ceratium \s3-'ra-she-9m\ Genus of one-celled aquatic protists. Mem¬ bers are dinoflagellates with both plant and animal characteristics. The cell is flattened horizontally and contains yellow, brown, or green pigments. Ceratium species are covered by a theca, or armour, composed of many textured plates that form one horn in the front and usually two in the back; these horns slow the sinking of the organism. The body form varies according to the salt content and temperature of the surrounding water: the spines tend to be short and thick in cold, salty water and long and thin in less salty, warmer water. Members form an important part of the plank¬ ton found in northern seas.

Cerberus Vs9r-b3-r3s\ In Greek mythology, the monstrous watchdog of the underworld. He was usually said to have three heads, though Hesiod says he had 50. Heads of snakes grew from his back, and he had a ser¬ pent’s tail. He devoured anyone who tried to escape Hades’s kingdom, and he refused entrance to living humans, though Orpheus gained passage by charming him with music. One of the labours of Heracles was to bring Cerberus up to the land of the living; after succeeding, he returned the creature to Hades.

cereal or grain Any grass yielding starchy seeds suitable for food. The most commonly cultivated cereals are wheat, rice, rye, oats, barley, corn, and sorghum. As human food, cereals are usually marketed in raw grain form or as ingredients of food products. As animal feed, they are con¬ sumed mainly by livestock and poultry, which are eventually rendered as meat, dairy, and poultry products for human consumption. They also are used industrially in the production of a wide range of substances, such as glucose, adhesives, oils, and alcohols. Measured in acres planted, wheat is the world’s most widely grown cereal crop; rice is the second, but more com is harvested than either. Grains are generally rich in carbohydrates and energy value but comparatively low in protein and naturally deficient in calcium and vitamin A. Breads are usually enriched to compensate for any nutritional deficiencies in the cereal used. Though often consumed in the areas where grown, cereal and cereal by-products are also major com¬ modities in international trade.

cereal Prepared foodstuff of cereal grain. Cereals are used for both human and animal food. The first step in making cereal is milling, grind¬ ing the grain so that it can be easily processed. Modem automated sys¬ tems employ steel cylinders, followed by air purification and numerous sievings to separate the endosperm from the outer coverings and the germ; com is milled by wet processes. Cereal products include minimally pro¬ cessed whole, crushed, or rolled grains, flour, cornstarch, meal (coarsely ground and unsifted grain), and pasta. Breakfast cereals include raw cere¬ als such as oatmeal and farina (which must be boiled), shredded cereals (usually whole wheat that is boiled, dried, and cut), flaked cereals (usu¬ ally corn that is broken down into grits and cooked under pressure with flavoring syrup before being pressed and toasted), puffed cereals (grains heated in a pressure chamber and then released to cause expansion), and granular cereals (flour-based cereals made from dough that is cooked and ground into small bits). All cereals are high in starch.

cerebellum V.ser-s-'bel-onrf Part of the brain that integrates sensory input from the inner ear and from proprioceptors (see proprioception) in muscle with nerve impulses from the cerebrum (see cerebral cortex), coor¬ dinating muscle responses to maintain balance and produce smooth, coor¬ dinated movements. Located below the cerebral hemispheres and behind the upper medulla oblongata and pons, each of its two connected hemi¬ spheres has a core of white matter within a cortex of gray matter. Dis¬ orders usually produce neuromuscular disturbances, in particular ataxia.

cerebral cortex \s3-'re-brel, 'ser-o-brsH Layer of gray matter that con¬ stitutes the outer layer of the cerebrum and is responsible for integrating sen¬ sory impulses and for higher intellectual functions. It is divided into four lobes, roughly defined by major surface folds; sometimes the limbic sys¬ tem, or limbic lobe, is considered to be a fifth lobe. The frontal lobe controls motor activity and speech, the parietal controls touch and position, and the temporal lobe handles auditory reception and memory. The occipital lobe at the back of the brain holds the brain’s major visual-reception area. The limbic lobe controls smell, taste, and emotional responses.

cerebral palsy Paralysis resulting from abnormal development or damage to the brain before or soon after birth. Cases are of four main

types: spastic, with spasms contracting the extremities, and often mental retardation and epilepsy; athetoid, with slow, changing spasms in the face, neck, and extremities, grimacing, and inarticulate speech (dysarthria); ataxic, with poor coordination, muscle weakness, an unsteady gait, and difficulty performing rapid or fine movements; and mixed, in which symp¬ toms of two or more types are present.

cerebral seizures See epilepsy

cerebrospinal \s3- l re-bro-'spI-n a l\ fluid (CSF) Clear, colourless liq¬ uid that surrounds the brain and spinal cord and fills the spaces in them. It helps support the brain, acts as a lubricant, maintains pressure in the skull, and cushions shocks. Analysis of CSF obtained by a spinal tap (lumbar puncture) helps diagnose a number of disorders, including meningitis and hemorrhage in the central nervous system.

cerebrum Nso-'re-brom, 'ser-a-bronrf Largest part of the brain. The two cerebral hemispheres consist of an inner core of myelinated nerve fibres, the white matter, and a heavily convoluted outer cortex of gray matter (see cerebral cortex). Nerve fibres in the white matter connect functional areas of the cortex in the same hemispheres, connect functional areas of the cortex in opposite hemispheres, and connect the cerebral cortex to lower centres (e.g., the spinal cord). A front-to-back fissure divides the cerebrum’s two hemispheres. Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body. The corpus callosum, a thick band of white matter, connects them, allowing integration of sensory data and responses from both sides of the body. Other important cerebral structures include the hypothalamus and the thalamus.

Ceres Vsir-ez\ In Roman religion, the goddess of the growth of food plants, sometimes worshiped in asso¬ ciation with the earth goddess Tellus.

Her cult was overlaid by that of Demeter, who was worshiped in Greece and Sicily. According to tra¬ dition, her cult was introduced into Rome in 496 bc to check a famine.

Her temple on Aventine Hill was known as a centre of plebeian reli¬ gious and political activities and for its artwork.

Ceres \'sir-,ez\ Largest known asteroid in the solar system and the first discovered, in 1801. Named after the Roman goddess Ceres, it revolves around the Sun in 4.6 Earth years and is about 575 mi (925 km) across.

cereus Any of various large cacti (genus Cereus and related genera) of the western U.S. and tropical New World, including the saguaro and the organ-pipe cactus ( Lemairocereus thurberi, also L. marginatus or C. thurberi). The genus Selenicereus (night-blooming cereus, or moon cactus), containing about 20 species, is known for its large, usually fra¬ grant, night-blooming white flowers, among the largest in the cactus fam¬ ily. The queen-of-the-night ( S . grandiflorus ), the best-known night¬ blooming cereus, is often grown indoors.

Cerf VsorfV, Bennett (Alfred) (b. May 25, 1898, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Aug. 27, 1971, Mount Kisco, N.Y.) U.S. publisher and editor. With Donald S. Klopfer, in 1925 Cerf acquired the Modem Library imprint, which subsequently became a highly profitable series of reprints of classic books. In 1927 they began publishing books other than Mod¬ ern Library titles as Random House, of which Cerf served as president (1927-65) and chairman (1965-70). He became known as an opponent of censorship and as the publisher of many eminent authors. An inveter¬ ate punster and raconteur, he edited anthologies of humour, short stories, and plays, wrote syndicated newspaper columns, and appeared on the popular television show “What’s My Line?” (1952-68).

cerium \'sir-e-am\ Chemical element, a rare earth metal of the lanthanide series (hence having many properties of the transition elements), chemical symbol Ce, atomic number 58. It is iron-gray and fairly soft and ductile.

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CERN ► cetacean i 365

Found in many ores, it is about as abundant as copper and three times as abundant as lead. The metal is used in alloys and other metallurgical applications and (because it oxidizes strongly and rapidly) in illumina¬ tion, ignition, and signaling devices and in propellants. Misch metal, used in lighter flints, is 50% cerium. Cerium compounds (in which it has valence 3 or 4) are used in the mantles of lanterns, in the ceramic, pho¬ tographic, and textile industries, and in analytical chemistry.

CERN in full Organisation Europeenne pour la Recherche Nucleaire formerly Conseil Europeen pour la Recherche Nucleaire. International scientific organization established for collabo¬ rative research into subnuclear physics. Headquartered in Geneva, CERN includes extensive facilities at sites on both sides of the Swiss-French border. The results of its experimental and theoretical work are made gen¬ erally available. It was established in part in order to reclaim European physicists who had emigrated to the U.S. as a result of World War II. In 2000 it had 20 European member nations and several nations with observer status.

Cernunnos \ker-'nii-nos\ In Celtic religion, a deity worshiped as “lord of wild things.” He wore stag antlers and sometimes carried a torque (sacred neck ornament). He was worshiped primarily in Britain, but there are also traces of his cult in Ireland. He is probably the source for the horned god that appears in Christian medieval manuscripts as a symbol of the Antichrist.

Cerrito, Fanny orig. Francesca Teresa Giuseppa Raffaela Cerrito (b. May 11, 1817, Naples, Italy—d. May 6, 1909, Paris, Fr.) Italian ballerina and choreographer. She made her debut in Naples (1832) and gained international fame in London (1840—48). She was known for the brilliance, strength, and vivacity of her dancing. Her greatest role was in Ondine (1843), created for her by Jules Perrot. Cerrito married her regular partner, Arthur Saint-Leon, in 1845. In 1854 she both choreo¬ graphed and danced in Gemma at the Paris Opera. She retired in 1857. She was one of the few women in the 19th century to achieve distinction as a choreographer.

Cerro Gordo \'ser-o-'g6r-do. Battle of Confrontation between U.S. and Mexican troops in April 1847 when U.S. forces under Winfield Scott first met serious resistance in the Mexican War. As Scott’s army marched from Veracruz to Mexico City, it attacked an entrenched Mexican force of 12,000 under Antonio Santa Anna at a mountain pass near Cerro Gordo. Scott’s troops routed the Mexicans, who left 1,130 casualties; the U.S. lost 63 men.

Cersobleptes \,ser-so-'blep- 1 tez\ (d. 342 bc) King of Thrace (360-342). He inherited a war with Athens and was opposed internally by two pre¬ tenders to the throne. To Athens he ceded the Thracian Chersonese (357); to the pretenders he relinquished western Thrace. He forged an alliance with Athens to oppose Macedonia, but was later excluded from the peace of 346 by Philip II.

certificate, digital See digital certificate

certificate of deposit (CD) Receipt from a bank acknowledging the deposit of a sum of money. The most common type, the time certificate of deposit, is for a fixed-term interest-bearing deposit in a large denomi¬ nation. It consequently pays higher interest than a savings account, though the investor who withdraws money before its maturity date is subject to a penalty. Introduced in the early 1960s, CDs have become a popular method of saving.

certiorari V.sor-sho-'rar-eX In law, a writ issued by a superior court for the reexamination of an action of a lower court. The writ of certiorari was originally a writ from England’s Court of Queen’s (King’s) Bench to the judges of an inferior court; it was later expanded to include writs from the equity (chancery) courts. In the U.S., certiorari is the most common means by which cases from the United States Courts of Appeals are reviewed by the Supreme Court of the United States. For the Supreme Court to issue a writ of certiorari, at least four justices must agree to hear the case.

Cervantes \s9r-'van-,tez\ (Saavedra), Miguel de (b. Sept. 29?, 1547, Alcala de Henares, Spain—d. April 22, 1616, Madrid) Spanish novelist, playwright, and poet, the most celebrated figure in Spanish lit¬ erature. After studying in Madrid, Cervantes joined the Italian infantry, fought the Turks at Lepanto, and was captured with his brother and sold into slavery in Algiers for five years. Back in Spain, his chronic financial problems and tangled affairs led to brushes with the law and brief impris¬

onment. While in tedious civil-service employment, he wrote the pasto¬ ral romance La Galatea (1585) and plays, poetry, and short stories, to small success. His marvelous creation Don Quixote (1605, 1615), brought immediate success and literary eminence, if not riches. It parodies chiv- alric romances of the day with the comic adventures of a bemused eld¬ erly knight who sets out on his old horse, Rosinante, with his pragmatic squire, Sancho Panza. Often considered the first and certainly one of the great novels, it has influenced many writers and inspired numerous cre¬ ations in other genres and media. Cervantes also published a large set of eight comedies and eight interludes for the stage (1615) and the romance The Labors of Persiles and Sigismunda (1617).

cervical spondylosis \ l span-d3-'lo-s3s\ Degenerative disease of the neck vertebrae. Compression of the spinal cord and cervical nerves by narrowing of spaces between vertebrae causes radiating neck or arm pain and stiffness, restricted head movement, headaches, spastic paralysis, and arm and leg weakness. Cervical spondylosis can resemble neurological disease with unrelated arthritis. It is treated with rest, traction, and pos¬ sibly a cervical collar. Removal of herniated disks or fusion of vertebrae may be necessary.

cervicitis N.ssr-vs-'sI-tssX Inflammation of the cervix of the uterus, caused by infection or irritation. It is most common during the years of men¬ struation. Cervicitis can be acute or chronic and may worsen during preg¬ nancy. It does not cause pain but may lead to polyps. The major symptom is an abundant discharge, which can impair fertility. Treatment may include antibiotics or cauterization or surgery to repair or remove the cer¬ vix; this does not affect fertility.

Cesaire \sa-'zer\, Aime (-Fernand) (b. June 25, 1913, Basse-Pointe, Mart.) Martinican poet and playwright. Educated in Paris, Cesaire returned to Martinique to be elected to the National Assembly as a Com¬ munist. A cofounder with Leopold Senghor of the Negritude movement, he ardently supported the decolonization of French colonies of Africa, a view expressed in the fiery poems of Return to My Native Land (1939) and Soleil cou-coupe (1948, “Sun’s Slashed Throat”). Discarding Negritude for black militancy, he turned to the theatre and wrote the political dra¬ mas The Tragedy of King Christophe (1963) and A Season in the Congo

(1966).

cesarean section \si-'zar-e-9n\ or C-section Surgical removal of a fetus from the uterus through an abdominal incision at or before full term. It is usually performed when vaginal delivery would endanger the life or health of the mother or the child. Vaginal delivery is often possible in subsequent pregnancies. Cesarean section carries the usual risks of major surgery. Once overused, largely for fear of malpractice suits, its use has been greatly reduced by the natural childbirth movement.

cesium Vse-ze-9m\ Chemical element, one of the alkali metals, chemical symbol Cs, atomic number 55. The first element discovered by spectros¬ copy (1860), it is silvery white, liquid at warm room temperature (melt¬ ing at 83 °F [28.4 °C]), and very soft when solid. About half as abundant as lead, it occurs in minute quantities as ores. It reacts explosively with cold water and is used to scavenge traces of oxygen and other gases in electron tubes. Other uses are as a catalyst and in photoelectric cells, ion propulsion systems, atomic clocks, and plasma for thermoelectric conver¬ sion. Cesium salts have various specialty applications, including in min¬ eral waters.

Cespedes \'sas-pa-,thas\ (y Borja del Castillo), Carlos Manuel

de (b. April 18, 1819, Bayamo, Cuba—d. March 22?, 1874, San Lorenzo) Cuban revolutionary hero. Born to a prominent plantation family, he stud¬ ied law in Spain. On returning to Cuba, he opened a law practice and secretly organized an independence movement. He launched his insurrec¬ tion in 1868. Thousands flocked to his rebel army, which scored some stunning victories. He led a revolutionary government, which actively sought annexation by the U.S. Cespedes was deposed in 1873 and went into hiding, but he was discovered and shot by Spanish troops.

cetacean \si-'ta-sli9n\ Any of the exclusively aquatic placental mammals constituting the order Cetacea. They are found in oceans worldwide and in some freshwater environments. Modem cetaceans are grouped in two suborders: about 70 species of toothed whales (Odontoceti) and 13 spe¬ cies of toothless baleen whales (Mysticeti). They have a tapered body, no external hind limbs, and a tail ending in a horizontal blade of two lobes, or flukes. Cetaceans must come to the water’s surface to breathe through blowholes located on top of their head. See also whale.

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366 I Cetsamain ► Chad

Cetsamain See Beltane

Cetshwayo \kech-'wa-yo\ (b. c. 1826, near Eshowe, Zululand [S.Af.]— d. Feb. 8, 1884, Eshowe) Last great king of the Zulus (r. 1872— 79). Nephew of the great Shaka, Cetshwayo commanded a disciplined army of 40,000. Attacked by the British in 1879, he defeated them at Isandhlwana but lost at Ulundi. Part of his kingdom was returned in 1883, but his rivals drove him out of power.

Ceuta Vtha-ii-ta, 'syii-ta \ Arabic Sebta \,seb-to\ Spanish enclave (pop., 2001: 137,916), North Africa. A military station and seaport, it constitutes with Meulia an autonomous community of Spain with an area of 8 sq mi (20 sq km). The city is on a narrow isthmus that connects Jebel Musa (one of the Pillars of Hercules) to the mainland. Located in northern Morocco at the eastern end of the Strait of Gibraltar, it was successively colonized by Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans. Long a flourishing trad¬ ing town, it was taken by the Portuguese in 1415, and it passed to Spain in 1580. In 1995 the Spanish government approved statutes of autonomy for Ceuta.

Ceylon See Sri Lanka

19, 1839, Aix-en-Provence,

Cezanne \sa-'zan\, Paul (b. Jan.

France—d. Oct. 22, 1906, Aix-en- Provence) French painter, one of the founders of modem painting. In 1859 he entered law school; in 1861 he left to study art in Paris. Critics denounced the works he exhibited at the Salon des Refuses (1863), but he persevered. He became associated with the Impressionists, exhibiting with them in 1874 and 1877. Unlike the other artists in the group, he emphasized the structure of objects rather than the vision presented by the light that emanated from them, basing his compositions on cubic masses, patches of colour, and archi¬ tectonic lines. By the late 1870s he had broken with the Impressionists, exploring his own radically new way of simultaneously depicting deep space and flat design; his later work is therefore often classified as “Post- Impressionist.” From 1890 to 1905 he produced masterpieces, one after another: variations of the Mont Sainte-Victoire landscape, three versions of Boy in a Red Waist-Coat, countless still-life images, and the Bathers series of nudes. Public reception to his first one-man exhibition (1895) was cool, but he slowly gained acceptance. His work was a major source of inspiration for the Cubists Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso. See also Cubism; Impressionism; Post-Impressionism.

Self-Portrait, oil on canvas by Paul Cezanne, c. 1878-80; in the Neue Pinakothek, Munich, Ger.

THE BRIDGEMAN ART UBRARY/GETTY IMAGES

CFC See chlorofluorocarbon

CGI in full Common Gateway Interface. Specification by which a Web server passes data between itself and an application program. Typi¬ cally, a Web user will make a request of the Web server, which in turn passes the request to a CGI application program. The program processes the request and passes the answer to the server, which in turn sends it to the user. The entire interchange follows the rules of the CGI specification, which is actually part of the HTTP protocol. CGI application programs can be written in such programming languages as C++ and Visual Basic, but are usually written in Perl.

Chaadayev V.cho-.o-'da-yofA, Pyotr (Yakovlevich) (b. June 7, 1794, Moscow, Russia—d. April 26, 1856, Moscow) Russian writer. In 1827-31 he wrote in French his Philosophical Letters, which explored among other issues Russia’s relation to the West; he urged a Western path of development for Russia. After a Russian translation of the first letter appeared, it was banned, and Chaadayev was declared insane. He contin¬ ued to live in Moscow, however, where he was venerated by young West- emizers, whose ideas of Russian history precipitated the debate between Slavophiles and Westernizers.

Chabrier \,sha-bre-'a\, (Alexis-) Emmanuel (b. Jan. 18, 1841, Ambert, Puy-de-Dome, France—d. Sept. 13, 1894, Paris) French com¬ poser. Though he was a piano prodigy, his parents obliged him to obtain

a law degree and take a government job, but he relinquished the latter in 1880 to pursue composition full-time. His opera Gwendoline enjoyed several productions in his lifetime, but he never achieved significant suc¬ cess. His other works include nine more operas and operettas, including Le Roi malgre lui (1887), and the orchestral rhapsody Espaha (1883).

Chabrol \sha-'brol\, Claude (b. June 24, 1930, Paris, France) French film director, screenwriter, and producer. After working in public relations in 20th Century-Fox’s Paris office, he directed The Cousins (1959), one of the first films of the New Wave movement. Among his many other films are Les Biches (1968), Violette (1978), The Story of Women (1988), and Merci pour la chocolat (2000). He admired Alfred Hitchcock and used a style similar to his in several mystery thrillers, including This Man Must Die (1969), Le Boucher (1970), and La Ceremonie (1995).

Chaco See Gran Chaco

Chaco \'cha-ko\ Culture National Historical Park National pre¬ serve, northwestern New Mexico, U.S. Established as a national monu¬ ment in 1907, it was redesignated and renamed in 1980. Occupying 53 sq mi (137 sq km), it contains 13 major pre-Columbian ruins and more than 300 smaller archaeological sites representing Pueblo cultures. Pueblo Bonito, built in the 10th century, is the largest Pueblo excavated site; it contained some 800 rooms.

Chaco \'cha-ko\ War (1932-35) Conflict between Bolivia and Paraguay over possession of the Chaco, a wilderness region thought to contain oil reserves. Bolivia, landlocked since the War of the Pacific, also was moti¬ vated by the need to gain access to the Atlantic coast through the Rio de la Plata system. The war cost about 100,000 lives and so seriously dis¬ rupted Bolivia’s economy that its deprived masses demanded reform. In a treaty arranged by neighbouring countries and the U.S., Bolivia was given a corridor to the Paraguay River and a port, but Paraguay gained clear title to most of the disputed region.

Chad officially Republic of Chad Country, north-central Africa. Area: 495,755 sq mi (1,284,000 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 9,157,000. Capi¬ tal: N'Djamena. The Sara are the largest ethnic group, making up about

single ethnic group. Languages: French,

Arabic (both official), Fula, Sara. Religions: Islam, Christianity, tradi¬ tional beliefs. Currency: CFA franc. The landlocked country’s terrain is a shallow basin that rises gradually from the Lake Chad area in the west. The basin is rimmed by mountains, including the volcanic Tibesti Massif

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Chad ► chain mail I 367

to the north, rising to 11,204 ft (3,415 m) at Mount Koussi. The lowest elevation, 573 ft (175 m), is in the Djourab Depression. Chad’s river net¬ work is limited to the Chari and Logone rivers and their tributaries, which flow from the southeast into Lake Chad. The economy is agricultural; gold, uranium, and petroleum reserves have not been fully exploited. Chad is a republic with one legislative body; its chief of state is the president, its head of government the prime minister. About ad 800 the kingdom of Kanem was founded, and by the early 1200s its borders had expanded to form a new kingdom, Kanem-Bornu, in the north. Its power peaked in the 16th century with its command of the southern terminus of the trans- Sahara trade route to Tripoli. About this time the rival kingdoms of Bagu- irmi and Ouaddai (Wadai) evolved in the south. In the years 1883-93 all three kingdoms fell to the Sudanese adventurer Rabih al-Zubayr, who was overthrown in 1900 by a local ruler under French protection. Extending their power, the French in 1910 made Chad a part of French Equatorial Africa, and it was made an overseas territory in 1946. The country achieved independence in 1960 but has had decades of civil war despite frequent intervention by France and Libya, resulting in political instabil¬ ity and a lack of economic development.

Chad, Lake Lake, west-central Africa. Located at the juncture of the boundaries of Nigeria, Niger, Chad, and Cameroon, the lake covered 9,900 sq mi (25,600 sq km) in the mid-20th century. Its water level has since dropped—owing to severe drought, the desertification of the sur¬ rounding Sahel region, and irrigation projects—and, by the beginning of the 21st century, the lake had shrunk to 580 sq mi (1,500 sq km). The lake is fed by the Chari River.

Chaeronea \ l ker-9- , ne-o\ Ancient city, eastern Greece. Its ruins are located in western Boeotia southeast of Mount Parnassus, near Orchomenus. Philip II of Macedon won the Battle of Chaeronea there in 338 bc. In 86 bc it was the scene of a victory of Sulla over Mithradates VI of Pontus. Plutarch was bom there c. ad 46.

Chaeronea, Battle of (338 bc) Battle in Boeotia, central Greece, in which Philip II of Macedonia defeated Thebes and Athens. The victory, partly credited to Philip’s young son Alexander the Great, gave Macedonia a foothold in Greece and represented a start toward Alexander’s eventual empire.

Chafee \'cha-fe\, Zechariah, Jr. (b. Dec. 7, 1885, Providence, R.I., U.S.—d. Feb. 8, 1957, Boston, Mass.) U.S. legal scholar. He graduated from Harvard Law School and joined its faculty in 1916. Concerned about the restrictions on freedom of speech imposed in World War I, he wrote Freedom of Speech (1920), which became a leading text of U.S. libertar¬ ian thought. Chafee became recognized as an expert on civil liberties (see civil liberty), influencing Louis Brandeis and Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. He was also an authority on equity, nego¬ tiable instruments, and antitrust law.

chafer Any of several species of scarab beetle (most in the subfamily Melolonthinae). Adult leaf chafers (genus Macrodactylus ) eat foliage; the female deposits her eggs in the soil, and the larvae live underground for years, feeding on plant roots. The well-known rose chafer, a tan, long- legged beetle, feeds on the flowers and foliage of grapes, roses, and other plants. Poultry that eat rose- chafer grubs may be poisoned.

chaffinch Songbird ( Fringilla coelebs) that breeds in gardens and farmlands of Europe and northern Africa to central Asia (and, by intro¬ duction, South Africa). It is the most common finch in western Europe.

The 6-in. (15-cm) male has a bluish crown, rust-brown back, greenish rump, and pinkish to rust face and breast; the female is greenish brown.

The Canary Islands, or blue, chaffinch (F. teydea ) is similar.

Chagall \sha-'gal\, Marc (b. July 7, 1887, Vitebsk, Belorussia, Rus¬ sian Empire—d. March 28, 1985, Saint-Paul, Alpes-Maritimes, France) Belarusan French painter, printmaker, and designer. After studying paint¬ ing in St. Petersburg, he moved to Paris in 1910. During the next four years he mixed with the avant-garde there and created what is often con¬ sidered his best work in the style he would explore for the next 60 years. Often the principal figure in his fantastical works is the painter himself, and memories of Jewish life and folklore in Belarus and themes from the Bible are main sources of imagery. The often whimsical figurative ele¬ ments in his works are frequently depicted upside down and distributed on the canvas in an arbitrary fashion. In the 1920s he launched a career in printmaking, producing hundreds of etchings for special editions of books. In 1941 he left for New York City, where he designed sets and costumes for Igor Stravinsky’s ballet The Firebird. He later produced stained-glass windows and murals for public buildings in Jerusalem, Paris, and the U.S.

Chagos Archipelago Ycha-gssX Island group, central Indian Ocean. Located about 1,000 mi (1,600 km) south of the tip of the Indian sub¬ continent, it has a total area of 23 sq mi (60 sq km). Acquired by Britain from France in 1814, it was originally administered by Britain as a depen¬ dency of Mauritius; since 1976 it has been the sole member of the Brit¬ ish Indian Ocean Territory. Strategically situated at the centre of the Indian Ocean, its chief island, Diego Garcia, was developed as an air and naval refueling station by the U.S. and Great Britain in the mid 20th century, over the strong opposition from the region’s coastal and island states.

C hag res \'cha-gros\ River River, Panama. Rising in central Panama, it is part of the Panama Canal system and flows southwest where it is dammed to form Gatun Lake. It drains northwest out of the lake and into the Caribbean Sea.

Chaikin Vcha-konV, Joseph (b. Sept. 16, 1935, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. stage director, actor, and writer. He was a member of the Living The¬ atre before founding the Open Theatre (1963), which became an influen¬ tial force in experimental theatre. His celebrated productions, the results of intense collaboration between writer, director, and actors, included America Hurrah (1966), The Serpent (1969), Terminal (1970), The Muta¬ tion Show (1971), and Nightwalk (1973). He published his ideas about theatre in The Presence of the Actor (1972). He later collaborated with Sam Shepard on a number of plays, including The War in Heaven (1984) and When the World Was Green (1996). In 1977 he received the first lifetime-achievement Obie Award.

Chain, Sir Ernst Boris (b. June 19, 1906, Berlin, Ger.—d. Aug. 12, 1979, Ire.) German-born British biochemist. With Howard Walter Florey he isolated and purified penicillin and performed the first clinical trials of the antibiotic. For their pioneering work, Chain, Florey, and Alexander Fleming

shared a 1945 Nobel Prize. In addi¬ tion to his work on antibiotics, Chain studied snake venoms, the spreading factor (an enzyme that aids the dis¬ persal of fluids in tissue), and insulin. He was knighted in 1969.

chain drive Device widely used for the transmission of power where shafts are separated at distances greater than that for which gears are practical. In such cases, sprockets (wheels with teeth shaped to mesh with a chain) take the place of gears and drive one another by means of a chain passing over the sprocket teeth. The chains used in conveyor belts are commonly block chains, and consist of solid or laminated blocks connected by side plates and pins. The blocks engage with teeth on sprocket wheels. Depending on the material being moved, buckets, hooks, or other devices are con¬ nected to the blocks.

chain mail or mail Form of body armour worn by European knights and other medieval warriors. An

COURTESY OF THE JOHN WOODMAN HIGGINS ARMOURY MUSEUM

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

368 I chain reaction ► Chalkis

early form, made by sewing iron rings to fabric or leather, was worn in late Roman times and may have originated in Asia. Medieval armourers interlaced the rings, which were closed by welding or riveting. In the 8th century, mail was a short coat with a separate sleeve for the sword arm. By the Norman Conquest (1066), the coat was long and fully sleeved; a hood, usually fitting under a helmet, covered the head and neck. By the 12th century, mail was fitted to hands, feet, and legs. The addition of plates to increase chest and back protection gradually evolved in the 14th cen¬ tury into complete plate armour, displacing mail.

chain reaction Process yielding products that initiate further processes of the same kind. Nuclear chain reactions are a series of nuclear fissions initiated by neutrons produced in a preceding fission. A critical mass, large enough to allow more than one fission-produced neutron to be captured, is necessary for the chain reaction to be self-sustaining. Uncontrolled chain reactions, as in an atomic bomb, occur when large numbers of neu¬ trons are present and the reactions multiply very quickly. Nuclear reac¬ tors control their reactions through the careful distribution of the fissionable material and insertion of neutron-absorbing materials.

chain silicate See inosilicate

chair Seat, usually with four legs and a back, intended for one person. It is one of the most ancient forms of furniture, dating to the 3rd Egyp¬ tian dynasty (c. 2650-2575 bc). Various styles were developed through¬ out Europe. In the 16th century, many chairs began to be covered with upholstery over padding and decorated with elaborate wood carving. U.S. chairs adapted versions of English styles from the late 17th century.

Chajang Yulsa Vja-'yaq-'yul-'saV (fl. 7th century, Korea) Korean Bud¬ dhist monk who attempted to make Buddhism the state religion. He went to Tang-dynasty China in 636 for seven years of study and practice and returned with some of the supposed remains of the historical Buddha. Appointed to the highest Buddhist post in Silla, he erected a tower to house the remains and asserted Silla’s leadership over the other kingdoms of Korea. He sought China’s aid in wars against them. He built the Tongdo Temple to uphold monastic austerity as a model for the nation and sought to make Buddhism a unifying force in Korean society.

chakra Vcha-kroN In Hinduism and Tantra, any of 88,000 focal points in the human body where psychic forces and bodily functions can merge and interact. In Hinduism there are seven and in Tantra four major chakras, each associated with a colour, shape, sense organ, natural element, deity, and mantra. The most important are the heart chakra, the chakra at the base of the spine, and the chakra at the top of the head.

chakravartin or cakravartin N.cho-kro-'var-UnV Ancient Indian conception of the world ruler. Buddhist and Jain sources distinguish three types of secular chakravartin s: cakravala cakravartin, ruler over all four of the continents of Indian cosmography; dvipa cakravartin, ruler of one continent; and pradesa cakravartin, a ruler of part of a continent. The chakravartin was considered a secular counterpart to a buddha.

Chakri dynasty Thailand’s ruling family. Phraphutthayotfa Chulalok (1737-1809) founded the dynasty and ruled as Rama I (r. 1782-1809). He reorganized Siam’s defenses to successfully repel numerous Burmese attacks. His descendants have reigned in an unbroken line ever since. Rama III (r. 1824-51) increased trade with Europe and negotiated a treaty with the British East India Co.; King Mongkut (Rama IV; r. 1851-68) and King Chulalongkorn (Rama V; r. 1868—1910) helped modernize the gov¬ ernment along Western lines and thereby avoided colonial rule. King Vajiravudh (Rama VI; r. 1910-25) instituted social reforms and restored the nation’s fiscal autonomy (lost to the West under Rama IV). Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX) has reigned since 1946 as Thailand’s ceremonial head of state.

Chalcedon Vkal-so-.danV, Council of (451) Fourth ecumenical coun¬ cil of the Christian Church, held in Chalcedon (modern Kadikoy, Tur.). Called by the emperor Marcian, it approved the creeds of Nicaea (325) and Constantinople (381; later known as the Nicene Creed). It also approved the Tome of Pope Leo I confirming the two distinct natures in Christ and rejecting the Monophysite heresy. The council then explained these doctrines in its own confession of faith. The council disciplined clergy and declared Jerusalem and Constantinople patriarchates.

chalcedony or calcedony \kal-'se-d 3 n-e\ Very fine-grained variety of the silica mineral quartz. A form of chert, it occurs in a great variety of colours, usually bluish white, gray, yellow, or brown. Other physical

properties are those of quartz. For centuries, chalcedony has been the stone most used by gem engravers, and many varieties are still cut and polished as ornamental stones. See also agate; carnelian; onyx.

Chalcis See Chalkis

chalcocite Vkal-ko-.sfiA Sulfide mineral, Cu 2 S, that may be an important ore of copper. It belongs to a group of sulfide minerals formed at rela¬ tively low temperatures. Chalcocite alters to native copper and other cop¬ per minerals. Valuable deposits occur in Nevada and Arizona, where other components of the original rock have been dissolved away; chalcocite is also found with bornite in sulfide veins in Montana and Namibia.

chalcopyriteV.kal-ko-'pI-.ritXMost common copper mineral, a copper and iron sulfide (CuFeS 2 ), and a very important copper ore. It typically occurs in ore veins deposited at medium and high temperatures, as in parts of Spain, Japan, Montana, and Mis¬ souri. Chalcopyrite is a member of a group of sulfide minerals, and it crys¬ tallizes in the tetragonal crystal system. Its atomic structure is related to that of SPHALERITE.

Chaldea \kal-'de-o\ Ancient region, on the headwaters of the Euphrates River and adjacent to the Persian Gulf. It was originally the southern part of Babylonia; the name Chaldea also has been used (especially in the Bible) to describe all of Babylonia after it was occupied by the Chaldeans, who established a Chaldean (or neo-Babylonian) dynasty c. 625 bc. Under Nebuchadrezzar II, the empire expanded, subduing Judaea and capturing Jerusalem. It fell to the Persian Achaemenian dynasty in 539 bc.

Chaleur \sha-'loer\ Bay Inlet of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, southeastern Canada. It extends about 90 mi (145 km) between northern New Brun¬ swick and the Gaspe Peninsula. It receives many rivers, including the Res- tigouche. The bay is famous as a fishing ground, especially for mackerel. It was navigated and named in July 1534 by Jacques Cartier.

Chalgrin \shal-'gra n \, Jean-Francois-Therese (b. 1739,, Paris, Fr.—d. Jan. 21, 1811, Paris) French architect. He was trained by Etienne- Louis Boullee and won the Academy of Architecture’s Grand Prix de Rome at age 19. His Saint-Philippe-du-Roule (1764), Paris, was influential in reviving the basilica plan as a standard for European churches; it is char¬ acterized by a simplicity of design in stark contrast to the complex inte¬ riors of existing Gothic and Renaissance churches of the time. Chalgrin died before finishing his masterpiece, the Arc de Triomphe.

Chaliapin Vsho-'lya-pinX, Feodor (Ivanovich) or Fyodor Shalyapin (b. Feb. 13, 1873, near Kazan, Russia—d. April 12, 1938, Paris, France) Russian singer. Born a peasant, he received little early musical training, but his talent led to his taking leading roles with a tour¬ ing opera company in his teens. Coached by Dimitri Usatov (1847-1913), he had debuts in St. Petersburg (1894) and Moscow (1896), where he played Boris Godunov, the role he would be most associated with. These led to his triumphant 1901 La Scala debut as Mefistofele. His imposing stage presence and fine acting gave him a popularity second only to that of Enrico Caruso.

chalk Soft, fine-grained, easily pulverized, white-to-grayish variety of limestone, composed of the shells of minute marine organisms. The pur¬ est varieties contain up to 99% calcium carbonate in the form of the min¬ eral calcite. Extensive deposits occur in western Europe south of Sweden and in England, notably in the chalk cliffs of Dover along the English Channel. Other extensive deposits occur in the U.S. from South Dakota to Texas and eastward to Alabama. Chalk is used for making lime and Portland cement and as a soil additive. Finely ground and purified chalk is known as whiting and is used as a filler, extender, or pigment in a wide variety of materials, including ceramics, putty, cosmetics, crayons, plas¬ tics, rubber, paper, paints, and linoleum. The chalk commonly used in classrooms is a manufactured substance rather than natural chalk.

Chalkis also called Khalkis \kal-'kes\ or Chalcis Vkal-sssX formerly Euripus Ve-vre-pos\ City (pop., 2001: 53,584), on the island of Euboea, Greece. It is situated off the Euripus Strait, which separates Euboea from the Greek mainland. The city was important as a commercial centre as

Chalcocite from Bristol, Conn.

EMIL JAVORSKY

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

chalybite ► Chamberlain's Men I 369

early as the 7th century bc. It established colonies in Macedonia, Italy, and Sicily and was a base for campaigns against Athens until 411 bc. Aristotle died in Chalcis in 322 bc. The city became part of Greece in 1830.

chalybite See siderite

Chambal River Vchom-boL River, northern India. Rising in the west¬ ern Vindhya Mountains near Indore, it flows easterly 550 mi (900 km) before emptying into the Yamuna River, of which it is the chief tributary, west of Kanpur.

chamber music Music composed for small instrumental ensembles and performed without a conductor. Traditionally intended for perfor¬ mance in a room or reception hall, often solely for the performers’ own pleasure, chamber music is now often heard in concert halls. It began with the 16th-century instrumental consort, and long continued to be associ¬ ated with aristocratic households. The duo sonata (usually for violin and continuo) and trio sonata appeared in early 17th-century Italy. The string quartet arose in the 1750s and remains the best-known chamber genre and ensemble. The serenade, nocturne, and divertimento were Classical genres for varying instrumental forces, often intended to accompany meals and other activities. Standard ensembles include the string trio (violin, viola, cello), string quintet (two violins, two violas, cello), and piano trio (piano, violin, cello). The chamber orchestra, usually with fewer than 25 musicians, is often used for 18th-century music and usually requires a conductor. See also sonata.

chamber of commerce or commercial association Any of

various voluntary organizations of business firms, public officials, pro¬ fessional people, and public-spirited citizens whose primary interest is in publicizing, promoting, and developing commercial and industrial oppor¬ tunities in their local area, and usually also community schools, streets, housing, and public works. The International Chamber of Commerce (founded 1920) acts as the voice of the business community in the inter¬ national field and runs a court of arbitration for settling commercial dis¬ putes. National chambers of commerce exist in most industrialized, free- enterprise countries. The first to use the name was founded in Paris in 1601; the first U.S. chamber of commerce was that of the state of New York, founded in 1768.

Chamberlain Vcham-bor-lonV Sir (Joseph) Austen (b. Oct. 16, 1863, Birmingham, Warwickshire, Eng.—d. March 16, 1937, London) British statesman. Son of Joseph Chamberlain and half brother of Neville Chamberlain, he entered the House of Commons in 1892. He held a vari¬ ety of posts, including chancellor of the Exchequer (1903-05, 1919-21) and secretary of state for India (1915-17). As foreign secretary (1924- 29), he helped bring about the Locarno Pact, intended to secure peace in western Europe. For that accomplishment, he shared the 1925 Nobel Prize for Peace with Charles Dawes.

Chamberlain, Charles Joseph (b. Feb. 23, 1863, Sullivan, Ohio, U.S.—d. Feb. 5, 1943, Chicago, Ill.)

U.S. botanist. His research into the structure and life cycles of primitive plants (cycads) enabled him to sug¬ gest a course of evolutionary devel¬ opment for the egg and embryo of seed plants (spermatophytes) and to speculate about a cycad origin for flowering plants (angiosperms). He organized and directed the botanical laboratories at the University of Chi¬ cago (1897-1931), where, with plants collected in Mexico, Austra¬ lia, New Zealand, South Africa, and Cuba, he created the world’s fore¬ most collection of living cycads.

Chamberlain, Houston Stew¬ art (b. Sept. 9, 1855, Southsea,

Hampshire, Eng.—d. Jan. 9, 1927,

Bayreuth, Ger.) British-born Ger- manophile writer. An admirer of Richard Wagner, he wrote a biography of the composer and several books on his works (1892-95) and later mar¬ ried Wagner’s daughter. In his Foundations of the Nineteenth Century (2 vol., 1899), he presented a broad but biased analysis of European culture and proclaimed the racial and cultural superiority of the so-called Aryan

element in European culture. His theories, which owed much to the writ¬ ings of Joseph Arthur, count de Gobineau, influenced German nationalist thought, particularly Adolf Hitler’s National Socialist movement.

Chamberlain Vcham-bsr-linV, John (Angus) (b. April 16, 1927, Rochester, Ind., U.S.) U.S. sculptor. He studied at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago and at Black Mountain College. In 1957 he had his first one-man exhibition in Chicago. His Abstract Expressionist sculptures are often constructed of fragments of automobiles, crushed and jammed together, and painted in bright, industrial colours; these produce an effect of isolated, frozen movement. He also exhibited paintings, prints, and films.

Chamberlain, Joseph (b. July 8, 1836, London, Eng.—d. July 2, 1914, London) British politician and reformer. Early success in business enabled him to retire at age 38 with a substantial fortune. He was elected to Parliament (1876-1906), where he became a leader of the left wing of the Liberal Party. In 1886, in oppo¬ sition to Irish Home Rule, he joined other dissident Liberals (Liberal Unionists) to defeat the Liberal gov¬ ernment. He used his control of the Liberal Unionists to pressure the subsequent Conservative govern¬ ment to adopt a more progressive social policy. As colonial secretary (1895-1903), he advocated tax reform and a federated empire of self-governing colonies, helping pass the Commonwealth of Australia bill (1900). He resigned when his proposals for a tariff giving prefer¬ ence to imperial products were rebuffed by the government.

Chamberlain, (Arthur) Nev¬ ille (b. March 18, 1869, Birming¬ ham, Warwickshire, Eng.—d. Nov. 9, 1940, Heckfield, near Reading, Hampshire) British prime minister (1937-40). Son of Joseph Chamberlain and half brother of Austen Chamberlain, he prospered in the metalworking industry in Birmingham; as the city’s lord mayor (1915-16) he organized England’s first municipal bank. He was a member of the House of Com¬ mons (1918—40), during which he served in Conservative governments as minister of health and chancellor of the Exchequer. As prime minister (1937-40), he sought to prevent the outbreak of a general European war over Adolf Hitler’s demand that Czechoslovakia cede the Sudetenland to Germany. In 1938 he and France’s Edouard Daladier granted most of Hit¬ ler’s demands in the Munich agreement, after which he returned to England a popular hero, speaking of “peace in our time.” He repudiated appeasement after Hitler seized the rest of Czechoslovakia, and when Germany attacked Poland, he declared war. He lost the support of many Conservatives after the failure of a British expedition to Norway and resigned in 1940.

Chamberlain, Wilt(on Norman) (b. Aug. 21, 1936, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—d. Oct. 12, 1999, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. basketball player, one of the greatest offensive players in basketball history. The 7-ft 1-in. (2.16-m) Chamberlain played two years (1956-58) for the University of Kansas. “Wilt the Stilt” later played centre for the Philadelphia (later Golden State) Warriors (1959-65), the Philadelphia 76ers (1965-68), and the Los Angeles Lakers (1968-73). In the 1961-62 season he became the first player to score more than 4,000 points in regular-season NBA games, including a record 100 points in a single game (1962). He led the NBA in scoring seven consecutive years (1959-65) and in rebounding 11 times. He ranks first in career rebounds (23,924) and career rebounding average (22.9 per game).

Chamberlain's Men or Lord Chamberlain's Men English the¬ atrical company, the most important in Elizabethan and Jacobean England. It was based at the Globe Theatre from 1599 to 1608. In 1603 it was taken under royal patronage as the King’s Men. William Shakespeare was con¬ nected with the company for most of his career; it also presented works by Ben Jonson, Thomas Dekker, and Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher. It ceased to exist when the theatres were closed at the outbreak of the English Civil Wars in 1642.

V

Charles Chamberlain, 1925

COURTESY OF THE HARSHBERGER COLLECTION, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, PHILADELPHIA, AND THE HUNT INSTITUTE, PITTSBURGH

Joseph Chamberlain, detail of an oil painting by Frank Holl, 1886; in the National Portrait Gallery, London

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, LONDON

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

370 I Chamberlen ► Champlain

Chamberlen, Hugh (b. 1630, London, Eng.—d. c. 1720, London) British midwife. He was grandnephew of Peter Chamberlen the Elder (1560-1631), who invented the obstetrical forceps. A midwife to Cathe¬ rine, queen of Charles II of England, Hugh Chamberlen used his position to exploit his use of the forceps, previously a family secret, and referred to them in the preface to his translation of a French treatise on midwifery, a standard in obstetrics for 75 years. Near the end of his life, he sold his secret to a Dutch surgeon.

Chambers, Robert and William (respectively b. July 10, 1802, Peebles, Tweeddale, Scot.—d. March 17, 1871, St. Andrews, Fifeshire; b. 1800, Peebles—d. 1883) Scottish publishers. Robert, who began business as a bookstall keeper in Edinburgh, wrote historical, literary, and geologi¬ cal works. In 1832 the brothers started Chambers’s Edinburgh Journal, which led to the establishment of the publishing firm W. & R. Chambers, Ltd. Their Chambers’s Encyclopaedia (1859-68) was based on a trans¬ lation of the German Konversations-Lexikon. Considered scholarly and reliable on historical subjects, the encyclopaedia has gone through sev¬ eral editions, but the lack of a continuous revision system has led to the dating of much of its material.

Chambers, (David) Whittaker orig. Jay Vivian Chambers (b.

April 1, 1901, Philadelphia—d. July 9, 1961, near Westminster, Md., U.S.) U.S. journalist and principal figure in the Alger Hiss case. He joined the Communist Party in 1923 and worked at various times as an editor at New Masses, The Daily Worker, and Time magazine. In testimony before the House Un-American Activities Committee in August 1948, he named former State Department official Alger Hiss as a fellow member of a 1930s Communist spy ring. Hiss denied the charges and sued Chambers for slander. In the trials that followed. Chambers produced material he claimed Hiss had given him to pass along to Soviet agents. His autobi¬ ography, Witness, was published in 1952.

Chambord \sha n -'bor\, Henri Dieudonne d'Artois, count de

(b. Sept. 29, 1820, Paris, France—d. Aug. 24, 1883, Frohsdorf, Austria) French nobleman, last heir of the elder branch of the house of Bourbon and, as Henry V, pretender to the French throne from 1830. Son of the duke de Berry, he was forced to flee France in 1830 when his grandfa¬ ther, Charles X, abdicated and Louis-Philippe seized the throne. In 1870, after the fall of Napoleon III, Chambord invited France to reunite under the Bourbons. For a time the restoration of the monarchy seemed possible, but Chambord’s hostility toward the principles of the French Revolution undermined his support.

chameleon Any member of a group of Old World, primarily tree¬ dwelling lizards in the family Chamaeleontidae, characterized chiefly by their ability to change body colour. Other traits include toes fused into opposite bundles of two and three, teeth attached to the jaw edge, and a long, slender, extensile tongue. About half of the 89 species are found only in Madagascar; the others live mostly in sub-Saharan Africa. A few are found elsewhere. Most are 7-10 in. (17-25 cm) long, with a body flattened from side to side. The bulged eyes move independently. Each species can undergo a particular range of colour change. Insects are the main diet, but larger species also eat birds.

chamomile Vka-mo-.mlL Any of the more than 100 species of Eur¬ asian herbs that make up the genus Anthemis, in the composite family; also, a similar plant in the genus Chamaemelum of the same family.

Both genera have yellow or white ray flowers and yellow disk flowers.

Several Anthemis species are culti¬ vated as ornamentals, especially golden marguerite, or yellow cham¬ omile (A. tinctoria ). The strong¬ smelling mayweed ( A . cotula) has been used in medicines and insecti¬ cides. Chamomile tea, used as a tonic and an antiseptic as well as in herbal remedies, is made from C. nobile, or A. nobilis.

Chamorro \cha-'mor-ro\, Violeta (Barrios de) (b. Oct. 18, 1929, Rivas province, Nic.) President of Nicaragua (1990-96). Bom into a wealthy family, she married the publisher of La Prensa, a newspaper that opposed the Anastasio Somoza dictatorship (see Somoza family). After her

husband was assassinated in 1978, she took his place as publisher. When the Sandinistas overthrew Somoza, she served briefly on a ruling civilian junta, but her newspaper soon became critical of Daniel Ortega and sup¬ portive of U.S. policies, which included extensive support for the anti- Sandinista contras. Advocating an end to military and economic conflicts with the U.S., she was elected president in 1990. Her presidency was troubled by continuing deep political divisions and the significant power still held by the Sandinistas.

Chamoun Vsham-'iinV Camille (Nimer) also spelled Kamil ShanVun (b. April 3, 1900, Dayr al-Qamar, Leb.—d. Aug. 7, 1987, Beirut) President of Lebanon (1952-58). He reorganized government departments to increase efficiency and allowed the press and opposition groups considerable freedom. International tensions rose in 1956 when he refused to break relations with Britain and France over the Suez Crisis. In 1958, when Syria and Egypt formed the short-lived United Arab Repub¬ lic, he refused pleas from Lebanon’s Muslims to join. Armed rebellion broke out, and Chamoun did not seek a second presidential term. He held ministerial posts during the Lebanese civil war (1975—91).

Champa Ancient kingdom, Southeast Asia. Occupying a region now part of central Vietnam, it was formed in the 2nd century ad during the breakup of China’s Han dynasty when the Han official in charge of the region established his own kingdom around present-day Hue. Coming under Indian cultural influence, it withstood over the next several centu¬ ries attacks from China, Java, Vietnam, and the Khmer empire. By the late 15th century, incessant wars had led to its demise.

Champagne \sham-'pan\ Historical and cultural region, northeastern France. The terrain is interrupted by low hills and by the Marne River val¬ ley. It was an important medieval French county held by the houses of Vernandois, Blois, and Navarra. In the 12th and 13th centuries it was the site of six great trade fairs and was a banking centre for all of Europe. Conflicts between the counts of Champagne and the kings of France ended with the marriage (1286) of Joan of Navarra and Champagne to King Philip IV of France, and Champagne was united with the French crown in 1314. As a frontier region, it was frequently invaded; it was the site of fierce battles in World Wars I and II. The region is famous for its wines.

champagne Sparkling wine. Named for the site of its origin, the Cham¬ pagne region of northeastern France, it is made from only three grapes: pinot and meunier (both black) and chardonnay (white). The juice from these grapes is initially fermented in stainless-steel vats. A mixture of wine, sugar, and yeast is added, and it is then transferred to pressure tanks for a second fermentation that yields carbon dioxide and effervescence. It is chilled, sweetened, bottled, and left to mature. It generally has a crisp, flinty taste that varies in degree of sweetness, depending on the type.

Champaigne \sha n -'pan y \, Philippe de (b. May 26, 1602, Brussels—d. Aug. 12, 1674, Paris, Fr.) Flemish-born French painter. Trained in Brussels, he arrived in Paris in 1621. His patrons included Louis XIII, Marie de Medicis, and Cardinal Richelieu, and he became the outstand¬ ing French portraitist of the Baroque period. He became a professor at the Royal Academy (1653) and produced many pieces for the palaces and churches of Paris. His finest work includes two portraits of Richelieu and various paintings for the Jansenist Convent of Port-Royal, especially the austere Ex-voto: Mother Agnes and Sister Catherine (1662), commemo¬ rating his daughter Catherine’s miraculous cure through Mother Agnes’s prayers.

Champlain \sham-'plan\, Lake Lake between Vermont and New York, U.S. Located on the states’ northern boundaries and extending into Canada about 6 mi (10 km), it is about 125 mi (200 km) long and has an area of 430 sq mi (1,115 sq km). It was visited in 1609 by Samuel de Champlain. In 1776 it was the scene of the first British-American naval battle and in 1814 of a U.S. naval victory over the British. A link in the waterway between New York City’s harbour and the lower St. Lawrence River, it is used extensively for commercial and pleasure-boat navigation.

Champlain, Samuel de (b. 1567, Brouage, France—d. Dec. 25, 1635, Quebec, New France) French explorer. He made several expedi¬ tions to North America before founding Quebec in 1608 with 32 colonists, most of whom did not survive the first winter. He joined with the north¬ ern Indian tribes to defeat Iroquois marauders and promoted the fur trade with the Indians. He discovered Lake Champlain in 1609 and made other explorations of what are now northern New York, the Ottawa River, and the eastern Great Lakes. English privateers besieged Quebec in 1628,

Chamomile (Anthemis tomentosa)

ANTHONY J. HUXLEY-EB INC.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

champleve ► Chanel I 371

when England and France were at war, and he was taken prisoner. In 1632 the colony was restored to France, and in 1633 Champlain made his last voyage to Quebec, where he lived until his death.

champleve \shau-l3-'va\ Decorative enameling technique. The process consists of cutting away cells or troughs in a metal plate and filling the depressions with pulverized vit¬ reous enamel. The raised metal lines between the cut-out areas form the design outline. Champleve was prac¬ ticed in the Celtic areas of western Europe in the Roman period. It flour¬ ished in the Rhine Valley near Cologne and in Belgium in the 11th—

12th century. The most notable enamelers were Nicholas of Verdun and Godefroid de Claire.

Champollion \sha n -p6l-'yo n \,

Jean-Francois (b. Dec. 23, 1790,

Figeac, France—d. March 4, 1832,

Paris) French scholar. He played a major role in the deciphering of Egyptian hieroglyphs. Champollion was a linguistic prodigy who had immersed himself in Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac, and Coptic as well as Greek and Latin by age 19. After study of the Rosetta Stone and other texts, Champollion demonstrated decisively in Summary of the Hieroglyphic System of the Ancient Egyptians (1825) that a phonetic value could be assigned to some hieroglyphs. He became curator of the Louvre’s Egyp¬ tian collection (1826) and conducted an archaeological expedition to Egypt (1828-30). See also Egyptian language.

Champs-Elysees \'shau-za-le-'za\ (French: “Elysian Fields”) One of the world’s most remarkable avenues, stretching 1.17 mi (1.88 km) from the Arc de Triomphe to the Place de la Concorde, in Paris. It is divided into two parts by the Rond-Point des Champs-Elysees. The lower part, toward the Place de la Concorde, is surrounded by gardens, museums, theaters, and restaurants. The upper part, toward the Arc de Triomphe, was tradi¬ tionally a luxury commercial district. Twelve imposing avenues radiate to form a star ( etoile ) at the avenue’s upper end, with the Arc de Triomphe at its center; it was called Place de 1’Etoile from 1753 until 1970, when it was renamed Place Charles de Gaulle.

Chan Chan \'chan-'chan\ Ancient city, northern Peru. Located 300 mi (480 km) north of modem-day Lima, it was the capital of the Chimu, a pre-Incan civilization that flourished c. 1200-c. 1400. The ruins, which cover nearly 14 sq mi (36 sq km), consist of walled citadels containing temples, cemeteries, and gardens.

The successors of the Moche civili¬ zation, the Chimu came under the rule of the Incas c. 1465-70.

chancellor In western Europe, the title of holders of numerous offices of varying importance, ultimately political in nature. The prime ministers of Germany and Austria are called chancellors. In Britain the chancellor of the Exchequer is the cabinet member in charge of finance. In the U.S. the title is used mainly for the chief administrators of universities.

Chancellorsville, Battle of Military engagement of the American Civil War. In May 1863 near Chancellorsville, Va., the Union army in Vir¬ ginia, led by Joseph Hooker, attempted to encircle and destroy the Con¬ federate Army of Northern Virginia, led by Robert E. Lee. The Union army was surprised by a flanking force under the command of Stonewall Jack- son. Three days of fighting ended in a Union retreat north of the Rappa¬ hannock River. The Union army lost more than 17,000 men in a force of 130,000; the Confederate army lost more than 12,000, including Jackson, in a force of 60,000.

chancery \'chan-so-re\ Court of public record and archive of state docu¬ ments. The chancery system of the Roman Empire served as the model

for the royal chanceries of medieval France and Germany. Medieval royal chanceries were headed by archchancellors and chancellors, who over¬ saw the work of scribes and notaries and sometimes served as advisers to the monarch.

Chancery, Court of See equity, chancellor

chancre \'shaq-kor\ Primary sore or ulcer at the site of entry of a patho¬ gen; specifically, the typical skin lesion of primary infectious syphilis. In women it is often internal and may go unnoticed. This single red papule (bump), usually occurring about three weeks after infection, and painless regional lymph-node swelling are the major signs of early-stage syphilis. Identification of Treponema pallidum in its fluid makes the diagnosis. The chancre heals in two to six weeks, but syphilis progresses unless treated with PENICILLIN.

Chandigarh Vchon-de-gorX City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 808,796) and union territory (pop., 2001 prelim.: 900,914), joint capital of Haryana and Punjab states, northern India. The territory, on the border between the two states, has an area of 44 sq mi (114 sq km). Located just south of the Shiwalik Hills, the site was selected to replace the former capital of Lahore, which became part of Pakistan at partition in 1947. The city was laid out in the 1950s by Le Corbusier in collaboration with Indian archi¬ tects. Today it is a major communications junction.

Chandler, Raymond (Thornton) (b. July 23, 1888, Chicago, Ill., U.S.—d. March 26, 1959, La Jolla, Calif.) U.S. writer of detective fic¬ tion. Chandler worked as an oil-company executive in California before turning to writing during the Great Depression. Early short stories were followed by screenplays, including Double Indemnity (1944), The Blue Dahlia (1946), and Strangers on a Train (1951). His character Philip Marlowe, a hard-boiled private detective working in the Los Angeles underworld, appears in all seven of his novels, including The Big Sleep (1939; film, 1946 and 1978), Farewell, My Lovely (1940; film Murder, My Sweet, 1944, and Farewell, My Lovely, 1975), and The Long Good- Bye (1953; film, 1973). Chandler and Dashiell Hammett are regarded as the classic authors of the hard-boiled genre.

Chandra Gupta II or Candra Gupta II or Vikramaditya (fl. 4th-5th centuries ad, India) Powerful emperor (r. c. 380-c. 415) of the Gupta dynasty of northern India. A grandson of Chandra Gupta I (r. 320-c. 335), who founded the dynasty, he is thought to have achieved power by assassinating a weak elder brother. He inherited a large empire and extended control over neighbouring territories through battle and marriage alliances. Under him, India enjoyed peace and relative prosperity. His system of government and his charity were admired by the Chinese pil¬ grim Faxian. He was a patron of the poet Kalidasa. Though a devout Hindu, he tolerated the Buddhist and Jain religions.

Chandragupta Maurya or Candra Gupta \ l kon-dr3- l gup-td\ Maurya (fl. 4th-3rd centuries bc, India) Founder of the Maurya dynasty and the first emperor (r. c. 321-c. 297 bc) to unify most of India under one administration (see Mauryan empire). Born to a destitute migrant Mau- ryan family, he was sold into slavery and eventually purchased by a Brah¬ man politician, who gave him an education in military tactics and the arts. Chandragupta gathered mercenary soldiers, secured public support, over¬ threw the Nanda dynasty, and established his own in modern-day Bihar. On the death of Alexander the Great (323 bc), he won control of the Pun¬ jab (c. 322). He expanded his empire east to the borders of Persia, south to India’s tip, and north to the Himalayas and the Kabul River valley. His administration was patterned on that of the Persian Achaemenian dynasty. He died fasting in sympathy for his people during a time of famine.

Chandrasekhar X.chon-dro-'sha-karX, Subrahmanyan (b. Oct. 19, 1910, Lahore, India—-d. Aug. 21, 1995, Chicago, Ill., U.S.) Indian-born U.S. astrophysicist. He left the University of Cambridge to join the staff of the University of Chicago in 1938. He determined that, following its red giant phase, a star with a remaining mass greater than 1.4 times that of the Sun (the Chandrasekhar limit) collapses and becomes a neutron star during a supernova explosion. Stellar remnants more massive than about three solar masses collapse even further to become black holes. He shared a 1983 Nobel Prize with William A. Fowler.

Chanel \sha-'nel\, Gabrielle known as Coco Chanel (b. Aug. 19, 1883, Saumur, France—d. Jan. 10, 1971, Paris) French fashion designer. Little is known of her early life. In 1913 she opened a millinery shop in Deauville, and within five years her innovative use of jersey fabric and accessories was attracting wealthy patrons. Her nonconformist designs.

Death mask of gold and silver alloy with copper eyes and ears, Chimu cul¬ ture, c. 1000-c. 1465, centred at Chan Chan; in a private collection

FERDINAND ANTON

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

372 I Chaney ► chanson

stressing simplicity and comfort, revolutionized the fashion industry for the next 30 years. She popularized turtleneck sweaters, the “little black dress,” and the much-copied “Chanel suit.” Chanel industries included a Parisian fashion house, a textile business, perfume laboratories, and a workshop for costume jewelry. The financial basis of her empire was Chanel No. 5 perfume, introduced in 1922 and still popular.

Chaney, Lon in full Alonso Chaney (b. April 1, 1883, Colorado Springs, Colo., U.S.—d. Aug. 26,

1930, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. film actor. Bom to deaf-mute parents, he learned pantomime and became an actor at 17. He moved to Hollywood in 1912 and played supporting roles until The Miracle Man (1919) made him a star. Known as “the man of a thousand faces,” he was famous for his ability to transform himself through the use of makeup. He often played grotesque or dual characters in films directed by Tod Browning, including The Unholy Three (1925).

His other silent films include The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1923),

The Phantom of the Opera (1925), and London After Midnight (1927).

His son Lon Chaney, Jr. (1905-73), appeared in numerous horror films in such repeated roles as the Wolf Man and the Mummy and, notably, in Of Mice and Men (1939).

Chang Chih-tung See Zhang Zhidong

Chang Chii-cheng See Zhang Juzheng Chang Jiang See Yangtze River Chang Tao-Ling See Zhang Daoling Chang Tsai See Zhang Zai Chang Tso-lin See Zhang Zuolin

Chang'an Vchaq-'anX or Ch'ang-an Ancient capital of China during the Han, Sui, and Tang dynasties, near present-day Xi'an. From the mid- 4th century it was a centre of Buddhist studies. Wendi, first emperor of the Sui, expanded Chang’an: its outer walls were 6 mi (9.7 km) by 5 mi (8.2 km), with 14 avenues running north-south and 11 running east-west. The centre of the northern boundary was the site of the imperial palace; in front of it was an administrative compound 3 mi (4.5 km) square. Until the proscription of foreign religions in the 840s, Chang’an contained numerous Buddhist temples, along with Nestorian, Manichaean, and Zoroastrian churches and many Daoist monasteries. It was reduced to ruins in the 880s by the rebel Huang Zhao, and future dynasties estab¬ lished their capitals elsewhere.

Changchun or Ch'ang-ch'un \'chaq-'chun\ City (pop., 1999 est.: 2,072,324), capital of Jiun province, northeastern China. It was a small village until the end of the 18th century, when farmers from Shandong began to settle near the Sungari River. It gained in importance after the completion of the Chinese Eastern Railway. It came under Japanese con¬ trol following the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95. At the time the Japa¬ nese seized Manchuria in 1931, the capital of the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo was moved from Mukden (Shenyang) to Changchun. Fol¬ lowing World War II, the city suffered severely in the fighting between communist and Nationalist forces but experienced phenomenal growth under Chinese communist rule. It is now a centre for industrial expan¬ sion, as well as the cultural and educational heart of the province.

Changchun See Qiu Chuji

change ringing Traditional English art of ringing tower or hand bells in a succession of different orders. Groups of swinging bells in English church towers date from the 10th century. Control of bell ringing was much enhanced with the invention of the bell wheel in the 14th century; further improvements in bearings and fittings allowed the bells to swing at the same speed and led to recognizably modern change ringing by the 17th century. A “ring” (set) of 6 bells can be tolled in 720 different

“changes” (orders); 8 bells allow 40,320 different changes, and 10 bells allow more than 3,000,000. In practice, only a selection of the possible changes is rung, derived by a “method” (a shuffling algorithm), usually involving switching pairs of bells in a certain order (e.g., 123456 becomes 214365, which can then become 241635, etc.). “Rounds”—all the bells in order from highest to lowest—is rung before and after a method is completed.

Changsha Vchaq-'sha\ or Ch'ang-sha City (pop., 2003 est.: 1,562,200), capital of Hunan province, south-central China. It was impor¬ tant from the time of the Qin dynasty (221-207 bc). In ad 750-1100 Changsha was an important commercial city, and its population increased greatly. Under the Qing dynasty, from 1664, it was the capital of Hunan province, and it was a major rice market. It was besieged during the Tap¬ ing Rebellion but never fell. Changsha was the site of Mao Zedong’s con¬ version to communism. It was the scene of major battles in the Sino- Japanese War of 1937-45 and was briefly occupied by the Japanese. Rebuilt since 1949, the city is now a major port and a commercial and industrial centre.

Channel, The See English Channel

Channel Islands or Santa Barbara Islands Chain of islands, southern California, U.S. Extending 150 mi (240 km) along and 12-70 mi (20-115 km) off the coast, it is divided into the Santa Barbara group (San Miguel, Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, and Anacapa) and the Santa Cat¬ alina group (Santa Barbara, San Nicolas, Santa Catalina, and San Clem¬ ente). The islands range in size from Santa Cruz (98 sq mi [254 sq km]) to the small Anacapa islets. Rugged and mountainous, they are frequented by colonies of sea lions, seals, and birds and are noted for their distinc¬ tive plant life (several hundred varieties). The larger islands support sheep and cattle ranches, and Santa Catalina is a noted resort. Channel Islands National Park (established as a national monument in 1938) embraces Anacapa, San Miguel, Santa Barbara, Santa Cruz, and Santa Rosa.

Channel Islands Island dependencies, United Kingdom. Located in the English Channel 10-30 mi (16-48 km) off the western coast of France, they cover an area of 75 sq mi (194 sq km) and include the islands of Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark and several islets. They are domes¬ tically independent of the British government. Structures, including men¬ hirs, are evidence of prehistoric occupation. A part of Normandy in the 10th century ad, the islands came under British rule at the time of the Norman Conquest in 1066. The islets of Ecrehous and Les Minquiers were disputed between England and France until 1953, when the International Court of Justice confirmed British sovereignty. The dispute revived in the late 20th century because sovereignty determines the rights to the conti¬ nental shelf’s economic development (especially petroleum). The Chan¬ nel Islands were the only British territory occupied by Germany in World War II. The islands are famous for their cattle breeds, including the Jer¬ sey and Guernsey.

Channel Tunnel or Eurotunnel Rail tunnel that runs beneath the English Channel between Folkestone, England, and Sangatte (near Cal¬ ais), France. A rail tunnel was chosen over proposals for a very long sus¬ pension bridge, a bridge-and-tunnel link, and a combined rail-and-road link. The 31-mi (50-km) tunnel, which opened in 1994, consists of three separate tunnels, two for rail traffic and a central tunnel for services and security. Trains, which carry motor vehicles as well as passengers, can travel through the tunnel at speeds as high as 100 mph (160 kph).

Charming, William Ellery (b. April 7, 1780, Newport, R.I., U.S.—d. Oct. 2, 1842, Bennington, Vt.) U.S. Unitarian clergyman. He studied the¬ ology at Harvard University and became a successful preacher. From 1803 until his death he was pastor of Boston’s Federal Street Church. He began his career as a Congregationaust but gradually adopted liberal and ratio¬ nalist views that came to be labeled Unitarian. In 1820 he established a conference of liberal Congregationalist clergy, later reorganized as the American Unitarian Association. Known as the “apostle of Unitarianism,” he also became a leading figure in New England Transcendentalism, and his lectures and essays on slavery, war, and poverty made him one of the most influential clergymen of his day.

chanson \sha n -‘so n \ French "song" French art song. The unaccom¬ panied chanson for a single voice part, composed by the troubadours and later the trouveres, first appeared in the 12th century. Accompanied chan¬ sons, with parts for one or more instruments, were written in the 14th— 15th centuries by Guillaume de Machaut and others in the strict formes fixes

Chaney.

/N BROTHERS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

chanson de geste ► Chapman I 373

(“fixed forms”). About 1,500 chansons for several voices began to be written by Josquin des Prez and his contemporaries. In recent centuries the term has often been used for any cabaret-style French song.

chanson de geste \sha n - , so n -do- , zhest\ Any of several Old French epic poems that form the core of the Charlemagne legends. More than 80 chansons de geste have survived in 12th- to 15th-century manuscripts. Dealing chiefly with events of the 8th-9th century, they contain a core of historical truth overlain with legend. Most are anonymous. The Chanson de Roland was the formative influence on later chansons de geste, which in turn influenced literature throughout Europe.

Chanson de Roland \sha n -'s6 n -d9-r6-'la n \ English "Song of Roland" Old French epic poem written c. 1100, the masterpiece and probably the earliest of the chanson de geste form. Its probable author was a Norman, Turold (Turoldus), whose name is introduced in its last line. It deals with the Battle of Roncesvalles (778), a skirmish against the Basques that the poem portrays as a heroic battle against the Saracens. Direct and sober in style, it highlights a clash between the recklessly cou¬ rageous Roland and his prudent friend Oliver, which is also a conflict between divergent conceptions of feudal loyalty.

chant See Byzantine chant, Gregorian chant

chanterelle \,shan-t9-'rel\ Highly prized, fragrant, edible mushroom (Cantharellus cibarius, order Polyporales), rich yellow in colour, found in woods in summer and autumn. Its similarity to the poisonous jack-o- lantem ( Clitocybe illudens, order Agaricales), an orange-yellow fungus of woods and stumps that glows in the dark, emphasizes the need for care¬ ful identification by the mushroom gatherer.

Chantilly lace \shan-'ti-le\ Lace made at Chantilly, north of Paris, from the 17th century. The silk laces that made the town famous date from the 18th century. Black, white, and blond lace (derived from natural silk) were made in the 19th century, and by 1840 machine-made imitations were available. The designs are character¬ ized by naturalistic flowers and rib¬ bons on a spotted background.

Chantilly porcelain Either of two types of soft-paste porcelain produced from c. 1725 to c. 1800 at Chantilly, France. In the first type, made until c. 1750, an opaque, milk- white tin glaze was applied to a yel¬ lowish ground; the designs were simplified Japanese patterns. In the second type (c. 1750-1800), a tradi¬ tional transparent lead glaze was applied over a coloured ground; the designs were influenced by Meissen and Sevres porcelain. Production consisted primarily of domestic ware (plates, basins, jugs) with painted decoration in a limited palette. The motifs were often small flower bou¬ quets, known as Chantilly sprigs, or scrolls and plaits.

Chao Phraya River \chau-'pri- o\ or Maenam River \ma-'nam\

River, Thailand. Flowing south from the highlands on the country’s north¬ ern border to the head of the Gulf of Thailand near Bangkok, it is some 225 mi (365 km) long and is Thai¬ land’s principal river. It is important for the transport of the country’s exports. It also forms a highly pro¬ ductive agricultural valley. The name strictly applies only to the river’s lower course, which begins at the confluence of the Nan and Ping riv¬ ers and is 140 mi (225 km) long.

Chaos \'ka-,as\ In Greek cosmology, either the primeval emptiness before things came into being or the abyss of Tartarus, the underworld. In Hesiod’s Theogony, there was first Chaos, then Gaea and Eros. The off¬ spring of Chaos were Erebus (Darkness) and Nyx (Night). Ovid gave Chaos its modern meaning: the original formless and disordered mass from which the ordered universe is created. The early church fathers applied this interpretation to the creation story in Genesis.

chaos theory \'ka-,as\ Mathematical theory that describes chaotic behavior in a complex system. Applications include the study of turbulent flow in fluids, irregularities in biological systems, population dynamics, chemical reactions, plasma physics, meteorology, the motions of groups and clusters of stars, transportation dynamics, and many other fields.

chaotic behaviour Behaviour in a complex system that appears irregular or unpredictable but is actually determinate. The apparently ran¬ dom or unpredictable behaviour in systems governed by complicated (nonlinear) deterministic laws is the result of high sensitivity to initial conditions. For example, Edward Lorenz discovered that a simple model of heat convection exhibits chaotic behaviour. In a now-classic example of such sensitivity to initial conditions, he suggested that the mere flap¬ ping of a butterfly’s wings could eventually result in large-scale changes in the weather (the “butterfly effect”).

Chapala \cha-'pa-la\, Lake Lake, Jalisco state, Mexico. Mexico’s larg¬ est lake, it is about 50 mi (80 km) long and 10 mi (15 km) wide and has an area of roughly 400 sq mi (1,000 sq km). A popular resort area, it is both fed and drained by the Lerma River.

chaparral N.sha-po-'ralX Vegetation composed of broad-leaved ever¬ green shrubs, bushes, and small trees, often forming dense thickets. Chap¬ arral is found in regions with a Mediterranean climate, characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters. The name is applied mainly to the coastal and inland mountain vegetation of southwestern North America. Chaparral vegetation becomes extremely dry by late summer. The fires that commonly occur during this period are necessary for the germination of many shrub seeds, and they clear away dense ground cover, thus maintaining the shrubby growth form of the vegetation by preventing the spread of trees. New chaparral growth provides good graz¬ ing for domestic livestock, and chaparral vegetation also is valuable for watershed protection in areas with steep, easily eroded slopes.

chaparral cock See roadrunner

Chaplin, Charlie in full Sir Charles Spencer Chaplin (b. April 16, 1889, London, Eng.—d. Dec. 25, 1977, Corsier-sur-Vevey, Switz.) British-U.S. actor and director. The son of poverty-stricken music-hall entertainers, he became a vaudeville performer at age eight. On tour in New York (1913), he caught the eye of Mack Sennett, who signed him to a film contract. While making his second film, Kid Auto Races at Venice (1914), Chaplin developed the costume—baggy pants, derby hat, over¬ sized shoes, and cane—that was to become the hallmark of his famous “little tramp” character. He was soon directing his own films, and he became an instant star in The Tramp (1915). After cofounding United Art¬ ists in 1919, he produced, directed, and starred in such classics as The Gold Rush (1925), City Lights (1931), Modern Times (1936), The Great Dictator (1940), Monsieur Verdoux (1947), and Limelight (1952). Harassed for his leftist political views, he moved to Switzerland in 1952. In 1972 he returned to the U.S. to accept a special Academy Award.

Chapman, Frank Michler (b. June 12, 1864, Englewood, N.J., U.S.—d. Nov. 15, 1945, New York, N.Y.) self-taught U.S. ornithologist. He began his career at the American Museum of Natural History in 1887 and was curator of ornithology in 1908^42; his exhibits were some of the first to display birds in naturalistic settings. He founded and edited (1899— 1935) the magazine Bird-Lore. Among his many important works are Handbook of Birds of Eastern North America (1895) and several on South American birds.

Chapman, Maria Weston orig. Maria Weston (b. July 25,1806, Weymouth, Mass., U.S.—d. July 12, 1885, Weymouth) U.S. abolitionist. She was principal of the Young Ladies’ High School in Boston from 1828 to 1830, when she married Henry Chapman, a Boston merchant. In 1832, with 12 other women, she founded the Boston Female Anti-Slavery Soci¬ ety. Later she became chief assistant to William Lloyd Garrison, helping him to run the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society and to edit The Lib¬ erator, a widely circulated abolitionist publication. In 1839 she published

Chantilly lace from France, c. 1870; in the Institut Royal du Patrimoine Artis- tique, Brussels.

COURTESY OF THE INSTITUT ROYAL DU PATRIMOINE ARTISTIQUE, BRUSSELS; PHOTOGRAPH, © A.C.L., BRUSSELS

Chantilly porcelain plate decorated with dragons, c. 1725; in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London

COURTESY OF THE VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, LONDON

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

374 I Chapultepec ► Charles

a pamphlet arguing that the divisions among abolitionists stemmed from their disagreements over women’s rights.

Chapultepec \cha-'pul-ta-,pek\ Rocky hill, southwest of Mexico City, Mexico. The Aztecs fortified it and built a religious centre and a residence for their rulers in the early 14th century. The Spanish coNQUiSTADORes built a chapel in 1554, and in the 1780s the Spanish viceroys constructed a summer palace there that later became the home of the National Military Academy (1841). The hill was captured by a U.S. assault (1847) in the Mexican War. In the 1860s Mexico’s Emperor Maximilian rebuilt the castle; it remained the official residence of Mexican presidents until 1940, when it was converted into a museum.

char Any of several freshwater food and game fishes (genus Salvelinus) of the salmon family, distinguished from the similar trout by light, rather than black, spots; by a boat-shaped, rather than flat, vomer (bone) on the roof of the mouth; and by having teeth on the front of the vomer rather than on the shaft. Char often have smaller scales than their relatives. The Arctic char, of North America and Europe, inhabits the Arctic and adja¬ cent oceans and enters rivers and lakes to breed. It may weigh 15 lbs (7 kg) or more. The brook trout, Dolly Varden trout, and lake trout are native North American char.

charcoal Impure form of carbon, obtained as a residue when material containing carbon is partially burned or heated with limited access to air. Coke, carbon black, and soot are forms of charcoal; other forms are named for their source material, such as wood, blood, or bone. Largely replaced by coke in blast furnaces and by natural gas as a raw material, charcoal is still used to make black gunpowder and in case-hardening metals. Acti¬ vated charcoal is a finely powdered or highly porous form whose surface area is hundreds or thousands of square meters per gram. It has many uses as an adsorbent (see adsorption), including for poison treatment, and as a catalyst or catalyst carrier.

Charcot \shar-'ko\, Jean-Martin (b. Nov. 29, 1825, Paris, Fr.—d. Aug. 16, 1893, Morvan) French medical teacher and clinician. With Guil¬ laume Duchenne (b. 1806—d. 1875) he is considered the founder of modern neurology. In 1882 he opened Europe’s greatest neurological clinic of the day. An extraordinary teacher, he was known for his work with hysteria and hypnosis, which influenced many students, including Sigmund Freud. He described the symptoms of locomotor ataxia and the disintegration of ligaments and joint surfaces it causes (Charcot disease, Charcot joint), pioneered the linking of brain sites with specific functions, and discovered miliary aneurysms in the brain.

chard or Swiss chard Edible-leaf beet {Beta vulgaris, variety cicla ), a variety of beet in which the tender leaves and leafstalks have become greatly developed. They are a good source of vitamins A, B, and C.

Chard is popular as a home-garden pot herb because it is easy to grow, productive, and tolerant of moderate heat. Highly perishable, it is difficult to ship to distant markets.

Chardin \shar-'da n \, Jean- Baptiste-Simeon (b. Nov. 2,

1699, Paris, France—d. Dec. 6,

1779, Paris) French painter. He first received acclaim in 1728, when he became a member of the Royal Academy of Painting in Paris. He became known as a successful painter of still lifes and domestic scenes that were remarkable for their intimate realism, tranquil atmo¬ sphere, and luminosity. In his later years he produced stunning pastel portraits. He was the greatest still-life painter of the 18th century, well known in his lifetime through engravings of his work. The meditative quiet of his work contrasts with the spirit of light and superficial bril¬ liance seen in the work of many of his contemporaries. Many 20th-century artists were inspired by the abstract qualities of his compositions.

Charente River \sha-'raiit\ River, western France. Rising in the depart¬ ment of Haute-Vienne, it flows generally westward 226 mi (360 km) to

the Bay of Biscay. It receives its chief tributary, the Boutonne, from the plain of Poitou to the north. It is navigable for small craft as far as Angouleme.

charge-coupled device See CCD

Chargoggagoggmanchauggauggagoggchaubunagun- gamaugg Vchar-.go-go-.gog-man-.cho-.go-go-.gog-cho-.bo-no-'goq-go- ,m6g\, La ice or Lake Webster Lake, central Massachusetts, U.S. Located in southern Worcester county, near the town of Webster, the lake’s Indian name is reportedly Nipmuc (Algonquian) for “You fish on your side; I fish on my side; nobody fishes in the middle.” Not surprisingly, the lake is commonly called Lake Webster.

Chari \'sha-re\ River or Shari River River, north-central Africa. It flows about 590 mi (949 km) from the Central African Republic north¬ west into Lake Chad; it has many tributaries in the Central African Repub¬ lic. N’Djamena is at the head of the river’s delta.

chariot Open two- or four-wheeled vehicle of ancient origin. The chariot probably originated in Mesopotamia about 3000 bc; early monuments show heavy vehicles with solid wheels. Chariots were probably first used in royal funeral processions. Two-wheeled horse-drawn versions evolved for speed in battle c. 2000 bc, appearing first in Greece and later in Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean. Chariot racing was popular in Greece at the Olympic Games; in Rome it was the main event in the circus games, where two to four horses drew each lightweight chariot in a competition of four or six vehicles; and in Byzantium such races became the domi¬ nant events of civic life.

charismatic movement See Pentecostalism

Charlemagne Vshar-h-.manX or Carolus Magnus ("Charles the Great") (b. April 2, c. 742—d. Jan. 28, 814, Aachen, Austrasia) King of the Franks (768-814) and emperor (800-14). The elder son of the Frankish king Pippin III (the Short), he ruled the Frankish kingdom jointly with his brother Carloman until the latter’s death in 771. He then became sole king of the Franks and began a series of campaigns to conquer and Christianize neighbouring kingdoms. He defeated and became king of the Lombards in northern Italy (774). His expedition against the Muslims in Spain failed (778), but he successfully annexed Bavaria (788). Charle¬ magne fought against the Saxons for many years, finally defeating and Christianizing them in 804. He subdued the Avars of the Danube and gained control of many of the Slav states. With the exception of the Brit¬ ish Isles, southern Italy, and part of Spain, he united in one vast state almost all the Christian lands of western Europe. His coronation as emperor at Rome on Christmas Day, 800, after restoring Leo III to the papacy, marks the revival of the empire in Latin Europe and was the fore¬ runner of the Holy Roman Empire. Charlemagne established his capital at Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle), where he built a magnificent palace. He invited many scholars and poets to assist him in the promotion of the religious and cultural revival known as the Carolingian renaissance. He also cod- ifed the laws and increased the use of writing in government and society. He was succeeded on his death by his son Louis the Pious, whom Char¬ lemagne had crowned coemperor in 813. See also Carolingian dynasty.

Charleroi \shar-b-'rwa\ City (pop., 2000 est.: 200,800), southwestern Belgium. Following the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659), in which Spain was ceded French territory, Spain in 1666 decreed that a new fortress, named for Charles II of Spain, be built there, at the site of a medieval village. It was strategically important in the 17th—19th centuries and was held vari¬ ously by France, Spain, Austria, and Holland. Though the fortress was dis¬ mantled in the late 19th century, the area retained its strategic importance; it was the scene of one of the first battles of World War I.

Charles (Philip Arthur George), prince of Wales (b. Nov. 14, 1948, Buckingham Palace, London, Eng.) Heir apparent to the British throne, son of Elizabeth II and Philip, duke of Edinburgh. In 1971 he studied at the University of Cambridge, becoming the first heir to the throne to obtain a university degree, and he later attended the Royal Air Force Col¬ lege and the Royal Naval College, Dartmouth. He took a tour of duty with the Royal Navy (1971-76). In 1981 he married Lady Diana Spen¬ cer (see Diana, princess of Wales), and they had two sons, William and Henry. Their marriage grew strained amid intense scrutiny from the press and rumours of infidelity; they divorced in 1996. He subsequently began publicly keeping company with Camilla Parker Bowles (b. 1947), and they married in 2005. He has been known for his advocacy of excellence in architecture and other causes.

Chard (Beta vulgaris variety cicla).

W.H. HODGE

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.