Britannica Concise 2005 - читать бесплатно онлайн полную версию книги автора Encyclopedia Britannica (ч. 92)

Novgorod Vnov-go-roA City (pop., 2002: 217,200), northwestern Rus¬ sia. Located on the Volkhov River north of Lake Ilmen, it is one of the oldest Russian cities. First mentioned in the chronicles of ad 859, it came under Rurik c. 862. It was of great importance in the 11th to 15th centu¬ ries, when it was the capital of the principality of Novgorod. It prospered by trade with Central Asia, Byzantium, and the Hanseatic League. The centre of the Novgorod school of painting, it was ruled by Alexander Nevsky in the 13th century. It became a rival of Moscow, was destroyed by Ivan IV in 1570, and declined with the rise of St. Petersburg. It was held by the Germans in World War II and suffered heavy damage. Many his¬ toric buildings were later restored, and these were designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1992. The city is a centre of tourism.

Novgorod school Important school of Russian medieval icon and mural painting that flourished around Novgorod in the 12th-16th centu¬ ries. Novgorod, Russia’s cultural centre in the 13th—14th centuries, when most of the rest of the country was occupied by the Mongols, preserved the Byzantine traditions that formed the basis of Russian art but intro¬ duced lighter and brighter colours, flatter forms, softening of facial types, and increasing use of a graceful, rhythmic line to define form. Until the early 14th century, artistic activity was dominated by mural painting. A

new artistic impetus was provided by the introduction of the iconostasis.

When icons were displayed together on the iconostasis rather than scat¬ tered about the walls of the church, they demanded a coherent overall impression, which was achieved by strong, rhythmic lines and colour harmonies. Figures took on the elon¬ gated shape that became standard in Russian art. In the 16th century artis¬ tic leadership passed to the Moscow school.

Novi Sad Vn6-ve-'sad\ Hungarian Uvidek Vii-e- ,ve-,dak\ City (pop.,

2000 est.: 179,626), Serbia, Serbia and Montenegro. The administrative capital of the autonomous region of "Miracle of St. George over the the VoJVODINA, it is a transit port on Dragon," icon by an anonymous artist the Danube River, northwest of Bel- of the Novgorod school, egg tempera grade. Founded in the 17th century, it was part of Hungary until the for¬ mation of Yugoslavia in 1918. The city is an ethnically diverse agricul¬ tural centre; its economy suffered badly during the 1990s Balkan upheavals.

on panel, beginning of the 15th cen¬ tury; in the State Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow, I.A. Ostroukhov Collection

NOVOSTI PRESS AGENCY

Novosibirsk \,no-v6-si-'birsk\ formerly (1895-1925) Novoni- kolayevsky City (pop., 2001 est.: 1,393,200), south-central Russia, in Asia. The capital of Novosibirsk province, it is the chief city of western Siberia and lies on the Ob River where the latter is crossed by the Trans- Siberian Railroad. The city began in 1893 and was named for Tsar Nicho¬ las II in 1895. During World War II many Russian factories from the west were moved there. It is renowned for industry and scientific research. As Siberia’s cultural and educational centre, it developed the satellite town Akademgorodok with research institutes and a university.

NOW See National Organization for Women

Noyce, Robert (Norton) (b. Dec. 12, 1927, Burlington, Iowa, U.S.—d. June 3, 1990, Austin, Texas) U.S. engineer. He received a Ph.D. from MIT. In 1957 he launched Fairchild Semiconductor, one of the first electronics firms in what came to be called Silicon Valley. Simultaneously but independently, he and Jack Kilby invented the integrated circuit com¬ puter chip in 1959. With his colleague Gordon Moore, he founded Intel Corporation, in 1968. In 1988 Noyce became president of Sematech, Inc., a research consortium formed and financed jointly by industry and the U.S. government to keep the U.S. semiconductor industry at the forefront of semiconductor manufacturing technology.

Noyes \'noiz\, John Humphrey (b. Sept. 3, 1811, Brattleboro, Vt., U.S.—d. April 13, 1886, Niagara Falls, Ont., Can.) U.S. social reformer. While studying for the ministry at Yale, Noyes declared his belief in “per¬ fectionism,” announcing that he had achieved a state of sinlessness. Because his views were in direct opposition to the prevailing Calvinism, he was forced to leave Yale. In 1836 he organized a community of “Bible communists” in Putney, Vt., where he advocated free love and “complex” marriage as opposed to “simple,” or monogamous, marriage. Arrested for adultery in 1846, he fled to Oneida, N.Y., where he established the Oneida Community, which he led until 1879, when he fled to Canada to avoid legal action. He wrote several books on perfectionism and a history of U.S. utopian communities.

Nozick, Robert (b. Nov. 16, 1938, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.—d. Jan. 23, 2002, Cambridge, Mass.) U.S. philosopher. He received a Ph.D. in phi¬ losophy at Princeton University in 1963 and taught at Harvard University from 1969 until his death. His best-known work, Anarchy, State, and Uto¬ pia (1974), is a closely argued and highly original defense of the liber¬ tarian “minimal state” (a state whose powers are limited to those necessary to protect citizens against violence, theft, and fraud) and a critique of the social-democratic liberalism of his Harvard colleague John Rawls. Against anarchism, Nozick argued that the minimal state is justified because it would arise in a state of nature through transactions that would not vio¬ late anyone’s natural rights (see natural law); against liberalism and ide¬ ologies farther left, he argued that no more than the minimal state is justified because any state with more extensive powers would violate the

NPR ► nuclear magnetic resonance I 1385

natural rights of its citizens. Nozick emphasized that the minimal state as he envisioned it could encompass smaller communities in which the cen¬ tral public authority would have more than minimal powers. Because each such community would be free to realize its own idea of the good soci¬ ety, the minimal state, according to Nozick, constitutes a “framework for utopia.”

NPR See National Public Radio

NRA See National Recovery Administration, National Rifle Assn.

NSAIDs Ven-.sedz, 'en-,sadz\ or nonsteroidal anti-inflamma¬ tory drugs Drugs that reduce inflammation and are effective against pain (see analgesic) and fever. Most are available without prescription and are usually used for short periods for mild pain. Aspirin is technically an NSAID, but the term is generally applied to a newer class of drugs, including ibuprofen and similar drugs (e.g., naproxen, ketoprofen) that, like aspirin, inhibit prostaglandin synthesis. They act with fewer side effects, but aspirin-sensitive people should not use them.

Nu See Nun

Nu, U orig. Thakin Nu (b. May 25, 1907, Wakema, Burma—d. Feb. 14, 1995, Yangon, Myanmar) Burmese independence leader and prime minister of Burma (Myanmar; 1948-58, 1960-62). A prominent nation¬ alist activist since his student days, U Nu became the first prime minister of independent Burma in 1948. Though an able statesman, he was plagued by ethnic-minority insurrections and economic difficulties. He resigned in 1958, was reinstated in 1960, and was overthrown and imprisoned by Ne Win in 1962. After his release he organized resistance to Ne Win. He made an unsuccessful bid for power after Ne Win’s government fell in 1988.

Nu River See Salween River

Nubia Ancient region of the Nile River valley, northeastern Africa. Its borders originally extended north to include Aswan and, before comple¬ tion of the Aswan High Dam, the first cataract of the Nile in Upper Egypt. The region now encompasses part of The Sudan and southern Egypt and contains the Nubian Desert in the northeast. For about 1,800 years in ancient times it was politically dominated by Egypt, although Nubian kings did sit on the Egyptian throne during the 25th dynasty. The king¬ dom of Kush and its culture were centred in southern Nubia. Later Nubia was the centre of a powerful state with Dunqulah as its capital (6th-14th centuries ad), after which it was captured by the Arabs. The region was conquered by Egypt in 1820-22.

Nubia, Lake See Lake Nasser

Nubian Desert Desert, northeastern Sudan. It is separated from the Libyan Desert by the Nile River valley to the west. Rocky and rugged with some dunes, it is essentially a sandstone plateau interspersed with many wadis (seasonal rivers) that die out before reaching the Nile. Precipitation averages less than 5 in (13 cm) annually.

nuclear energy or atomic energy Energy released from atomic nuclei in significant amounts. In 1919 Ernest Rutherford discovered that alpha rays could split the nucleus of an atom. This led ultimately to the discovery of the neutron and the release of huge amounts of energy by the process of nuclear fission. Nuclear energy is also released as a result of nuclear fusion. The release of nuclear energy can be controlled or uncontrolled. Nuclear reactors carefully control the release of energy, whereas the energy release of a nuclear weapon or resulting from a core meltdown in a nuclear reactor is uncontrolled. See also chain reaction, NUCLEAR POWER, RADIOACTIVITY.

nuclear fission Division of a heavy atomic nucleus into two fragments of roughly equal mass, accompanied by the release of a large amount of energy, the binding energy of the subatomic particles. The energy released in the fission of one uranium nucleus is about 50 million times greater than that released when a carbon atom combines with oxygen atoms in the burning of coal. The energy appeal's as kinetic energy of the fragments, which converts to thermal energy as the fragments collide in matter and slow down. Fission also releases two or three free neutrons. The free neu¬ trons can bombard other nuclei, leading to a series of fissions called a chain reaction. The energy released from nuclear fission is used to gen¬ erate electricity, to propel ships and submarines, and is a source of the vast destructive power of nuclear weapons. See illustration opposite.

nuclear fusion Process by which nuclear reactions between light ele¬ ments form heavier ones, releasing huge amounts of energy. In 1939 Hans

Bethe suggested that the energy output of the sun and other stars is a result of fusion reactions among hydrogen nuclei. In the early 1950s American scientists produced the hydrogen bomb by inducing fusion reactions in a mixture of the hydrogen isotopes deuterium and tritium, forming a heavier helium nucleus. Though fusion is common in the sun and other stars, it is difficult to produce artificially and is very difficult to control. If con¬ trolled nuclear fusion is achieved, it might provide an inexpensive energy source because the primary fuel, deuterium, can be extracted from ordi¬ nary water, and eight gallons of water could provide the energy equiva¬ lent to 2,500 gallons of gasoline. See illustration below.

nuclear fusion

Top: Uranium-235 combines with a neutron to form an unstable intermediate, which quickly splits into barium-144 and krypton-89 plus three neutrons in the pro¬ cess of nuclear fission. Bottom: Deuterium and tritium combine by nuclear fusion to form helium plus a neutron.

nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) Selective absorption of very high-frequency radio waves by certain atomic nuclei subjected to a strong

1386 I nuclear medicine ► nucleophile

stationary magnetic field. Nuclei that have at least one unpaired proton or neutron act like tiny magnets. When a strong magnetic field acts on such nuclei, it sets them into precession. When the natural frequency of the pre- cessing nuclear magnets corresponds to the frequency of a weak external radio wave striking the material, energy is absorbed by the nuclei at a frequency called the resonant frequency. NMR is used to study the molecular structure of various solids and liquids. Magnetic resonance imaging, or MRI, is a version of NMR used in medicine to view soft tis¬ sues of the human body in a hazard-free, noninvasive way.

nuclear medicine Medical specialty using radioactive elements or iso¬ topes for diagnosis and treatment of disease. A radioisotope is introduced into the body (usually by injection). The radiation it emits, detected by a scanner and recorded, reflects its distribution in different tissues and can reveal the presence, size, and shape of abnormalities in various organs. The isotopes used have short half-lives and decay before radioactivity causes any damage. Different isotopes tend to concentrate in particular organs (e.g., iodine-131 in the thyroid). Radioactive substances are also implanted to treat small, early-stage cancers. This yields a slow, continu¬ ous dose that limits damage to normal cells while destroying tumour cells. See also computed axial tomography; diagnostic imaging; positron emission tomography; radiation therapy; radiology.

Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) officially Treaty on the Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons International agreement intended to prevent the spread of nuclear technology. It was signed by the U.S., Britain, the Soviet Union, and 59 other countries in 1968. The three major signatories agreed not to assist states lacking nuclear weapons to obtain or produce them; the nonnuclear signatories agreed not to attempt to obtain nuclear weapons in exchange for assis¬ tance in developing nuclear power for peaceful purposes. France and China, both nuclear powers, declined to ratify the treaty until 1992, and some nuclear powers, including Israel and Pakistan, have never signed it. In 1995, when the treaty was due to expire, it was extended indefinitely by a consensus vote of 174 countries at the United Nations. See also Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty.

nuclear physics Branch of physics dealing with the structure of the atomic nucleus and radiation from unstable nuclei. A principal research tool of nuclear physics is a high-energy beam of particles, such as pro¬ tons or electrons, directed as projectiles against nuclear targets. By ana¬ lyzing the directions and energies of the recoiling particles and any resulting nuclear fragments, nuclear physicists can obtain details of nuclear structure, the strong force that binds nuclear components together, and the release of energy from the nucleus.

nuclear power Energy produced by nuclear fission of heavy atomic nuclei. About one-third of all electric power worldwide now comes from nuclear power plants. The navies of many countries include nuclear- powered warships; almost half of U.S. combat warships are nuclear- powered. Most commercial nuclear reactors are thermal reactors. Two types of light-water reactors in use throughout the world are the boiling- water reactor and the pressurized-water reactor. In the liquid-metal fast- breeder reactor, fuel is utilized 60 times more effectively than in light- water reactors. See also nuclear energy.

nuclear reactor Device that can initiate and control a self-sustaining series of nuclear-fission reactions. Neutrons released in one fission reac¬ tion may strike other heavy nuclei, causing them to fission. The rate of this chain reaction is controlled by introducing materials, usually in the form of rods, that readily absorb neutrons. Typically, control rods made of cadmium or boron are gradually inserted into the core if the series of fissions begins to proceed at too great a rate, which could lead to melt¬ down of the core. The heat released by fission is removed from the reac¬ tor core by a coolant circulated through the core. Some of the thermal energy in the coolant is used to heat water and convert it to high-pressure steam. This steam drives a turbine, and the turbine’s mechanical energy is then converted into electricity by means of a generator. Besides pro¬ viding a valuable source of electric power for commercial use, nuclear reactors also serve to propel certain types of military surface vessels, sub¬ marines, and some unmanned spacecraft. Another major application of reactors is the production of radioactive isotopes that are used extensively in scientific research, medical therapy, and industry.

Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) U.S. independent regu¬ latory agency that oversees the civilian use of nuclear energy. Established in 1974 to replace the Atomic Energy Commission, the NRC licenses the

construction and operation of nuclear reactors and other facilities and the ownership and use of nuclear materials. It issues standards, rules, and regulations for the maintenance of licenses, and it regularly inspects nuclear facilities to ensure compliance with public health and safety, envi¬ ronmental quality, national security, and antitrust laws. The NRC also investigates nuclear accidents, conducts public hearings, and reviews power-plant operations. Its commissioners are appointed by the president of the U.S.

nuclear species See nuclide

Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty officially Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapons Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water Treaty that prohibits all tests of nuclear weapons except those conducted underground. U.S.-Soviet test-ban talks began after con¬ cerns arose in the 1940s and ’50s about the dangers of radioactive fallout from above-ground nuclear tests. These talks made little progress until the Cuban missile crisis of 1962. In the following year, Britain, the U.S., and the Soviet Union signed the treaty, and more than 100 other govern¬ ments soon followed. France and China were notable nonsignatories. In 1996 the treaty was replaced by the Comprehensive Test-Ban Treaty, which will not take effect until it is signed by all 44 countries with nuclear power plants. India refuses to do so on the ground that the treaty lacks disarmament provisions and permits nonexplosive testing. See also Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty.

nuclear weapon or atomic weapon or thermonuclear weapon Bomb or other warhead that derives its force from nuclear fis¬ sion, nuclear fusion, or both and is delivered by an aircraft, missile, or other system. Fission weapons, commonly known as atomic bombs, release energy by splitting the nuclei of uranium or plutonium atoms; fusion weapons, known as hydrogen bombs or thermonuclear bombs, fuse nuclei of the hydrogen isotopes tritium or deuterium. Most modern nuclear weapons actually combine both processes. Nuclear weapons are the most potent explosive devices ever invented. Their destructive effects include not only a blast equivalent to thousands of tons of TNT but also blinding light, searing heat, and lethal radioactive fallout. The number of nuclear weapons reached its peak in the 1980s, when the U.S. had some 33,000 and the Soviet Union 38,000. Since the end of the Cold War both coun¬ tries have decommissioned or dismantled thousands of warheads. Other declared nuclear powers are the United Kingdom, France, China, India, and Pakistan. Israel is widely assumed to possess nuclear weapons, and North Korea, Iran, and Iraq often have been accused of seeking to build them. Some countries, such as South Africa, Brazil, and Argentina, have acknowledged pursuing nuclear weapons in the past but have abandoned their programs. See also Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty; Nuclear Test- Ban Treaty.

nuclear winter Environmental devastation that some scientists con¬ tend would result from a nuclear war. The basic cause, as hypothesized, would be huge fireballs created by exploding nuclear warheads, which would ignite great fires (firestorms). Smoke, soot, and dust would be lifted to high altitudes and driven by winds to form a uniform belt encircling the Northern Hemisphere. The clouds could block out all but a fraction of the Sun’s light, and surface temperatures would plunge for as much as several weeks. The semidarkness, killing frosts, and subfreezing tempera¬ tures, combined with high doses of radiation, would interrupt plant pho¬ tosynthesis and could thus destroy much of the Earth’s vegetation and animal life. Other scientists dispute the results of the original calculations, and, though such a nuclear war would undoubtedly be devastating, the degree of damage to life on the Earth remains controversial.

nucleic \nu-'kle-ik, nu-‘kla-ik\ acid Any of the organic compounds making up the genetic material of living cells. Nucleic acids direct the course of protein synthesis, thereby regulating all cell activities. Their transmission from one generation to the next is the basis of heredity. The two main types, DNA and RNA, are composed of similar materials but differ in structure and function. Both are long chains of repeating nucle¬ otides. The sequence of purines and pyrimidines (bases)— adenine (A), gua¬ nine (G), cytosine (C), and either thymine (T; in DNA) or uracil (U; in RNA)—in the nucleotides, in groups of three (triplets, or codons), con¬ stitutes the genetic code.

nucleolus See nucleus

nucleophile \ , nu-kle-3- 1 fil\ Atom or molecule that contains an electron pair available for bonding and in chemical reactions therefore seeks a posi-

nudeoprotein ► Nullarbor Plain I 1387

tive centre, such as the nucleus of an atom or the positive end of a polar molecule (see covalent bond; electric dipole). In the Lewis electron theory (see acid-base theory), advanced by the U.S. chemist Gilbert Lewis ( 1 875— 1946) in 1923, nucleophiles are by definition Lewis bases. Examples include the hydroxide ion (OH - ), the ions of the halogens chlorine, bro¬ mine, and iodine (Cl - , Br - , and I - , respectively), ammonia (NH 3 ), and water (H 2 0). See also base; electrophile.

nudeoprotein V.nii-kle-o-'pro-.tenX Macromolecular complex consist¬ ing of a protein linked to a nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA. The proteins that combine with DNA are generally of characteristic types called his¬ tones and protamines. The resulting nucleoproteins (deoxynucleoproteins) make up the chromosomes of living cells. Many viRUSes are little more than organized agglomerations of deoxynucleoproteins. Many specific RNA nucleoproteins are also known; they have diverse cellular functions.

nucleoside \ , nu-kle-a- l sld\ Any of a class of organic compounds, including structural subunits of nucleic acids. Each consists of a molecule of a five-carbon sugar (ribose in RNA, deoxyribose in DNA) and a nitrogen-containing base, either a purine or a pyrimidine. The base uracil occurs in RNA, thymine in DNA, and adenine, guanine, and cytosine in both, as part of the nucleosides uridine, deoxythymidine, adenosine or deoxy- adenosine, guanosine or deoxyguanosine, and cytidine or deoxycytidine. Nucleosides usually have a phosphate group attached, forming nucleotides. Usually obtained by decomposition of nucleic acids, nucleosides are important in physiological and medical research. Those that are not part of nucleic acids include puromycin and certain other antibiotics produced by fungi.

nucleosynthesis \ l nu-kle-o-'sin-th3-s3s\ Production on a cosmic scale of all the chemical elements from one or perhaps two simple types of atomic nuclei (see nucleus), those of hydrogen and helium. Elements differ in the number of protons and isotopes of each element by the number of neutrons in their nuclei. One type of nucleus can be transformed into another by adding or removing protons, neutrons, or both, processes that go on in stars. Many of the first 26 elements (up to iron) and their present cosmic abundances can be accounted for by successive nuclear fusion reactions, beginning with hydrogen, in stellar cores. Heavier elements are believed to be created in the death of stars during supernova explosions, by capture of successive neutrons by lighter nuclei and decay of some of these neutrons into protons (with ejection of an electron and a neutrino each time).

nucleotide Vnii-kle-o-.tldV Any of a class of organic compounds, includ¬ ing the structural units of nucleic acids. Each consists of a nucleoside and one or more phosphate groups. In nucleic acids, the phosphate of one nucleotide joins to the sugar of the next to form the backbone. Important nucleotides that are not part of nucleic acids include ATP, cyclic AMP (needed in glycogen breakdown), and certain coenzymes.

nucleus Specialized structure occurring in most cells (except bacteria) and separated from the rest of the cell by the nuclear membrane. This membrane seems to be continuous with the cell’s endoplasmic reticulum and has pores that permits the passage of large molecules. The nucleus con¬ trols and regulates the cell’s activities (e.g., growth and metabolism) and carries the genes. Nucleoli are small bodies often seen within the nucleus that play an important part in the synthesis of RNA and protein. A cell normally contains only one nucleus.

nucleus Central, positively charged core of an atom. It consists of posi¬ tively charged protons and neutral neutrons, known collectively as nucle¬ ons, held together by the strong force. The number of nucleons can range from 1 to about 270, depending on the element. Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but different num¬ bers of neutrons. Some nuclei, especially heavier ones, are unstable, or radioactive (see radioactivity), emitting energy in the form of alpha rays (see alpha decay), beta rays (see beta decay), or gamma rays. The nucleus makes up nearly all the mass but only a minute fraction of the volume of the atom.

nuclide or nuclear species Species of atom as characterized by the number of protons, neutrons, and the energy state of the nucleus. A nuclide is characterized by its mass number and its atomic number. To be regarded as distinct, a nuclide must have an energy content sufficient for a mea¬ surable lifetime, usually more than 10 -10 second. Nuclear isomers, which have the same number of protons and neutrons but differ in energy con¬ tent and radioactivity, are also distinct nuclides. Nuclides are associated

with radioactive decay and may be stable or unstable. There are about 1,700 known nuclides, of which about 300 are stable and the rest radio¬ active.

nudibranch \ , n(y)u-d3-,brai]k\ or sea slug Any marine gastropod in the order Nudibranchia. Most nudibranchs lack a shell, mantle cavity (see mollusk), and gills, and breathe through the body surface. The delicately colored body, up to 16 in. (43 cm) long, has bizarre defensive outgrowths, called cerata, that discharge nematocysts ingested from cnidarian prey. Antennalike organs arise from the head. Nudibranchs occur in shallow waters of all oceans, where they feed chiefly on other invertebrates, par¬ ticularly sea anemones. Some species can swim; others are bottom creep¬ ers. The term sea slug sometimes refers to all members of the subclass Opisthobranchia.

nuee ardente \nu-'a-ar- , dant\ French "fiery or glowing cloud"

Highly destructive, incandescent mass of gas-enveloped particles that is associated with volcanic eruptions. These glowing avalanches, as they are sometimes called, can move down even slight inclines at speeds as high as 100 mph (160 kph). The temperature of the gases can reach 1,100— 1,300 °F (600-700 °C). Nuees ardentes are exceedingly destructive, kill¬ ing all living things in their path. Most occur in the circum-Pacific region known as the Ring of Fire. See also tuff.

Nuer Vnti-ar\ People of the marsh and savanna living on both banks of the Nile River in southern Sudan. They speak an Eastern Sudanic lan¬ guage of the Nilo-Saharan family. The Nuer are cattle-raising people who also cultivate millet and spear fish. They spend the rainy season in per¬ manent villages on the higher ground and the dry season in riverside camps. Feuding between clans is common, as is warfare with the Dinka. They number 1.5 million. See also Nilot.

Nuevo Leon \'nwa-v6-la-'6n\ State (pop., 2000: 3,834,141), northeast¬ ern Mexico. It covers an area of 25,067 sq mi (64,924 sq km), and its capital is Monterrey. The Sierra Madre Oriental crosses the state from northwest to southeast. The region became a state in 1824 and was occu¬ pied by U.S. troops during the Mexican War. Its iron and steel industries were the first heavy industry in Latin America; the state also supports agricultural and textile enterprises.

nuisance In law, an act, object, or practice that interferes with anoth¬ er’s rights or interests by being offensive, annoying, dangerous, obstruc¬ tive, or unhealthful. Such activities as obstructing a public road, polluting air and water, operating a house of prostitution, or keeping explosives are public nuisances and constitute criminal violations. A private nuisance is an activity or condition (e.g., excessive noise, disagreeable odor) that interferes with the use and enjoyment of one’s property and that may be a cause of action in civil litigation. An attractive nuisance is something on one’s property that poses a risk to children or others who may be attracted to it.

Nujoma Vnu-'jo-moV Sam(uel Shafiihuma) (b. May 12, 1929, Owambo, South West Africa) First president (1990-2005) of independent Namibia. In the late 1950s Nujoma helped found the Ovamboland Peo¬ ple’s Organization, forerunner of the South West Africa People's Organi¬ zation (SWAPO). He became SWAPO’s first president in 1960, and, after years of petitioning the UN to compel South Africa to release control of South West Africa, he authorized armed resistance (1966). In 1989, after some 30 years in exile, he led SWAPO to victory in the UN-supervised elections.

Nukualofa V.nu-kii-a-'lo-foX Town (pop., 1999 est.: 36,360), capital, and chief port of Tonga. Located on the northern shore of Tongatapu Island in the southern Pacific Ocean, it has a deep-draft harbour that is protected by reefs. Commercial activities centre on the export of copra and bananas. Landmarks include the 19th-century royal palace, a chapel, and royal tombs.

Nullarbor Vno-lo-.boiA Plain Vast limestone plateau, southern Austra¬ lia. It lies along the south coast of western South Australia and eastern Western Australia, extending north from the Great Australian Bight to the Great Victoria Desert. It occupies 100,000 sq mi (260,000 sq km) of gen¬ erally flat surface in bedrock. The name Nullarbor is derived from the Latin nullus arbor (“no tree”). The Nullarbor National Park preserves rare vegetation and fauna. The plain has many limestone caves, including Koonalda Cave, an archaeological site. The park is crossed by the world’s longest stretch of straight railroad track (330 mi [530 km]).

1388 I nullification ► Nurhachi

nullification Doctrine upholding the right of a U.S. state to declare null and void an act of the federal government. First enunciated in the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions (1798), it was expanded by John C. Calhoun in response to the Tariff of 1828. Calhoun maintained that a state “interpo¬ sition” could block enforcement of a federal law. The South Carolina leg¬ islature agreed by passing the Ordinance of Nullification (1832), threatening to secede if the federal government forced collection of the 1828 tariff duties. Pres. Andrew Jackson asserted the supremacy of the federal government. The U.S. Congress passed a compromise tariff bill reducing the duties but also passed the Force Bill, which authorized fed¬ eral enforcement of the law. The South Carolina legislature rescinded its ordinance, but the conflict highlighted the danger of nullification.

number Basic element of mathematics used for counting, measuring, solving equations, and comparing quantities. They fall into several cat¬ egories. The counting numbers are the familiar 1, 2, 3 ... ; whole num¬ bers are the counting numbers and zero; integers are the whole numbers and the negative counting numbers; and the rational numbers are all pos¬ sible quotients formed by integers, including fractions. These numbers can be symbolically represented by terminating or repeating decimals. Irrational numbers cannot be represented by fractions of integers or repeat¬ ing decimals and must be represented by special symbols such as V2, e, and k. Together, the rational and irrational numbers constitute the real numbers, which form an algebraic field (see field theory), as do the complex numbers. While the counting numbers and rational numbers come about as the means of counting, calculating, and measuring, the others arose as means of solving equations. See also transcendental number.

number system Method of writing numerals to represent numbers. The use of zero as a placeholder was the greatest advance in number sys¬ tems. The most common system is the decimal system, in which 10 sym¬ bols (the Hindu-Arabic numerals) denote multiples of powers of 10 by their position relative to the decimal point. Computers have brought greater awareness of the binary number system, in which two symbols, 0 and 1, represent multiples of powers of 2.

number theory Branch of mathematics concerned with properties of and relations among integers. It is a popular subject among amateur math¬ ematicians and students because of the wealth of seemingly simple prob¬ lems that can be posed. Answers are much harder to come up with. It has been said that any unsolved mathematical problem of any interest more than a century old belongs to number theory. One of the best examples, recently solved, is Fermat's last theorem.

numerical analysis Branch of applied mathematics that studies meth¬ ods for solving complicated equations using arithmetic operations, often so complex that they require a computer, to approximate the processes of analysis (i.e., calculus). The arithmetic model for such an approximation is called an algorithm, the set of procedures the computer executes is called a program, and the commands that carry out the procedures are called code. An example is an algorithm for deriving n by calculating the perimeter of a regular polygon as its number of sides becomes very large. Numeri¬ cal analysis is concerned not just with the numerical result of such a pro¬ cess but with determining whether the error at any stage is within acceptable bounds.

numerical control (NC) Control of a system or device by direct input of data in the form of numbers, letters, symbols, words, or a combination of these forms. It is a principal element of computer-integrated manufac¬ turing, particularly for controlling the operation of machine tools. NC is also essential to the operation of modern industrial robots. The two basic types of NC systems are point-to-point, in which a device is programmed to perform a series of motions with fixed starting and stopping points, and continuous-path, in which a point-to-point programmed device has suf¬ ficient memory to be “aware” of its former actions and their results and to act in accordance with this information.

numerology Use of numbers to interpret a person’s character or divine the future. It is based on the assertion by Pythagoras that all things can be expressed in numerical terms because they are ultimately reducible to num¬ bers. Using a method analogous to that of the Greek and Hebrew alphabets (in which each letter also represented a number), modern numerology attaches a series of digits to an inquirer’s name and uses these, along with the date of birth, to reveal the person’s true nature and prospects.

Numidia \nu-'mi-de-9\ Ancient country, North Africa, approximately coextensive with modern Algeria. During the Second Punic War (see Punic

wars), its two great tribes divided, one supporting the Romans and the other the Carthaginians. The tribal chief Masinissa was made king of Numidia after the Roman victory in 201 bc. After the destruction of Carthage, thousands fled to Numidia, which became a Roman province in 46 bc. Its capital was Cirta, and the chief city was Hippo, which was the see of St. Augustine. After its conquest by the Vandals in ad 429, Roman civilization there declined rapidly; some pockets of native culture survived, however, and even continued after the Arab conquest in the 8th century.

Nun \'niin\ or Nu Oldest of the Egyptian gods and father of Re, the sun god. Nun represented the dark, turbulent waters out of which the cosmos was churned. Since it was believed that the primeval ocean continued to surround the ordered cosmos, the creation myth was reenacted each day as the sun rose from the waters. Nun was also thought to exist as subsoil water and as the source of the annual flooding of the Nile.

Nun River \'nim\ River, southern Nigeria. Considered the direct con¬ tinuation of the Niger River, it flows southwest to the Gulf of Guinea, at Akassa. It was a trade route in the 19th century, when the Igbo kingdom controlled commerce. Petroleum was discovered along the Nun in 1963, and oil is piped from the oil fields along the Trans-Niger Pipeline.

Nunavut Vnii-no-.vihA Territory (pop., 2001: 26,745), north-central Canada. Nunavut (Inuit: “Our Land”) is the result of Canada’s largest land claim settlement, created to give the Inuit (see Eskimo), representing 85% of its population, a greater voice in Canadian government. Occupying an area of 772,000 sq mi (2,000,000 sq km), or one-fifth of Canada’s land- mass, it comprises the central and eastern parts of the former Northwest Territories, including Baffin and Ellesmere islands. Its capital is Iqaluit. The area was settled by Inuit from 4500 bc to ad 1000. Vikings probably vis¬ ited during the Middle Ages, but the first records of exploration are from Martin Frobisher’s 1576 search for the Northwest Passage. The mainland was explored by Englishman Samuel Heame in 1770-72. After passing through British possession, it was transferred to Canada in 1870. In 1976 a political organization called for the creation of a territory to settle Inuit claims in the Northwest Territories. The proposal was approved by the Canadian government in 1993. Nunavut’s first elections were held in February 1999, and the territory was inaugurated on April 1, 1999.

Nur al-HilmT Vnur-al-'hil-meV, Burhanuddin bin Muhammad

(b. 1911, Kota Bharu, Malaya—d. Oct. 25, 1969, Taiping, Malaysia) Malay nationalist leader. After serving the administration of the Japanese occupation during the war, Nur al-Hilml became a prominent left-wing leader who worked for an independent and multiracial Malaysia. In 1956 he became president of the Pan-Malayan Islamic Party, which became the principal opposition party in Malaysian politics. Detained in 1965 for allegedly pro-Indonesian activities, he was released in 1966; he remained nominal president of the party until his death.

Nuremberg See Nurnberg

Nureyev \nu-'ra-yef\, Rudolf (Hametovich) (b. March 17, 1938, Irkutsk, Russia, U.S.S.R.—d. Jan. 6,

1993, Paris, Fr.) Russian ballet dancer. After studying ballet in Len¬ ingrad (1955—58), he joined the Kirov Ballet as a soloist. He defected during the company’s tour to Paris in 1961. Thereafter he danced as a guest artist with many companies, especially the Royal Ballet, where he regularly partnered Margot Fonteyn.

His performances, combining an intensely romantic sensibility with stunning muscularity and technique, made him an international star. He choreographed new versions of Romeo and Juliet, Manfred, and The Nutcracker. From 1983 to 1989 he was artistic director of the Paris Opera Ballet.

Nurhachi \'nur-'ha-che\ (b. 1559, Manchuria—d. Sept. 30, 1626) Chief¬ tain of one branch of the Juchen (later called Manchu), whose attack on China in 1618 presaged his son Dorgon’s conquest. Nurhachi first defeated a rival in his own tribe and then subdued the other four Juchen

Nureyev and Margot Fonteyn

KEYSTONE

NOrT al-Sa'id ► nut I 1389

tribes in his immediate area. During this time, he also established a Man- chu state and enlisted the scholar Erdeni to create a Manchu writing sys¬ tem. He organized his troops under the Banner system. In 1616 Nurhachi proclaimed himself khan and called his dynasty Jin, harking back to the Juchen Jin dynasty of the 12th century. In 1626 he was defeated by the Chinese and died of battle wounds. See also Hongtaui; Qing dynasty.

Nurl al-Sa'id \,nur-e-al-sa-'ed\ (b. 1888, Baghdad, Iraq—d. July 14, 1958, Baghdad) Iraqi soldier and longtime prime minister of Iraq. He entered the army in 1909, when Iraq was a province of the Ottoman Empire. Captured by the British during World War 1(1914-18), he joined a British- backed Arab revolt against the Ottomans. After the war he joined the Iraqi government under the Hashimite king Faysal I. Prime minister on 14 dif¬ ferent occasions, he was pro-British and supported the monarchy. In 1958 he supported a union with Jordan that was strongly opposed by the mili¬ tary. He was killed in the coup that followed.

Nurmi, Paavo (Johannes) (b. June 13, 1897, Turku, Fin.—d. Oct. 2, 1973, Helsinki) Finnish track ath¬ lete. The outstanding long-distance runner of his generation, he captured nine gold medals and three silver in three Olympic Games (1920, 1924,

1928), setting two records at the 1924 games in a little over an hour.

He held the world record for the mile run for eight years (1923-31). For his prowess he was nicknamed “the Flying Finn.”

Nurnberg YniEm-.berkX also known as Nuremberg City (pop.,

2002 est.: city, 491,307; metro, area,

1,018,211), Bavaria, southern Ger¬ many, on the Pegnitz River. It grew up around a castle in the 11th cen¬ tury, and in 1219 it received its first charter. It became one of the greatest of the German free imperial cities, reaching the height of its power in the 16th century. In 1806 it became part of the kingdom of Bavaria. In the 1930s it was a centre of the Nazi P Qavo Nurmi, 1931.

Party; the site of the Nazis’ annual _ _

NOrnberg Ralues, in 1935 it gave its

name to the anti-Semitic NOrnberg Laws. It was severely damaged in World War II. After the war it was the scene of the NOrnberg trials. The city was rebuilt and is now a commercial and manufacturing centre. Niirn- berg’s historic sites include the 11th-century royal palace. Its Academy of Arts (founded 1662) is the oldest in Germany. The city was the birth¬ place of Albrecht Durer.

Nurnberg Laws (1935) Two measures designed by Adolf Hitler and approved by a Nazi Party convention at Nurnberg, Ger., on Sept. 15, 1935. The laws deprived Jews of German citizenship and forbade marriage or sexual relations between Jews and “citizens of German or cognate blood.” Supplementary decrees defined a Jew as a person with at least one Jew¬ ish grandparent and declared that Jews could not vote or hold public office.

Nurnberg Rallies Massive rallies held by the Nazi Party in Nurnberg, Ger., to showcase its power. After smaller rallies at party conventions in 1923 and 1927, the first large-scale rally was held in 1929 and featured the nationalistic pageantry that marked subsequent annual rallies (1933— 38). Attended by hundreds of thousands of Nazis, the rallies were care¬ fully staged to reinforce party enthusiasm with martial songs, massed banners and flags, goose-step marches, torchlight processions, and lengthy orations by Adolf Hitler and other Nazi leaders.

Nurnberg trials (1945—46) Trials of former Nazi Party leaders held in Nurnberg, Ger. At the end of World War II, the International Military Tri¬ bunal was established by the U.S., Britain, France, and the Soviet Union to indict and try former Nazis as war criminals. The tribunal defined the offenses as crimes against peace (planning and waging of war in viola¬ tion of treaties), crimes against humanity (extermination, deportation, and genocide), and war crimes. After 216 court sessions, 3 of the original 22 defendants were acquitted, 4 (including Karl Donitz and Albert Speer) were sentenced to prison for terms of 10 to 20 years, 3 (including Rudolf Hess)

were sentenced to life imprisonment, and 12 (including Wilhelm Keitel, Joachim von Ribbentrop, Alfred Rosenberg, Arthur Seyss-Inquart, and Julius Streicher) were sentenced to death by hanging. Hermann Goring commit¬ ted suicide before he could be executed, and Martin Bormann was con¬ victed in absentia.

Nurse, Sir Paul M. (b. Jan. 25, 1949, Norwich, Norfolk, Eng.) Brit¬ ish scientist. He earned a Ph.D. from the University of East Anglia in 1973 and was a professor at the University of Oxford from 1987 to 1993. In 1996 he was named director general of the Imperial Cancer Research Fund (now Cancer Research UK). In the mid-1970s he conducted research on yeast and discovered the gene that regulates different phases of the cell cycle. He later found the corresponding gene in humans. His work aided in the understanding of cancer cell development. Nurse shared a Nobel Prize with R. Timothy Hunt and Leland H. Hartwell in 2001.

nurse shark Only Atlantic species ( Ginglymostoma cirratum ) of 25 carpet shark species (family Orectolobidae). Yellow- or gray-brown, sometimes with dark spots, it may grow to over 13 ft (4 m) long. It may attack swimmers, especially when provoked, but is not related to the dan¬ gerous gray nurse ( Odontaspis arenarius ), a sand shark.

nursery Place where plants are grown for transplanting, for use as stocks for budding and grafting, or for sale. Nurseries produce and dis¬ tribute woody and herbaceous plants, including ornamental trees, shrubs, and bulb crops. While most nursery-grown plants are ornamental, the nursery business also includes fruit plants and certain perennial vegetables used in home gardens (e.g., asparagus, rhubarb). See also floriculture.

nursery rhyme Verse customarily told or sung to small children. Though the oral tradition of nursery rhymes is ancient, the largest num¬ ber date from the 16th, 17th, and (most frequently) 18th centuries. Appar¬ ently most rhymes were originally composed for adults, many as popular ballads and songs. The earliest known published collection is Tommy Thumb’s (Pretty) Song Book (1744), including “Little Tom Tucker,” “Sing a Song of Sixpence,” and “Who Killed Cock Robin?” The most influen¬ tial collection was Mother Goose’s Melody (1781), including “Jack and Jill,” “Ding Dong Bell,” and “Hush-a-bye Baby on the Tree Top.”

nursing Health-care profession providing physical and emotional care to the sick and disabled and promoting health in all individuals through activities including research, health education, and patient consultation. Nursing gained recognition in the 19th century with the activities of Flo¬ rence Nightingale. Many nurses have specialties (e.g., psychiatry, critical care). Nurse-practitioners, clinical nurse specialists, nurse-anesthetists, and nurse-midwives undertake tasks traditionally performed by physi¬ cians. Nursing degrees go as high as the doctorate, and staff positions include administration. In addition to health-care settings, nurses practice in schools, the military, industry, and private homes. Community (public health) nurses educate the public on topics such as nutrition and disease prevention.

nursing home Facility for care (usually long-term) of patients who are not sick enough to need hospital care but are not able to remain at home. Historically, most residents were elderly or ill or had chronic irre¬ versible and disabling disorders, and medical and nursing care was mini¬ mal. Today nursing homes have a more active role in health care, helping patients prepare to live at home or with a family member when possible. They help conserve expensive hospital facilities for the acutely ill and improve the prospects of the chronically disabled. However, quality of care varies widely, and the potential for abuse exists.

Nusayriyyah See ‘Alawiyyah

Nut \'niit\ In Egyptian religion, a goddess of the sky. She represented the vault of the heavens and was often depicted as a woman arched over the earth god Geb. Nut was believed to swallow the sun in the evening and to give birth to it again in the morning. She was sometimes portrayed as a cow, the form she took to carry the sun god, Re, on her back to the sky. On five days preceding the New Year, Nut gave birth successively to the deities Osiris, Horus, Seth, Isis, and Nephthys.

nut Dry, hard, one-seeded fruit consisting of a kernel, usually oily, sur¬ rounded by a hard or brittle shell that does not split open at maturity. Nuts include chestnuts, filberts, and walnuts; but other so-called nuts are botani- cally seeds (Brazil nut, pistachio), legumes (peanut), or drupes (almond and coconut). Most edible nuts are well known as dessert nuts. Some nuts are sources of oil or fat. Not all nuts are edible; some are used for ornament.

1390 I nut ► Nykvist

nut In technology, a fastening device consisting of a square or hexago¬ nal block, usually of metal, with a hole in the centre having internal, or female, threads that fit on the male threads of an associated bolt or screw. Bolts or screws with nuts are widely used for fastening machine and structural components. See also fastener.

nuthatch Any of about 22 species (genus Sitta, family Sittidae) of song¬ birds that are 4-7.5 in. (9.5-19 cm) long and have a short, square tail, short neck, and thin, pointed bill.

Most are forest dwellers; some live in rocky areas. Nuthatches search tree trunks and rocks for insects, often descending headfirst. They also eat seeds, which they may store for win¬ ter. The nest is a grass- or hair-lined cavity. Nuthatches are most common from Eurasia to Japan and south¬ ward; four species occur in North America. Most are bluish above and white or reddish below; there may be a black eye stripe or a cap.

nutmeg Spice made from the seed of a tropical tree ( Myristica fra- grans ), native to the Moluccas of Indonesia. It has a distinctive pun¬ gent fragrance and is used in cook¬ ing and sachets and as incense. The tree yields fruit eight years after sow¬ ing, reaches its prime in 25 years, and bears fruit for 60 years or longer.

The name nutmeg is also applied in different countries to other fruits or seeds, including the Brazilian nut¬ meg ( Cryptocarya moschata ), the Peruvian nutmeg ( Laurelia aromat- ica ), and the California nutmeg ( Tor- reya californica).

nutria or coypu Semiaquatic South American rodent {Myocastor coy- pus) in the hutia family (Capromy- idae). The nutria has small ears, a long, rounded, scaly tail, partially webbed hind feet, and broad orange incisors. It is about 40 in. (1 m) long, including the tail, and may weigh 18 lbs (8 kg). Its reddish brown fur con¬ sists of coarse guard hairs overlying a soft undercoat. The nutria lives in a shallow burrow along a pond or river and mainly eats aquatic plants.

Because their fur is valuable, nutrias were introduced into North America and Europe, and in some places have become pests that damage crops and compete with other wildlife.

nutrition Processes of taking in and utilizing food substances. Food generates energy and supplies materials used in body tissues and pro¬ cesses. Calories are supplied by carbohydrates (sugars and STARCHes), fats, and proteins. Other nutrients include minerals, vitamins, and dietary fibre. Minerals are used in many ways— iron for hemoglobin; calcium for bones, teeth, and cellular processes; sodium and potassium to regulate homeosta¬ sis, iodine to produce thyroid hormones. Trace minerals have functions that are less well-understood. Fibre is not broken down chemically in the body but aids digestion, lowers blood cholesterol, and may help prevent some cancers and hypertension. Diiferent amounts of these nutrients exist in dif¬ ferent foods; a varied diet ensures an adequate supply. Nutritional supple¬ ments, required by some people, do not compensate for an unhealthy diet. Sufficient water is always essential. Inadequate nutrient intake or absorp¬ tion leads to malnutrition and disease.

Nuuk \'niik\ or Godthab Vg6t-,h6p\ City (pop., 2000 est.: 13,838), capital of Greenland. Located on the southwestern coast near the mouth of Godthab Gulf, it is Greenland’s main port. The modern city dates from 1721, when a Norwegian missionary founded a colony near the site of Vesterbygden, a 10th-century Norse settlement. It is the seat of the par¬ liament and supreme court and has foreign consulates, a teachers’ col¬

lege, and research stations. Government administration, hunting, fishing, and farming are the main occupations. Most transportation is by boat or helicopter.

Nuwua or Nu Kua Vnui-'gwaV In Chinese mythology, the patroness of matchmakers. As wife or sister of the legendary emperor Fuxi, she helped establish norms for marriage (including the use of go-betweens) and regulated conduct between the sexes. She is represented with a human head and the body of a snake or fish. She repaired the pillars of the heav¬ ens and the broken comers of the earth, which the rebel Gong Gong had destroyed in a fit of anger, and her beautiful palace was said to be the prototype for the walled cities of China.

Nyakyusa \nyak-'yu-s9\ or Ngonde \3q-'gon-da\ Bantu-speaking people living north of Lake Malawi in Tanzania, and in Malawi. They speak a Bantu language of the Niger-Congo family. Traditionally they lived in unique age villages. All the boys of a district aged 11-13 would leave their paternal homes and establish a new hamlet, eventually mar¬ rying and bringing their wives there; their native village would die as its founders died in old age. With modem land shortages, this practice has largely stopped. The Nyakyusa, who are primarily hoe cultivators, num¬ ber more than one million.

nyala \ne-'a-lo\ Slender antelope ( Tragelaphus angasi ) of South Africa having a crest of hair along the back from head to tail and standing 3.5 ft (110 cm). The male, which has loosely spiraled horns and a long fringe on the throat and underparts, is dark brown with reddish brown on the lower legs, white on the face and neck, and vertical white stripes on the body. The female is reddish brown with more conspicuous striping. Nyalas live alone or in small groups in forests. The rare mountain nyala (T. buxtoni) of central Ethiopia is grayish brown.

Nyasa, Lake See Lake Malawi

Nyasaland See Malawi

Nyaya \'nya-ya\ One of the six darshans (orthodox systems) of Indian philosophy, important for its analysis of logic and epistemology and for its detailed model of the reasoning method of inference. Like other dar¬ shans, Nyaya is both a philosophy and a religion; its ultimate concern is to bring an end to human suffering, which results from ignorance of real¬ ity. It recognizes four valid means of knowledge: perception, inference, comparison, and testimony.

Nyerere \ni-'rar-e\ / Julius (Kambarage) (b. March 1922, Butiama, Tanganyika—d. Oct. 14, 1999, Lon¬ don, Eng.) First prime minister of independent Tanganyika (1961), first president of Tanzania (1964-85), and the major force behind the Organiza¬ tion of African Unity (OAU; now African Union). He taught in Catho¬ lic schools before studying history and economics in Britain. As leader of the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU), he advocated peace¬ ful change, social equality, and ethnic harmony. In elections in 1958-60 TANU won many seats in the legis¬ lature. As president he collectivized village farmlands, carried out mass literacy campaigns, and instituted universal education. He sought to make Tanzania economically self- sufficient, an effort that ultimately failed. In 1979 he authorized the inva¬ sion of Uganda to overthrow Idi Amin. Within the OAU he advocated the overthrow of white-suprematist governments in South Africa, Rhodesia, and South West Africa. After retiring from politics in 1990, Nyerere devoted the rest of his life to farming and diplomacy.

Nyiragongo V.nye-ra-'goq-goV, Mount Active volcano, Virunga Mountains, east-central Africa. It lies in the volcano region of Virunga National Park, eastern Congo (Kinshasa), near the border with Rwanda. It is 11,385 ft (3,470 m) high, with a main crater 1.3 mi (2 km) wide and 820 ft (250 m) deep containing a liquid lava pool. Some older craters are noted for their plant life.

Nykvist \'niE-kvist,\ English Vnl-kvistN, Sven (b. Dec. 3, 1922, Moheda, Swed.) Swedish cinematographer. He joined the Swedish movie

Nutria (Myocastor coypus) feeding.

DOUGLAS FISHER

nylon ► Nystad I 1391

company Sandrews in 1941, shot his first film in 1945, and his first for Ingmar Bergman in 1953. He became Bergman’s regular cinematographer at Svensk Filmindustri in 1960. Best known for his subtle, luminous cam¬ era work in a long series of Bergman films, he won Academy Awards for Cries and Whispers (1972) and Fanny and Alexander (1983). With U.S. directors, he shot movies such as The Unbearable Lightness of Being (1988) and Crimes and Misdemeanors (1989).

nylon Any synthetic plastic material composed of polyamides of high molecular weight and usually, but not always, manufactured as a fibre. Nylons were developed by Du Pont in the 1930s. The successful produc¬ tion of a useful fibre by chemical synthesis from compounds readily avail¬ able from air, water, and coal or petroleum stimulated expansion of research on polymers, leading to a rapidly growing family of synthetics. Nylon can be made to form fibres, filaments, bristles, or sheets to be manufactured into yarn, textiles, and cordage, and it can also be formed into molded products. It has high resistance to wear, heat, and chemicals. Most applications are in the form of filaments in such articles as hosiery, parachutes, and outerwear. See also W. H. Carothers.

nymph In Greek mythology, any of a large class of minor female divini¬ ties. Nymphs were usually associated with features of the natural world, such as trees and water. Though not immortal, they were extremely long- lived, and they tended to be well disposed toward humans. They were grouped according to the sphere of nature with which they were con¬ nected.

nymph In entomology, the sexually immature form of insects that undergo incomplete metamorphosis (e.g., grasshoppers). The nymph is simi¬ lar to the adult but differs in body proportions and (in winged species) has

only wing buds, which develop into wings after the first few molts (see molting). During each successive growing stage (instar), the nymph begins to resemble the adult more closely. The nymphs of aquatic species (also called naiads), such as dragonflies, have gills and other modifications for an aquatic existence. At maturity, they float to the surface or crawl out of the water, undergo a final molt, and emerge as winged adults.

nymphaeum \nim-'fe-3m\ Ancient Greek and Roman sanctuary con¬ secrated to water nymphs. Nymphaea also served as reservoirs and assem¬ bly chambers for weddings. The name, originally denoting a natural grotto with springs, later referred to an artificial grotto or building filled with plants, sculpture, fountains, and paintings. Nymphaea existed at Corinth, Antioch, and Constantinople, and remains have been found in Rome, Asia Minor, Syria, and northern Africa.

Nymphenburg porcelain German hard-paste, or true, porcelain pro¬ duced in Bavaria from the mid-18th century to the present day. Its fame rests on its figures, particularly those in the Rococo style modeled between 1754 and 1763 by Franz Anton Bustelli (1723-1763). Tableware and vases produced at the factory in Nymphenburg, on the outskirts of Munich, often contain ozier, or basketwork, pattern borders.

Nyoro \'nyor-o\ or Bunyoro Bantu-speaking people of west-central Uganda. Until the 18th century the Bunyoro kingdom included present- day Uganda. It declined in the 18th and 19th century, surrendering its pre¬ eminence to the Buganda kingdom. It was brought into the Uganda Protectorate by the British. Today the Nyoro, numbering about 700,000, live in scattered settlements and cultivate millet, sorghum, and plantains.

Nystad, Treaty of See Second Northern War

1392 I Oahu ► obia

Oahu \6-'wa-hu\ Island (pop., 2000: 876,165) of Hawaii, U.S. Situated between the islands of Kauai and Molokai, it occupies 607 sq mi (1,574 sq km) and is the third largest and most densely populated of the Hawai¬ ian Islands. Of volcanic origin, it has two parallel mountain groups, the Koolau Range and Waianae Ranges, which are connected by a central plateau. It is the site of Honolulu, Pearl Harbor, and Waikiki. Military installations, tourism, pineapples, and sugar are important to its economy.

oak Any of about 450 species of ornamental and timber trees and shrubs that make up the genus Quercus in the beech family, found throughout temperate climates. Oaks are deciduous trees that bear spring catkins (male flowers) and spikes (female flowers) on the same tree. The leaves have lobed, toothed, or smooth margins. The fruit is the acorn. They are hardy and long-lived shade trees. White oaks have smooth leaves and rapidly germinating sweet acorns; red, or black, oaks have bristle-tipped leaves and bitter, hairy acorns.

Red- and white-oak lumber is used in construction, flooring, furniture, millwork, barrel making, and the production of crossties, structural timbers, and mine props. The genus includes many ornamentals and natural hybrids.

Oakland City (pop., 2000: 399,484), western California, U.S., on the eastern side of San Fran¬ cisco Bay. Settled by the Spanish in 1820, it was incorporated as a city in 1854. In 1869 it was cho¬ sen as the terminus of the first transcontinental rail¬ road, which led to the development of its deepwater port. It suffered damage and loss of life in the earth¬ quake of 1989, which also damaged the Bay Bridge that connects it with San Francisco. Lake Merritt, near the cen¬ tral business district, is a wildfowl refuge surrounded by park¬ land. Several colleges are located in Oakland.

Oakley, Annie orig. Phoebe Anne Moses (b. Aug. 13, 1860, Darke county, Ohio, U.S.—d. Nov. 3, 1926, Greenville, Ohio) U.S. sharp¬ shooter. As a child she won acclaim for her marksmanship. She later toured vaudeville circuits with her marksman husband, Frank Butler. In 1885 they joined Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show; she was one of the show’s star attractions for most of the next 16 years. Oakley’s famous act included shooting off the end of a cigarette held in Butler’s lips, hitting the thin edge of a playing card from 30 paces, and shooting distant targets while looking into a mirror. In 1887 she was presented to Queen Victoria, and later in Berlin she performed her cigarette trick with, at his insistence. Crown Prince William (later Kaiser William II) holding the cigarette.

OAS See Organization of American States

oasis Fertile tract of land that occurs in a desert wherever a permanent supply of fresh water is available. Oases vary in size from about 2.5 acres (1 hectare) around small springs to vast areas of naturally watered or irri¬ gated land. Underground water sources account for most oases; their springs and wells are supplied from sandstone aquifers whose intake areas may be more than 500 mi (800 km) away. Two-thirds of the population of the Sahara live in oases, where the date palm is the main source of food; the palm also provides shade for growing citrus fruits, figs, peaches, apri¬ cots, vegetables, and cereal grains.

Oates, Joyce Carol (b. June 16, 1938, Lockport, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. writer. Oates taught at the University of Windsor (1967-78) and Prince¬ ton University (from 1978). Beginning with the story collection By the North Gate (1963) and the novel With Shuddering Fall (1964), she wrote prolifically, often portraying people whose intensely experienced lives end in bloodshed and self-destruction owing to forces beyond their control. Her major novels include them (1969), Do with Me What You Will (1973), Foxfire (1993), and Beasts (2002). Also significant is a parodic gothic series including Bellefleur (1980), A Bloodsmoor Romance (1982), and Mysteries of Winterthurn (1984).

Oates, Titus (b. Sept. 15, 1649, Oakham, Rutland, Eng.—d. July 12/13, 1705, London) English fabricator of the Popish Plot. Son of a Baptist preacher, he was ordained in the Church of England. Although jailed for perjury in 1674, he became chaplain to the Protestants in the household of the Catholic 6th duke of Norfolk in 1677. In 1678, with the fanatically anti-Catholic Israel Tonge, he invented the Popish Plot, a fictitious Jesuit conspiracy to kill Charles II and place his Catholic brother James (later James II) on the throne. Oates’s testimony caused some 35 persons to be

executed, but inconsistencies in his story emerged, and he was convicted of perjury and imprisoned in 1685; released in 1688, he died in obscurity.

oats Hardy cereal plant (Avena sativa), cultivated in temperate regions, that is able to live in poor soil. The edible starchy grain is used primarily as livestock feed, but is also processed into rolled oats and oat flour for human consumption. High in carbohydrates, oats also provide protein, fat, calcium, iron, and B vitamins. Oat straw is used for animal feed and bed¬ ding.

OAU See Organization of African Unity

Oaxaca \wa-'ha-ka\ State (pop., 2000: 3,438,765), southern Mexico. Bounded by the Pacific Ocean, it occupies 36,275 sq mi (93,952 sq km) and includes most of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The capital is Oaxaca city. The Sierra Madre del Sur ends at the isthmus. Remains of pre-Columbian Zapotec and Mixtec structures are found at Mitla and Monte Alban. It has the largest population of Indian descent in Mexico. It is an agricultural and mining area.

Oaxaca in full Oaxaca de Juarez City (pop., 2000: 251,846), capital of Oaxaca state, southern Mexico. It lies in the fertile Oaxaca Val¬ ley, about 5,000 ft (1,500 m) above sea level. Founded in 1486 as an Aztec garrison and con¬ quered by the Spanish in 1521, it had an important role in Mexican history and was the home of Benito Juarez and Porfirio Diaz. It is noted for its 16th- century architecture and its handicrafts.

Ob Vob\ River River, west-central Russia. Flowing across western Siberia northwestward from the Altai Mountains of central Asia, it courses through the Gulf of Ob into the Kara Sea of the Arctic Ocean. It is about 2,268 mi (3,650 km) long. Its middle course is through taiga, swampy coniferous forest with expanses of marsh¬ land. In the north are vast stretches of icy, treeless tundra. The Ob is an important source of hydroelectric power and one of Siberia’s major trans¬ portation routes during the six months of the year when it is not frozen.

Obadiah X.o-bo-'dI-oX (fl. between the 9th and 6th century bc) One of the 12 Minor Prophets in the Bible, traditional author of the book of Oba¬ diah. The shortest book of the Hebrew scriptures, it consists of one chap¬ ter of 21 verses. (It is part of a larger book, The Twelve, in the Jewish canon.) Nothing is known of Obadiah, whose name means “servant of Yahweh (God).” He castigates Edom for failing to help Israel repel for¬ eign invaders and announces that the Day of Judgment is near for all nations. The final verses predict the restoration of the Jews to their native land.

O'Bail, John See Cornplanter

obelisk Tapered four-sided pillar, originally erected in pairs at the entrance to ancient Egyptian temples. The Egyptian obelisk was carved from a single piece of stone, usually granite, and embellished with hiero¬ glyphics. It was wider at its square or rectangular base than at its pyra¬ midal top, and could be over 100 ft (30 m) high. During the Roman empire, many obelisks were transported from Egypt to Italy. A well- known modern obelisk is the Washington Monument.

Oberammergau See Passion play

Oberlin College Private liberal arts college in Oberlin, Ohio. Founded in 1833, it was the first U.S. college to admit women and the first to admit black students on an equal footing with whites. In its early years it was a station on the Underground Railroad. It has faculties of arts, communica¬ tions, foreign languages, law, letters, mathematics, psychology, public service, science, and social sciences, as well as a music conservatory.

obesity Excessive body fat. It is usually caused by sedentary habits and a diet high in fat, alcohol, or total calories. Calories consumed but not used are stored as fat. Rare causes include glandular defects and excess steroids (see Cushing syndrome). Obesity raises the risk of heart disease and diabetes mellitus. Treatment, by reducing calorie intake and increasing exer¬ cise, is best undertaken with a doctor’s advice.

obia or obeah Yo-be-a\ In West African folklore, a gigantic animal that steals into villages by night to kidnap girls on behalf of witches. In some Caribbean cultures the word is used to refer to overpowering and extremely evil forms of witchcraft and sorcery. Bewitched objects, bur-

object-oriented programming ► obscenity I 1393

ied with the intent of causing harm, are sometimes called obia. A person who uses the power of obia is called an obiama or obiaman.

object-oriented programming (OOP) Computer programming that emphasizes the structure of data and their encapsulation with the pro¬ cedures that operate upon it. It is a departure from traditional or proce¬ dural programming. OOP languages incorporate objects that are self- contained collections of computational procedures and data structures. Programs can be written by assembling sets of these predefined objects in far less time than is possible using conventional procedural languages. OOP has become extremely popular because of its high programming productivity. C++ and Objective-C (early 1980s) are object-oriented ver¬ sions of C that have gained much popularity. See also Java.

oblation In Christianity, the offering up by the faithful of any gift for use usually by the clergy, the church, or the sick or poor. The bread and wine offered for consecration in the Eucharist are oblations. In the Middle Ages children dedicated to a monastery and left there to be brought up were called oblates. Later, oblates were laity who lived at or in close con¬ nection with a monastery but who did not take religious vows. Members of certain Roman Catholic communities take the title oblate (e.g., the Oblates Regular of St. Benedict).

oboe Double-reed woodwind instrument. The oboe developed out of the more powerful shawm in the early 17th century. Intended (unlike the shawm) for indoor use with stringed instruments, its tone was softer and less brilliant. With its sweet but piercing sound, it was by the end of the 17th century the principal wind instrument of the orchestra and military band and, after the violin, the leading solo instrument of the time. The early oboe had only 2 keys, but in France by 1839 the number of keys had gradually increased to 10. With the decline in popularity of the mili¬ tary band, the oboe likewise declined somewhat in popularity. Today the orchestra generally includes two oboes. The oboe d’amore, an alto oboe with a pear-shaped bell, was especially popular in the 18th century; the modern alto oboe is the English horn.

Obote \o-'bo-ta\, (Apollo) Milton (b. Dec. 28, 1924, Akoroko vil- lage, Lango, Uganda—d. Oct. 10,

2005, Johannesburg, S.Af.) First prime minister (1962-70) and presi¬ dent (1966-71, 1980-85) of Uganda.

Elected to the Legislative Council in 1958, he led his country to indepen¬ dence in 1962. As prime minister, he accepted a constitution that granted federal status to five traditional king¬ doms, including Buganda, but in 1966 he sent troops under Gen. Idi Amin to subdue B Uganda’s ruler,

Mutesa II, and later abolished all the kingdoms. Obote was overthrown in a 1971 coup led by Amin, but, after Amin was deposed in 1979, Obote returned to Uganda and established a repressive government. He was again ousted in 1985 and eventually settled in Zambia.

Obraztsov V.o-brost-'soA, Sergey Vladimirovich (b. July 5, 1901, Moscow, Russia—d. May 8, 1992, Moscow) Russian puppeteer. While working as an actor in Moscow (1922-31), he gave independent vaudeville-style puppet shows. In 1931 he was chosen to be the first director of Moscow’s State Central Puppet Theatre. There his perfor¬ mances, displaying technical excellence and stylistic discipline, estab¬ lished puppetry as an art form in the Soviet Union, and on worldwide tours he inspired the formation of several rod-puppet theatres. His notable productions included Aladdin’s Magic Lamp (1940), An Unusual Concert (1946), and Don Juan (1976).

Obrecht \'o-,brekt\, Jakob (b. Nov. 22, 1452, Bergen-op-Zoom, Brabant—d. 1505, Ferrara) Flemish composer. Little is known of his ori¬ gins or education, but in 1484 he was appointed instructor of choirboys at Cambrai cathedral and then held a position in Brugge. His composi¬ tional style is notable for its warm, graceful melodies and clear harmo¬ nies. Most outstanding are his 29 masses; he also wrote about 30 motets and some secular music. Despite his contemporary renown, he had little

influence on later composers, since his works were not widely distributed and his intellectual but exuberant music came to seem old-fashioned with the advent of Josquin des Prez.

Obregon \,o-bra-'gon\, Alvaro (b. Feb. 19, 1880, Alamos, Mex.—d. July 17, 1928, Mexico City) President of Mexico (1920-24). A skillful military leader who fought for the moderate presidents Francisco Madero and Venustiano Carranza during the Mexican Revolution, he was largely responsible for the liberal constitution of 1917. In response to Carranza’s increasingly reactionary policies, Obregon took a leading role in the revolt that deposed him and was himself elected president in 1920. He managed to impose relative peace and prosperity on his war-torn country. He was elected again in 1928 but was shot and killed before assuming office.

Obrenovic dynasty \6-'bren-3-,vet y \ Family that provided Serbia with five rulers between 1815 and 1903. Its founding member, Milos (1780-1860), was prince of Serbia (1815-39, 1858-60). His elder son, Milan III, reigned only 26 days before dying in 1839. Milos’s second son, Michael III, was prince on two occasions (1839-42, 1860-68). A cousin, Milan IV (1854-1901), became prince in 1868 and then king of Serbia (1882-89). His son Alexander (1876-1903) succeeded him as king in 1889, but he was assassinated in 1903.

O'Brian, Patrick orig. Richard Patrick Russ (b. Dec. 12, 1914, near London, Eng.—d. Jan. 2, 2000, Dublin, Ire.) British writer. He was the eighth of nine children; an early marriage ended in divorce, and after World War II he married again, changed his name, and moved to a small, secluded coastal town in France near the Spanish border. He received little critical notice until age 54, when he began publishing his 18th-century seafaring series featuring Capt. Jack Aubrey and ship’s surgeon Stephen Maturin; it eventually numbered 20 books (1969-99) and was compared with the works of Herman Melville, Anthony Trollope, and Marcel Proust.

O'Brien, Flann orig. Brian 6 Nuallain (b. Oct. 5, 1911, Strabane, County Tyrone, Ire.—d. April 1, 1966, Dublin) Irish novelist, dramatist, and newspaper columnist. Under the name Myles na gCopaleen, he wrote a column for the Irish Times for 26 years. He is most celebrated for the novel At Swim-Two-Birds (1939), a literary experiment that combines folklore, legend, humour, poetry, and linguistic games. His other novels include The Hard Life (1961) and The Dalkey Archive (1964).

O'Brien, Lawrence in full Lawrence Francis O'Brien, Jr. (b.

July 7, 1917, Springfield, Mass., U.S.—d. Sept. 28, 1990, New York, N.Y.) U.S. political official. He managed John F. Kennedy’s successful campaigns for the U.S. Senate (1952, 1958) and presidency (1960). He later served as Kennedy’s special assistant (1961-65), as U.S. postmas¬ ter general (1965-68), as chairman of the Democratic National Commit¬ tee (1968-69, 1970-73), and as commissioner of the National Basketball Association (1975-84).

O'Brien, William Smith (b. Oct. 17, 1803, Dromoland, County Clare, Ire.—d. June 18, 1864,

Bangor, Caernarvonshire, Wales)

Irish political insurgent. He served in the British House of Commons (1828-48) and initially supported the Anglo-Irish legislative union (see Act of Union). In 1843 he joined the anti-union Repeal Association, and in 1846 he broke with Daniel O'Connell to lead the radical Young Ireland movement. In 1848 he sup¬ ported violent revolution and led an abortive insurrection in County Tip¬ perary. Convicted of high treason, he received a death sentence that was commuted to exile in Tasmania. He was released in 1854 and pardoned in 1856.

obscenity Act, utterance, writing, or illustration that is deemed deeply offensive according to contemporary community standards of morality and decency. Though most societies have placed restrictions on the content of literary and graphic works, it was not until relatively modern times that sexuality became a major focus of societal concern. One of the first systematic efforts to suppress books

Milton Obote.

PETER KEMP/AP

William Smith O'Brien, lithograph by H. O'Neill after a daguerreotype by Glukman, 1848

COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM; PHOTOGRAPH, J.R. FREEMAN & CO. LTD.

1394 I observatory ► Occupation

deemed to be immoral or heretical was undertaken by the Roman Catho¬ lic church in the 16th century. Modern obscenity laws can be viewed as direct responses to the social and technological changes (e.g., the creation of the printing press and the development of the Internet) that have per¬ mitted the wide and easy distribution of sexually explicit materials. The Supreme Court of the United States has ruled that materials are obscene if they appeal predominantly to a prurient interest in sexual conduct, depict or describe sexual conduct in a patently offensive way, and lack serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value. Material deemed obscene under this definition is not protected in the U.S. by the free-speech guar¬ antee of the 1st Amendment. See also freedom of speech; pornography.

observatory Structure containing telescopes and other instruments for observing celestial objects and phenomena. Observatories can be classi¬ fied by the part of the electromagnetic spectrum they can receive. Most are optical, observing in and near the region of the visible spectrum. Some are equipped to detect radio waves; others (space observatories) are Earth satellites and other spacecraft that carry special telescopes and detectors to study celestial sources of high-energy radiation (e.g., gamma rays, ultra¬ violet radiation, X-rays) from above the atmosphere. Stonehenge may have been an early predecessor of the optical observatory. Perhaps the first observatory that used instruments to accurately measure the positions of celestial objects was built c. 150 bc by Hipparchus. The first notable pre¬ modern European observatory was that at Uraniborg, built for Tycho Brahe in 1576. Observatory House, in Slough, Eng., built and operated by Wil¬ liam Herschel (see Herschel family), was one of the technical wonders of the 18th century. Today the world’s largest groupings of optical telescopes are atop Mauna Kea, in Hawaii, and Cerro Tololo, in Chile. Other major observatories include Arecibo Observatory; Mount Wilson Observatory; Palomar Observatory; and Royal Greenwich Observatory.

obsessive-compulsive disorder Mental disorder in which an indi¬ vidual experiences obsessions or compulsions, either singly or together. An obsession is a persistent disturbing preoccupation with an unreason¬ able idea or feeling (such as of being contaminated through shaking hands with someone). A compulsion is an irresistible impulse to perform an irra¬ tional act (such as repeatedly washing the hands). The two phenomena are usually, but not always, linked in the obsessive-compulsive person. Onset of the illness has been linked to malregulation of the neurotrans¬ mitter serotonin as well as to the ill effects of high stress.

obsidian Natural glass of volcanic origin that is formed by the rapid cooling of viscous lava. It has a glassy lustre and is slightly harder than window glass. It is typically jet black, but the presence of hematite (iron oxide) produces red and brown varieties, and tiny gas bubbles may cre¬ ate a golden sheen. It is sometimes used as a semiprecious stone. Obsid¬ ian was used by American Indians and others for weapons, implements, tools, and ornaments, and by the ancient Aztecs and Greeks for mirrors.

obstetrics and gynecology \,gl-n9-'ka-l3-je\ Medical and surgical specialty concerned with the management of pregnancy and childbirth and with the health of the female reproductive system. Obstetrics, first practiced by midwives, developed as a medical discipline in the 17th-19th centu¬ ries, adopting the use of forceps in delivery, anesthetics, and antiseptic methods. The last two made cesarean section possible. Obstetricians con¬ firm pregnancy, diagnose ectopic pregnancy, conduct prenatal care, per¬ form amniocentesis, deliver babies, and perform abortions. In the late 20th century a backlash against the excessive medicalization of birth led to a revival of midwifery and encouragement of natural childbirth. Gynecolo¬ gists do routine pelvic exams, take samples for Pap smears, advise on and prescribe birth control, and treat reproductive system disorders (e.g., endometriosis, hormonal imbalances, problems with menstruation and menopause). They perform surgery to prevent conception (tubal ligation), repair pelvic injuries, and remove cysts and tumours from the uterus, cer¬ vix, and ovaries. Both specialties are involved in diagnosis and treatment of INFERTILITY. See also HYSTERECTOMY.

Obuchi Vo-bu-cheV Keizo (b. June 25, 1937, Nakanojo, Japan—d. May 14, 2000, Tokyo) Japanese politician. A graduate of Waseda Uni¬ versity, he was first elected to the Diet (legislature) in 1963, where he spent 12 terms, serving as chairman of the finance committee (1976) and min¬ ister for foreign affairs (1997). As Japan’s prime minister (1998-2000), Obuchi had to deal with Japan’s flagging economy and the related Asian economic crisis.

O'Casey, Sean orig. John Casey (b. March 30, 1880, Dublin, Ire.—d. Sept. 18, 1964, Torquay, Devon, Eng.) Irish playwright. Born to

a poor Protestant family, he educated himself and worked from age 14 at manual labour. He embraced the Irish nationalist cause, changed his name to its Irish form, and became active in the labour movement and its paramilitary Irish Citizen Army.

By 1915 he had turned from politics to writing realistic tragicomedies about Dublin slum dwellers in war and revolution. The Abbey Theatre produced three of his earliest and best plays— The Shadow of a Gun¬ man (1923), Juno and the Paycock (1924), and The Plough and the Stars (1926)—which caused riots by Irish patriots. When his antiwar play The Silver Tassie was rejected by the Abbey, O’Casey moved to England, where it was produced in 1929. His later plays include Red Roses for Me (1946); he also published a six-volume autobiography (1939-56).

Occam, William of See William of Ockham Occam's razor See Ockham's razor

occasionalism Type of mind-body dualism that maintains that appar¬ ent interactions between mental and physical events are in reality the result of God’s constant causal action. Starting from Descartes’s mind- body dualism, the occasionalists, whose most prominent exponents were Nicolas de Malebranche and Arnold Geulincx, drew the conclusions that there can be no interaction between mind and body, and that all causality is immanent, within one order or the other, and any appearance of mind affecting body or of body affecting mind must be explained as the result of a special intervention by God, who, on the occasion of changes in one substance, produces corresponding changes in the other.

Occitan Vak-s9-,tan\ language or Provencal V.pro-.van-'sal, ,pra-v3n-'sal\ language Romance language spoken in Occitania, a region of southern France. The 1.5 million people of this region use Occi¬ tan dialects in everyday life and French as their official and cultural lan¬ guage. The term langue d’oc is based on the use of the word oc for “yes.” The name Provengal originally referred to the dialects of the Provence region, used by medieval troubadours and as a standard and literary lan¬ guage in France and northern Spain in the 12th— 14th centuries. Today’s major dialects are those of Limousin, Auvergnat, Provence, and Langue¬ doc. Gascon, spoken in southwestern France and usually classified as an Occitan dialect, is sometimes considered a distinct language. Occitan is closely related to Catalan and, despite recent French influences, has more in common with Spanish than with French.

occultism Theories, practices, and rituals based on esoteric knowledge of the world of spirits and unknown forces. The wide range of occult beliefs and practices includes astrology, alchemy, divination, magic, and witchcraft and sorcery. Devotees of occultism seek to explore spiritual mysteries through what they regard as higher powers of the mind. The Western tradition of occultism has its roots in Hellenistic magic and alchemy (especially the Hermetic writings ascribed to Thoth) and in the Jewish mysticism associated with the Kabbala.

Occupation (of Japan) (1945-52) Military occupation of Japan by the Allied Powers after its defeat in World War II. Theoretically an inter¬ national occupation, in fact it was carried out almost entirely by the U.S. under Gen. Douglas MacArthur. During the Occupation period, Japanese soldiers and civilians from abroad were repatriated to Japan, arms indus¬ tries were dismantled, and political prisoners were released. Wartime lead¬ ers stood trial for war crimes, and seven were executed. A new constitution, vesting power in the people, replaced the Meiji Constitution; in it Japan renounced its right to wage war, the emperor was reduced to ceremonial status, and women were given the right to vote. The Occupation admin¬ istration also carried out land reform, reducing the number of farmers who were tenants from 46% to 10%, and began the breakup of the zaibatsu (business conglomerates). Labour unions were initially encouraged, but as fears of leftist organizations grew with the advent of the Cold War, stronger governmental control of labour was supported. The education system, seen as elitist, was revised to resemble the U.S. system. Though

O'Casey, photograph byJ. Bown

CAMERA PRESS

occupational disease ► Oceanic arts I 1395

the U.S. wanted to end the Occupation in 1947, the Soviet Union vetoed a peace treaty with Japan; a treaty was signed in 1951, and the Occupa¬ tion ended the following year.

occupational disease Illness associated with a particular occupation. The Industrial Revolution’s long working hours, dim light, lack of fresh air, and dangerous machinery fostered illness and injury in general, but certain occupations (e.g., mining) carry particular risks (e.g., black lung, a type of pneumoconiosis). Twentieth-century innovations (including use of new chemicals and radioactive materials) caused an increase in certain cancers (e.g.. leukemia and bone cancer in workers exposed to radiation) and injuries. So-called “sick buildings” (in which pathogens grow in air circulation systems) contribute to health problems among office workers. Occupational medicine also covers work-related emotional stresses. See also ASBESTOSIS; INDUSTRIAL MEDICINE.

occupational medicine See industrial medicine

occupational therapy Use of activities to promote health and inde¬ pendence, particularly after the acute phase of illness. Such therapy is often vital for reorienting patients unable to work for long periods. Occupational therapists assess patients’ abilities, tailor programs to restore physical function, and devise ways to help those with permanent limitations carry out everyday functions. See also physical medicine and rehabilitation.

occupational training See employee training

ocean Large, continuous body of salt water. Ocean covers nearly 71% of the Earth’s surface and is divided into major oceans and smaller seas. The three principal oceans, the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian, are largely delimited by land and submarine topographic boundaries. All are con¬ nected to what is sometimes called the Southern Ocean, the waters encir¬ cling Antarctica. Important marginal seas, primarily in the Northern Hemisphere, are partially enclosed by landmasses or island arcs. The larg¬ est are the Arctic Ocean and adjacent seas, Caribbean and adjacent waters, Mediterranean, Bering Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, Yellow and China Seas, and Sea of Japan.

ocean current Horizontal and vertical circulation system of ocean waters, produced by gravity, wind friction, and water density variation. Coriolis forces cause ocean currents to move clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere and deflect them about 45° from the wind direction. This movement creates distinc¬ tive currents called gyres. Major ocean currents include the Gulf Stream-

North Atlantic-Norway Current in the Atlantic Ocean, the Peru (Humboldt) Current off South America, and the West Australia Current.

ocean liner Large merchant ship that visits designated ports on a regu¬ lar schedule, carrying whatever cargo and passengers are available on the date of sailing. The first liners were operated in the North Atlantic, nota¬ bly by Samuel Cunard of Britain, beginning in 1840. Their heyday lasted from the late 19th to the mid-20th century. Many were extraordinarily luxurious. Among the most famous were Cunarders such as the Mauret¬ ania and the Queen Mary, the German Vaterland (later renamed Levia¬ than), for many years the largest ship afloat; the ill-fated Titanic, and the United States. Their reign ended in the 1960s with the rise of jet travel, but liners ranging from cruise ships to refrigerated cargo ships continued to sail.

ocean perch See redfish

Oceania \,o-she-'a-ne-3\ Collective name for the islands scattered throughout most of the Pacific Ocean. The term especially refers to islands of the central and southern Pacific, including those of Micronesia, Melane¬ sia, and Polynesia; New Zealand is often included and sometimes Austra¬ lia. In its most restricted sense, excluding Australia but including Papua New Guinea, Oceania includes more than 10,000 islands and has a land area of about 317,000 sq mi (821,000 sq km). See map on following page.

Oceanic \,o-she-'a-nik\ arts Literary, performing, and visual arts of the Pacific islands of Oceania, including Australia as well as Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia. Their isolation and wide range of environ¬ mental conditions led to the development of a rich variety of artistic styles. Religion and ritual strongly influence every aspect of Oceanic life, and their association with the arts is especially close. Religious symbolism infuses not only the objects, dances, and speeches used in ritual but also the materials and tools used to create them. Oceanic literature includes both complex oral traditions and a more modern body of works written primarily in English. The traditional oral transmission of literature neces¬ sitated rhythmic cadences and stock formulas to aid memory. Favoured subjects are tales of the gods and spirits and creation myths. Musical styles are multitudinous, though all regions, with some Melanesian exceptions, emphasize vocals using instruments to produce supranormal voices. Con¬ sequently most instruments are technically crude though often elaborately decorated in keeping with their extramusical function as gifts and cult objects. Polynesian song and dance is rooted in societal structure, and chants praise chiefs or high-ranking guests while the dancers’ movements

96U

oceanic plateau ► Ockham's razor I 1397

narrate rather than act out the meaning. Australian and Melanesian dance has a historical function describing the activities of gods and ancestors—in the latter instance, dancers don elaborate costumes and masks. In all the islands the significant movements are made with the upper half of the body, while the feet merely keep time. The visual arts display ingenious use of environmental possibilities: a staggering range of materials are used, often in collage-style combination. Wood is the main artistic medium; secondary materials included clay, shell, and stone. Extant works include wooden masks, clubs, and religious effigies; carved stone sculptures; feather cloaks and helmets; and bark cloth stenciled with bold, dense geometric designs The most famous monuments of Oceanic art are the gargantuan stone figures of Easter Island. With the arrival of European colonists, the arts in these regions began to reflect European traditions and styles. See also bisj pole.

oceanic \,o-she-'a-nik\ plateau or submarine plateau Large sub¬ marine elevation rising sharply at least 660 ft (200 m) above the sur¬ rounding seafloor and having an extensive, relatively flat or gently tilted summit. Most plateaus are steplike interruptions of the continental slopes. Some, however, occur well beyond the continental margins. They stand alone, high above the surrounding seafloor, and are believed to be frag¬ ments of continents that were isolated during continental drift and sea¬ floor SPREADING.

Oceanic religions Non-Christian religions practiced in Oceania. Tra¬ ditional Melanesian religions, which are giving way under the pressures of Christianity and capitalism, hold that ancestral ghosts and other spirits are participants in daily life. Their presence and effects are manifested in dreams, in divination, and in human successes and failures. Magic is widely practiced, and sorcery is seen as the major cause of death and ill¬ ness. The traditional religions of Micronesia, which have largely died out, recognized several high gods and many other spirits, including the spirits of ancestors and the dead. Magic played an important role. In Polynesia, each of the gods, whether high or local, had its own ritual requirements, and schools of priests were often required to carry them out. All things were believed to possess mana, which had to be protected by complicated rules and taboos. The Polynesians often offered human sacrifices on important occasions, such as the formal investiture of a priest or chief. With the introduction of modem goods, the peoples of all these islands became susceptible to cargo cults.

oceanic ridge Continuous, submarine mountain chain extending approximately 50,000 mi (80,000 km) through all the world’s oceans, separating them into distinct basins. The main ridge extends down the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, passes between Africa and Antarctica, turns north to the Indian Ocean, then continues between Australia, New Zealand, and Antarctica and across the Pacific basin to the mouth of the Gulf of California. Lateral ridges extend from islands on the axis of the oceanic ridge to coasts of adjacent continents. The oceanic ridge system is the largest feature of the Earth’s surface after the continents and the ocean basins themselves; it is explained by the theory of plate tectonics as a boundary between diverging plates where molten rock is brought up from deep beneath the Earth’s crust. See also subduction zone.

oceanic trench See deep-sea trench

oceanography Scientific discipline concerned with all aspects of the world’s oceans and seas, including their physical and chemical proper¬ ties, origin and geology, and life forms. Research entails sampling sea¬ water and marine life, remote sensing of oceanic processes with aircraft and satellites, and exploration of the seafloor. Oceanography aids in pre¬ dicting weather and climate, in exploitation of the Earth’s resources, and in understanding the effects of pollutants. See also marine geology.

Oceanside City (pop., 2000: 161,029), southwestern California, U.S. Located along the Pacific coast on the Gulf of Santa Catalina, north of San Diego, it is a beach resort. The city was incorporated in 1888, and its growth was spurred in 1942 by the opening of a U.S. Marine Corps base, Camp Pendleton, to the north. Nearby is the restored Mission San Luis Rey (founded 1798).

ocelot \'a-S3-,lat\ Species (Leopardus pardalis ) of CAT found in forests, grasslands, and brush-covered regions from Texas to northern Argentina. The ocelot is 36-52 in. (90-130 cm) long, excluding the 12-16-in. (30- 40-cm) tail. It stands about 18 in. (45 cm) and weighs 24-35 lbs (11-16 kg). The upper body varies from whitish to tawny yellow to gray. The head, neck, and body are marked by specific patterns of black stripes and

spots: spots on the head, two stripes on each cheek, oblong spots arranged in chainlike bands on the body, and bars or blotches on the tail.

The ocelot hunts at night for small mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish. It is listed as an endangered species in the U.S.

Ochoa, Ellen (b. May 10, 1958,

Los Angeles, Calif., U.S.) U.S. astro¬ naut. She earned a master’s degree (1981) and a doctorate (1985) in electrical engineering at Stanford University. Specializing in the devel¬ opment of optical systems, she later helped create several systems and methods that were awarded patents.

In 1990 Ochoa was selected to par¬ ticipate in NASA’s astronaut pro¬ gram, and the following year she completed her training to become the first Hispanic female astronaut. In April 1993 she served as mission specialist aboard the shuttle Discovery. Ochoa’s later missions included traveling to the International Space Station in 1999 and 2002.

Ochoa \o-'cho-3\, Severo (b. Sept. 24, 1905, Luarca, Spain—d. Nov. 1, 1993, Madrid) Spanish-born U.S. molecular biologist. He received his M.D. and subsequently studied in Germany and Britain before immigrat¬ ing to the U.S. in 1941, where he taught principally at New York Univer¬ sity. In 1955, while researching high-energy phosphates, he discovered an enzyme in bacteria that enabled him to synthesize RNA. The enzyme nor¬ mally breaks down RNA, but in a test tube it runs its natural reaction in reverse. It has been valuable in enabling scientists to understand and re¬ create the process whereby the hereditary information contained in genes is translated into enzymes that determine each cell’s functions and char¬ acter. With Arthur Kornberg he received a 1959 Nobel Prize.

Ochs \'aks\, Adolph Simon (b. March 12, 1858, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.—d. April 8, 1935, Chattanooga, Tenn.) U.S. newspaper publisher. Ochs grew up in Tennessee, where he worked for various newspapers. At age 20 he borrowed $250 to become proprietor of the moribund Chatta¬ nooga Times, which he developed into one of the South’s leading news¬ papers. He gained control of the financially faltering New York Times in 1896. Despising yellow journalism, he adopted the slogan “All the News That’s Fit to Print” and emphasized comprehensive and trustworthy news gathering. Under his ownership the Times became one of the world’s out¬ standing newspapers. From 1900 he was a director of the Associated Press. Ochs’s son-in-law, Arthur H. Sulzberger, was the first in a succession of family heirs to lead the New York Times Co.

Ockeghem Vo-ks-genA, Johannes or Jean d'Ockeghem (b. c.

1410—d. Feb. 6, 1497, Tours, France?) Flemish composer and singer. He is first mentioned as a member of an Antwerp choir in 1443. He held a series of posts in the Low Countries and France; he may have been asso¬ ciated with Gilles Binchois (c. 1400-60) and Guillaume Dufay, and Ant¬ oine Busnois (c. 1430-92) may have been his student. Though universally admired, his output over a career of more than 50 years was small, com¬ prising 14 mass cycles, about 10 motets, and about 20 chansons. His richly sonorous works often reflect intricate structural principles.

Ockham Va-komV, William of or William of Occam (b. c. 1285, Ockham, Surrey?, Eng.—d. 1347/49, Munich, Bavaria) English Fran¬ ciscan philosopher, theologian, and political writer. A late Scholastic thinker, he is regarded as the founder of a form of nominalism, the school of thought that denies that universals have any reality apart from the indi¬ vidual things signified by the universal or general term. He is also remem¬ bered as the originator of the medieval rule of logical economy known as Ockham's razor. He was excommunicated by Pope John XXII for his defense of the Franciscan notion of poverty and the rights of the empire against the papacy.

Ockham's razor Methodological principle of parsimony in scientific explanation. Traditionally attributed to William of Ockham, the principle prescribes that entities are not to be multiplied beyond necessity. In prac¬ tice, this means that if a phenomenon can be explained without assuming

1398 I Ocoee River ► ode

the existence of an entity, then philosophers and scientists should not assume the entity’s existence. The history of science provides many examples of the principle’s application (e.g., the rejection by scientists of the hypothesis of a luminiferous ether in response to Albert Einstein’s Spe¬ cial Theory of Relativity). See also materialism.

Ocoee \o-'ko-e\ River River, rising in the Blue Ridge in northeastern Georgia and flowing through southeastern Tennessee, U.S. In northern Georgia it is called the Toccoa River; at the Blue Ridge Dam its waters form Blue Ridge Lake. Three other dams on the river are all in Tennes¬ see. The four dams are run by the Tennessee Valley Authority. The river is about 70 mi (115 km) long.

O'Connell, Daniel known as the Liberator (b. Aug. 6, 1775, near Cahirciveen, County Kerry, Ire.—d. May 15, 1847, Genoa, Kingdom of Sardinia) Irish nationalist leader. A lawyer, he gradually became involved in the struggle for Catholic Emancipation, organizing nationwide “aggre¬ gate meetings” of Irish Catholics to petition for their legal rights. In 1823 he cofounded the Catholic Association, which won support from Irish political and church leaders. After helping win passage of the 1829 Eman¬ cipation Act, which allowed Irish Catholics to serve in the British Parlia¬ ment, he was elected to the House of Commons. He supported the Whig Party in return for Irish reform measures but became disenchanted with the administration’s inaction. In 1839 he formed the Repeal Association to dissolve the Anglo-Irish Act of Union. A series of illegal mass meet¬ ings in Ireland led to his arrest for sedition in 1843. After his release in 1844, he faced dissension from William Smith O'Brien’s radical Young Ire¬ land movement.

O'Connor, Feargus Edward (b. c. July 18, 1796, Connorville, County Cork, Ire.—d. Aug. 30, 1855, London, Eng.) Irish leader of Char¬ tism. He practiced law and served in the British Parliament (1832-35). He turned to radical agitation in England and was active in the Chartist move¬ ment as a popular public speaker. His journal Northern Star (1837) gave his views wide circulation. He became the Chartists’ leader in 1841 but was unable to effect passage of the Chartist petition in 1848. After a men¬ tal collapse, he was declared insane in 1852.

O'Connor, (Mary) Flannery (b. March 25, 1925, Savannah, Ga., U.S.—d. Aug. 3, 1964, Milledgeville, Ga.) U.S. writer. She spent most of her life on her mother’s farm in Milledgeville, Ga. A devout Roman Catholic, she usually set her works in the rural South and often examined the relationship between the individual and God by putting her charac¬ ters in grotesque and extreme situations. Her first novel. Wise Blood (1952), combines a keen ear for common speech, a caustic religious imagination, and a flair for the absurd that characterized all of her work. With the story collections A Good Man Is Hard to Find (1955) and Every¬ thing That Rises Must Converge (1965), she was acclaimed as a master of the form. Her other work of fiction was the novel The Violent Bear It Away (1960). Long crippled by lupus, she died at age 39. The Flannery O’Connor Award for Short Fiction is the preeminent American award of its kind.

O'Connor, Frank orig. Michael O'Donovan (b. 1903, Cork, County Cork, Ire.—d. March 10, 1966, Dublin) Irish writer. Brought up in poverty, O’Connor became a librarian and a director of Dublin’s Abbey Theatre. He won popularity in the U.S. for short stories in which appar¬ ently trivial incidents illuminate Irish life. They appeared in volumes including Guests of the Nation (1931) and Crab Apple Jelly (1944) and in The New Yorker magazine. He also wrote critical studies on Irish life and literature and translations of Gaelic works of the 9th-20th centuries, including the great 17th-century satire The Midnight Court (1945).

O'Connor, Sandra Day orig. Sandra Day (b. March 26, 1930, El Paso, Texas, U.S.) U.S. jurist. After graduating first in her law school class at Stanford University (1950), she entered private practice in Ari¬ zona. She served as an assistant state attorney general (1965-69) before being elected in 1969 to the state senate, where she became the first woman in the U.S. to hold the position of majority leader (1972-74). After serving on the superior court of Maricopa county and the state court of appeals, she was nominated in 1981 by Pres. Ronald Reagan to the Supreme Court of the United States, becoming the first female justice in the court’s history. Known for her dispassionate and meticulously researched opin¬ ions, she proved to be a moderate and pragmatic conservative who some¬ times sided with the court’s liberal minority on social issues (e.g., abortion rights). O’Connor retired from the court in 2006.

OCR in full optical character recognition Scanning and compari¬ son technique intended to identify printed text or numerical data. It avoids the need to retype already printed material for data entry. OCR software attempts to identify characters by comparing shapes to those stored in the software library. The software tries to identify words using character prox¬ imity and will try to reconstruct the original page layout. High accuracy can be obtained by using sharp, clear scans of high-quality originals, but it decreases as the quality of the original declines.

Octavian See Caesar Augustus

October Manifesto Document issued by Tsar Nicholas II in October 1905. In response to the unrest caused by the Russian Revolution of 1 905 and on the advice of his minister Sergey Witte, Nicholas promised to guar¬ antee civil liberties and establish a popularly elected Duma. The manifesto satisfied the moderate revolutionaries, and further unrest was crushed. In 1906 the Fundamental Laws were established to serve as a constitution and to create the Duma. The Duma was in fact given only a limited voice in the government, and the civil rights actually granted were far less sub¬ stantial than those promised by the manifesto.

October Revolution See Russian Revolution of 1917

octopus In general, any eight-armed cephalopod of the order Octopoda; specifically, members of a large, widely distributed group (genus Octopus ) of shallow-water species.

Species range from about 2 in. (5 cm) to 18 ft (5.5 m) long with an arm span up to 30 ft (9 m). The head is usually only slightly demarcated from the saccular body. Each arm is contractile and bears fleshy suckers.

Two sharp beaks and a filelike organ in the mouth drill crustacean shells and rasp away flesh. Most octopuses crawl along the bottom; when alarmed, they may jet-propel them¬ selves backward, and they some¬ times eject an inky substance to cloud the water and protect them¬ selves from predators. They can change colour rapidly, a reflection of their environment or mood. The common octopus ( O. vulgaris ) is thought to be the most intelligent of all invertebrates.

oculus Va-ky 9-las \ (Latin: “eye”) In architecture, any of several ele¬ ments resembling an eye, such as a round or oval window or the round opening at the top of some domes (see Pantheon). The capital of an Ionic column features an oculus in the form of a disk at the centre of each of its spiral scrolls.

Oda Nobunaga Vo-da-.no-bu-'na-gaX (b. 1534, Owari province, Japan—d. June 21, 1582, Kyoto) With Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu, one of the three unifiers of premodem Japan. He brought the domain of his birth, Owari, under his control and followed that success by defeating the huge forces of a neighbouring daimyo. In 1562 he formed an alliance with Ieyasu, and together they captured Kyoto, which Nobunaga controlled from 1573, thereby ending the Ashikaga shogunate (see Muromachi period). He then turned his attention to crushing the mili¬ tant Tendai Buddhist monks of Enryaku temple, destroying their head¬ quarters in 1571. He spent the next decade fighting the fanatically religious Ikko sect, defeating their fortress-monastery in Osaka in 1580. His efforts to weaken the strength of the Buddhist temples extended to permitting Jesuit missionaries to build a church in Kyoto; his own inter¬ est in Christianity was purely political. In 1582 he had conquered central Japan and was attempting to extend his control over western Japan when he was wounded by a discontented general and committed suicide.

ode Ceremonious lyric poem on an occasion of dignity in which per¬ sonal emotion and universal themes are united. The form is usually marked by exalted feeling and style, varying line length, and complex stanza forms. The term ode derives from a Greek word alluding to a choric song, usually accompanied by a dance. Forms of odes include the Pindaric ode, written to celebrate public events such as the Olympic games, and the form associated with Horace, whose intimate, reflective odes have two- or four-line stanzas and polished metres. Both were revived during

Octopus granulatus, a South African species.

ANTHONY BANNISTER FROM THE NATURAL HISTORY PHOTOGRAPHIC AGENCY-EB INC.

Odense ► Oedipus I 1399

the Renaissance and influenced Western lyric poetry into the 20th cen¬ tury. The ode ( qasidah ) also flourished in pre-Islamic Arabic poetry.

Odense Vu-3n-zo,\ English Vo-den-s3\ City and municipality (2000 est.: 183,912), north-central Funen Island, Denmark. Sacred in pagan times as the sanctuary of Odin, the Norse god of war, it first appears in records c. ad 1000. A bishop’s seat from the 10th century, it became a centre of pil¬ grimage to the shrine of Canute IV. It was burned in 1247, but many medieval structures remain. It grew after its port and harbour were built and the Odense Canal was opened in 1804. Denmark’s third largest city, it is a shipbuilding and manufacturing centre. The home of Hans Chris¬ tian Andersen, who was born there, is now a museum.

Oder-Neisse Line Vo-dor-'nI-soV Polish-German border along the Oder and Neisse rivers proposed by the Allied Powers at the end of World War II. After inconclusive talks at the Yalta Conference to redraw the Polish-German border so as to grant more territory to Poland, the Soviet Union unilaterally occupied all territory east of its preferred Oder-Neisse line. The U.S. and Britain, dubious about Soviet domination of an enlarged Poland, protested the action but eventually agreed to the provi¬ sional border, which was not recognized by West Germany until it signed treaties with the Soviet Union and Poland in 1970.

Oder \'o-dor\ River or Odra \'o-dra\ River ancient Viadua River, northern Europe. It flows from its source in the Oder Mountains in the Czech Republic north through western Poland, where it forms the bound¬ ary between Poland and Germany. As the second largest river emptying into the Baltic Sea, it is economically important as a transport route. Navi¬ gable for 475 mi (765 km), it is connected by canal with the Vistula River and with the western European waterway system. It was partially inter¬ nationalized under the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. Considered German until the 1945 Potsdam settlement, it was formally recognized as the Polish-German border in 1950 by East Germany and in 1970 by West Germany.

Odessa City (pop., 2001: 1,029,000), southwestern Ukraine. A Tatar fortress was established in Odessa in the 14th century. The city was ceded to Russia in 1791 and became its second most important port after Saint Petersburg, with grain as its principal export. It was a centre of revolu¬ tionary activity in 1905 (see Russian Revolution of 1905), and it suffered heavy damage in World War II. Odessa is a major seaport and industrial centre, with shipbuilding, engineering, and oil refineries. It is also a cul¬ tural centre, with a university, museums, and theatres.

Odets \o-'dets\, Clifford (b. July 18, 1906, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—d. Aug. 14, 1963, Hollywood, Calif.) U.S. playwright. He acted with rep¬ ertory companies in 1923-28 and joined the Group Theatre in 1931. His first play, the social-protest drama Waiting for Lefty (1935), helped estab¬ lish his and the company’s reputation. He followed it with Awake and Sing! (1935) and Golden Boy (1937). In the late 1930s he moved to Hol¬ lywood, where he wrote screenplays and directed the movies None but the Lonely Heart (1944) and The Story on Page One (1959). His later plays include The Big Knife (1949), The Country Girl (1950), and The Flowering Peach (1954).

odeum \o-'de-9m\ Comparatively small, often semicircular roofed the¬ ater of ancient Greece and Rome used for musical performances. One still in use was built by Herodes Atticus at the base of the Athenian Acropolis (ad 161). Odea were constructed in most cities of the Roman empire for use as assembly halls as well as for performances. See also amphitheater.

Odin Vo-din\ or Wotan \'vo-,tan\ One of the principal Norse gods. A war god from earliest times, Odin appeared in Scandinavian heroic lit¬ erature as the protector of heroes. Fallen warriors were believed to join him in Valhalla. Odin was the great magician among the gods and was associated with runic writing. His eight-legged horse, Sleipnir, could gal¬ lop through the air and over the sea. Odin was usually depicted as a tall old man with a flowing beard and only one eye (the other he gave in exchange for wisdom); he wore a cloak and a wide-brimmed hat and car¬ ried a spear. The wolf and the raven were dedicated to him.

Odo of Bayeux \ , o-do...ba- , yce\ or Earl of Kent (b. c. 1036—d. Feb¬ ruary 1097, Palermo) Bishop of Bayeux, Normandy, and half brother of William I (the Conqueror). He fought in the Battle of Hastings and probably commissioned the Bayeux Tapestry. Made earl of Kent in 1067, he guarded southeastern England and ruled (with others) in William’s absence. Will¬ iam imprisoned him (1082-87) for raising troops without royal permission,

and he later joined a rebellion in support of Robert II. He helped organize the First Crusade and died on his way to the Holy Land.

Odoacer \,o-do-'a-s9r\ or Odovacar N.o-do-'va-korX (b. c. 433—d. March 15, 493, Ravenna) First barbarian king of Italy (476^193). A Ger¬ man warrior in the Roman army, he led a revolt against the usurper Orestes (475). He was proclaimed king by his troops in 476, the date that tradi¬ tionally marks the end of the Western Roman Empire. Odoacer paid hom¬ age to the Eastern emperor, Zeno, but asserted his own right to rule Italy. He conquered Dalmatia (482), defeated the Rugi (487-488), and retook Sicily from the Vandals. By attacking the Eastern Empire, he alienated Zeno, who encouraged the Ostrogothic king Theodoric to invade Italy (489). Theodoric captured almost the entire peninsula and killed Odoacer after inviting him to a banquet.

Odra River See Oder River

Odum, Howard W(ashington) (b. May 24, 1884, near Bethlehem, Ga., U.S.—d. Nov. 8, 1954, Chapel Hill, N.C.) U.S. sociologist. In 1920 Odum joined the faculty of the University of North Carolina, where he established its departments of sociology and public welfare and founded the journal Social Forces (1922). His scholarly focus was folk sociology, particularly of Southern blacks, for whom he urged equal opportunity. His books include Southern Regions of the United States (1936) and Ameri¬ can Regionalism (1938, with Harry Moore).

Odysseus \o-'di-se-9s\ Roman Ulysses \yu-'li-sez\ Hero of Homer’s Odyssey. According to Homer, Odysseus was the king of Ithaca. His shrewdness, resourcefulness, and endurance enabled him to capture Troy (through the device of the Trojan horse) and endure nine years of wan¬ dering and adventures before reaching his home in Ithaca, where his wife, Penelope, and son, Telemachus, awaited him. Classical opinion was divided on whether he was an unscrupulous politician or a wise and honourable statesman. Odysseus has been one of the most frequently por¬ trayed figures in literature, treated by numerous Greek and Roman poets and by later writers such as William Shakespeare ( Troilus and Cressida ), Nikos Kazantzakis ( The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel ), and (metaphorically) by James Joyce ( Ulysses ) and Derek Walcott ( Omeros).

Odysseus slaying the suitors, detail of a red-figure skyphos from Tarquinii, c. 450 bc; in the Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Ger.

COURTESY OF THE STAATLICHE MUSEEN ZU BERLIN, GER.

Oe \'o-e\ Kenzaburo (b. Jan. 31, 1935, Ehime prefecture, Shikoku, Japan) Japanese novelist. Oe first attracted attention on the literary scene while still a student at the University of Tokyo. His works, written in a rough prose style that at times nearly violates the natural rhythms of Japa¬ nese, reflect his life and epitomize the rebellion of the post-World War II generation. They include A Personal Matter (1964), which uses the birth of an abnormal baby to investigate the problem of culturally disinherited youth; Hiroshima Notes (1965); and The Silent Cry (1967). He received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1994.

OECD See Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

Oedipus Ve-do-pos, 'e-do-posV In Greek mythology, a king of Thebes who unwittingly killed his father and married his mother. In the most familiar version of the story, Laius, king of Thebes, was warned by an oracle that his son would slay him. When his wife, Jocasta, bore a son, he exposed the baby on a mountainside, but the infant Oedipus was saved by a shep¬ herd and adopted by the king of Corinth. In early manhood, as Oedipus traveled toward Thebes, he met Laius, who provoked a quarrel; in the

1400 I Oedipus complex ► Ogbomosho

ensuing fracas, Oedipus killed him. He then rid Thebes of the destructive Sphinx by answering her riddle; as a reward he was given the throne of Thebes and the hand of the widowed queen—his mother. They had four children, including Antigone. When at last they learned the truth, Jocasta committed suicide and Oedipus blinded himself and went into exile. Oedi¬ pus has served as the hero of many tragedies, most notably Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex and Oedipus at Colonus.

Oedipus complex In psychoanalytic theory, a desire for sexual involvement with the parent of the opposite sex and a sense of rivalry with the parent of the same sex. The term was introduced by Sigmund Freud in his Interpretation of Dreams (1899) and is derived from the mytho¬ logical Oedipus, who killed his father and married his mother; its female analogue is the Electra complex. Considered a normal stage in the devel¬ opment of children ages three to five, it ends when the child identifies with the parent of the same sex and represses its sexual instincts. Freud believed that the process of overcoming the Oedipus complex gave rise to the SUPEREGO.

Oehlenschlager Vce-lens-.leg-orV Adam Gottlob (b. Nov. 14, 1779, Vesterbro, Den.—d. Jan. 20, 1850, Copenhagen) Danish poet and dramatist, considered the national poet of Denmark. He became the leader of Romanticism in Danish literature with his poem The Golden Horns (1802). Important collections of his poetry, with several lyrical dramas, appeared in 1802 and 1805. His plays drawing on Nordic history and mythology include Earl Haakon the Great (1807). His most significant later work is the poetic epic The Gods of the North (1819), a kind of mod¬ ern Edda.

Oenghus See Maponos

Oerter V6r-tor\, Al(fred) (b. Sept. 19, 1936, Astoria, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. discus thrower. He won gold medals at four consecutive Olympic Games (1956, 1960, 1964, 1968) and set world records four times between 1962 and 1964. He was the first to throw the discus over 200 ft.; he recorded his best throw (212.5 ft [64.78 m]) at the 1968 Olympics.

O'Faolain \o-'fa-bn, o-'fa-bn\, Sean orig. John Francis Whelan

(b. Feb. 22, 1900, Cork, County Cork, Ire.—d. April 20, 1991, Dublin) Irish writer. He became involved in anti-British activities during the Irish insurrection (1918-21) and taught (1926-33). After achieving success with his first story collection. Midsummer Night Madness (1932), and the novel A Nest of Simple Folk (1933), he wrote full-time. He is known for carefully crafted, lyrical short stories about Ireland’s lower and middle classes, often examining the decline of the nationalist struggle or the oppressive provincialism of Irish Catholicism. His other works include Bird Alone (1936), A Life of Daniel O’Connell (1938), and Vive moi! (1964), his autobiography.

Off-Broadway Small-scale theatrical productions in New York City, p— The term was first used to refer to experimental plays produced on low

budgets in small theatres, which provided an alternative to the commer- wm dally oriented Broadway theatres. Off-Broadway theatres grew in quality

!■ and importance after 1952, with the success of Jose Quintero’s produc¬

tions. Plays by Edward Albee, Sam Shepard, and Lanford Wilson were first tm produced off Broadway, as were avant-garde works by Eugene Ionesco,

9 Samuel Beckett, and Harold Pinter. Many new plays are now staged in

well-equipped Off-Broadway houses, and Off-Broadway theatre has its own set of awards, the Obies. As production costs increased, smaller and more experimental theatres emerged; these were quickly labeled Off-Off- Broad way.

Offa Vo -fo\ (d. July 796) One of the most powerful kings in Anglo-Saxon England. He became king of Mercia (757-796) after seizing power dur¬ ing a civil war. He extended his rule over most of southern England and married his daughters to the rulers of Wessex and Northumbria. Eager to form European diplomatic ties, Offa signed a commercial treaty with Charlemagne (796) and allowed the pope to increase his control over the English church. He built Offa's Dyke to divide Mercia from Welsh lands.

Offa's Dyke Earthwork in western England. It stretches 169 mi (270 km) from the River Severn near Chepstow to the seaward end of the River Dee’s estuary. It was built by Offa of Mercia to fortify the boundary between his kingdom and the lands of the Welsh; for centuries it marked the England-Wales boundary. It consisted of a plain bank (in places some 60 ft [18 m] high) and a ditch (12 ft [3.7 m] deep). Many sections remain, and a walking path now runs its length.

Offenbach Vo-fsn-.bakX, Jacques orig. Jacob Offenbach (b.

June 20, 1819, Cologne—d. Oct. 5, 1880, Paris, France) German-bom French composer. Son of a cantor, he studied at the Paris Conservatoire but had to leave for lack of funds. He first wrote theatre music as con¬ ductor of the Theatre-Frangais (from 1850); in 1855 he opened his own theatre, Bouffes-Parisiens, for which he wrote many celebrated one-act works. He began writing longer operettas and had a string of hits, includ¬ ing Orpheus in the Underworld (1858), La Belle Helene (1864), La Vie Parisienne (1866), and The Grand Duchess of Gerolstein (1867). Offen¬ bach is credited with writing in a fluent, elegant style and with a highly developed sense of both characterization and satire. He spent his last three years on his only grand opera, The Tales of Hoffmann, which remained unfinished at his death and was first produced in 1881.

Office of Strategic Services (OSS) (1942^15) U.S. agency formed for the purpose of obtaining information about and sabotaging the mili¬ tary efforts of enemy nations during World War II. It was headed by Wil¬ liam J. (“Wild Bill”) Donovan (1883-1959). With some 12,000 staff, the OSS collected and analyzed information on areas of the world in which U.S. military forces were operating. It used agents inside Nazi-occupied Europe, including Berlin; carried out counterpropaganda and disinforma¬ tion activities; produced analytical reports for policy makers; and staged special operations (e.g., sabotage and demolition) behind enemy lines to support guerrillas and resistance fighters. Many of its functions were later assumed by the Central Intelligence Agency.

offset printing or offset lithography or litho-offset In com¬ mercial printing, a widely used technique in which the inked image on a printing plate is imprinted on a rubber cylinder and then transferred (off¬ set) to paper or other material. The rubber cylinder gives great flexibility, permitting printing on wood, cloth, metal, leather, and rough paper. In offset printing the matter to be printed is neither raised above the surface of the printing plate (as in letterpress printing) nor sunk below it (as in inta¬ glio, or gravure, printing). Offset printing, a development of lithography, is based on the principle that water and grease do not mix, so that a greasy ink can be deposited on grease-treated printing areas of the plate, while nonprinting areas, which hold water, reject the ink. The offset plate is usually of zinc or aluminum or a combination of metals, with the surface treated to render it porous and then coated with a photosensitive material. Exposure to an image hardens the coating on printing areas; the coating on nonprinting areas is washed away, leaving wetted metal that will reject ink. See also xerography.

offshore bar See sandbar

O'Flaherty, Liam (b. Aug. 28, 1896, Inishmore, Aran Islands, County Galway, Ire.—d. Sept. 7, 1984, Dublin) Irish novelist and short-story writer. He abandoned his training for the priesthood and became a sol¬ dier in World War I, a migrant labourer in the Americas and the Middle East, and a revolutionary in Ireland. A leading writer of the Irish literary renaissance, he combined brutal naturalism, psychological analysis, poetry, and biting satire with an abiding respect for the Irish people. His novels include Thy Neighbour’s Wife (1923), The Informer (1925; film, 1935), Skerrett (1932), Famine (1937), and Insurrection (1950).

Ogaden \,o-g3-'den\ Region, eastern Ethiopia. In the triangular wedge that juts into Somalia, it is a dry, barren plain sparsely populated by Somali-speaking nomadic pastoralists. Conquered in the late 19th century by the Ethiopian emperor Menilek II, it was invaded by Italy in 1935 and made part of Italian East Africa. Liberated in 1941, it remained under British administration until 1948. It was invaded by Somalia in 1977 and retaken by Ethiopia in 1978, with help from Cuba and the Soviet Union.

Ogata Kenzan \o-'ga-ta-'ken-,zan\ orig. Ogata Shinsei (b. 1663, Kyoto, Japan—d. June 3, 1743, Edo) Japanese potter, calligrapher, and painter. Many of his designs reflect his classical Chinese and Japanese education. The iro-e (“colour painting”) of his pottery is particularly fine, and his calligraphy, seen in his wares and paintings, was distinctive. His best-known works include a plate with a picture of a cedar grove and the Hana-kago (“Flower Baskets”), a watercolour hanging scroll.

Ogbomosho \,og-bo- , mo-sho\ City (pop. 1995 est.: 711,900), south¬ western Nigeria. Founded in the mid-17th century, it was an outpost of the Oyo empire until the Muslim Fulani conquests in the early 19th cen¬ tury. As a centre of resistance, the walled town attracted many Oyo refu¬ gees. Located northeast of Ibadan, it is one of Nigeria’s largest urban centres. It is also a trading centre and rail junction.

ogham writing ► Ohm's law I 1401

ogham Va-gomV writing or ogam writing or ogum writing

Alphabetic script used for writing the Irish and Pictish (see Picts) languages on stone monuments, mostly c. ad 400-600. In its simplest form, it con¬ sists of four sets of strokes, or notches, each set containing five letters composed of from one to five strokes, thus creating 20 letters. A fifth set of five symbols, called forfeda (“extra letters”), was probably a later development. Most inscriptions are short and consist only of names. Of the more than 400 inscriptions known, about 330 are from Ireland.

Ogilvy Yo-gsl-veV David M(ackenzie) (b. June 23, 1911, West Horsley, Surrey, Eng.—d. July 21, 1999, near Bonnes, France) British advertising executive. After an Oxford education, he worked as an appren¬ tice chef and stove salesman before taking a job in an advertising agency. He spent a year in the U.S. learning American advertising techniques. In 1948, with Anderson Hewitt, he formed Hewitt, Ogilvy, Benson & Mather, which became one of the world’s largest advertising firms. He is noted for reminding his colleagues that “the consumer is not a moron,” and his ads for brands such as Schweppes and Rolls-Royce were admired for their creativity.

Oglethorpe, James (Edward) (b. Dec. 22, 1696, London, Eng.—d. June 30/July 1, 1785, Cranham Hall, Essex, Eng.) English army officer. After serving in the British army from 1712 to 1722, he entered Parlia¬ ment, where he became interested in prison reform. In 1732 he secured a charter for a colony in what became Georgia, where debtors could start a new life and persecuted Protestants could practice freely. He accompa¬ nied the first settlers to found Savannah (1733) and led the defense of the territory against attacks by Spain (1739, 1742). He returned to England in 1743.

Ogodei Vo-go-.daV (b. 1185, Mongolia—d. 1241, Karakorum) Son of Genghis Khan who succeeded his father in 1229 and greatly expanded the Mongol empire. He established his headquarters in central Mongolia and built the capital city of Karakorum. Like his father, he carried out simultaneous campaigns by relying on generals who acted independently but were subject to his orders. Allying himself with China’s Southern Song dynasty, Ogodei attacked the Juchen dynasty in northern China, tak¬ ing its capital in 1234. Meanwhile, his nephew Batu defeated Russia while other generals were attacking Iran and Iraq. Only Ogodei’s death (during a drinking bout) prevented the Mongols from invading western Europe. See also Golden Horde; Kublai Khan; Mongke.

Ogooue River or Ogowe \,o-g6-'wa\ River River, west-central Africa, mainly in Gabon. It rises in the Republic of the Congo and flows northwest, then west, emptying into the Atlantic Ocean south of Port- Gentil after a course of 750 mi (1,200 km). It is navigable for less than one-third of its length but is heavily used for shipping goods, including lumber, to the coast.

ogum writing see ogham writing

O'Hara, John (Henry) (b. Jan. 31, 1905, Pottsville, Pa., U.S.—d. April 11, 1970, Princeton, N.J.) U.S. novelist and short-story writer. O’Hara developed the objective, straightforward style he used in his fic¬ tion while working as a critic and reporter in New York City. His works stand as a social history of upwardly mobile Americans of the 1920s through the 1940s. Among them are the popular novels Appointment in Samarra (1934); Butterfield 8 (1935; film, 1960); Pal Joey (1940), adapted as a musical; Ten North Frederick (1955; film, 1958); and From the Terrace (1958; film, 1960).

O'Higgins, Bernardo (b. probably Aug. 20, 1776/78, Chilian, Chile, Viceroyalty of La Plata—d. October 1842, Peru) South American revolu¬ tionary leader and first Chilean head of state (1817-23). The illegitimate son of a Spanish officer of Irish origin, he was educated in Peru, Spain, and England, where his Chilean nationalism was awakened. When Napoleon invaded Spain (1808) and Spanish control of Chile relaxed, he became a member of Chile’s new congress. He led the defensive forces when Chile was invaded by royalists from Peru in 1814; defeated, he fled to Argentina. He returned in 1817 with Jose de San Martin and defeated the Spanish. Elected supreme director of Chile, he established a working governmental organization, but his reforms antagonized conservatives and he resigned.

Ohio State (pop., 2000: 11,353,140), U.S., north-central region. Bor¬ dered by Michigan, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Kentucky, and Indiana, it covers 44,828 sq mi (116,104 sq km). Its capital is Columbus. Lake Erie is on its northern boundary; the Ohio River forms part of its southeastern and southern boundary. Ohio was originally inhabited by prehistoric

Hopewell mound builders, who disappeared c. ad 400. The earliest Euro¬ pean explorers found the area occupied by Miami, Shawnee, and other Indian peoples. The region was ceded to Britain by France after the French and Indian War. In 1803 it became the 17th state and the first state carved out of the Northwest Territory (see Northwest Ordinances). During the 19th century, it became one of the first great industrial states because of its location, transport facilities, and natural resources, including coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Although manufacturing is its most important economic activity, nearly two-thirds of the state is still farmland. It was the birthplace or residence of eight U.S. presidents— William H. Harrison, Ulysses S. Grant, Rutherford B. Hayes, James Garfield, Benjamin Harrison, William McKinley, William H. Taft, and Warren G. Harding. Its major cit¬ ies include Columbus, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Toledo, Akron, and Dayton.

Ohio Co. Organization of Englishmen and Virginia colonists, estab¬ lished in 1748 to promote trade with American Indians and secure Brit¬ ish control of the Ohio River valley for settlement. Activity in the area claimed by France led to the last French and Indian War (1754). A sepa¬ rate organization, the Ohio Co. of Associates (1786), founded Marietta, Ohio, the first permanent settlement north of the Ohio River.

Ohio Idea Proposal to redeem American Civil War bonds in paper money instead of gold. The plan, part of the debate between hard-money advo¬ cates and soft-money or Greenback movement supporters after the Civil War, was sponsored by George Pendleton and was especially popular in the Midwest. Endorsed by the Democratic Party in 1868, it died with the election of Ulysses S. Grant and passage of the Public Credit Act (1869), which provided for payment of government obligations in gold.

Ohio River Major river, eastern central U.S. Formed by the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, it flows northwest out of Penn¬ sylvania, and west and southwest to form the state boundaries of Ohio- West Virginia, Ohio-Kentucky, Indiana-Kentucky, and Illinois-Kentucky. After a course of 975 mi (1,569 km), it empties into the Mississippi River at Cairo, Ill. It is navigable and has supported commerce since the earliest settlements. The river’s strategic importance was recognized by the 1750s. After the French and Indian War, the English controlled the territory around the river.

Ohio State University U.S. state university system consisting of a main campus in Columbus and branches in five other locations. It was established in 1870 as a land-grant institution. The main campus is a comprehensive research institution, with colleges of agriculture, dentistry, law, medicine, and veterinary medicine. Research facilities include a transportation research centre, a freshwater laboratory, a supercomputer centre, and a polar research centre.

Ohm, Georg Simon (b. March 16 6, 1854, Munich) German physicist.

While teaching mathematics at the Jesuits’ College in Cologne (1817—

27), he discovered that the flow of electric current through a conductor is directly proportional to the poten¬ tial difference, or voltage, and inversely proportional to the resis¬ tance. He resigned when his theory (Ohm's law) was coldly received. His theory soon came to be widely rec¬ ognized, and he subsequently taught in Niirnberg (1833—49) and Munich (1849-54). The physical unit mea¬ suring electrical resistance was named for him.

Ohm's law Relationship between the potential difference (voltage), electric current, and resistance in an electric circuit. In 1827 Georg Simon Ohm discovered that at constant temperature, the current I in a circuit is directly proportional to the potential difference V, and inversely propor¬ tional to the resistance R, or I = V/R. Resistance is generally measured in ohms (£2). Ohm’s law may also be expressed in terms of the electromo¬ tive force E of an electric energy source, such as a battery, or E = IR. In an alternating-current circuit, when the combination of resistance and reactance, called impedance Z, is constant. Ohm’s law is applicable and V/I = Z.

, 1789, Erlangen, Bavaria—d. July

Ohm, detail of a lithograph

HISTORIA-PHOTO

1402 I oil ► O'Keeffe

oil Any greasy substance liquid at room temperature and insoluble in water. It may be a fixed (nonvolatile) oil, an essential oil, or a mineral oil (see petroleum). Fixed oils and fats (derived from animals and plants) have the same chemical composition—both are esters of glycerol and fatty acids. These oils have a variety of industrial and food uses. Linseed, tung, and other drying oils are highly unsaturated (see saturation); these and large quantities of soybean, sunflower, and safflower oils (also constituents of foods) are used in paints and varnishes. When exposed to air they absorb oxygen and polymerize (see polymerization), forming a tough coating. Some specialty oils and oil derivatives are also used in leather dressing and textile manufacture.

oil-drop experiment See Millikan oil-drop experiment

oil painting Painting in oil colours, a medium consisting of pigments suspended in drying oils. Oil paint enables both fusion of tones and crisp effects and is unsurpassed for textural variation. The standard consistency of oil paint is a smooth, buttery paste. It is applied with brushes or a thin palette knife, usually onto a stretched linen canvas. Finished oil paintings are often coated with varnish. Oil as a painting medium is recorded as early as the 11th century, though the practice of easel painting with oil colours stems directly from 15th-century techniques of painting with tem¬ pera (see tempera painting). In the 16th century oil colour emerged as the basic painting material in Venice; it has been the most widespread medium for easel paintings ever since.

oil seal or shaft seal In machines, a device that prevents the passage of fluids along a rotating shaft. Seals are necessary when a shaft extends from a housing (enclosure) containing oil, such as a pump or a gearbox. Leather, synthetic rubber, and silicones are among the materials used for the sealing ring. See also bearing.

oil shale Any fine-grained sedimentary rock that contains solid organic matter (kerogen) and yields significant quantities of oil when heated. This shale oil is a potentially valuable fossil fuel, but the present methods of mining and refining it are expensive, damage the land, pollute the water, and produce carcinogenic wastes. Thus, oil shale will probably not be exploited on a wide scale until other petroleum resources have been nearly depleted. Estonia, China, and Brazil have facilities for producing rela¬ tively limited quantities, and the U.S. government operates an experimen¬ tal plant in Colorado.

Oise Vwaz\ River River, northern France. It is formed by the conflu¬ ence of two streams, one rising near Chimay in Belgium and the other near Rocroi in France. Flowing southwest into the Seine, the Oise is 188 mi (302 km) long. It is a link in the canal system between the Seine and the canals of northern France.

Oisin See Ossian

Oistrakh V6i-,strak\, David (Fyodorovich) (b. Sept. 30, 1908, Odessa, Ukraine, Russian Empire—d. Oct. 24, 1974, Amsterdam, Neth.) Russian violinist. After his debut in 1928, he entered and won a number of prestigious competitions. He performed for Soviet troops at the front during World War II and made debuts in the West in the 1950s. Dmitry Shostakovich dedicated both his violin concertos to him. Oistrakh taught at the Moscow Conservatory from 1934; one of his most distinguished students was his son Igor (b. 1931), who himself joined the conservato¬ ry’s faculty in 1958.

Ojibwa \o-'jib-wa\ or Chippewa Vchi-po-.woX North American Plains Indian people living mostly in southern Canada and the north-central U.S. Ojibwa is an Algonquian language. The people’s name, spelled Ojibwe in Canada and given as Chippewa in official U.S. documents, is derived from an Algonquian word ojib-ubway, meaning “puckering,” probably referring to a type of moccasin. They call themselves Anishinaabe or Anishinabek, meaning “Spontaneously Created” or “Original Man.” They formerly inhabited a region north of the Great Lakes but during the 17th— 18th centuries moved west to what is now northern Minnesota. Each Ojibwa tribe was divided into migratory bands. In the autumn, bands separated into family units for hunting; in summer, families gathered at fishing sites. They grew corn and collected wild rice. The Midewiwin, or Grand Medicine Society, was the major Ojibwa religious organization. The Ojibwa are one of the largest Native American groups in North America today, numbering about 50,000 in the U.S. and more than 100,000 in Canada. They are closely related to the Ottawa and Pota- watomi.

Ojukwu \o-'juk-wii\, Odumegwu (b. Nov. 4, 1933, Nnewi, Nigeria) Governor of Eastern Region, Nigeria (1966-67), and head of the seces¬ sionist state of Biafra (1967-70). A member of the Igbo, Ojukwu was edu¬ cated at Oxford University. He was appointed head of the traditional Igbo homelands in the east following the overthrow of Nigeria’s civilian gov¬ ernment by Igbo military leaders. He stayed on in that capacity even after members of the opposition Hausa and Yoruba staged a successful coun¬ tercoup. Mounting secessionist pressures compelled him to declare the Eastern Region an independent state in 1967. Following the Biafra con¬ flict he fled to Cote d’Ivoire; he returned to Nigeria in 1982.

Oka \o-'ka\ River River, western Russia. The largest right-bank tribu¬ tary of the Volga River, it flows 932 mi (1,500 km) north to Kaluga, then east to join the Volga at Nizhny Novgorod. Navigable for most of its length, except during winter, it is an important trade artery for lumber and grain.

okapi \o-'ka-pe\ Ruminant species (Okapia johnstoni ) in the giraffe fam¬ ily that lives alone in Congo rain for¬ ests, eating leaves and fruit. Its neck and legs are proportionately shorter than the giraffe’s, and females, which are larger than males, stand about 5 ft (1.5 m) at the shoulder.

The sleek coat is deep brown on the front of the body; the upper legs are black-and-white-striped, and the lower legs are white, with black rings above the hooves. The male’s short horns are covered with skin except at the tips.

Okavango \,o-ka-'vai]-g6\ River in Angola Cubango River River, southwest-central Africa. It is the fourth longest river system in the region. Rising in central Angola, it forms a section of the boundary between Angola and Namibia. It empties into the Okavango Swamp, a large wet¬ land north of Lake Ngami in northern Botswana, after a course of about 1,000 mi (1,600 km). It is unnavigable except for small craft, and its banks are sparsely settled; a major problem for inhabitants is control of the tsetse fly. The Moremi Wildlife Reserve in the northeastern corner of the swamp teems with wildlife.

Okeechobee X.o-ko-'cho-beN, Lake Lake, southeastern Florida, U.S. It is the third largest freshwater lake wholly within the country. It drains to the sea through the Everglades. It is a remnant of the prehistoric Pam¬ lico Sea, and its name means “Big Water” in the language of the Hitchiti Indians. There is a Seminole reservation on the lake’s northwestern shore.

O'Keeffe, Georgia (b. Nov. 15, 1887, near Sun Prairie, Wis., U.S.—d. March 6, 1986, Santa Fe, N.M.) U.S. painter. She studied ait in Chicago and New York City, where she met and married the photogra¬ pher Alfred Stieglitz. By the early 1920s, her highly individualistic paint¬ ing style had emerged, as typified by such works as Black Iris (1926). Her subjects were often enlarged views of the skulls and other bones of ani¬ mals, flowers and plant organs, shells, rocks, mountains, and other natu¬ ral forms. Her mysteriously suggestive images of bones and flowers set against a perspectiveless space have inspired a variety of erotic, psycho¬ logical, and symbolic interpretations. Her later works celebrate the clear skies and desert landscapes of New Mexico, where she moved after her

"Near Abiquiu, New Mexico," oil on canvas by Georgia O'Keeffe, 1930; in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City

THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK CITY, ALFRED STIEGUT2 COLLECTION, 1963 (63.204), REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION OF THE ESTATE OF GEORGIA O'KEEFFE, COPYRIGHT 1984/85 BY THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART; PHOTOGRAPH BY MALCOLM VARON

Okefenokee Swamp ► Olaf II Haraldsson I 1403

husband’s death in 1946. She is regarded by critics as one of the most original and important American artists, and her works are highly popu¬ lar among the general public.

Okefenokee V.o-ko-fo-'no-keV Swamp Swamp and wildlife refuge, southeastern Georgia and northeastern Florida, U.S. It has an area of more than 600 sq mi (1,550 sq km). Located about 50 mi (80 km) inland from the Atlantic coast, it is bounded by the low, sandy Trail Ridge, which pre¬ vents direct drainage into the Atlantic. It has diverse and abundant wild¬ life. Exotic flowers, such as rare orchids, abound. In 1937 a large area of the swamp, almost all in Georgia, was made the Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge.

Okhotsk \o-'k6tsk\ / Sea of Ann of the northwestern Pacific Ocean. Bounded by the Siberian coast, the Kamchatka Peninsula and the Kuril Islands, Hokkaido, and Sakhalin Island, it covers 611,000 sq mi (1,580,000 sq km). It connects the ports of the Russian Far East. Ice floes impede navigation in winter, and dense fog is a hindrance during the summer.

Okinawa \,o-ke-'na-wa\ Island of Japan, located in the Ryukyu archi¬ pelago, in the East China Sea. The largest island in the Ryukyu chain, it is about 70 mi (112 km) long and 7 mi (11 km) wide, with an area of 463 sq mi (1,199 sq km). It was the site of severe fighting between the U.S. and Japan in World War II. In April 1945 U.S. troops made an amphibi¬ ous landing on Okinawa, which was heavily defended by the Japanese. In a three-month-long campaign, both sides sustained heavy casualties before U.S. forces gained control of the island. In 1972 the United States returned jurisdiction over Okinawa to Japan, though U.S. military instal¬ lations remained.

Oklahoma State (pop., 2000: 3,450,654), southwest-central U.S. Bor¬ dered by Colorado, Kansas, Missouri, Arkansas, Texas, and New Mexico, it covers 69,898 sq mi (181,035 sq km). Its capital is Oklahoma City. The Red River forms its southern boundary; the Arkansas River flows across northeastern Oklahoma. Its highest point is Black Mesa (4,973 ft [1,516 m]), located in the Panhandle. Evidence of inhabitation by the Clovis and Folsom cultures 15,000-10,000 years ago has been found. Until the expe¬ dition of Francisco Vazquez de Coronado in 1541, the area was home to representatives of at least three major Indian language groups. Spanish control of the area lasted until 1800, when it passed to the French. In 1803 the area became part of the U.S. with the Louisiana Purchase. In 1828 the U.S. Congress reserved Oklahoma for settlement by Indians, and it became known as Indian Territory. In 1890 the western part was organized as Oklahoma Territory. The two were merged and admitted to the union as the 46th state in 1907. Cattle raising and farming are the mainstays of the economy. Mineral products include natural gas, petroleum, coal, and stone. The state’s heritage is reflected in Indian and cowboy museums. A barge system links the state’s second major city, Tulsa, to the Gulf of Mexico.

Oklahoma City City (pop., 2000: 506,132), capital of Oklahoma, U.S. Settled during the Oklahoma land rush in 1889, it was incorporated as a city in 1890 and became the state capital in 1910. It expanded rapidly after the discovery of petroleum in the area in 1928. The largest city in the state and its main commercial, financial, industrial, and transportation centre, it is the chief marketing and processing point for the livestock industry. It is home to the National Cowboy Hall of Fame, Myriad Gar¬ dens, and an annual rodeo competi¬ tion. In 1995 it was the site of a deadly act of domestic terrorism, when the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building was bombed, killing 168 people and injuring 500.

okra Herbaceous, hairy, annual plant {Hibiscus esculentus or Abel- moschus esculentus ), of the mallow family, grown for its edible fruit. Okra leaves are deeply notched; flowers are yellow with a crimson centre.

The fruit, or pod, is a tapering,

10-angled capsule 4-10 in. (10-25 cm) long. Only the tender, unripe fruit is eaten; it is prepared in a num¬ ber of ways and is a defining ingre¬ dient of the gumbos of the southern

U.S. Because of its large amount of mucilage (a gelatinous substance), okra is used to thicken broths. In some countries the seeds are used as a substitute for coffee.

Oktoberfest Annual festival in Munich, Germany, lasting two weeks and ending on the first Sunday of October. It began in 1810 as a horse race celebrating the wedding of the crown prince of Bavaria, later King Louis I (1786-1868). The race was soon combined with the state agri¬ cultural fair, and food and drink were offered. In the late 20th century the Munich breweries celebrated Oktoberfest by setting up large temporary beer halls, each seating 3,000-5,000 people, and hiring bands to entertain the crowds as they ate and drank. Total beer consumption during the fes¬ tival exceeds a million gallons.

Okubo Toshimichi Vo-ku-bo-.to-she-'me-cheV (b. Sept. 26, 1830, Kagoshima, Japan—d. May 14, 1878, Tokyo) Japanese samurai leader from the domain of Satsuma who, with Saigo Takamori, arranged an alli¬ ance with the domain of ChoshO to work for the overthrow of the Tokugawa shogunate (see Tokugawa period) and the restoration of the emperor as head of government. After the Meiji Restoration of 1868, Okubo became a dominant figure in the new government. He traveled to the West and returned convinced that Japan needed rapid economic devel¬ opment and modernization to survive. He supported the establishment of technical schools, loans to private businesses, and government-sponsored factory development. In 1873 he argued against those who favoured invading Korea and prevailed. He was assassinated in 1878 by discon¬ tented samurai. See also Kido Takayoshi; Meiji period.

Okuma Shigenobu Vo-ku-ma-.she-ge-'no-biA (b. March 11, 1838, Saga, Japan— d. Jan. 10, 1922, Tokyo) Japanese politician of the Meiji period who twice served as prime minister. His initial contribution to the new government was to oversee the reorganization of Japan’s fiscal sys¬ tem. Later, after making radical proposals for a new Japanese constitu¬ tion and exposing corruption in proposed sales of government property, he was forced out of government. In 1882 he formed the Rikken Kaish- into (“Progressive Party”), which favoured English parliamentary gov¬ ernment. With Itagaki Taisuke he created a new party in 1898, the Kenseito (^‘Constitutional Party”). They formed a short-lived government with Okuma as prime minister. Okuma’s second tenure as prime minister (1914-16) was more successful. He is also remembered as the founder of Waseda University (1882). See also Meiji Constitution.

Okumura Masanobu \ 1 6-ku- , mur-a- I ma-sa- , no-bu\ or Genpachi

\gen-'pa-che\ orig. Okumura Shinmyo (b. 1686, Edo, Japan—d. 1764/68, Edo) Japanese painter and publisher of illustrated books. His style is noted for its vividness and graceful, restrained lines. He was one of the first Japanese artists to adopt Western perspective, to which he was intro¬ duced by Chinese prints. He produced large-scale prints depicting scenes such as the insides of theatres and stores. Such prints were called uki-e (“looming picture”) for their foreshortened perspective. He is also said to have founded the format of habahiro hashira-e, or wide, vertical prints.

Okuninushi Yo-ku-ne-'nu-she_Central hero in the mythology of the Izumo branch of Shinto in Japan. Okuninushi built the world with the help of the dwarf deity Sukunahikona, and he ruled Izumo until the appear¬ ance of the divine grandchild, Ninigi. In modem Japanese folk belief, Okuninushi is a god who heals and who makes marriages happy.

Olaf I Tryggvason Vo-laf-'trieg-vo-sonX (b. c. 964—d. c. 1000) Viking king of Norway (995-c. 1000). The son of a Norwegian chieftain, he joined Viking attacks on England in 991 and 994. He returned to Norway and was accepted as king on the death of Haakon the Great in 995. Olaf imposed Christianity on the Norwegian coast but had little influence in the interior. His missionaries introduced Christianity to the Shetland, Faroe, and Orkney islands and to Iceland and Greenland. He was killed in the Battle of Svolder, which is celebrated in medieval Scandinavian poetry.

Olaf II Haraldsson \ha-ral-son\ or Saint Olaf (b. c. 995—d. July 29, 1030, Stiklestad, Nor.; feast day July 29) King of Norway (1016-28). A Viking warrior, he fought against the English in 1009-11 but assisted Ethel- red 11 against the Danes in 1013. He returned to Norway after his conversion to Christianity and gained control over the country by 1016. Olaf sent mis¬ sionaries throughout his realm, and his religious code (1024) established the Church of Norway. He was driven out of Norway by Canute the Great (1028) and was killed trying to reconquer the country two years later. He became a national hero and the patron saint of Norway.

Okra (Hibiscus esculentus, or Abelmos- chus esculentus).

DEREK FELL

1404 I OlafV ► Old World monkey

Olaf V Norwegian in full Olav Alexander Edward Christian Frederik (b. July 2, 1903, Apple- ton House, near Sandringham, Nor¬ folk, Eng.—d. Jan. 17, 1991, Oslo,

Nor.) King of Norway (1957-91).

Son of King Haakon VII. Olaf became a celebrated sportsman, win¬ ning the gold medal in yachting at the 1928 Olympics. In World War II he lived in exile with his family in England and was named head of the Norwegian armed forces in 1944.

From 1955 he served as regent for his father, whom he succeeded as king in 1957. Like other constitu¬ tional monarchs, Olaf s duties were largely ceremonial.

Olajuwon \3-'la-zhu-,wan.

Hakeem (Abdul) (b. Jan. 21,

1963, Lagos, Nigeria) Nigerian-born U.S. basketball player. He attended the University of Houston and led its team to the NCAA finals in 1983 and 1984. In 1994 the 7-ft (2.13-m) Olajuwan led the Houston Rockets to the NBA championship. Nicknamed “the Dream,” he holds the all-time record for blocked shots (3,830) and finished his career with 26,946 points and 13,748 rebounds.

Olbers's paradox Paradox of why the sky is dark at night. If the universe is endless and uniformly populated with luminous stars, every line of sight must end at the surface of a star and the night sky should be bright with no dark spaces between stars. This paradox is widely attrib¬ uted to Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers (1758-1840), who discussed it in 1823, though Johannes Kepler first advanced the problem in 1610 as an argument against the notion of a limitless universe with infinite stars. The paradox has since been resolved: we can see no farther than the light-travel dis¬ tance within the lifetime of the universe, and light becomes redshifted to invisibility (see redshift).

Olbia Vol-bya \ formerly Terranova Pausania Town (pop., 2001 prelim.: 40,746), northeastern Sardinia, Italy. Originally a Greek colony, it passed to the Romans and was the site of a Roman victory over the Carthaginian general Hanno in 259 bc. It was rebuilt by Pisan colonists in 1198 and named Terranova Pausania. Renamed Olbia in 1939, it is the main passenger port for connections with the Italian mainland. It has Phoenician and Roman ruins.

Old Believers Russian dissenters who refused to accept liturgical reforms imposed on the Russian Orthodox Church by Nikon in 1652-58. Numbering in the millions in the 17th century, the Old Believers endured persecution for years, and several of their leaders were executed. They split into a variety of sects, of which the two main groups were the Pop- ovtsy (priestly sects) and Bezpopovtsy (priestless sects). In 1971 the coun¬ cil of the Russian Orthodox Church rescinded all the anathemas of the 17th century and recognized the full validity of the old rites.

Old Catholic church Any of a group of Western Catholic churches that separated from Rome after the First Vatican Council promulgated the doctrine of papal infallibility (1869-70). Old Catholic churches in the Neth¬ erlands, Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Poland, and elsewhere joined together in 1889 to form the Union of Utrecht. The Old Catholics accept the Bible, the Apostles’ and Nicene creeds, and the seven sacraments. Their chief authority in church government is the conference of bishops. They have long used the vernacular in public worship; confession to a priest is not obligatory, and in some Old Catholic churches the celibacy of the clergy is optional.

Old Church Slavonic language or Old Church Slavic lan¬ guage Oldest attested Siavic language, known from a small corpus of 10th- or 11th-century manuscripts, most written in the Glagolitic alpha¬ bet (see Cyrillic alphabet). The Old Church Slavonic documents, all trans¬ lations from Christian ecclesiastical texts, resulted from the mission to the Moravian Slavs of Saints Cyril and Methodius, though all but one of the surviving manuscripts were actually copied in South Slavic-speaking areas. Beginning in the 11th century, the influence of the vernacular lan¬ guages in cultural focal areas (Serbia, Bulgaria-Macedonia, Ukraine, and Russia) led to regional variations in Church Slavonic. It remained the lit¬

erary language of Eastern Orthodoxy in South Slavic and East Slavic lands into modem times and is still the liturgical language of Slavic Orthodoxy and the Slavic Eastern rite church.

Old English or Anglo-Saxon Language spoken and written in England before ad 1100. It belongs to the Anglo-Frisian group of Ger¬ manic languages. Four dialects are known: Northumbrian (in northern England and southeastern Scotland), Mercian (central England), Kentish (southeastern England), and West Saxon (southern and southwestern England). Mercian and Northumbrian are often called the Anglian dia¬ lects. Most extant Old English writings are in the West Saxon dialect. The great epic poem of Old English is Beowulf ; the first period of extensive literary activity occurred in the 9th century. Old English had three gen¬ ders (masculine, feminine, neuter) for nouns and adjectives; nouns, pro¬ nouns, and adjectives were also inflected for case. Old English had a greater proportion of strong (irregular) verbs than does Modem English, and its vocabulary was more heavily Germanic. See also Middle English; Engush language.

Old English script See black letter script

Old English sheepdog Shaggy working dog developed in early 18th- century England and used primarily to drive sheep and cattle to market. It has a shuffling, bearlike gait and a dense, solid-coloured or white- marked gray or blue-gray coat. It stands 21-26 in. (53-66 cm) tall and weighs over 55 lb (25 kg). Its long, dense, weather-resistant coat covers the eyes but does not obscure vision. The tail is usually removed soon after birth.

Old Farmer's Almanac See Farmer's Almanac Old Ironsides See USS Constitution

Old Norse language Classical Germanic language used c. 1150— 1350, the literary language of the Icelandic sagas, skaldic poetry, and Eddas. The terms Old Norse and Old Icelandic are sometimes used inter¬ changeably because Icelandic records of this period are more plentiful and of greater literary value than those in the other Scandinavian languages, but Old Norse also embraces the ancestors of modern Norwegian, Dan¬ ish, Swedish, and Faroese.

Old Point Comfort Historic point and part of the city of Hampton, southeastern Virginia, U.S. It is located at the entrance to Hampton Roads, opposite Norfolk. Named by the colonists of Jamestown in 1607, it has been the site of fortifications, including Fort George and Fort Monroe, since 1609. The latter was a Union base during the American Civil War. It was a popular seaside resort in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Old Testament Sacred scriptures of Judaism and, with the New Testa¬ ment, of Christianity. Written almost entirely in the Hebrew language between 1200 and 100 bc, the Old Testament (also called the Hebrew Bible or Tanakh) is an account of God’s dealings with the Hebrews as his chosen people. In the Hebrew Bible, the first six books tell how the Isra¬ elites became a people and settled in the Promised Land, the following seven books describe the development of Israel’s monarchy and the mes¬ sages of the prophets, and the last 11 books contain poetry, theology, and some additional historical works. Christians divided some of the original Hebrew books into two or more parts, specifically, Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles (two parts each), Ezra-Nehemiah (two separate books), and the Minor Prophets (12 separate books). The content of the Old Testa¬ ment varies according to religious tradition, the Jewish, Roman Catholic, and Protestant canons all differing from each other as to which books they include. See also Apocrypha, Bible.

Old Vic London theatre company. The company’s theatre opened in 1818 as the Royal Coburg; renamed the Royal Victoria in 1833, it became popularly known as the Old Vic. The company, managed by Lilian Baylis, began a regular Shakespeare season in 1914. From the 1930s it was noted for its memorable productions of Shakespeare’s plays and other classics, with actors such as John Gielgud, Laurence Olivier, and Ralph Richardson. The company was dissolved in 1963 and formed the nucleus of the new National Theatre, which performed at the Old Vic theatre until moving to a new building in 1976.

Old World monkey Any of some 100 species of monkeys (the catar- rhine [“downward-nosed”] monkeys) that live in Africa, on the Red Sea coast of Arabia, and in Asia from Afghanistan to Indonesia. Catarrhines generally have a narrow nose, a narrow septum, close-set nostrils directed forward or down, bony ear passages, two premolars in each half of each

Olaf V, 1973

KNUDSENS FOTOSENTER

Oldenbarnevelt ► Oliver I 1405

jaw, a nonprehensile tail (if any), and hard patches of bare skin (ischial callosities) on the buttocks. Zoologists gather all Old World monkeys into a single family, Cercopithecidae. There are two subfamilies: Cercopith- ecinae, or monkeys with cheek pouches (macaques, baboons, vervets, man¬ drills, and others); and Colobinae, or leaf monkeys (langurs, colobus monkeys, proboscis monkeys, and others). See also New World monkey.

Oldenbarnevelt N.ol-don-'bar-no-vohA, Johan van (b. Sept. 14, 1547, Amersfoort, Spanish Netherlands—d. May 13, 1619, The Hague, Neth.) Dutch statesman and a founding father of Dutch independence. A lawyer in the province of Holland, he helped William I negotiate the Union of Utrecht (1579). Appointed “great pensionary” of Holland, he mobilized Dutch resources for the military goals of Maurice of Nassau. As foreign secretary of the Union’s seven provinces, he negotiated a triple alliance with France and England against Spain (1596). He later concluded the Twelve Years’ Truce with Spain (1609), which reaffirmed Holland’s domi¬ nant role in the republic. In 1617 he sided with the moderate Arminians in religious strife against the stricter Calvinists (known as Counter- Remonstrants) and Prince Maurice; he was arrested in 1618, convicted of religious subversion, and beheaded.

Oldenburg Former German state, since 1946 part of Lower Saxony, Germany. It was held by the counts of Oldenburg from c. 1100 until 1667, when it passed to Denmark. In the late 18th century it was ruled by the bishop of Liibeck, who was made duke of Oldenburg by Joseph II, the Holy Roman emperor. It became a grand duchy in the early 19th century and took Prussia’s side in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. It joined the Ger¬ man Empire in 1871. Its last grand duke abdicated in 1918. The 17th- century grand-ducal palace in the city of Oldenburg (pop., 2002 est.: 155,908) is now a state museum of art and culture.

Oldenburg, Claes (Thure) (b. Jan. 28, 1929, Stockholm, Swed.) Swedish-born U.S. Pop art sculptor. The son of a consular official, he spent part of his early life in the U.S. He graduated from Yale University and attended the Art Institute of Chicago before doing freelance illustrations for magazines. He turned to sculpture after moving to New York City in 1956. Like other practitioners of Pop art, he chose banal subjects from consumer culture, but for “soft sculptures” such as Giant Clothespin (1976) and Giant Soft Shuttlecock (1995) he chose subjects with close human associations. His frequent use of soft, yielding vinyl gave the objects human, often sexual overtones.

Oldowan Yal-da-wsnX industry Stone-tool industry of the early Pale¬ olithic (beginning c. 2.5 million years ago) characterized by crudely worked pebble tools. Oldowan tools, made of quartz, quartzite, or basalt, are chipped in two directions to form simple, rough implements for chop¬ ping, scraping, or cutting. The industry is associated with early hominids, such as Homo habius and possibly also Australopithecus robustus, and has been found at Olduvai Gorge (from which its name derives), Lake Tur- kana (see Lake Turkana remains), and the Afar region of Ethiopia. Oldowan tools were made for nearly 1.5 million years before the emergence of the Acheulean industry.

Olduvai Vol-do-.vl, 'ol-do-.waV Gorge Archaeological site on the east¬ ern Serengeti Plain, northern Tanzania. It is a steep-sided ravine about 30 mi (48 km) long and 295 ft (90 m) deep. Deposits exposed in the sides of the gorge cover a time span from c. 2,100,000 to 15,000 years ago and have yielded the remains of more than 50 hominins as well as the most complete sequence of stone tool industries. The site first came to public notice in 1959 when Louis and Mary Leakey (see Leakey family) uncov¬ ered the first specimens of Paranthropus, a hominin related to Australo¬ pithecus. Remains of Homo habius. Homo erectus, and Homo sapiens have since been found. These discoveries have strengthened the argument that the human lineage originated in Africa. See also stone tool industry; Old¬ owan INDUSTRY.

oleander Vo-le-.an-dsrV Any of the ornamental evergreen shrubs of the genus Nerium (dogbane family), which have poisonous milky juice. Numerous varieties of flower colour in the common oleander, or rosebay ( N . oleander), have been introduced from greenhouse culture and are grown outdoors in warmer climates. All parts of the plant are very toxic if eaten, and contact with them may cause skin irritation.

oleaster family Vo-le-.as-torV Family Elaeagnaceae, composed of three genera of hardy shrubs and small trees, found in the Northern Hemi¬ sphere, especially in steppe and coastal regions. The plants’ tiny, distinc¬ tive scales give them a silvery or rust-coloured sheen. Many members of

the family perform nitrogen fixation. The berries of several species are edible. Ornamental shrubs in this family include buffalo berry or silver- berry ( Shepherdia argentea), oleaster or Russian olive {Elaeagnus angus- tifolia), and sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides).

olefin Yo-la-fanV or alkene Any unsaturated hydrocarbon containing one or more pairs of carbon atoms linked by a double bond (see covalent bond, saturation). Olefins may be classified by whether the double bond is in a ring (cyclic) or a chain (acyclic, or aliphatic) or by the number of double bonds (monoolefin, diolefin, etc.). Rare in nature, olefins are obtained by the cracking of petroleum fractions at high temperatures. The simplest ones (ethylene, propylene, butylene, butadiene, and isoprene) are the basis of the petrochemicals industry. They react by adding other chemi¬ cal agents at the double bond to form derivatives or polymers.

Olga, Saint or Saint Helga (b. c. 890—d. 969, Kiev; feast day July 11) Princess of Kiev. The first recorded female ruler in Russia, she served as regent of Kiev (945-964) after the assassination of her husband Igor I (8777-945); she avenged his death by having his murderers scalded to death. Probably baptized (c. 957) at Constantinople, she became the first member of the ruling family of Kiev to adopt Christianity. She was can¬ onized as the first Russian saint of the Orthodox church.

oligarchy Va-li-.gar-ke, 'o-li-.gar-keV Rule by the few, often seen as having self-serving ends. Aristotle used the term pejoratively for unjust rule by bad men, contrasting oligarchy with rule by an aristocracy. Most classic oligarchies have resulted when governing elites were recruited exclusively from a ruling class, which tends to exercise power in its own interest. The term is considered outmoded today because “few” conveys no information about the nature of the ruling group.

Oligocene Va-li-go-,sen\ Epoch Major division of the Tertiary Period, from c. 33.7 to 23.8 million years ago. It follows the Eocene Epoch and precedes the Miocene Epoch. The term (from the Greek for “few recent forms”) refers to the small number of modem animals that originated dur¬ ing this epoch. Oligocene climates appear to have been temperate, and many regions were nearly tropical. Grasslands expanded, and forested regions dwindled. The vertebrates of the northern continents had an essen¬ tially modern aspect that is a result less of the appearance of new forms than of the extinction of archaic vertebrates at the close of the Eocene.

oligopoly \,al-3-'ga-p3-le\ Market situation in which producers are so few that the actions of each of them have an impact on price and on com¬ petitors. Each producer must consider the effect of a price change on the others. A cut in price by one may lead to an equal reduction by the oth¬ ers, with the result that each firm will retain about the same share of the market as before but with a lower profit margin. Competition in oligop¬ olistic industries thus tends to manifest itself in nonprice forms such as advertising and product differentiation. Oligopolies in the U.S. include the steel, aluminum, and automobile industries. See also cartel, monopoly.

oligosaccharide \ 1 a-li-go- , sa-k9- 1 rId\ Any carbohydrate with a few (between 3 and about 6 to 10) units of simple sugars (monosaccharides). A wide variety of oligosaccharides are made by partially breaking down polysaccharides. Most of the few naturally occurring oligosaccharides are found in plants; those in animals tend to be combined in glycoproteins.

olive Subtropical, broad-leaved tree ( Olea europaea) or its edible fruit. The olive was being grown on the island of Crete c. 3500 bc, and Semitic peoples apparently were cultivating it as early as 3000 bc. Its cultivation was important to the ancient Greeks and Romans and spread to all the countries bordering the Mediterranean. Today olives are grown primarily for olive oil, valued both for its distinctive taste and fragrance and for its dietary benefits. Fresh olives must be treated to neutralize their extreme bitterness before they can be eaten. The olive family (Oleaceae) comprises about 900 species in 24 genera of woody plants. Native to forested regions, members of the family grow worldwide except in the Arctic; they are evergreen in tropical and warm temperate climes and deciduous in colder zones. The family includes ash trees, which yield hardwood tim¬ ber, and horticultural favourites such as the lilac, jasmine, privet, and for- sythia. Many members of the family are cultivated for their beautiful and fragrant flowers.

Oliver, King orig. Joseph Oliver (b. May 11, 1885, Abend, La., U.S.— d. April 8, 1938, Savannah, Ga.) U.S. jazz cometist and band¬ leader. Oliver grew up in New Orleans and established himself as the city’s preeminent cometist, coleading a band with trombonist Kid Ory (1886-1973) before moving to Chicago in 1918. In 1922 Oliver hired his

1406 i Olives ► Olympic Games

New Orleans protege Louis Armstrong to join him in Chicago in his Cre¬ ole Jazz Band. Their recordings together, including “Dipper Mouth Blues,” are jazz classics.

Olives, Mount of Limestone ridge, east of Jerusalem. Frequently men¬ tioned in the Bible, it is holy both in Judaism and in Christianity. Politi¬ cally it is part of the municipality of Greater Jerusalem under Israeli administration. Its slopes have been the most sacred burial ground in Judaism for centuries. The peak generally regarded as the Mount of Olives is 2,652 ft (808 m) in elevation. Nearby is the site held by tradition to be the Garden of Gethsemane, which is associated with the betrayal and Cru¬ cifixion of Jesus.

Olivetti & C. SpA \,a-l9-'ve-te\ Historic Italian electronics and tele¬ communications company. Founded in 1908 by Camillo Olivetti (1868— 1943), the firm began by making typewriters. Camillo’s son Adriano studied manufacturing and plant management in the U.S. in the 1920s, and as company president from 1938 made Olivetti into Europe’s prin¬ cipal maker of business machines. The company later produced calcula¬ tors, microcomputers, and copiers. In 1982 its U.S. subsidiary was purchased by Docutel Corp. In the late 1990s Olivetti sold off its money¬ losing computer business and remade itself as a telecommunications com¬ pany with holdings in mobile and fixed-line telephones. It became a subsidiary of Telecom Italia in 1993.

Olivier \3-'li-ve-,a\, Laurence (Kerr), Baron Olivier (of Brigh¬ ton) (b. May 22, 1907, Dorking, Surrey, Eng.—d. July 11, 1989, near London) British actor, director, and producer. He began his professional career in 1926 and joined the Old Vic company in 1937, playing many major Shakespearean roles. With Ralph Richardson he codirected the Old Vic (1944-50), and he acted in some of its greatest productions, includ¬ ing Richard III, Henry IV, and Oedipus Rex. He was knighted in 1947. From 1950 he directed and acted under his own management; his notable productions included Antony and Cleopatra and The Entertainer (1957). He was the founding director of the National Theatre (1962-73), one of whose theatres is now named for him. In 1970 he was created a life peer, the first actor ever to be so honoured. His many films include Wuthering Heights (1939), Rebecca (1940), Hamlet (1948, Academy Award), The Entertainer (1960), and Othello (1965). He was married to the actresses Vivien Leigh and (from 1961) Joan Plowright (b. 1929).

olivine Va-ta-.venX Any member of a group of common magnesium, iron silicate minerals. Olivines occur in many igneous rocks and are a major constituent of the Earth’s upper mantle. They also have been found in some lunar rocks and in many meteorites. Olivine forms yellow to greenish yel¬ low crystals and is sometimes used in making bricks. Transparent green olivine (precious olivine) is called peridot.

Olmec \'al-,mek\ First elaborate pre-Columbian culture of Mesoamer- ica. The Olmec lived in the lowland gulf coast of what is now southern Mexico. Developing a wide trading network, their cultural influence spread north to the Valley of Mexico and south to Central America; later native religions and iconography throughout Mesoamerica have Olmec roots. Their oldest known building site, San Lorenzo, which dates to c. 1150 bc, is remarkable for its colossal stone sculptures of human heads. The dominant motif in Olmec art is the figure of a god that is a hybrid of a jaguar and a human infant. Olmec buildings, monuments, and art style all indicate a complex and nonegalitarian society.

Olmsted, Frederick Law (b. April 26, 1822, Hartford, Conn., U.S.—d. Aug. 28, 1903, Brookline, Mass.) U.S. landscape architect. He traveled throughout the American South in the 1850s and won fame for several books describing its slaveholding culture. During an extended vacation in Europe, he became profoundly impressed with English land¬ scaping, which he described in Walks and Talks of an American Farmer in England (1852). In 1857 he was hired as superintendent of New York City’s newly planned Central Park. With the architect Calvert Vaux (1824- 95), he won a competition to design the park, and he became its chief architect in 1858. The result was a nature-lover’s paradise incorporating lawns, woods, ponds, and meandering paths; it represented one of the first attempts in the U.S. to apply art to the improvement of nature in a public park. Other Olmsted parks include Prospect Park in Brooklyn, New York City; a Niagara Falls, N.Y., park project; an extensive system of parks and parkways in Boston; and the World’s Columbian Exposition (later Jackson Park) in Chicago. As chairman of the first Yosemite commission, he helped secure the area as a permanent public park.

Olmutz Vol-muits\, Punctation of (Nov. 29, 1850) Agreement signed at Olmutz (now Olomouc, Cz.Rep.) between Prussia and Austria. In response to an appeal from the elector of Hesse for help against rebellious subjects, Prussia and Austria sent troops. They threatened to clash, and when Russia sided with Austria, Prussia withdrew. In the Olmutz agree¬ ment, Prussia gave up its plans to create a union of German states with¬ out Austria and accepted Austria’s reconstitution of the German Confederation. Prussia resented the diplomatic reverse and considered itself humiliated.

Olney, Richard (b. Sept. 15, 1835, Oxford, Mass., U.S.—d. April 8, 1917, Boston, Mass.) U.S. statesman. As U.S. attorney general (1893-95) under Pres. Grover Cleveland, he set a precedent by using an injunction to break the Pullman Strike (1894). Appointed U.S. secretary of state in 1895, he was confronted with Venezuela’s request for support in its bor¬ der dispute with Britain over the boundary between Venezuela and Brit¬ ish Guiana. Olney’s aggressive note to Britain, known as the Olney Corollary, demanded that Britain submit the dispute to arbitration and reasserted U.S. sovereignty in the Western Hemisphere in accordance with the Monroe Doctrine. The matter was in fact settled by arbitration two years after Olney’s retirement in 1897.

Olt \'olt\ River River, southern Romania. It rises close to the headwa¬ ters of the Mures River in eastern Transylvania at an elevation of 5,900 ft (1,800 m). It is 308 mi (496 km) long and flows south through the south¬ ern Carpathian Mountains to enter the Danube River opposite Nikopol. There are several resorts and spas along its course through the mountains.

Olympia Ancient sanctuary and site of the Olympic Games, northwest¬ ern Peloponnese, southern Greece. Located 10 mi (16 km) inland from the Ionian Sea, it was on the northern bank of the Alpheus River. A centre of Greek religious worship, it held the primarily athletic contests in honour of Zeus every four years, beginning in 776 bc. In the temple of Zeus, built c. 460 bc, was the statue of Zeus by Phidias, one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Excavations have uncovered many ruins, includ¬ ing temples and the stadium.

Olympia City (pop., 2000: 42,514), capital of Washington state, U.S. It lies at the southern end of Puget Sound, southwest of Tacoma. Originally called Smithfield, it was renamed for the nearby Olympic Mountains and incorporated as a city in 1859. It developed port facilities and a lumber- based economy, supplemented by oyster farming and other industries. Its harbour is the site of a large merchant reserve fleet. Located at the base of the Olympic Peninsula, it is the gateway to Olympic National Park.

Olympic Games Sports festival. In ancient Greece it was a Panhel- lenic festival held every fourth year and made up of contests of sports, music, and literature. Since 1896 the name has been used for a modified

Sites of the Modern Olympic Games

Year

Summer

Winter

Year

Summer

Winter

1896

Athens

1968

Mexico City

Grenoble

1900

Paris

1972

Munich

Sapporo

1904

St. Louis

1976

Montreal

Innsbruck

1908

London

1980

Moscow

Lake Placid

1912

Stockholm

1984

Los Angeles

Sarajevo

1916

1988

Seoul

Calgary

1920

Antwerp

1992

Barcelona

Albertville

1924

Paris

Chamonix

1994

Lillehammer

1928

Amsterdam

St. Moritz

1996

Atlanta

1932

Los Angeles

Lake Placid

1998

Nagano

1936

Berlin

Garmisch-

Partenkirchen

2000

Sydney

1940

2002

Salt Lake City

1944

2004

Athens

1948

London

St. Moritz

2006

Turin

1952

Helsinki

Oslo

2008

Beijing

1956

Melbourne

Cortina

2010

Vancouver

1960

1964

Rome

Tokyo

Squaw Valley Innsbruck

2012

London

The Winter Games were not held until 1924. tGames were not held during World Wars I and II. t After 1992 the Summer ana Winter Games were held on a staggered two-year schedule.

Olympic Mountains ► Oman I 1407

revival of the ancient Games, consisting of international athletic contests held at four-year intervals. The original Games included footraces, the discus and javelin throws, the long jump, boxing, wrestling, the pentath¬ lon, and chariot races. After the subjugation of Greece by Rome, the Games declined; they were finally abolished about ad 400. They were revived in the late 19th century through efforts led in part by Pierre, baron de Coubertin; the first modern Games were held in Athens. The first Win¬ ter Games were held in 1924. The direction of the modem Olympic move¬ ment and the regulation of the Games are vested in the International Olympic Committee, headquartered at Lausanne, Switz. Until the 1970s the Games adhered to a strict code of amateurism, but since that time pro¬ fessional players have also been allowed to participate. Programs for the Summer Games include competition in archery, baseball, basketball, box¬ ing, canoeing, cycling, diving, equestrian sports, fencing, field hockey, foot¬ ball (soccer), gymnastics, handball, judo, the modem pentathlon, rowing,

SAILING, SHOOTING, SOFTBALL, SWIMMING, TABLE TENNIS, TENNIS, TRACK AND FIELD (ath¬ letics), the TRIATHLON, VOLLEYBALL, WATER POLO, WEIGHTLIFTING, and WRESTLING. The program for the Winter Games includes the biathlon, bobsledding, ice HOCKEY, LUGEING, SKELETON SLEDDING, SNOWBOARDING, and numerous ice SKAT¬ ING and skiing events. Events are periodically added and dropped.

Olympic Mountains Segment of the Pacific Coast Ranges, north¬ western Washington, U.S. The mountains extend across the Olympic Pen¬ insula south of the Strait of Juan de Fuca and west of Puget Sound within Olympic National Park. The chief peaks are Mount Olympus, at 7,965 ft (2,428 m), and Mount Constance, at 7,743 ft (2,360 m). There is heavy rainfall, creating rainforests dominated by Douglas fir and Sitka spruce. Some trees are nearly 300 ft (90 m) high and 8 ft (2.5 m) in diameter.

Olympic National Park National park, northwestern Washington, U.S. Established in 1938 to preserve the Olympic Mountains and their for¬ ests and wildlife, it covers 1,442 sq mi (3,735 sq km); it includes a strip of Pacific Northwest shoreline geographically separated from the rest of the park. There are more than 60 glaciers in the park. The western part includes rainforests; the eastern slopes feature lakes; and the ocean shore section contains scenic beaches and three Indian reservations.

Olympus, Mount Mountain peak, northeastern Greece. At 9,570 ft (2,917 m), it is the highest mountain in Greece. It is part of the Olympus range, lying on the border between Macedonia and Thessaly, near the Gulf of Salonika. The summit is snowcapped and often has cloud cover. In ancient Greece, it was regarded as the abode of the gods and the site of the throne of Zeus.

Olympus Mons Large volcano on Mars, the largest known volcano in the solar system. It consists of a central structure that ascends about 13 mi (21 km) above Mars’ s mean radius and is 335 mi (540 km) wide at the base; it is surrounded by an outward-facing cliff rising as much 6 mi (10 km) above the surrounding area. At the summit is a crater 53 mi (85 km) in diameter. For comparison. Earth’s largest volcano, Mauna Loa, is 75 mi (120 km) wide at the base and rises 5.6 mi (9 km) above the ocean floor.

Olynthus \o-'lin-thos\ Ancient Greek city, on the Chalcidice Peninsula, northeastern Greece. From the late 5th century bc it was the head of a strong confederacy of Greek towns known as the Chalcidian League. It was destroyed by Philip II in 348 bc. Excavations have revealed the grid plan of the ancient town and provided material for studying the relation¬ ship between Classical and Hellenistic Greek art.

om \'om\ In Hinduism and other Indian religions, a sacred syllable con¬ sidered the greatest of all mantras. The syllable om is composed of the three sounds a-u-m (in the Sanskrit language, the vowels a and u join to become o ), which represent three important triads: earth, atmosphere, and heaven; the major Hindu gods, Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva; and the sacred Vedic scriptures, Rig, Yajur, and Sama (see Vedic religion). Thus om mys¬ tically embodies the essence of the universe. It is uttered at the beginning and end of Hindu prayers, chants, and meditation and is also freely used in Buddhist and Jain rituals.

Omagh Vo-ma\ District (pop., 2001: 47,735) and town (pop., 1991: 18,000), Northern Ireland. Formerly in County Tyrone, the district was established in 1973. The area was ruled by the ancient O’Neill family (5th-16th centuries), passing to English rule after the flight of Hugh O’Neill in 1607. It was the site of sectarian violence in 1998, when a car bomb killed 29 people. Most of the land is grazed by dairy cattle or sheep, and the rivers contain salmon and trout. Omagh town, the district seat, is a market and light-manufacturing centre.

Omaha Vo-ms-.ho, , o-mo- 1 ha\ City (pop., 2000: 390,007), eastern Nebraska, U.S., on the Missouri River, north of its junction with the Platte River. The city’s name, meaning “upstream people,” referred to the Omaha Indians. Omaha was founded in 1854 and incorporated as a city in 1857. In 1863 it became the starting point for the Union Pacific Rail¬ road Co.’s first transcontinental railroad and soon grew into a centre of trade and industry. The largest city in the state, it is a major livestock and grain market, as well as a railroad, meat-packing, and insurance centre. It is home to the University of Nebraska and the Joslyn Art Museum.

O'Mahony, John (b. 1816, near Mitchelstown, County Cork, Ire.—d. Feb. 6, 1877, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Irish-American founder of the U.S. branch of the Fenian Brotherhood (see Fenian movement), an Irish secret revolutionary society. An Irish resistance leader, he fled to New York in 1853, where he founded and led (1858-66) the Fenians. By 1865 the American Fenian group had become large and prosperous and was send¬ ing money and arms to Ireland. O’Mahony reluctantly backed the Irish Fenians’ decision to stage military raids in Canada against the British, part of a scheme to hold Canada hostage for the cause of Irish freedom. The raids failed and he resigned, but he was later called out of retirement (1872-77). See also John O'Neill.

Oman \o-'man\ officially Sultanate of Oman formerly Muscat and Oman Country, Middle East, southwestern Asia. It is on the south¬ east coast of the Arabian Peninsula. Area: 119,500 sq mi (309,500 sq km).

QATAR

® Doha

Abu Dhabi^

Tropic of Cancer

UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

Khasab MUSANDAM jr V PENINSULA!—

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