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as equals of men.

Meredith, James (Howard) (b. June 25, 1933, Kosciusko, Miss., U.S.) U.S. civil rights leader. He grew up in poverty in Mississippi, the most racially segregated state in the U.S. In 1961 he applied for admis¬ sion to the all-white University of Mississippi. He won a legal battle to be admitted, but federal troops and Justice Department officials had to be brought in to enforce the court order. While participating in a voter- registration drive after his graduation from “Ole Miss,” he was shot and wounded by a white supremacist.

merengue \mo-'req-ga\ Couple dance from the Dominican Republic or Haiti, danced throughout Latin America. Originally a folk dance, it has become a ballroom dance, where it is danced with a limping step, the weight always on the same foot. Varieties include the jaleo and juango- mero. Dominican merengue music became widely popular in the late 20th century.

mereology \,mir-e-'a-l3-je\ Branch of logic, founded by Stanislaw Lesniewski, that studies class expressions and the relations between parts and wholes. It rejects the hierarchy of sets generated in set theory through the member-of relation and instead proposes a part-whole relationship. It

has attracted philosophers of logic and mathematics who are nominalists (see universal), those who suspect set theory of being inherently Platonis- tic, and those who are otherwise suspicious of the complex entities pro¬ posed by, and the complicated assumptions needed for, set theory.

merganser or fish duck Any species of the diving duck genus Mer- gus. Essentially freshwater birds, they are classified as a sea duck (tribe Mergini). Mergansers have a long body and a narrow, serrated, hooked bill for catching fish. The males of all but the common merganser, or goosander (M. merganser), are crested. The common merganser, the hooded merganser (M cucullatus), the red-breasted merganser (M. ser- rator ), and the smew (M. albellus), a small, compact merganser with a short bill, live in northern regions; the only southern species is the Bra¬ zilian merganser (M. octosetaceus ). Mergansers are called trash ducks because their flesh is rank. See also shelduck.

Mergenthaler Vmor-gon-.tha-brV Ottmar (b. May 11, 1854, Hach- tel, Wtirttemberg—d. Oct. 28, 1899, Baltimore, Md., U.S.) German-U.S. inventor. He immigrated to the U.S. in 1872. While working in a Balti¬ more machine shop he began experimenting with type molds, and in 1884 he patented the Linotype typesetting machine. The reduced costs achieved by thus speeding up the typesetting process led to a dramatic expansion of all kinds of publishing.

merger Combination of two or more independent business corporations into a single enterprise, usually involving the absorption of one or more firms by a dominant firm. The dominant firm may purchase the other firm’s assets with cash or securities, purchase the other firm’s stock, or issue its own stock to the other firm’s stockholders in exchange for their shares in the acquired firm (thus acquiring the other company’s assets and liabilities). In horizontal mergers, both firms produce the same commod¬ ity or service for the same market. In vertical mergers, a firm acquires either a supplier or a customer. If the merged business is not related to that of the acquiring firm, the new corporation is called a conglomerate. The reasons for mergers are various: the acquiring firm may seek to eliminate a competitor, to increase its efficiency, to diversify its products, services, and markets, or to reduce its taxes.

Mergui Archipelago \m3r-'gwe\ Group of more than 200 islands in the Andaman Sea off the coast of southeastern Myanmar. The largest island is Mali Kyun (Tavoy Island) at its northern end. Other major islands in the group include Kadan (King), Thayawthadangyi (Elphinstone), Daung (Ross), Saganthit (Sellore), Bentinck, Letsok-aw (Domel), Kan- maw (Kisseraing), Lanbi (Sullivan’s), and Zadetkyi (St. Matthew’s). Mountainous and jungle-covered, the islands are inhabited chiefly by the Selungs.

Merida City (pop., 2000: 660,884), capital of YucatAn state, southeast¬ ern Mexico. It lies near the northwestern tip of the Yucatan Peninsula, south of Progreso; its port is on the Gulf of Mexico. It was founded in 1542 on the site of the ancient Maya city of T’ho. It has numerous colo¬ nial buildings and a 16th-century cathedral. Yucatan University and the Regional Technical Institute of Merida are located there. It serves as a tourist base for trips to nearby Maya cities, including Chichen ItzA, Dzi- bilchaltun, Uxmal, and Kabah.

Merida Vma-re-tha\ ancient Emerita Augusta Town (pop., 2001: 50,271), capital of the autonomous community of Extremadura, western Spain. Situated on the northern bank of the Guadiana River, it was founded by the Romans in 25 bc. It served as the capital of the province of Lusitania and became one of the most important towns in Iberia. Occu¬ pied in ad 713 by the Moors, it was recaptured in 1228 by Alfonso IX of Leon, who granted it to the Knights of Santiago. It is known for its Roman ruins, including a bridge, an amphitheatre, and an aqueduct. The modern town’s economy is based on agricultural trade and tourism.

Merimee \ma-re-'ma. Prosper (b. Sept. 28, 1803, Paris, France—d. Sept. 23, 1870, Cannes) French short-story writer and dramatist. In youth a student of languages and literatures, he wrote his first play, Cromwell (1922), at age 19. His passions were mysticism, history, and the unusual. His stories, often mysteries, were inspired mainly by Spanish and Rus¬ sian sources, notably Aleksandr Pushkin; they include Mateo Falcone (1829), the collection Mosaique (1833), and the novellas Colombo (1840) and Carmen (1845), the basis of Georges Bizet’s opera. He also wrote works of history and archaeology, historical fiction, and literary criticism and carried on correspondences that were published posthumously. He became a senator in 1853.

1240 I Merino ► Merrill

Merino Breed of medium-sized sheep originating in Spain that has become prominent worldwide. It has a white face, white legs, and crimped fine-wool fleece. Known as early as the 12th century, it may have been a Moorish importation. Well adapted to semiarid climates and to nomadic pasturing, it has served as foundation stock for many sheep breeds and strains.

meristem Vmer-o-.stemN In plants, region of cells capable of division and growth. Meristems are classified by location as apical, or primary (at root and shoot tips), lateral, or sec¬ ondary (in the vascular cambium and cork cambium), or intercalary (at internodes, stem regions between the places at which leaves attach, and at leaf bases, especially in certain monocots, e.g., grasses). Apical mer¬ istems give rise to the primary plant body. Lateral meristems provide increase in stem girth. Injured tissues can convert other cells to new mer¬ istem for wound healing.

Merkabah or Merkava

\,mer-ka-'va\ Throne or chariot of God, as described by Ezekiel. It became an object of visionary con¬ templation for Jewish mystics in Pal¬ estine in the 1st century ad; in the 7th—11th century, Merkabah mysti¬ cism was centered in Babylonia.

Merkabah mystics courted ecstatic visions that involved a dangerous ascent through celestial hierarchies to the throne of God. Hostile angels guarded the gates to the seven “heav¬ enly dwellings,” and a successful journey required magical formulas. The Talmud warns that of four men who engaged in Merkabah, only one had a true vision; of the others, one died, one went mad, and one became an apostate.

Merkel, Angela orig. Angela Dorothea Kasner (b. July 17, 1954, Hamburg, W.Ger.) German politician and prime minister (2005- ). Merkel, who grew up in East Germany, earned a doctorate in physics at the University of Leipzig (1978) and later settled in East Berlin, where she worked as a quantum chemist. In 1990, shortly before Germany’s reunification, she joined the Christian Democratic Union (CDU). Elected as a Bundestag deputy later that year, she became the protege of German Chancellor Helmut Kohl, who appointed her to several ministerial posi¬ tions. In 1999 a finance scandal hit the CDU, and Merkel drew attention for her criticism of Kohl. The following year she was elected CDU leader. In 2005 the CDU and its sister party, the Christian Social Union, won the general election but failed to capture a majority. A deal was reached that gave Merkel the chancellorship in a coalition government. She was sworn in on Nov. 22, 2005, becoming the first woman to hold the office.

Merleau-Ponty \mer-lo-p6 n -'te\, Maurice (b. March 14, 1908, Rochefort, France—d. May 4, 1961, Paris) French philosopher. With Jean- Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir he founded the journal Les Temps Modernes in 1945. From 1949 he taught at the Sorbonne. He was the leading exponent of phenomenology in France. Though greatly influenced by Edmund Husserl, he rejected Husserl’s theory of our knowledge of other persons, grounding his own view instead in bodily behaviour and per¬ ception. He defended Soviet communism until the Korean War, when he became disillusioned.

Merlin Magician and wise man in Arthurian legend. In Geoffrey of Mon¬ mouth’s History of the Kings of England, Merlin was an adviser to King Arthur, with magical powers that recalled his Celtic origins. Later narra¬ tives made him a prophet of the grail and gave him credit for the idea of the Round Table. In Sir Thomas Malory’s Morte Darthur he brought Arthur to the throne and served as his mentor throughout his reign. His down¬ fall was linked to his infatuation for an enchantress, who imprisoned him after learning the magic arts from him.

merlin or pigeon hawk Small blue-gray falcon ( Falco columbarius, family Falconidae), with a narrowly white-banded tail, found at high lati¬ tudes in Canada, the western U.S. south to Colorado, the British Isles, Scandinavia, and Iceland. Most migrate to just south of the breeding

range, but some go as far as northern South America. The merlin inhabits wet, open country or conifer and birch woods. It usually lays its eggs on the ground in bushes, but may occupy an old rook or magpie nest in a tree. An aggressive hunter, it was once much used in falconry.

Merman, Ethel orig. Ethel Agnes Zimmerman (b. Jan. 16,

1909, Astoria, N.Y., U.S.—d. Feb.

15, 1984, New York, N.Y.) U.S. singer and actress. Merman, who had never taken voice lessons, worked as a secretary before her first profes¬ sional singing engagement in 1929. She made her stage debut in George and Ira Gershwin’s Girl Crazy (1930) (see George Gershwin; Ira Gersh¬ win). Her brassy, ebullient style and powerful voice made her a favoured performer for Irving Berlin, Cole Porter, and others. In the mid-1930s Mer¬ man made her first Hollywood appearance, and she later starred on her own radio show. Her many Broadway successes include Anything Goes (1934), Red, Hot and Blue (1936), Annie Get Your Gun (1946), Call Me Madam (1950), and Gypsy (1959).

Meroe \'mer-o-,we\ City, ancient Kush, northeastern Africa. Situated on the eastern bank of the Nile River, north of modem Kabushiyyah, Sudan, it was the southern administrative centre for the kingdom of Kush, begin¬ ning c. 750 bc. After the sack of Napata (c. 590), it became the capital of the kingdom. It included the region between the Nile and Atbara rivers, where the Meroitic language developed. It survived a Roman invasion but fell to Aksumite armies in the 4th century ad. The ruins of its temples and palaces still exist near Kabushiyyah.

Merovingian X.mer-o-'vin-jonX art Visual arts produced under the Merovingian dynasty of the 5th-8th centuries ad. They consisted mainly of small-scale metalwork, little of which has survived, and several impor¬ tant manuscripts. The style blends Roman Classical style with native Germanic-Frankish traditions, which favoured abstraction and geometric patterning. The human figure was rarely attempted; artists were concerned primarily with surface design. Though modest, Merovingian art was influ¬ ential long after the end of the dynasty.

Merovingian dynasty (476-750) Frankish dynasty considered the first French royal house. It was named for Merovech (fl. c. 450), whose son Childeric I (d. 482?) ruled a tribe of Salian Franks from his capital at Tournai. His son, Clovis I, united nearly all of Gaul in the late 5th cen¬ tury except Burgundy and present-day Provence. On his death the realm was divided among his sons, but by 558 it was united under his last sur¬ viving son, Chlotar I. The pattern of dividing and then reuniting the realm continued for generations. After the reign of Dagobert I (623-639), the authority of the Merovingian kings declined, and real power gradually came to rest in the hands of the mayors of the palace. In 751 the last Merovingian king, Childeric III, was deposed by Pippin III. the first of the Carolingian dynasty. See also Brunhild; Childebert II; Chilperic I; Fredegund; SlGEBERT I.

Merrick, David orig. David Margulois (b. Nov. 27, 1912, St. Louis, Mo., U.S.—d. April 25, 2000, London, Eng.) U.S. theatrical pro¬ ducer. He practiced law until 1949, when he became a producer in New York City. His first independent production, Clutterbuck (1949), was fol¬ lowed over the next 40 years by more than 85 other Broadway shows, including Look Back in Anger (1957), The Entertainer (1958), Gypsy (1959), Oliver! (1963), Hello, Dolly! (1964), and 42nd Street (1980). Many of his productions were critical and commercial successes, and he was known for his skillful use of publicity.

Merrick, Joseph See Elephant Man

Merrill, Charles E(dward) (b. Oct. 19, 1885, Green Cove Springs, Fla., U.S.—d. Oct. 6, 1956, Southampton, N.Y.) U.S. investment banker. He held a series of jobs before joining a Wall Street firm in 1911. In 1914 he cofounded the investment-banking firm Merrill, Lynch & Co., which soon became the broker for some of the largest chain-store securities, including S.S. Kresge Co. and J.C. Penney Co. He helped create Safeway Stores in 1926 and founded Family Circle magazine six years later. Fore¬ seeing the crash of 1929, he advised many of his clients to lighten their stock holdings. In the 1930s the firm focused on underwriting and invest-

Merlin (Falco columbarius ).

ERIC HOSKING

Merrill ► Mesmer I 1241

ment banking, but in 1940 it returned to brokerage. The company (now Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner & Smith), which had 115 offices in the U.S. at the time of Merrill’s death, is today among the largest retail brokerage houses in the U.S. He was the father of poet James Merrill.

Merrill, James (Ingram) (b. March 3, 1926, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Feb. 6, 1995, Tucson, Ariz.) U.S. poet. Son of a founder of the investment firm Merrill Lynch, he attended Amherst College. Inherited wealth enabled him to devote his life to poetry. His lyric and epic poems are known for their fine craftsmanship, erudition, and wit. Many of his later works were stimulated by sessions with a Ouija board. His collec¬ tions include Nights and Days (1966), the trilogy of Divine Comedies (1976, Pulitzer Prize), Mirabell: Books of Number (1978), and Scripts for the Pageant (1980), published together in The Changing Light at San- dover (1982). A Different Person, his memoir, was published in 1993. His last book of poetry, A Scattering of Salts, was published posthumously in

Merrimack River River, northeastern U.S. Rising in the White Moun¬ tains of central New Hampshire, it flows south into Massachusetts, then turns northeast and empties into the Atlantic Ocean after a total course of 110 mi (177 km). The main cities along the river include Concord, Manchester, and Nashua, N.H., and Lowell, Lawrence, and Haverhill, Mass.; they used the river to power their textile mills in the 19th century.

Mersey, River River, northwestern England. It flows west through the southern suburbs of AAanchester and is joined by the Irwell in its canalized form as the Manchester Ship Canal. The Mersey is itself modified by the canal as far as Warrington, where it becomes tidal. At Runcorn it is joined by the Weaver, and it forms the Mersey Estuary, the harbour of Liverpool. It enters the Irish Sea after a course of 70 mi (110 km).

Mersey Vmor-zeX River River, northern Tasmania, Australia. Fed by the Dasher and Fisher rivers, the Mersey flows 91 mi (146 km) north, east, and again north to enter an estuary at Latrobe and then empty into Bass Strait at Devonport. The stream cuts a gorge up to 2,000 ft (600 m) deep; its water is harnessed there for hydroelectric power.

Merseyside Vmor-ze-.sIdX Metropolitan county (pop., 2001:

I, 362,034), northwestern England. Located on the estuary of the River Mersey, it comprises five metropolitan boroughs: Knowsley, St. Helens, Sefton, Wirral, and the city of Liverpool. The areas to the north of the Mer¬ sey, including Liverpool, form part of the historic county of Lancashire, while the borough of Wirral to the south belongs to the historic county of Cheshire. In 1986 it lost its administrative functions, which it held from 1974, and it is now a geographic and ceremonial county without admin¬ istrative authority. During the 17th century many ships sailing from Liv¬ erpool, its main harbour, were engaged in the West Indies slave trade. In the 19th century the area benefited from U.S. cotton imports. Merseyside residents possess a distinctive local dialect, “scouse,” that provides the region with a strong identity. It was bombed heavily during World War

II. It is famous for its contributions to national popular culture, from the Beatles to its football teams and its noted golf links.

Merton, Robert K(ing) orig. Meyer R. Schkolnick (b. July 4, 1910, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—d. Feb. 23, 2003, New York, N.Y.) U.S. sociologist. After receiving a Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1936, Merton taught there and at Tulane University before moving to Colum¬ bia University, where he was a professor from 1941 to 1979. His diverse interests included deviant behaviour, the sociology of science, and mass communications, and he generally advanced a functionalist approach to the study of society. He was awarded a National Medal of Science in 1994. Among his writings are Mass Persuasion (1946), Social Theory and Social Structure (1949), On the Shoulders of Giants (1965), and The Sociology of Science (1973). See also bureaucracy; functionalism.

Merton, Thomas later Father M. Louis (b. Jan. 31, 1915, Prades, France—d. Dec. 10, 1968, Bangkok, Thai.) U.S. monk and Roman Catho¬ lic writer. Educated in England, France, and the U.S., Merton taught English at Columbia University before entering a Trappist order in Ken¬ tucky. In 1949 he was ordained a priest. His early works, on spiritual themes, include poetry collections; the autobiographical Seven Storey Mountain (1948), which brought him international fame and led many readers to the monastic life; and The Waters of Siloe (1949), a history of the Trappists. In the 1960s his writings tended toward social criticism, Eastern philosophy, and mysticism. He was accidentally electrocuted at a monastic convention in Thailand.

Merv Ancient city, Central Asia. Lying near the modem town of Mary (formerly Merv) in Turkmenistan, it is mentioned in ancient Persian texts as Mouru and in cuneiform inscriptions as Margu and was the seat of a satrapy (province) of the Persian Achaemenian dynasty. Under the Arabs in the 7th century ad, it was rebuilt and served as a base for Muslim expansion into Central Asia. A great centre of Islamic learning under the caliphs of the 'Abbasid dynasty, it reached its zenith under the Seuuq sul¬ tan Sanjar (r. 1118-57). It was destroyed by the Mongols in 1221 and was rebuilt in the 15th century. It was occupied by the Russian Empire in 1884.

Merwin, W(illiam) S(tanley) (b. Sept. 30, 1927, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. poet and translator. He attended Princeton University and earned critical acclaim with his first poetry collection, A Mask for Janus (1952). He became known for the spare style of his poetry, which often expresses concerns about the natural environment and our relation to it. His volumes include The Lice (1967), The Carrier of Ladders (1970, Pulitzer Prize), and Travels (1993). His translations, often collaborations with others, range from plays of Euripides and Federico Garcia Lorca to epics to ancient and modern works from Chinese, Sanskrit, and Japanese.

Mesa Vma-S3\ City (pop., 2000: 396,375), south-central Arizona, U.S., located near Phoenix. It was settled in 1878 by Mormons who used ancient Hohokam Indian canals for irrigation (see Hohokam culture); it was incor¬ porated as a town in 1883 and as a city in 1930. A Salt River reclamation project enabled the community to grow fruit and raise other crops. The city grew rapidly through industrialization after World War II. It is the site of Mesa Community College and Mesa Southwest Museum.

mesa Vma-soV (Spanish: “table”) Flat-topped tableland with one or more steep sides, common in the Colorado Plateau regions of the U.S.; a butte is similar but smaller. Both are formed by erosion; during denudation, or downcutting and stripping, areas of harder rock in a plateau act as flat protective caps for portions of underlying land situated between such places as stream valleys, where erosion is especially active. This results in a table mountain (mesa) or fortress hill.

Mesa Verde Vma-so-'ver-deV National Park National park, south¬ western Colorado, U.S. It was established in 1906 to preserve prehistoric Indian cliff dwellings. Occupying a high tableland area of 52,085 acres (21,078 hectares), it contains hundreds of pueblo ruins up to 13 centuries old. The most striking are multistoried apartments built under overhang¬ ing cliffs. Cliff Palace, the largest, was excavated in 1909 and contains hundreds of rooms, including kivas, the circular ceremonial chambers of the Pueblo Indians.

mescaline Vmes-ks-linX Hallucinogen, the active principle in the flow¬ ering heads of the peyote cactus. An alkaloid related to epinephrine and nore¬ pinephrine and first isolated in 1896, mescaline is usually extracted from the peyote and purified, but can also be synthesized. When it is taken as a drug, its hallucinogenic effects begin in two to three hours and may last over 12 hours; the hallucinations vary greatly among individuals and from one time to the next, but they are usually visual rather than auditory. Side effects include nausea and vomiting.

Meselson Yme-sol-sonV Matthew Stanley (b. May 24, 1930, Den¬ ver, Colo., U.S.) U.S. molecular biologist. He received his Ph.D. from California Institute of Technology; from 1964 he taught at Harvard Uni¬ versity. He conducted research with Franklin Stahl that showed that, dur¬ ing cell division, DNA splits into its two component strands, each of which acquires a newly synthesized partner strand before passing into one of the daughter cells.

Meshed See Mashhad

Meslamtaea \,mes-lam-'te-3\ In Mesopotamian religion, the god of the city of Cuthah in Akkad. The name of his temple, Emeslam or Meslam (“luxuriant mesu tree”), may indicate that he was originally a tree god. Later he was identified as the ruler of the netherworld and the spouse of its queen, Ereshkigal. He was the son of Enlil, god of the atmosphere, and Ninlil, goddess of grain, and he often appears in hymns as a warrior. He sometimes visited terrible plagues on his people and their herds.

Mesmer Vmez-msrV Franz Anton (b. May 23, 1734, Iznang, Swabia—d. March 5, 1815, Meersburg) German physician. After study¬ ing medicine at the University of Vienna, he developed his theory of “ani¬ mal magnetism,” which held that an invisible fluid in the body acted according to the laws of magnetism and that disease was caused by obstacles to the free circulation of this fluid. In Mesmer’s view, harmony

1242 I Mesoamerican civilization ► Messerschmltt 109

could be restored by inducing “crises” (trance states often ending in delirium or convulsions). In the 1770s he carried out dramatic demon¬ strations of his ability to “mesmerize” his patients using magnetized objects. Accused by Viennese physicians of fraud, he left Austria and settled in Paris (1778), where he also came under fire from the medical establishment. Though his theories were eventually discredited, his abil¬ ity to induce trance states in his patients made him the forerunner of the modern use of hypnosis.

Mesoamerican civilization Complex of aboriginal cultures that developed in parts of Mexico and Central America before the Spanish conquest in the 16th century. This civilization and the Andean civilization in South America constituted a New World counterpart to those of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China. Humans have been present in Mesoamerica from as early as 21,000 bc; a shift from hunting and gath¬ ering to agriculture, which began c. 7000 bc as the climate warmed with the end of the Ice Age, was completed by c. 1500 bc. The earliest great Mesoamerican civilization, the Olmec, dates to c. 1150 bc. The Middle Formative period (900-300 bc) was a time of increased cultural region¬ alism and the rise of the Zapotec people. Civilizations of the Late Forma¬ tive and Classic periods (lasting until c. ad 900) include the Maya and the civilization centred at Teotihuacan; later societies include the Toltec and the Aztec. See also Chichen Itza; Mixtec; Monte Alban; Nahua; Nahuatl language; Tenochtitlan; Tikal.

Mesoamerican religions Religions of the pre-Columbian cultures of Mexico and Central America, notably the Olmec, Maya, Toltec, and Aztec. All religions of Mesoamerica were polytheistic. The gods had to be constantly propitiated with offerings and sacrifices. The religions also shared a belief in a multilevel universe that had gone through five cre¬ ations and four destructions by the time of the Spanish conquest. Mesoamerican religions heavily emphasized the astral bodies, particularly the sun, the moon, and Venus, and the observations of their movements by astronomer-priests were extraordinarily detailed and accurate. The Aztecs approached the supernatural through a complex calendar of cer¬ emonies that included songs, dances, acts of self-mortification, and human sacrifices performed by a professional priesthood, in the belief that the welfare of the universe depended on offerings of blood and hearts as nourishment for the sun. The Mayan religion likewise called for human sacrifices, though on a smaller scale. Information on the astronomical cal¬ culations, divination, and ritual of the Mayan priests has been gathered from the Maya Codices. See also Mesoamerican civilization.

Mesolithic \,me-z3-'li-thik\ Period or Middle Stone Age Ancient technological and cultural stage (c. 8000-2700 bc) between the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods in northwestern Europe. Mesolithic hunters, using a tool kit of chipped and polished stone together with bone, antler, and wooden tools, achieved a greater efficiency than their predecessors and were able to exploit a wider range of animal and vegetable food sources. Immigrant Neolithic farmers probably absorbed many indigenous Mesolithic hunters and fishers. There is no direct counterpart to the Mesolithic outside Europe, and the term is no longer used to reflect a hypothetical worldwide sequence of sociocultural evolution.

meson \'me-,zan\ Any member of a family of subatomic particles com¬ posed of a quark and an antiquark (see antimatter). Mesons are sensitive to the strong force, have integral spin, and vary widely in mass. Though unstable, many mesons last a few billionths of a second, long enough to be observed with particle detectors. They are readily produced in the col¬ lisions of high-energy subatomic particles (e.g., in cosmic rays).

Mesopotamia Region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in the Middle East, constituting the greater part of modern Iraq. The region’s location and fertility gave rise to settlements from c. 10,000 bc, and it became the cradle of some of the world’s earliest civilizations and the birthplace of writing. It was first settled by the Sumerians, who were suc¬ ceeded by the Akkadians and later by the Babylonians. Successive peoples came to dominate the region until the rise of the Persian Achaemenian dynasty in the 6th century bc. The Achaemenids were overthrown by Alexander the Great in the early 4th century bc, and Mesopotamia was ruled by the Seleucid dynasty from c. 312 bc until the mid-2nd century bc, when it became part of the Parthian empire. In the 7th century ad the region was conquered by Muslim Arabs. The region’s importance declined after the Mongol invasion in 1258. Rule by the Ottoman Empire over most of the region began in the 16th century. The area became a British mandate in 1920; the following year Iraq was established there.

Mesopotamian religions V.me-so-po-'ta-me-onV Religious beliefs and practices of the Sumerians and Akkadians, and later of their succes¬ sors, the Babylonians and Assyrians, who inhabited ancient Mesopotamia. The deities of Sumer were usually associated with aspects of nature, such as fertility of the fields and livestock. The gods of Assyria and Babylonia, rather than displacing those of Sumer and Akkad, were gradually assimi¬ lated into the older system. Among the most important of the many Meso¬ potamian gods were Anu, the god of heaven; Enki, the god of water; and Enlil, the earth god. Deities were often associated with particular cities. Astral deities such as Shamash and Sin were also worshiped. The Meso¬ potamians were skilled astrologers who studied the movements of the heavenly bodies. Priests also determined the will of the gods through the observation of omens, especially by reading the entrails of sacrificed ani¬ mals. The king functioned as the chief priest, presiding at the new-year festival held in spring, when the kingship was renewed and the triumph of the deity over the powers of chaos was celebrated.

Mesozoic N.me-zo-'zo-ikV Era Second of the Earth’s three major geo¬ logic eras and the interval during which the continental landmasses as known today were separated from the supercontinents Laurasia and Gond- wana by continental drift. It lasted from c. 248 to c. 65 million years ago and includes the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods. The Mesozoic saw the evolution of widely diversified and advanced flora and fauna, quite different from those that had developed earlier during the Paleozoic Era or that would develop later during the Cenozoic Era.

mesquite \m3-'sket\ Any of the spiny, deep-rooted shrubs or small trees that make up the genus Prosopis of the pea family (see legume). Mesquites form extensive thickets in areas from South America to the southwestern U.S. Two races occur: one of tall trees (50 ft [15 m]), the other low and far-reaching, called running mesquite. Water-seeking roots grow as deep as 70 ft (20 m). Stems bear compound olive-green to white hairy leaves, then dense, cream-coloured catkins of flowers, followed by clusters of long, narrow, pale yellow beans. In warmer parts of the U.S., mesquites are considered pests and are eradicated. Cattle eat the beans, which con¬ tain a sweet pulp. The wood, formerly used in railroad ties, now has value only for unusual furniture and trinkets and as aromatic firewood.

Mesrob Vmes-'ropV Saint or Saint Mesrop Mashtots \mash-'tots\ (b. c. 360, Hatsik, Armenia—d. Feb. 17, 440; Armenian feast day, Feb¬ ruary 19) Armenian theologian and linguist. A scholar of classical lan¬ guages, he became a monk c. 395 and eventually founded several monasteries, spreading the Gospel in remote areas of Armenia. He sys¬ tematized or invented the Armenian alphabet and sponsored the first trans¬ lation of the Bible into Armenian (c. 410). He also wrote biblical commentaries and translated other theological works, and he helped estab¬ lish Armenia’s golden age of Christian literature. See also Armenian lan¬ guage.

Messene \me-'sa-na, mo-'se-ne\ Ancient city, southwestern Peloponnese, Greece. It is located north of the modem city of the same name. Founded c. 369 bc as the site of the new capital of Messenia, Messene formed a strategic bander against Sparta, along with Megalopolis, Mantinea, and Argos. It survived several Macedonian and Spartan sieges but fell to Philip II of Macedonia in 338 bc. Nothing is known of its history after the 2nd century bc.

Messenia \m3-'se-ne-3\, Gulf of Gulf of the Ionian Sea, on the coast of the southwestern Peloponnese, Greece. On the west side of the gulf is the port of Koroni, originally settled by Argives after the First Messenian War (c. 735-715 bc) and reoccupied during the Middle Ages by refugees from the north. The French landed at the Gulf of Messenia in 1828 dur¬ ing the War of Greek Independence to drive the Turks from the Peloponnese.

Messerschmitt, Willy (b. June 26, 1898, Frankfurt am Main, Ger¬ man Empire—d. Sept. 17, 1978, Munich, W.Ger.) German aircraft designer. From 1926 he was chief designer and engineer at the Bayerische Flugzeugwerke in Augsburg, Ger., which in 1938 became Messerschmitt AG. In 1939 his first military aircraft, the Messerschmitt 109 (Me 109), set a speed record of 481 mph (775 km/hr). In World War II his factory produced 35,000 Me 109’s for the German air force, as well as the Me 110 bomber, the Me 163 rocket-propelled plane, and the Me 262, the first combat jet. Under a postwar ban on aircraft production, his firm made prefab housing and sewing machines until 1958.

Messerschmitt 109 (Me 109) Fighter aircraft of Nazi Germany. Originally designed in 1934 by Willy Messerschmitt at the Bavarian Air-

Messiaen ► metal fatigue I 1243

plane Co. (BFW), it was also known as the Bf 109. Modified after see¬ ing action in the Spanish Civil War, it became Germany’s premier fighter for much of World War II. The model used in the Battle of Britain was a single-seat, single-engine monoplane with a top speed of 350 mph (570 kph) and a ceiling of 35,000 ft (10,500 m). It was faster in a dive than the British Spitfire but was limited in range by a small fuel capacity. By 1944 improved Allied fighters such as the P-51 had outstripped it.

Messiaen \mes-'ya n \, Olivier (-Eugene-Prosper-Charles) (b.

Dec. 10, 1908, Avignon, France—d.

April 27, 1992, Clichy, near Paris)

French composer. At age 11 he entered the Paris Conservatoire, where he won five first prizes. In 1931 he became principal organist at the church of the Sainte-Trinite, where he would remain for 40 years.

He wrote his Quartet for the End of Time in a German POW camp. After the war, he taught at the Conserva¬ toire (1947-78), where his students included Pierre Boulez, Karlheinz Stockhausen, and Iannis Xenakis. His main source of inspiration was his quasi-mystical devout Catholic faith.

His love of nature is evident in his many works inspired by birdsong.

He also was influenced rhythmically by his study of Indian music, and he systematically explored nontonal harmonic materials. Major works include Vingt regards sur l’enfant Jesus (1944) and Catalogue d’oiseaux (1958) for piano, La Nativite du Seig¬ neur (1935) for organ, the Turangalila-symphonie (1948), Et expecto res- urrectionem mortuorum (1964), and the opera Saint Frangois d’Assise

(1983).

messiah In Judaism, the expected king of the line of David who will deliver the Jews from foreign bondage and restore Israel’s golden age. The term used for the messiah in the Greek New Testament, christos, was applied to Jesus, who is accepted by Christians as the promised redeemer. Messiah figures also appear in various other religions and cultures; Shiite Muslims, for example, look for a restorer of the faith known as the mahdi, and Maitreya is a redeeming figure in Buddhism.

Messier \mas-'ya,\ English \'me-se-,a\ catalog List of about 109 star clusters, NEBULAe, and galaxies compiled by the French astronomer Charles Messier (1730-1817), who discovered many of them. Still a valuable guide to amateur astronomers, it was superseded by the New General Catalogue (NGC); both NGC and M reference numbers remain in com¬ mon use.

Messina ancient Zankle City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 236,621), north¬ eastern Sicily, Italy. Founded by Greeks in the 8th century bc, it was destroyed by Carthaginians in 397 bc. The Romans took the rebuilt city in 264 bc, precipitating the First Punic War. After the war it became a free city allied with Rome. It was taken successively by the Goths, Byzan¬ tines, Arabs, Normans, Spaniards, and finally (in 1860) Italians. Heavily bombed during World War II, it was rebuilt. It is now an important Ital¬ ian port. Sites of interest include the cathedral and the university (founded

1548).

Messina, Antonello da See Antonello da Messina

Messina, Strait of ancient Fretum Siculum Channel between southern Italy and northeastern Sicily. It is 2 to 10 mi (3 to 16 km) wide. The city of Messina lies on its bank in Sicily, opposite Reggio di Calabria. Ferry service across the strait links Messina with the Italian mainland.

Mesta River See Nestos River

mestizo \mes-'te-zo\ Any person of mixed blood. In Spanish America the term denotes a person of combined Indian and European extraction. In some countries, such as Ecuador, it has acquired social and cultural connotations: a pure-blooded Indian who has adopted European dress and customs is called a mestizo (or cholo ). In Mexico the term’s meaning has varied so greatly that it has been abandoned in census reports. In the Phil¬ ippines it denotes a person of mixed foreign (e.g., Chinese) and native ancestry. See also ladino.

metabolism \m3-'ta-b3- l li-z3m\ Sum of all the chemical reactions that take place in every cell of a living organism, providing energy for the processes of life and synthesizing new cellular material. The term inter¬ mediary metabolism refers to the vast web of interconnected chemical reactions by which all the cell’s constituents, many rarely found outside it, are created and destroyed. Anabolic reactions use energy to build com¬ plex molecules from simpler organic compounds (e.g., proteins from amino acids, carbohydrates from sugars, fats from fatty acids and glycerol); cata- bolic reactions break complex molecules down into simpler ones, releas¬ ing chemical energy. For most organisms, the energy comes ultimately from the Sun, whether they obtain it by photosynthesis and store it in organic compounds or by consuming those organisms that do so. In some bacteria in special environments such as deep-sea vents, the energy comes from chemical reactions instead. Energy is transferred within the cell and the organism by ATP; anabolic reactions consume it, and catabolic reac¬ tions generate it. Every cellular chemical reaction is mediated by a spe¬ cific enzyme. The process that breaks down a substance is usually not the reverse of the process that makes it, using a different enzyme. See also digestion; fermentation; glycolysis; tricarboxylic acid cycle.

Metabolist Vms-'ta-bo-listV school Japanese architectural movement of the 1960s. Tange Kenzo launched the movement with his Boston Har¬ bor Project design (1959), which included two gigantic A-frames hung with “shelving” for homes and other buildings. Led by Tange, Isozaki Arata, Kikutake Kiyonori (b. 1928), and Kurokawa Kisho (b. 1934), the Metabolists focused on structures that combined high-tech imagery, Bru- talism, and megastructures (multifunctional complexes that verge on self¬ containment). The Metabolist manifestos put out at the World Design Conference in 1960 paved the way for such later projects as Paolo Sol- eri’s Arcosanti. Their advocacy of such devices as artificial land platforms above cities, which grew out of a desire for economy of land use, revo¬ lutionized architectural thinking.

Metacom Vme-ts-.kamX or Metacomet or King Philip (b. 1638, Massachusetts—d. Aug. 12, 1676, Rhode Island) Wampanoag Indian sachem (head of a confederation of Algonquian tribes). His father, Mas- sasoit, had negotiated peace with the Pilgrims in 1621. Embittered by the subsequent humiliations to which he and his people were continually sub¬ jected by whites, Metacom in June 1675 led a confederation of Wampanoag, Narragansett, Abenaki, Nipmuck, and Mohawk warriors into battle. Known as King Philip’s War, the ensuing conflict was the most brutal Indian war in New England history. After considerable loss of life and property on both sides, the confederation began to disintegrate, and food became scarce. Metacom returned to his ancestral home, where he was betrayed and killed in 1676 by an Indian informant allied with the colonists. He was beheaded and quartered, and his head was displayed on a pole for 25 years at Plymouth.

metal Any of a class of substances with, to some degree, the following properties: good heat and electricity conduction, malleability, ductility, high light reflectivity, and capacity to form positive ions in solution and hydroxides rather than acids when their oxides meet water. About three- quarters of the elements are metals; these are usually fairly hard and strong crystalline (see crystal) solids with high chemical reactivity that readily form alloys with each other. Metallic properties increase from lighter to heavier elements in each vertical group of the periodic table and from right to left in each row. The most abundant metals are aluminum, iron, cal¬ cium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium. The vast majority are found as ores rather than free. The cohesiveness of metals in a crystalline struc¬ ture is attributed to metallic bonding: The atoms are packed close together, with their very mobile outermost electrons all shared throughout the struc¬ ture. Metals fall into the following classifications (not mutually exclusive and most not rigidly defined): alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition elements, noble (precious) metals, platinum metals, lanthanide (rare earth) metals, actinide metals, light metals, and heavy metals. Many have essen¬ tial roles in nutrition or other biochemical functions, often in trace amounts, and many are toxic as both elements and compounds (see mer¬ cury POISONING, LEAD POISONING).

metal fatigue Weakened condition of metal parts of machines, vehicles, or structures caused by repeated stresses or loadings, ultimately resulting in fracture under a stress much weaker than that necessary to cause frac¬ ture in a single application. Fatigue-resistant metals have been developed and their performance improved by surface treatments, and fatigue stresses have been significantly reduced in aircraft and other applications by designing to avoid stress concentrations.

Olivier Messiaen.

1244 I metal point ► metasomatic replacement

metal point or silverpoint Method of drawing with a small sharp¬ ened metal rod—of lead, copper, gold, or most commonly silver—on specially prepared paper or parch¬ ment. Silverpoint produces a fine gray line that oxidizes to a light brown; the technique is best suited for small-scale work. It first appeared in medieval Italy and achieved great popularity in the 15th century. Albrecht Durer and Leonardo da Vinci were its greatest exponents.

It went out of fashion in the 17 th cen¬ tury with the rise of the graphite pen¬ cil but was revived in the 18th century by the miniaturists and in the 20th century by Joseph Stella.

metallography \,me-t 3 l-'a-gr3- fe\ Study of the structure of metals and alloys, particularly using micro¬ scopic and X-ray diffraction tech¬ niques. Visual and optical microscopic observation of metal surfaces and fractures can reveal valuable information about the crys¬ talline, chemical, and mechanical makeup of the material. In electron microscopes a beam of electrons instead of a beam of light is directed onto the specimen. The development of transmission electron microscopes has made it possible to examine internal details of very thin metal foils. X-ray diffraction techniques are used to study phenomena related to the grouping of the atoms themselves. See also materials science, Henry C. Sorby.

metallurgy \'me-t a l- l 9r-je\ Art and science of extracting metals from their ores and modifying the metals for use. Metallurgy usually refers to commercial rather than laboratory methods. It also concerns the chemi¬ cal, physical, and atomic properties and structures of metals and the prin¬ ciples by which metals are combined to form alloys. Metals are extracted from crude ore in two phases, mineral processing (also known as ore dress¬ ing) and process metallurgy. In mineral processing, the ore is broken down to isolate the desired metallic elements from the crude ore. In process metallurgy, the resulting minerals are reduced to metal, alloyed, and made available for use. See also blast furnace; powder metallurgy; smelting.

m eta logic Vme-to-.la-jikX Study of the syntax and the semantics of for¬ mal languages and formal systems. It is related to, but does not include, the formal treatment of natural languages (e.g., English, Russian, etc.). Metalogic has led to a great deal of work of a mathematical nature in axiomatic set theory, model theory, and recursion theory (in which func¬ tions that are computable in a finite number of steps are studied).

metalwork Useful and decorative objects fashioned of various metals. The oldest technique is hammering. After c. 2500 bc, casting was also used, molten metal being poured into a mold and allowed to cool. Vari¬ ous decorative techniques are used. Gold and silver have been worked since ancient times. Gold and silver objects were in such demand in the 12th century that gold- and silversmiths organized guilds. High-quality gold and silver objects were produced in pre-Columbian America. Copper was worked in ancient Egypt and was widely used for household utensils in 17th-18th-century Europe. Both bronze and brass were widely used in ancient Greece. Pewter plates and tankards were made in the Middle Ages and remained popular until they were superseded by cheaper earthenware and porcelain in the 18th century. Wrought iron has been used for deco¬ rative hinges, gates, and railings since the 16th century. Lead has tradi¬ tionally been used for roof coverings.

metamorphic rock Any of a class of rocks that result from the alter¬ ation of preexisting rocks in response to changing geological conditions, including variations in temperature, pressure, and mechanical stress. The preexisting rocks may be igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks. The structure and mineralogy reflect the particular type of meta¬ morphism that produced the rock and the composition of the parent rock. Metamorphic rocks are commonly classified by type of facies, predict¬ able mineral assemblages associated with certain temperature and pres¬ sure conditions (see, e.g., granulite facies).

metamorphism Mineralogic and structural changes in solid rocks caused by physical conditions different from those under which the rocks originally formed. Changes produced by surface conditions such as com¬ paction are usually excluded. The most important agents of metamor¬ phism are temperature (from 300°-2,200°F, or 150°-1200°C), pressure (from 10 to several hundred kilobars, or 150,000 to several million lbs. per sq in.), and stress. Dynamic metamorphism results from mechanical deformation with little long-term temperature change. Contact metamor¬ phism results from increases in temperature with minor differential stress, is highly localized, and may occur relatively quickly. Regional metamor¬ phism results from the general increase, usually correlated, of tempera¬ ture and pressure over a large area and a long period of time, as in mountain-building processes. See also metamorphic rock.

metamorphosis In biology, any striking developmental change of an animal’s form or structure, accompanied by physiological, biochemical, and behavioral changes. The best-known examples occur among insects, which may exhibit complete or incomplete metamorphosis (see nymph). The complete metamorphosis of butterflies, moths, and some other insects involves four stages: egg, larva (caterpillar), pupa (chrysalis or cocoon), and adult. The change from tadpole to frog is an example of metamor¬ phosis among amphibians; some echinoderms, crustaceans, mollusks, and tunicates also undergo metamorphosis.

metaphor Figure of speech in which a word or phrase denoting one kind of object or action is used in place of another to suggest a likeness or analogy between them (as in “the ship plows the seas” or “a volley of oaths”). A metaphor is an implied comparison (as in “a marble brow”), in contrast to the explicit comparison of the simile (“a brow white as marble”). Metaphor is common at all levels of language and is funda¬ mental in poetry, in which its varied functions range from merely noting a likeness to serving as a central concept and controlling image.

Metaphysical painting Italian Pittura Metafisica Style of paint¬ ing that flourished c. 1910-20 in the works of the Italian painters Gior¬ gio de Chirico and Carlo Carra (1881-1966). The movement began with Chirico, whose dreamlike works with sharp contrasts of light and shadow often had a vaguely threatening, mysterious quality. Chirico, his younger brother Alberto Savinio, and Carra formally established the school and its principles in 1917. Their representational but bizarre and incongruous imagery produces disquieting effects and had a strong influence on Sur¬ realism in the 1920s.

Metaphysical poetry Highly intellectualized poetry written chiefly in 17th-century England. Less concerned with expressing feeling than with analyzing it, Metaphysical poetry is marked by bold and ingenious conceits (e.g., metaphors drawing sometimes forced parallels between apparently dissimilar ideas or things), complex and subtle thought, fre¬ quent use of paradox, and a dramatic directness of language, the rhythm of which derives from living speech. John Donne was the leading Meta¬ physical poet; others include George Herbert, Henry Vaughan, Andrew Marvell, and Abraham Cowley.

metaphysics Branch of philosophy that studies the ultimate structure and constitution of reality—i.e., of that which is real, insofar as it is real. The term, which means literally “what comes after physics,” was used to refer to the treatise by Aristotle on what he himself called “first philoso¬ phy.” In the history of Western philosophy, metaphysics has been under¬ stood in various ways: as an inquiry into what basic categories of things there are (e.g., the mental and the physical); as the study of reality, as opposed to appearance; as the study of the world as a whole; and as a theory of first principles. Some basic problems in the history of metaphysics are the problem of universals —i.e., the problem of the nature of universals and their relation to so-called particulars; the existence of God; the mind-body problem; and the problem of the nature of material, or external, objects. Major types of metaphysical theory include Platonism, Aristotelianism, Thomism, Cartesianism (see also dualism), idealism, realism, and materialism.

metasomatic X.me-to-so-'ma-tikV replacement Process of simulta¬ neous solution and deposition in which one mineral replaces another. It is the method by which wood is petrified (silica replaces the wood fibres), minerals form pseudomorphs (new minerals that preserve the character¬ istic outward form of the earlier mineral that was replaced), or an ore mineral assemblage takes the place of an earlier rock type. Replacement minerals may themselves be replaced, and definite mineral successions have been established. Replacement deposits may be highly valuable ore deposits.

"Study of Hands/' silverpoint height¬ ened with white on pink grounded paper by Leonardo da Vinci; in Wind¬ sor Castle/ Berkshire, Eng.

REPRODUCED BY GRACIOUS PERMISSION OF HER MAJESTY QUEEN ELIZABETH II

metastable state ► methanol I 1245

metastable V.me-to-'sta-boU state Excited state (see excitation) of an atom, nucleus, or other system that has a longer lifetime than the ordinary excited states and generally has a shorter lifetime than the ground state. It can be considered a temporary energy trap or a somewhat stable inter¬ mediate stage of a system of which the energy may be lost in discrete amounts. The many photochemical reactions of mercury are a result of the metastable state of mercury atoms, and radiation from metastable oxygen atoms accounts for the characteristic green colour of the aurora borealis and aurora australis.

Metastasio X.ma-ta-'staz-yoV Pietro orig. Antonio Domenico Bonaventura Trapassi (b. Jan. 3, 1698, Rome—d. April 12, 1782, Vienna) Italian poet and opera librettist. His name was changed by his adoptive father, who left the youth enough money to embark on a career as a poet. His first libretto, Didone abbandonata (1724), was so success¬ ful that he was soon known throughout Italy. Important librettos such as Enzio (1728) and Semiramide (1729) soon followed. He was invited to Vienna as court poet by Charles VI. His 27 three-act librettos were set in more than 800 operas in the 18th and early 19th century by composers such as Antonio Vivaldi, George Handel, Christoph Gluck, Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and Luigi Cherubini.

Metaxas \,met-ak-'sas\ / loannis (b. April 12, 1871, Ithaca, Greece—d. Jan. 29, 1941, Athens) Greek general and premier (1936-41). He rose in the Greek army to become chief of staff (1913-17). An ardent monarchist, he left Greece when King Constantine I was deposed in 1917, but he returned in 1920. After the monarchy’s fall in 1923, he led an opposition ultraroyalist party until the monarchy was restored in 1935. He was appointed premier in 1936 and, with royal authority, established a dictatorship. He suppressed political opposition, carried out some ben¬ eficial economic and social reforms, and brought a united country into the Western alliance in World War II.

Metchnikoff \ , mech-ni- 1 kof\, Elie orig. Ilya llich Mechnikov (b.

May 16, 1845, near Kharkov,

Ukraine, Russian Empire—d. July 16, 1916, Paiis, France) Russian zoologist and microbiologist. In 1888 Louis Pasteur offered him a post at the Pasteur Institute, and he suc¬ ceeded Pasteur as director in 1895.

Working with starfish, he discovered amoebalike cells in their systems that engulf foreign bodies such as bacteria. He established that phago¬ cytes (as he named these cells, using the Greek for “devouring cells”) are the first line of defense against acute infection in most animals. This phe¬ nomenon, now known as phagocyto¬ sis, is fundamental to immunology.

He shared a 1908 Nobel Prize with Paul Ehrlich.

metempsychosis See reincarna¬ tion

meteor or shooting star or falling star Streak of light in the sky

that results when a particle or small chunk of stony or metallic matter from space enters Earth’s atmosphere and is vapourized by friction. The term is sometimes applied to the falling object itself, properly called a meteoroid. Most meteoroids, traveling at five times the speed of sound or more, burn up in the upper atmosphere, but a large one may survive its fiery plunge and reach the surface as a solid body (meteorite). See also METEOR SHOWER.

meteor shower Entry into Earth’s atmosphere of multiple meteoroids (see meteor), traveling in parallel paths, usually spread over several hours or days. Most meteor showers come from matter released during passage of a comet close to the Sun, and they recur annually as Earth crosses the comet’s orbital path. Meteor showers are usually named for a constella¬ tion (e.g., Leonid for Leo) or star in their direction of origin. Most show¬ ers are visible as a few dozen meteors per hour, but occasionally Earth crosses an especially dense concentration of meteoroids, as in the great Leonid meteor shower of 1833, in which hundreds of thousands of mete¬ ors were seen in one night all over North America.

meteorite Any interplanetary particle or chunk of stony or metallic matter (meteoroid) that survives passage through Earth’s atmosphere and strikes the ground or that reaches the surface of another planet or moon. On Earth the speed of entry—at least 7 mi/second (11 km/second)— generates enough friction with the air to vaporize part or all of the mete¬ oroid and produce a streak of light (meteor). Though vast numbers of meteoroids enter Earth’s atmosphere each year, only a few hundred reach the ground.

meteorite crater Depression that results from the impact of a meteor¬ ite with a solid object in space.

Impact craters have been discovered on Earth, the Moon, Mars, other planets and satellites, and asteroids; they probably occur on unprotected surfaces of similar bodies throughout the universe. Impact craters are much less common on Earth than on the Moon, partly because friction burns up most of the smaller bodies that enter Earth’s atmosphere. Thus, any craters formed on Earth’s sur¬ face tend to be larger than the aver¬ age size of all entering meteorites.

meteoritics X.me-te-o-'ri-tiksX Study of the chemistry and mineral¬ ogy of meteorite samples that have been collected on Earth and of mete¬ ors as they pass through Earth’s atmosphere. These studies provide information about the age of meteorites, the conditions under which they formed, where they come from, and the geological history of their bod¬ ies of origin, including comets, asteroids. Mars, and the Moon. The field of study is especially important for understanding the early history and evolution of the solar system.

meteorology Scientific study of atmospheric phenomena, particularly of the troposphere and lower stratosphere. Meteorology entails the system¬ atic study of weather and its causes, and provides the basis for weather FORECASTING. See also CLIMATOLOGY.

methadone Vme-tho-.donV Organic compound, a potent synthetic nar¬ cotic drug, the most effective form of treatment for addiction to heroin and other narcotics (see drug addiction). It has been widely used in heroin- addiction programs in the U.S. since the 1960s. Though addictive itself, it is easier to stop using than heroin. It also causes no euphoric effects and does not lead to development of tolerance, so increasing doses are not required. A person taking a daily maintenance dose does not experience either heroin withdrawal symptoms or a heroin rush from any attempt to resume heroin, so heroin’s psychological hold on the user can be broken.

methanal See formaldehyde

methane or marsh gas Organic compound, chemical formula CH 4 , colourless, odourless gas that occurs in natural gas (called firedamp in coal mines) and from bacterial decomposition of vegetation in the absence of oxygen (including in the rumens of cattle and other ruminants and in the gut of termites). The simplest member of the paraffin hydrocarbons, methane burns readily, forming carbon dioxide and water if supplied with enough oxygen for complete combustion or carbon monoxide if the oxy¬ gen is insufficient. Mixtures of 5-14% methane in air are explosive and have caused many mine disasters. The chief source of methane is natural gas, but it can also be produced from coal. Abundant, cheap, and clean, methane is used widely as a fuel in homes, commercial establishments, and factories; as a safety measure, it is mixed with trace amounts of an odorant to allow its detection. It is also a raw material for many indus¬ trial materials, including fertilizers, explosives, chloroform, carbon tetra¬ chloride, and carbon black, and is the principal source of methanol.

methanol or methyl alcohol or wood alcohol Simplest of the alcohols, chemical formula CH 3 OH. Once produced by destructive dis¬ tillation of wood, it is now usually made from the methane in natural gas. Methanol is an important industrial material; its derivatives are used in great quantities for making a vast number of compounds, among them many important synthetic dyes, resins, drugs, and perfumes. It is also used in automotive antifreezes, in rocket fuels, and as a solvent. It is flammable

Elie Metchnikoff.

H. ROGER-VIOLLET

Meteorite craters on the surface of the Moon, photographed by Lunar Orbiter IV

COURTESY OF NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

1246 I methionine ► Metternich

and explosive. A clean-burning fuel, it may substitute (at least in part) for gasoline. It is also used for denaturation of ethanol. A violent poison, it causes blindness and eventually death when drunk.

methionine Vmo-'thl-o-.nenN SuLFUR-containing essential amino acid, present in many common proteins, particularly egg albumin. It is used in pharmaceuticals, in enriched foods, and as a nutritional supplement and feed additive.

Method acting See Stanislavsky method

Methodism Protestant religious movement originated by John Wesley in 18th-century England. Wesley, an Anglican clergyman, underwent an epiphany in 1738 in which he felt an assurance of personal salvation, and he soon began open-air preaching. Methodism began as a movement to revitalize the Church of England and did not formally break with the church until 1795. The Methodists’ well-organized system of church gov¬ ernment combined a strong central authority with effective local organi¬ zation and the employment of lay preachers. Especially successful among the working class in industrial areas, the movement expanded rapidly in the 19th century. The Methodist Episcopal Church was founded in the U.S. in 1784, and Methodist circuit riders won many followers on the frontier. British and U.S. missionaries have since spread Methodism throughout the world. Methodist doctrine emphasizes the power of the Holy Spirit, the need for a personal relationship with God, simplicity of worship, and concern for the underprivileged.

Methodius, St. See Sts. Cyril and Methodius

Methuselah Xmo-'thu-zo-laV Biblical patriarch who lived to the age of 969. The son of Enoch, he is mentioned in Genesis as a descendant of Seth, the son of Adam and Eve begotten after Cain. He is remembered as the world’s oldest human being. He was the father of Lamech and grand¬ father of Noah; his later descendants included Abraham, Jacob, and David.

methyl alcohol See methanol

metic Vme-tiks\ (Greek, metoikos) Any resident foreigner, including freed slaves, in ancient Greece. Although metics were free, they lacked full benefits of citizenship. For a small tax they enjoyed the protection of the law and most of a citizen’s duties, including supporting public funds, financing festivals, and serving in the military, but they could neither marry a citizen nor own land. They were found in most states, Sparta being an exception. In Athens they represented one-third of the free population.

Metis \ma-'tes\ In Canadian history, a person of mixed Indian and French or Scottish ancestry. The first Metis were the offspring of local Indian women and European fur traders in the Red River area of what is now southern Manitoba. They call themselves the Forgotten People. Their lan¬ guage, Michif, is a French and Cree trade language. Only a small per¬ centage of people can speak Michif, although attempts are being made to preserve it. For more than half a century the Metis cultivated a distinc¬ tive way of life and came to think of themselves as a nation. The Metis culture, particularly clothing, artwork, music, and dance, can be charac¬ terized as colourful and unique. They resisted the Canadian takeover of the Northwest in 1869, established a provisional government under the leadership of Louis Riel, and in 1870 negotiated a union with Canada that resulted in the establishment of the province of Manitoba. In 2003 Canada granted the Metis legal recognition as a native group, with the same broad hunting rights as full-status Indians. By the early 21st century the esti¬ mated number of Metis in western Canada was more than 550,000.

metre Basic unit of length in the metric system and the International Sys¬ tem of Units. In 1983 the General Conference on Weights and Measures decided that the accepted value for the speed of light would be exactly 299,792,458 metres per second, so the metre is now defined as the dis¬ tance traveled by light in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 second. One metre is equal to about 39.37 in. in the U.S. Customary System.

metre In poetry, the rhythmic pattern of a poetic line. Various principles have been devised to organize poetic lines into rhythmic units. Quanti¬ tative verse, the metre of Classical Greek and Latin poetry, measures the length of time required to pronounce syllables, regardless of their stress; combinations of long and short syllables form the basic rhythmic units. Syllabic verse is most common in languages that are not strongly accented, such as French or Japanese; it is based on a fixed number of syllables within a line. Accentual verse occurs in strongly stressed lan¬ guages, such as the Germanic; only stressed syllables within a line are counted. Accentual-syllabic verse is the usual form in English poetry; it

combines syllable counting and stress counting. The most common English metre, iambic pentameter, is a line of 10 syllables, or 5 iambic feet; each foot contains an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syl¬ lable. Free verse does not follow regular metrical patterns. See also prosody.

metre See rhythm and metre

metric space In mathematics, a set of objects equipped with a concept of distance. The objects can be thought of as points in space, with the distance between points given by a distance formula, such that: (1) the dis¬ tance from point A to point B is zero if and only if A and B are identical, (2) the distance from A to B is the same as from B to A, and (3) the dis¬ tance from A to B plus that from B to C is greater than or equal to the distance from A to C (the triangle inequality). Two- and three-dimensional Euclidean spaces are metric spaces, as are inner product spaces, vector spaces, and certain topological spaces (see topology).

metric system International decimal system of weights and measures, based on the metre (m) for length and the kilogram (kg) for mass, origi¬ nally adopted in France in 1795. All other metric units were derived from the metre, including the gram (g) for weight (1 cc of water at its maxi¬ mum density) and the litre (1, or L) for capacity (0.001 cu m). In the 20th century, the metric system became the basis for the International System of Units, which is now used officially almost worldwide.

metrical foot See metrical foot

Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Inc. See MGM

metrology \me-'tra-l3-je\ Science of measurement. Measuring a quan¬ tity means establishing its ratio to another fixed quantity of the same kind, known as the unit of that kind of quantity. A unit is an abstract idea, defined either by reference to a randomly chosen material standard or to a natural phenomenon. For example, the metre, the standard of length in the metric system, was formerly defined (1889-1960) by the separation of two lines on a particular metal bar, but it is now defined as the distance traveled by light in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 second. See also Interna¬ tional System of Units.

Metropolitan Museum of Art Most comprehensive collection of art in the U.S. and one of the foremost in the world. It was incorporated in New York City in 1870, and the present building in Central Park on Fifth Avenue was opened in 1880. The Metropolitan was built with the private fortunes of businessmen; today it is owned by the city but sup¬ ported mainly by private endowment. Its outstanding Egyptian, Mesopot¬ amian, East Asian, Middle Eastern, Greek and Roman, European, pre- Columbian, and U.S. collections include—in addition to paintings, sculpture, and graphic arts—architecture, glass, ceramics, textiles, metal¬ work, furniture, arms and armour, and musical instruments. It also incor¬ porates a Costume Institute and the Thomas J. Watson Library, one of the world’s greatest art and archaeology reference collections. Much of the medieval collection is housed at The Cloisters in Manhattan’s Fort Tryon Park; its building (1938) incorporates parts of medieval monasteries and churches.

Metropolitan Opera Leading U.S. opera company, based in New York City. Founded by a group of millionaires who had failed to get boxes at the Academy of Music, it opened in 1883. The Met soon outlived its frivolous origin, becoming the American equivalent of La Scala in Milan and second to no opera house in the world in the quality of the singers it attracted. Originally sited at Broadway and 39th Street, it moved into its new home at Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts in 1966.

Metsys Vmet-sls\, Quentin (b. c. 1465/66, Louvain, Brabant—d. 1530, Antwerp) Flemish artist. According to tradition, Metsys (whose name was also spelled Massys and Matsys) was trained as a blacksmith but studied painting after falling in love with an artist’s daughter. He was admitted to the Antwerp artists’ guild in 1491. His most celebrated paint¬ ings are two large triptych altarpieces. The Holy Kinship (1507-09) and The Entombment of Christ (1508-11), both of which exhibit strong reli¬ gious feelings and precision of detail. He painted many notable portraits, including one of Desiderius Erasmus. He was the first important painter of the Antwerp school, and the first Flemish artist to effect a genuine syn¬ thesis of the northern European and Italian Renaissance traditions.

Metternich Vme-tar-.nikX (-Winneburg-Beilstein), Klemens (Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar), prince von (b. May 15, 1773, Coblenz, archbishopric of Trier—d. June 11, 1859, Vienna, Austria) Aus¬ trian statesman. He served in the diplomatic service as Austrian minister

Metz ► Mexico I 1247

in Saxony (1801-03), Berlin (1 SOB- OS), and Paris (1806-09). In 1809 Francis I of Austria (see Emperor Francis II) appointed him minister of foreign affairs, a position he would retain until 1848. He helped promote the marriage of Napoleon and Fran¬ cis’s daughter Marie-Louise. By skill¬ ful diplomacy and deceit, he kept Austria neutral in the war between France and Russia (1812) and secured its position of power before finally allying with Prussia and Rus¬ sia (1813). In gratitude for his dip¬ lomatic achievements, the emperor created Mettemich a hereditary prince. As the organizer of the Con¬ gress of Vienna (1814-15), he was largely responsible for the policy of balance of power in Europe to ensure the stability of European govern¬ ments. After 1815 he remained firmly opposed to liberal ideas and revolutionary movements. He was forced to resign by the revolution of 1848. He is remembered for his role in restoring Austria as a leading European power.

Metz \'metz\ French Vmes\ City (pop., 1999 est.: 123,776), northeast¬ ern France. It derives its name from the Mediomatrici, a Gallic tribe who made the city their capital. Fortified by the Romans, it became a bishop¬ ric in the 4th century ad. It passed to Frankish rule in the 5th century and became the capital of Lorraine in 843. It prospered as a free town within the Holy Roman Empire. Taken by the French in 1552, it was formally ceded to France in 1648. It fell to German rule in 1871 but was returned to France after World War I. It is the birthplace of Paul Verlaine.

Porte des Allemands (Gate of the Germans), Metz, France.

P. SALOU-SHOSTAL

Meuse River \'mcez,\ English \'myiiz\ Dutch Maas \'mas\ River, western Europe. It rises in northeastern France and flows north into Bel¬ gium, where it forms part of the border between Belgium and The Neth¬ erlands. It divides at Venlo, Neth., one branch flowing into the Hollandsch Canal (an outlet of the North Sea) and another joining the Waal River to become the Merwede River, which eventually empties into the North Sea. The Meuse is 590 mi (950 km) long, and it is an important waterway in western Europe. Its valley was the scene of heavy fighting in World War I. The crossing of the Meuse was critical to Germany’s invasion of France in 1940 in World War II.

mews Row of stables and coach houses with living quarters above, built behind houses, especially in 17th-18th-century London. Most have been converted into modernized dwellings. The term originally referred to the royal stables in London, built where the king’s hawks once stayed at molting (“mew”) time.

Mexicali City (pop., 2000 est.: 550,000), capital of Baja California (Norte) state, northwestern Mexico. It lies in the Mexicali Valley, an extension of the Imperial Valley of the U.S., in northeastern Baja Califor¬ nia. It extends across the Mexico-U.S. border to Calexico, Calif. Its name, formed from the first two syllables of Mexico and California, was cho¬ sen as a gesture of international friendship. Its economy is chiefly based on tourism and the processing and distribution of cotton, fruits, veg¬ etables, and cereals. It is the seat of the Autonomous University of Baja California.

Mexican process See patio process

Mexican Revolution (1910-20) Lengthy struggle that began with the overthrow of Porfirio Diaz, whose elitist and oligarchic policies had caused widespread dissatisfaction. Francisco Madero, Pancho Villa, Pascual Orozco, and Emiliano Zapata amassed supporters, and in 1911 Madero was declared president, but his slow-paced reforms alienated both former allies and foes. He was deposed by Gen. Victoriano Huerta, whose own drunken and despotic dictatorship quickly fell to Villa, Venustiano Carranza, and Alvaro Obregon. Carranza declared himself president in 1914 over Villa’s objections and, after further bloodshed, prevailed. He oversaw the writing of the liberal constitution of 1917 but did little to implement its key pro¬ visions; in 1920 he was killed while fleeing a rebellion. With the election of the reform-minded Obregon, the revolutionary period ended, though spo¬ radic clashes continued until Lazaro CArdenas took office in 1934.

Mexican War or Mexican-American War (1846-48) War between the U.S. and Mexico. It grew from a border dispute after the U.S. annexed Texas in 1845; Mexico claimed that the southern border of Texas was the Nueces River, while the U.S. claimed it was the Rio Grande. A secret mission by John Slidell to negotiate the dispute and purchase New Mexico and California for up to $30 million was aborted when Mexico refused to receive him. In response to the snub, Pres. James Polk sent troops under Zachary Taylor to occupy the disputed land between the two rivers. In April 1846 Mexican troops crossed the Rio Grande and attacked Tay¬ lor’s troops; Congress approved a declaration of war in May. Ordered to invade Mexico, Taylor captured Monterrey and defeated a large Mexican force under Antonio Santa Anna at the Battle of Buena Vista in February 1847. Polk then ordered Gen. Winfield Scott to move his army by sea to Veracruz, capture the city, and march inland to Mexico City. Scott fol¬ lowed the plan, meeting resistance at Cerro Gordo and Contreras, and entered Mexico City in September. Under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Mexico ceded to the U.S. nearly all of present New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, California, Texas, and Colorado for $15,000,000 and U.S. assumption of its citizens’ claims against Mexico. Casualties included about 13,000 American deaths, all but 1,700 of which were caused by disease. The war, which made a national hero of Taylor, reopened the slavery-extension issue supposedly settled by the Missouri Compromise.

Mexico officially United Mexican States Country, southern North America. The Rio Grande forms part of its northeastern border with the U.S. Area: 758,449 sq mi (1,964,375 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 107,029,000. Capital: Mexico City. More than three-fifths of Mexico’s people are mestizos, about one-fifth are American Indians, and the bulk of the rest are of European ancestry. Languages: Spanish (official); more than 50 Indian languages are spoken. Religion: Christianity (predominantly Roman Catholic; also Protestant). Currency: Mexican peso. Mexico has two major peninsulas, the Yucatan in the southeast and Baja California in the northwest. The high Mexican Plateau forms the core of the country and is enclosed by mountain ranges: the Sierra Madre Occidental, the Sierra Madre Oriental, and the Cordillera Neo-Volcanica. The last has the country’s highest peak, the volcano Citlaltepetl, which reaches 18,406 ft (5,610 m). Mexico has a mixed economy based on agriculture, manufac¬ turing, and the extraction of petroleum and natural gas. About one-eighth of the land is arable; major crops include com, wheat, rice, beans, cof¬ fee, cotton, fruits, and vegetables. Mexico is the world’s largest producer of silver, bismuth, and celestite. It has significant reserves of oil and natu¬ ral gas. Manufactures include processed foods, chemicals, transport vehicles, and electrical machinery. It is a republic with two legislative houses; its head of state and government is the president. Humans may have inhabited Mexico for more than 20,000 years, and the area produced a string of great early civilizations, including the Olmec, Toltec, and Maya. The Aztec empire, another important civilization located in Mexico, was conquered in 1521 by Spanish explorer Hernan Cortes, who established Mexico City on the site of the Aztec capital, TenochtitlAn. Francisco de

Mettemich, black and white chalk drawing by Anton Graff, c. 1803-05; in the Kupferstichkabinett, Dresden, Ger.

COURTESY OF THE STAATUCHE KUNSTSAMMLUNGEN, DRESDEN, GER

1248 I Mexico ► Mexico

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Montejo conquered the remnants of Maya civilization in 1526, and Mexico became part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. In 1821 rebels negotiated independence from Spain, and in 1823 a new congress declared Mexico a republic. In 1845 the U.S. voted to annex Texas, initiating the Mexican War. Under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, Mexico ceded a vast territory in what is now the western and southwestern U.S. The Mexican government endured several rebellions and civil wars in the late 19th and early 20th centuries (see Mexican Revolution). During World War II (1939—45) it declared war on the Axis Powers, and in the postwar era it was a founding member of the United Nations (1945) and the Organization of American States (1948). In 1993 it ratified the North American Free Trade Agreement. The election of Vicente Fox to the presidency (2000) ended 71 years of rule by the Institutional Revolutionary Party. See table on opposite page.

Mexico \'me-he-,ko\ State (pop., 2000: 13,096,686), central Mexico. It covers 8,245 sq mi (21,355 sq mi), and its capital is Toluca. Almost com¬ pletely surrounding the Federal District and Mexico City, it contains many

preconquest ruins, including Tenayuca, Malinalco, and Teotihuacan. The average elevation exceeds 10,000 ft (3,000 m), which creates a cool cli¬ mate. The population density is the highest of any Mexican state. The economy is based on agriculture and manufacturing.

Mexico, Gulf of Gulf, southeastern coast of North America, connected to the Atlantic Ocean by the Straits of Florida and to the Caribbean Sea by the Yucatan Channel. Covering an area of 600,000 sq mi (1,550,000 sq km), it is bounded by the U.S., Mexico, and Cuba. It has a maximum depth, in the Mexico Basin, of 17,070 ft (5,203 m). The Gulf Stream enters it from the Caribbean Sea and flows out to the Atlantic. The Mississippi and the Rio Grande are the major rivers draining into the gulf. Its major ports are Veracruz in Mexico, and Galveston, New Orleans, Pensacola, and Tampa in the U.S.

Mexico, National Autonomous University of Mexican government-financed university in Mexico City, founded in 1551. The original university building, dating from 1584, was demolished in 1910, and the university was moved to a new campus in 1954. Between 1553

Mexico City ► Miami I 1249

Mexican Presidents from 1917

President

Term

President

Term

Venustiano Carranza*

1917-20

Adolfo Ruiz Cortines

1952-58

Adolfo de la Huerta

1920

Adolfo Lopez Mateos

1958-64

Alvaro Obregon

1920-24

Gustavo Diaz Ordaz

1964-70

Plutarco Elias Calles

1924-28

Luis Echeverria Alvarez

1970-76

Emilio Portes Gil

1928-30

Jose Lopez Portillo

1976-82

Pascual Ortiz Rubio

1930-32

Miguel de la Madrid

1982-88

Abelardo L. Rodriguez

1932-34

Carlos Salinas de Gortari

1988-94

Lazaro Cardenas

1934-40

Ernesto Zedillo

1994-2000

Manuel Avila Camacho

1940-46

Vicente Fox

2000-

Miguel Aleman

1946-52

‘Claimed the presidency as early as 1914.

and 1867 the university was controlled by the Roman Catholic church. After 1867, independent professional schools of law, medicine, engineer¬ ing, and architecture were established by the government. The university was given administrative autonomy in 1929. It offers a broad range of programs in all major academic and professional subjects.

Mexico City Spanish Ciudad de Mexico \,syu-'thath- tha- , me-he-,ko\ City (pop., 2000: city, 8,605,239; 2003 metro, area est., 18,660,000), capital of Mexico. Located at an elevation of 7,350 ft (2,240 m), it is officially coterminous with the Federal District, which occupies 571 sq mi (1,477 sq km). Mexico City is one of the world’s largest cities and one of the world’s fastest-growing metropolitan areas. It generates about one-third of Mexico’s industrial production. It lies on an ancient lake bed, the site of the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, which was taken by the Spanish explorer Hernan Cortes in 1521. It was the seat of the Vice¬ royalty of New Spain throughout the colonial period. Captured by Mexi¬ can revolutionaries under Gen. Agustfn de Iturbide in 1821, it was seized by the U.S. in 1847 during the Mexican War and by the French (1863— 67) under Maximilian. It was greatly improved during the rule of Porfirio Diaz (1876-80, 1884-1911). In 1985 it was struck by a severe earthquake that killed at least 7,000 people. The old city centre, the Zocalo, has many historic buildings, including the Metropolitan Cathedral (built on the site of an Aztec temple) and the National Palace (built on the ruins of the palace of Montezuma II). Its educational institutions include the National Autonomous University of Mexico (founded 1551), the College of Mexico, and the Ibero-American University. The city was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987.

Meyer Vml-orV Adolf (b. Sept. 13, 1866, Niederweningen, Switz.—d. March 17, 1950, Baltimore, Md., U.S.) Swiss-born U.S. psychiatrist. He immigrated to the U.S. in 1892 and taught principally at Johns Hopkins University (1910-41). He developed a concept of human behaviour— ergasiology, or psychobiology—that sought to integrate psychological and biological study. Meyer emphasized accurate case histories, suggested a role of childhood sexual feelings in mental problems in the years preced¬ ing wide recognition of Sigmund Freud’s theories, and decided that men¬ tal illness results essentially from personality dysfunction rather than brain pathology. He became aware of the importance of social environment in mental disorders, and his wife interviewed patients’ families in what is considered the first psychiatric social work.

Meyerbeer Vml-sr-.barX, Giacomo orig. Jakob Liebmann Meyer Beer (b. Sept. 5, 1791, Tasdorf, near Berlin, Ger.—d. May 2, 1864, Paris, Fr.) German composer. Brother of the astronomer Wilhelm Beer and the playwright Michael Beer, he achieved early success as a pianist. After he studied vocal writing in Italy, his Italian operas were well received. In Paris from c. 1825, he undertook work on a libretto by Eugene Scribe, and his Robert le Diable (1831) was one of opera’s greatest tri¬ umphs from its premiere. Three later grand operas also became part of the international repertoire: Les Huguenots (1836), Le Prophete (1849), and L’Africaine (1864). Richard Wagner’s criticism of Meyerbeer’s “deser¬ tion” of German music, tainted by jealousy and anti-Semitism, led to neglect of his music for many years, but Meyerbeer exercised unmistak¬ able influence on both Giuseppe Verdi and Wagner himself.

Meyerhof VmI-9r- 1 hof\, Otto (b. April 12, 1884, Hanover, Ger.—d. Oct. 6, 1951, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.) German biochemist. His work on glycolysis remains a basic contribution to the understanding of muscle action, despite the need for later revision. He shared with Archibald V.

Hill (1886-1977) a 1922 Nobel Prize for his research on metabolism in muscle. His chief published work was The Chemical Dynamics of Life Phenomena (1924).

Meyerhold \'ml-9r- 1 h6lt\ / Vsevolod (Yemilyevich) (b. Feb. 9, 1874, Penza, Russia—d. Feb. 2, 1940, Moscow) Russian theatrical pro¬ ducer and director. He acted with the Moscow Art Theatre in 1898 and formulated his avant-garde theories of symbolic theatre. Opposed to the naturalism of Konstantin Stanislavsky, he directed plays in a nonrepresen- tational style that became known as biomechanics. After 1908 he staged plays in St. Petersburg that drew from commedia dell'arte and Asian the¬ atre. He was noted for his direction of The Magnificent Cuckold (1920) and for his controversial production of The Queen of Spades (1935). Con¬ demned by Soviet critics for his artistic individuality and opposition to Socialist Realism, he was arrested and imprisoned in 1939 and was prob¬ ably executed.

mezzotint \'met-so-,tint\ (from Italian mezza tinta, “halftone”) Engrav¬ ing produced by pricking the surface of a metal plate with innumerable small holes that will hold ink. When the engraving is printed, the ink pro¬ duces large areas of tone with soft, subtle gradations. Engraved or etched lines are often introduced to give the design greater definition. Mezzotint was invented in Holland by German-born Ludwig von Siegen in the 17th century but thereafter was practiced primarily in England. Its adaptabil¬ ity to making colour prints made it ideal for the reproduction of paintings. After the invention of photography, it was rarely used. In recent years the technique has been revived, especially by U.S. and Japanese printmakers.

Mfecane \em-fe-'ka-na\ (“The Crushing”) Series of Zulu and other Nguni wars and forced migrations in the early 19th century that changed the demographic, social, and political configuration of southern and cen¬ tral Africa. Set in motion by the rise of the Zulu military kingdom under Shaka, it took place in the context of drought, social unrest, and compe¬ tition for trade. Ethnic group was set against ethnic group in an ever- increasing radius, resulting in the creation of large refugee populations as well as the establishment of new kingdoms under the Basuto, Gaza, Nde- bele, and Swazi peoples.

MGM in full Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Inc. U.S. corporation and film studio. It was formed when the film distributor Marcus Loew, who bought Metro Pictures in 1920, merged it with the Goldwyn production company in 1924 and with Louis B. Mayer Pictures in 1925. Louis B. Mayer was executive head of the studio for 25 years, assisted by produc¬ tion manager Irving Thalberg. It reached its peak in the 1930s and ’40s, when it had most of Hollywood’s famous stars under contract. It produced such hits as Grand Hotel (1932), The Philadelphia Story (1940), Gaslight (1944), Ben-Hur (1959), Doctor Zhivago (1965), and 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968). It was especially celebrated for its lavish musicals, including The Wizard of Oz (1939), On the Town (1949), An American in Paris (1951), Singin’ in the Rain (1952), and Gigi (1958). MGM began to decline in the 1950s and sold off many of its assets in the 1970s. It diversified into hotels and casinos and later merged with United Artists Corp. as MGM/UA Entertainment. In 1986 it was bought by Ted Turner, who resold the production and distribution units. Various transfers of ownership led to its purchase in 1992 by Credit Lyonnais, which restored the name MGM Inc. It was subsequently bought by Tracinda Corp.

MI5 in full Military Intelligence (Unit 5) British Security Service. Originally organized in 1909 to counter German espionage, in 1931 it assumed wider responsibility for assessing threats to national security, including communist subversion and subsequently fascism. Today the Security Service Act (1989) forms its statutory basis. As Britain’s domestic-security intelligence agency, its purpose is to protect the coun¬ try against threats such as terrorism, espionage, and subversion. Since the passing of the Security Service Act (1996), its role has been expanded to include supporting law-enforcement agencies in the field of organized crime.

Miami North American Indian people who live mostly in Oklahoma and Indiana, U.S. They call themselves Twit wee (Twatwa), which to them represents the call of the crane. The name Miami is a derivation of their Ojibwa name, Oumami, meaning “People of the Peninsula.” Their tradi¬ tional homeland is spread across Illinois, northern Indiana, and Ohio. The Miami language belongs to the Algonquian family. The staple of the Miami diet was com, though they also hunted bison. Each village con¬ sisted of mat-covered dwellings and a large house in which councils and ceremonies were held. A secret medicine society conducted rites aimed

1250 I Miami ► Michelet

at ensuring tribal welfare. In the 19th century the Miami ceded most of their lands to the U.S., with one band remaining in Indiana and the rest removing to a reservation in Oklahoma. In the 2000 U.S. census some 3,800 people claimed sole Miami descent. See also Little Turtle.

Miami City (pop., 2000: 362,470), southeastern Florida, U.S., situated on Biscayne Bay at the mouth of the Miami River. The southernmost large city in the continental U.S., it has a beach 7 mi (11 km) long. A Spanish mission was founded near the site in 1567, but permanent settlement did not begin until 1835, when U.S. forces built Fort Dallas for the removal of Seminole Indians to the West. The arrival of the railway in 1896 spurred development, and Miami was incorporated the same year. The city has been damaged by occasional hurricanes, notably in 1926 and 1935. Nearly 300,000 Cuban refugees have arrived since 1959 (see Cuba), establishing “Little Havana” within the city. It is a major resort and retirement centre, and its port handles the world’s largest number of cruise-ship passengers. It is also a banking centre. Educational institutions include the University of Miami and Florida International University.

Miami Beach City (pop., 2000: 87,933), southeastern Florida, U.S. It is situated on an island across Biscayne Bay from Miami. Until 1912 the site was a mangrove swamp. John S. Collins and Carl F. Fisher pioneered real estate development and built a bridge across the bay; the area was dredged to form an island measuring 7.4 sq mi (19 sq km), with an 8-mi (13-km) beach. The city, incorporated in 1915, is now a luxury resort and con¬ vention centre. It is connected with Miami by several causeways and is noted for its Art Deco architecture.

Miao See Hmong

Miao-Yao languages See Hmong-Mien languages

mica Vml-koV Any of a group of hydrous potassium, aluminum silicate minerals that exhibit a two-dimensional sheet, or layer, structure. A very abundant variety of mica is muscovite; two other common varieties are biotite and phlogopite. Micas have various industrial uses. The varieties that contain little iron are used as thermal or electrical insulators in appli¬ ances and in such electrical devices as capacitors. In ground form, micas are used in the manufacture of wallpaper, roofing paper, and paint. Ground micas also serve as lubricants, absorbents, and packing material.

mica, black See biotite

Micah Vml-koX (fl. 8th century bc) One of the 12 Minor Prophets in the Bible, traditional author of the book of Micah. (His prophecy is part of a larger book, The Twelve, in the Jewish canon.) He probably began to prophesy before the fall of the northern kingdom of Israel in 721 bc. Modern scholars usually attribute the book’s first three chapters, which predict judgment from God on idolaters and unjust leaders, to Micah. Much of the rest, which promises the establishment of a kingdom of peace in Zion, probably dates from several centuries later.

Michael In the Bible and the Qur’an, one of the archangels. The captain of the heavenly hosts, he was invoked by early Christian armies against the heathen. In Christian tradition he is thought to escort the soul into the presence of God at the time of death. In art he is depicted as a warrior, sword in hand, in triumph over a dragon. His feast day, known in England as Michaelmas, is September 29. See also MikaIl.

Michael (b. Oct. 25, 1921, Sinaia, Rom.) King of Romania. After his father, the future king Carol II, had been excluded from the royal succes¬ sion (1926), Michael was proclaimed king under a three-member regency. Carol reclaimed the throne in 1930, and Michael was reduced to crown prince. With Carol’s abdication in 1940, Michael again became king but was in effect a prisoner of the military dictator Ion Antonescu. In 1944 he helped lead the coup that overthrew the military regime and severed Romania’s ties with the Axis powers. He strongly opposed the commu¬ nists’ subsequent rise to power, but was forced to abdicate in 1947. He went into exile in Switzerland and became an executive with a U.S. bro¬ kerage firm. In 1997 his Romanian citizenship was restored; he subse¬ quently visited the country and sought the return of property holdings that were confiscated.

Michael or Michael Romanov Nro-'ma-nof, 'ro-mo-.nafX Russian

Mikhail Fyodorovich Romanov (b. July 22, 1596—d. July 23, 1645, Moscow) Tsar of Russia (1613-45) and founder of the Romanov dynasty. A young nobleman elected as tsar after the chaotic Time of Troubles, he allowed his mother’s relatives to direct the government early in his reign. They restored order to Russia and made peace with Sweden

(1617) and Poland (1618). In 1619 his father, released from captivity in Poland, returned to Russia and became coruler. Michael’s father domi¬ nated the government, increasing contact with western Europe and strengthening central authority and serfdom. After his death in 1633, Michael’s maternal relatives once again held sway.

Michael VIII Palaeologus \,pa-le-'al-9-g9s\ (b. 1224 or 1225—d. Dec. 11, 1282, Thrace) Nicaean emperor (1259-61) and Byzantine emperor (1261-82), founder of the Palaeologan dynasty. Appointed regent for the six-year-old son of Theodore II (1258), he seized the throne and blinded the rightful heir. He recovered Constantinople from the Latins (1261) and allied with the pope against his rivals, briefly reuniting Greek and Roman churches in 1274 (see Councils of Lyon). In 1281 the new pope, Martin IV, excommunicated him and declared Charles of Anjou’s planned campaign against Byzantium to be a holy Crusade against the schismatic Greeks. The Sicilian Vespers prevented Charles’s expedition and thus saved Byzantium from a second occupation by the Latins.

Michael Cerularius X.ker-u-'lar-e-osN (b. c. 1000, Constantinople—d. Jan. 21, 1059, Madytus, near Constantinople) Greek Orthodox patriarch of Constantinople (1043-58). He thwarted Constantine IX’s efforts to ally the Byzantine and Roman empires against the Normans, and he closed Latin churches in Constantinople that refused to use the Greek language and liturgy (1052). When negotiations broke down between Michael and the papal legates sent by Leo IX, each side excommunicated the other, ini¬ tiating the Schism of 1054. Michael forced Constantine to support the schism, but in 1058 he was exiled by Constantine’s successor.

Michelangelo (di Lodovico Buonarroti) (b. March 6, 1475, Caprese, Republic of Florence—d. Feb. 18, 1564, Rome, Papal States) Italian sculptor, painter, architect, and poet. He served a brief apprentice¬ ship with Domenico Ghirlandaio in Florence before beginning the first of several sculptures for Lorenzo de'Medici. After Lorenzo’s death in 1492, he left for Bologna and then for Rome. There his Bacchus (1496-97) established his fame and led to a commission for the Pieta (now in St. Peter's Basilica), the masterpiece of his early years, in which he demon¬ strated his unique ability to extract two distinct figures from one marble block. His David (1501-04), commissioned for the cathedral of Florence, is still considered the prime example of the Renaissance ideal of perfect humanity. On the side, he produced several Madonnas for private patrons and his only universally accepted easel painting, The Holy Family (known as the Doni Tondo). Attracted to ambitious sculptural projects, which he did not always complete, he reluctantly agreed to paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel (1508-12). The first scenes, depicting the story of Noah, are relatively stable and on a small scale, but his confidence grew as he pro¬ ceeded, and the later scenes evince boldness and complexity. His figures for the tombs in Florence’s Medici Chapel (1519-33), which he designed, are among his most accomplished creations. He devoted his last 30 years largely to the Last Judgment fresco in the Sistine Chapel, to writing poetry (he left more than 300 sonnets and madrigals), and to architecture. He was commissioned to complete St. Peter’s Basilica, begun in 1506 and little advanced since 1514. Though it was not quite finished at Michelan¬ gelo’s death, its exterior owes more to him than to any other architect. He is regarded today as among the most exalted of artists.

Michelet \mesh-Te\, Jules (b.

Aug. 21, 1798, Paris, France—d.

Feb. 9, 1874, Heyres) French nation¬ alist historian. He taught history and philosophy before he was appointed head of the historical section of the Record Office in 1831. His time there provided him with unique resources for his life’s work, the 17-volume Histoire de France (1833-67). His method, an attempt to resurrect the past by immersing his own person¬ ality in his narrative, resulted in a historical synthesis of great dramatic power, though the 11 volumes that appeared from 1855 to 1867 are dis¬ torted by his hatred of priests and kings, hasty or abusive treatment of documents, and mania for symbolic interpretation. His other works

Jules Michelet, detail of an oil painting by Thomas Couture; in the Carnavalet Museum, Paris.

GIRAUDON-ART RESOURCE

Michelin ► Micon I 1251

include the vivid and impassioned Histoire de la revolution frangaise, 7 vol. (1847-53). In his later years he wrote a series of lyrical books on nature, displaying his superb prose style.

Michelin \,me-sh3-Ta n \ in full Compagnie Generale des Eta- blissments Michelin Leading French manufacturer of tires and other rubber products. It was founded in 1888 by the Michelin brothers, Andre (1853-1931) and Edouard (1859-1940), to manufacture tires for bicycles and horse-drawn carriages. It introduced pneumatic tires for automobiles in the 1890s and soon became one of the major European tire producers. Michelin opened its first foreign plant in Turin in 1906 and has since expanded production in many countries; it was reorganized as a holding company in 1951. It also publishes a famous series of travel guides and road maps. Its headquarters are at Clermont-Ferrand.

Michelson Vml-kol-sonV A(lbert) A(braham) (b. Dec. 19, 1852, Strelno, Prussia—d. May 9, 1931, Pasadena, Calif., U.S.) Prussian-born U.S. physicist. His family immigrated to the U.S. in 1854. He studied at the U.S. Naval Academy and in Europe and later taught principally at the University of Chicago (1892-1931), where he headed the physics depart¬ ment. He invented the interferometer, with which he used light to make extremely precise measurements. He is best remembered for the Michelson-Morley experiment, undertaken with Edward W. Morley (1838— 1923), which established that the speed of light is a fundamental constant. Using a more refined interferometer, Michelson measured the diameter of the star Betelgeuse, the first substantially accurate determination of the size of a star. In 1907 he became the first American scientist to receive a Nobel Prize.

Michelson-Morley experiment Attempt to detect the velocity of the Earth with respect to ether, a hypothetical medium in space formerly proposed to carry light waves. It was first performed in Berlin in 1881 by A.A. Michelson and refined in the U.S. in 1887 by Michelson and Edward W. Morley (1838-1923). The procedure assumed that if the speed of light were constant with respect to the ether, the motion of the Earth could be detected by comparing the speed of light in the direction of the Earth’s motion and the speed of light at right angles to the Earth’s motion. No difference was found, and the result discredited the ether theory. As a result, Albert Einstein proposed in 1905 that the speed of light is a univer¬ sal constant.

Michener Vmich-noA, James A(lbert) (b. Feb. 3, 1907?, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Oct. 16, 1997, Austin, Texas) U.S. novelist and short-story writer. Michener was a foundling discovered in Doylestown, Pa., and he was raised as a Quaker. From 1944 to 1946 he was a naval historian in the South Pacific, the setting of his early fiction; his Tales of the South Pacific (1947, Pulitzer Prize) was adapted as the Broadway musical South Pacific (1949; film, 1958). He is best known for epic and detailed novels drawing on extensive research, including Hawaii (1959; film, 1966), Ibe¬ ria (1968), Centennial (1974), Chesapeake (1978), Space (1982), and Mexico (1992).

Michigan State (pop., 2000: 9,938,444), midwestern U.S. Surrounded almost entirely by the Great Lakes, it is divided into two large land seg¬ ments: the Upper and Lower peninsulas. The Lower Peninsula is bordered to the south by Indiana and Ohio; the Upper Peninsula is bounded by Wisconsin to the west. Michigan, including the Great Lakes, covers 96,716 sq mi (250,493 sq km); its capital is Lansing. The western region of the Upper Peninsula is a rugged upland rich in minerals, and the remainder of the state consists of lowlands and rolling hills. The area was originally inhabited by ALGONQUiAN-speaking Indians. The French arrived in the 17th century, founding Sault Ste. AAarie in 1668 and Detroit in 1701; fur trading was their primary activity. The English gained control of Michigan in 1763 following the French and Indian War, and it passed to the U.S. in 1783. It was included in the Northwest Territory in 1787 and in Indiana Territory in 1800. Michigan Territory was organized on the Lower Peninsula in 1805. Though surrendered to the British in the War of 1812, U.S. rule was restored in 1813 by the victory of Oliver Hazard Perry at the Battle of Lake Erie. A boundary dispute with Ohio, known as the Toledo War, was settled by U.S. President Andrew Jackson, with Michigan receiving the Upper Peninsula and statehood as compensation. In 1837 it became the 26th U.S. state. Throughout the American Civil War, it made major contributions to the Union cause. In the 20th century its economy was dominated by the automotive industry.

Michigan, Lake Third largest of the five Great Lakes and the only one lying wholly within the U.S. Bordered by the states of Michigan, Wis¬

consin, Illinois, and Indiana, it connects with Lake Huron through the Straits of Mackinac in the north. It is 321 mi (517 km) long and up to 118 mi (190 km) wide, with a maximum depth of 923 ft (281 m); it occupies an area of 22,300 sq mi (57,757 sq km). The first European to discover it was the French explorer Jean Nicolet in 1634; the explorer La Salle brought the first sailing ship there in 1679. It now attracts international shipping as part of the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Seaway. The name is derived from the Algonquian word michigami or misschiganin, meaning “big lake.”

Michigan, University of U.S. state university with its main campus in Ann Arbor and branch campuses in Flint and Dearborn. It originated as a preparatory school in Detroit in 1817 and moved to Ann Arbor in 1837. Today it is one of the nation’s leading research universities, con¬ sisting of a college of literature, science, and the arts and numerous gradu¬ ate and professional schools. Special facilities include a nuclear reactor, a hospital complex, an aerospace engineering laboratory, a Great Lakes research centre, and the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library.

Michizane See Sugawara Michizane

Michoacan X.me-cho-a-'kanX State (pop., 2000: 3,985,667), southwest¬ ern Mexico. It covers 23,138 sq mi (59,928 sq km), and its capital is Morelia. Bounded by the Pacific Ocean, it rises from a narrow coastal plain to the Sierra AAadre. Important cities include Morelia, Uruapan, Zamora, and Patzcuaro. In the 1530s the Dominican Vasco de Quiroga established the first successful missions among the Tarascan Indians around Lake Patzcuaro. The state lies in an area of great volcanic activity; Mount Jorullo was formed by an eruption in 1759, and Paricutin was created by an eruption that lasted nearly a decade (1943-52). Michoacan produces a wide range of forest products and tropical crops.

Mickey Mouse Famous character of Walt Disney’s animated cartoons. He was introduced in Steamboat Willie (1928), the first animated cartoon with sound. Mickey was created by Disney, who also provided his high- pitched voice, and was usually drawn by the studio’s head animator, Ub Iwerks. Noted for his overlarge head and round black ears, he became the star of more than 100 cartoon shorts. The Mickey Mouse Club was one of the most popular television shows for children in the U.S. in the 1950s, and the signature black cap with mouse ears worn by the show’s stars became one of the most widely distributed items in merchandising his¬ tory.

Mickiewicz \m y ets-'k y e-v y ech\, Adam (Bernard) (b. Dec. 24, 1798, Zaosye, near Nowogrodek, Belorussia, Russian Empire—d. Nov. 25, 1855, Constantinople, Tur.) Polish poet. A lifelong apostle of Polish national freedom and one of Poland’s greatest poets, Mickiewicz was deported to Russia for his revolutionary activities in 1823. His Poetry, 2 vol. (1822-23), was the first major Polish Romantic work; it contained two parts of Forefathers’ Eve, a cycle combining folklore and mystic patriotism. Mickiewicz left Russia in 1829 and eventually settled in Paris. There he wrote The Books of Our Pilgrimage (1832), a prose interpreta¬ tion of the history of the Poles; and his masterpiece, the poetic epic Pan Tadeusz (1834), which describes the life of the Polish gentry in the early 19th century.

Micmac or Mi'kmaq North American Indian people living in Que¬ bec, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island, Can.; and in Aroostook, Maine, and near Boston, Mass., U.S. The Micmac comprise the largest of the Indian tribes of Canada’s eastern Maritime Provinces. Early chronicles describe them as fierce and warlike, but they were among the first Indians to accept Jesuit teachings and inter¬ marry with the settlers of New France. The Micmac formed a confed¬ eracy of several clans. In winter they hunted caribou, moose, and small game; in summer they fished, gathered shellfish, and hunted seals. They were expert canoeists. In the 17th—18th centuries they were allies of the French against the English. Estimates of the current population vary. The total population of Micmac in the U.S. and Canada is probably about

20 , 000 .

Micon \ , ml-,kan\ or Mikon (fl. 5th century bc, Greece) Greek painter and sculptor. A contemporary and pupil of Polygnotus, he joined him in developing the treatment of space and perspective in Greek painting. Micon is known for the mural painting on the Stoa Poikile (Painted Stoa [portico]) on the agora at Athens and for the paintings at the Theseum at Athens. His innovations in spatial elaboration helped initiate the decline of Greek pottery painting.

1252 I microbiology ► microprocessor

microbiology Scientific study of microorganisms, a diverse group of simple life-forms including protozoans, algae, molds, bacteria, and viruses. Microbiology is concerned with the structure, function, and classification of these organisms and with ways of controlling and using their activi¬ ties. Its foundations were established in the later 19th century, with the work of Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch. Since then, many disease-causing microorganisms have been identified and means of controlling their harm¬ ful effects have been developed. In addition, means of channeling the activities of various microorganisms to benefit medicine, industry, and agriculture have been discovered. Molds, for example, produce antibiot¬ ics, notably penicillin. See also bacteriology, genetic engineering.

microchip See integrated circuit microcircuit See integrated circuit

microclimate Climatic condition in a relatively small area, within a few feet above and below the Earth’s surface and within canopies of veg¬ etation. Microclimates are affected by such factors as temperature, humid¬ ity, wind and turbulence, dew, frost, heat balance, evaporation, the nature of the soil and vegetation, the local topography, latitude, elevation, and season. Weather and climate are sometimes influenced by microclimatic conditions, especially by variations in surface characteristics.

microcline Common feldspar mineral, one form of potassium alumino¬ silicate (KAlSi 3 0 8 ) that occurs in many rock types. Green specimens are called amazonstone and may be used as gems. It is an end-member com¬ position in the alkali feldspar series. See also orthoclase.

micrococcus V.mr-kro-'ka-kssN Any of the spherical bacteria that make up the genus Micrococcus. Widespread in nature, these gram-positive (see gram stain) cocci (see coccus) are usually not considered to cause disease. They are normal inhabitants of the human body and may even be essen¬ tial in keeping the balance among the various microorganisms found on the skin. Some species are found in the dust of the air, in soil, in marine waters, and on the skin of vertebrates. Certain species are found in milk and can result in spoilage.

microcomputer Small digital computers whose CPU is contained on a single integrated semiconductor chip. As large-scale and then very large- scale integration (VLSI) have progressively increased the number of tran¬ sistors that can be placed on one chip, the processing capacity of microcomputers has grown immensely. The personal computer is the most common example of a microcomputer, but high-performance microcom¬ puter systems are widely used in business, in engineering, and in “smart” machines in manufacturing. See also integrated circuit, microprocessor.

microeconomics Study of the economic behaviour of individual con¬ sumers, firms, and industries and the distribution of total production and income among them. It considers individuals both as suppliers of land, labour, and capital and as the ultimate consumers of the final product, and it examines firms both as suppliers of products and as consumers of labour and capital. Microeconomics seeks to analyze the market or other mecha¬ nisms that establish relative prices among goods and services and allo¬ cate society’s resources among their many possible uses. See also MACROECONOMICS.

microelectromechanical system (MEMS) Miniature devices formed by combining mechanical parts and electronic circuits, typically on a semiconductor chip, with dimensions from tens to a few hundred micrometres (millionths of a metre). Common applications for MEMS include sensors, actuators, and process-control units.

micromanipulation See microsurgery

micrometer (caliper) Vml-'kra-mo-toiA Instrument for making precise linear measurements of dimensions such as diameters, thicknesses, and lengths of solid bodies. It consists of a C-shaped frame with a movable jaw operated by a screw. The accuracy of the measurements depends on the accuracy of the screw-nut combination.

Micronesia Island group, western Pacific Ocean. A subdivision of Oce¬ ania, it comprises Kiribati, Guam, Nauru, the Northern Marianas, the Fed¬ erated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau. Located mostly north of the Equator, Micronesia includes the westernmost of the Pacific Islands.

Micronesia, Federated States of Island country, western Pacific Ocean. It comprises the four states Yap, Chuuk (Truk), Pohnpei (Ponape), and Kosrae, all in the Caroline Islands. Area: 271 sq mi (701 sq km).

Population (2005 est.): 113,400. Capital: Palikir, on Pohnpei, the largest island. The people are Micronesian. Languages: Malayo-Polynesian lan¬ guages, English. Religion: Christianity (mostly Roman Catholic; also Protestant). Currency: U.S. dollar. The islands and atolls extend about 1,750 mi (2,800 km) east-west and about 600 mi (965 km) north-south. U.S. government grants constitute the main source of revenue; subsistence farming and fishing are the principal economic activities. Micronesia is a republic in free association with the U.S.; it has one legislative house, and its head of state and government is the president. The islands were prob¬ ably settled by people from eastern Melanesia some 3,500 years ago. They were colonized by Spain in 1886 and came under Japanese rule after World War I. They were captured by U.S. forces during World War II, and in 1947 they became part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, administered by the U.S. The islands became an internally self-governing federation in 1979. In 1982 it signed a compact of free association with the U.S., which is responsible for Micronesia’s defense.

microphone Device for converting sound waves into electric power that has wave characteristics essentially similar to those of the sound. By proper design, a microphone may be given directional characteristics so that it will pick up sound primarily from a single direction, from two directions, or more or less uniformly from all directions. In addition to their use in telephone transmitters, microphones are most widely applied in hearing aids, sound-recording systems (principally magnetic and digi¬ tal tape recorders), and public-address systems.

In a moving-coil microphone, sound waves cause the diaphragm to vibrate, and this oscillating motion causes a wire voice coil to move back and forth through a magnetic field, generating a current that varies in proportion to the original sound wave. This varying current is transmitted through a wire lead to a transformer, which converts it to a current that can be carried by wire cable to a recorder or loudspeaker.

microprocessor Miniature electronic device that contains the arith¬ metic, logic, and control circuitry needed to function as a digital comput¬ er’s CPU. Microprocessors are integrated circuits that can interpret and execute program instructions as well as handle arithmetic operations. Their development in the late 1970s enabled computer engineers to

microprogramming ► Middlebury College I 1253

develop microcomputers. Microprocessors led to “intelligent” terminals, such as bank ATMs and point-of-sale devices, and to automatic control of much industrial instrumentation and hospital equipment, programmable microwave ovens, and electronic games. Many automobiles use microprocessor-controlled ignition and fuel systems.

microprogramming Process of writing microcode for a microproces¬ sor. Microcode is low-level code that defines how a microprocessor should function when it executes machine-language instructions. Typically, one machine-language instruction translates into several microcode instructions. On some computers, the microcode is stored in ROM and cannot be modified; on some larger computers, it is stored in EPROM and therefore can be replaced with newer versions.

microscope Instrument that produces enlarged images of small objects, allowing them to be viewed at a scale convenient for examination and analysis. Formed by various means, the image is received by direct imag¬ ing, electronic processing, or a combination of these methods. The most familiar type of microscope is the optical, or light, microscope, in which lenses are used to form the image. Other types of microscopes use the wave nature of various physical processes, the most important being the electron microscope (see electron microscopy), which uses a beam of elec¬ trons in its image formation. Crude microscopes date to the mid-15th century, but not until 1674 were the powerful microscopes of A. van Leeu¬ wenhoek able to detect phenomena as small as protozoa.

Microsoft Corp. U.S. computer firm, the leading developer of personal-computer software systems and applications. Microsoft, head¬ quartered in Redmond, Wash., also publishes books and multimedia titles and manufactures hardware. It was founded in 1975 by Bill Gates and Paul G. Allen (b. 1954), who adapted BASIC for use on personal computers. They licensed versions of it to various companies, developed other pro¬ gramming languages, and in 1981 released MS-DOS for the IBM PC. The subsequent adoption of MS-DOS by most other personal-computer manu¬ facturers generated vast revenues for Microsoft, which became a publicly owned corporation in 1986. It issued the first version of Microsoft Word, its popular word-processing program, in 1983, and Microsoft Windows, a graphical user interface for MS-DOS-based computers, in 1985. In 2001 Microsoft released Xbox, a video game console that quickly captured second place in the $10 billion video gaming market. In 2002 Microsoft launched Xbox Live, a broadband gaming network for their consoles.

microsurgery or micromanipulation Surgical technique for oper¬ ating on minute structures, with specialized, tiny precision instruments under observation through a microscope, sometimes equipped with cam¬ eras to show the operation on a monitor. Microsurgery permits operations that were once impossible—surgery on the delicate bones of the inner and middle ear, reattachment of severed limbs or digits, repair of the retina, and removal of tumours intricately embedded in vital structures.

microtubule \ l mI-kro- , tii-byiil\ Tubular structure enclosed by a mem¬ brane found within animal and plant cells. Of varying length, they have several functions. They help give shape to many cells and are major com¬ ponents of cilia and flagella, participate in the formation of the spindle during cell division (mitosis), and assist the movement of vesicles from the cell bodies of nerve cells toward the ends of those cells’ long exten¬ sions (axons) and back to the cell bodies.

microwave Portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is situated between radio waves and infrared radiation. Microwaves have wavelengths ranging from 30 cm to 1 mm, corresponding to frequencies from about 1 gigahertz (10 9 Hz) to 1 terahertz (10 12 Hz). They are the principal car¬ riers of television, telephone, and data transmissions between stations on Earth and between the Earth and satellites. Radar beams are short pulses of microwaves used to locate ships and planes, track weather systems, and determine the speeds of moving objects. Microwaves are absorbed by water and fat in foodstuffs and produce heat from the inside (see micro- wave oven). Materials such as glass and ceramics do not absorb micro- waves, and metals reflect them. See also maser.

microwave oven Appliance that cooks food by means of high- frequency electromagnetic radiation. A microwave oven is a relatively small, boxlike oven that raises the temperature of food by subjecting it to a high-frequency electromagnetic field. The microwaves are absorbed by water, fats, sugars, and certain other molecules, whose resulting vibra¬ tions produce heat. The heating thus occurs inside the food, without warm¬ ing the surrounding air. This process greatly reduces cooking time; baking

and other tasks that may require an hour or more in a conventional oven can be completed in minutes in a microwave oven.

Mid-Atlantic Ridge Submarine ridge lying along the floor of the cen¬ tral Atlantic Ocean. It is a long mountain chain running about 10,000 mi (16,000 km) in a north-south direction, curving from the Arctic Ocean to the southern tip of Africa. The mountains sometimes reach above sea level, forming such islands or island groups as Ascension, Saint Helena, and Tristan da Cunha.

mid-ocean ridge See oceanic ridge

Midas Vml-d9s\ In Greek and Roman legend, a king of Phrygia. Midas captured the satyr Silenus but treated him kindly, and as a reward was granted a wish by Dionysus. He asked that everything he touched turn to gold; but after turning his daughter to gold when she embraced him, he asked to be released from his wish. In another legend Midas was invited to judge a music contest between Apollo and the satyr Marsyas. When Midas decided against Apollo, Apollo punished him by giving him don¬ key’s ears. See also satyr and silenus.

Midas See Missile Defense Alarm System

Middle Ages Period in European history traditionally dated from the fall of the Roman Empire to the dawn of the Renaissance. In the 5th cen¬ tury the Western Roman Empire endured declines in population, economic vitality, and the size and prominence of cities. It also was greatly affected by a dramatic migration of peoples that began in the 3rd century. In the 5th century these peoples, often called barbarians, carved new kingdoms out of the decrepit Western Empire. Over the next several centuries these kingdoms oversaw the gradual amalgamation of barbarian, Christian, and Roman cultural and political traditions. The longest-lasting of these king¬ doms, that of the Franks, laid the foundation for later European states. It also produced Charlemagne, the greatest ruler of the Middle Ages, whose reign was a model for centuries to come. The collapse of Charlemagne’s empire and a fresh wave of invasions led to a restructuring of medieval society. The 11th—13th centuries mark the high point of medieval civili¬ zation. The church underwent reform that strengthened the place of the pope in church and society but led to clashes between the pope and emperor. Population growth, the flourishing of towns and farms, the emer¬ gence of merchant classes, and the development of governmental bureau¬ cracies were part of cultural and economic revival during this period. Meanwhile, thousands of knights followed the call of the church to join the Crusades. Medieval civilization reached its apex in the 13th century with the emergence of Gothic architecture, the appearance of new reli¬ gious orders, and the expansion of learning and the university. The church dominated intellectual life, producing the Scholasticism of St. Thomas Aquinas. The decline of the Middle Ages resulted from the breakdown of medieval national governments, the great papal schism, the critique of medieval theology and philosophy, and economic and population collapse brought on by famine and disease.

Middle Congo See Republic of the Congo

Middle East or Mideast or Near East Geographic region where Europe, Africa, and Asia meet. It is an unofficial and imprecise term that now generally encompasses the lands around the southern and eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea—notably Egypt, Jordan, Israel, Leba¬ non, and Syria—as well as Iran, Iraq, and the countries of the Arabian Peninsula. Afghanistan, Libya, Turkey, and The Sudan are sometimes also included. The term was formerly used by Western geographers and his¬ torians to describe the region from the Persian Gulf to Southeast Asia; Near East is sometimes used to describe the same area.

Middle English Vernacular spoken and written in England c. 1100— 1500, the descendant of Old English and the ancestor of Modern English. It can be divided into three periods: Early, Central, and Late. The Central period was marked by the borrowing of many Anglo-Norman words and the rise of the London dialect, used by such poets as John Gower and Geoffrey Chaucer in a 14th-century flowering of English literature. The dialects of Middle English are usually divided into four groups: South¬ ern, East Midland, West Midland, and Northern.

Middle West See Midwest

Middlebury College Private liberal arts college in Middlebury, Vt., founded in 1800. It is known for its curriculum emphasizing writing, lit¬ erature, and modern languages. Middlebury sponsors the Bread Loaf Writ¬ ers’ Conference, an annual gathering for established and aspiring authors.

1254 I Middlesbrough ► Mies van der Rohe

Middlesbrough Vmi-d^z-broX Town and unitary authority (pop., 2001: 134,487), geographic county of North Yorkshire, historic county of Yorkshire, England. Situated on the southern bank of the River Tees, it was formed in 1830 with the arrival of the railway to the site of a new coal-exporting port. Its development was later fostered by the discovery of ironstone nearby.

Middlesex Historic county, southeastern England, situated along the River Thames. Its earliest settlements date from 500 bc; Belgic tribes arrived in the 1st century bc, followed by the Romans, who established outposts along the river. It was colonized by Saxons in the early 5th cen¬ tury ad. Situated between the East and West Saxons, it obtained its name (meaning “middle Saxons”) by ad 704. Middlesex was established as an administrative county in 1888. In 1965 Greater London incorporated parts from the former county.

Middleton, Thomas (b. April? 1580, London, Eng.—d. July 4, 1627, Newington Butts, Surrey) British playwright. Middleton studied at Oxford University and had written three books of poetry by 1600. He learned to write plays by collaborating with John Webster and others on works for the producer Philip Henslowe. His tragedies Women Beware Women (c. 1621) and The Changeling (1622, with William Rowley) are considered his masterpieces. His comedies, which picture a society dazzled by money, include Michaelmas Terme (c. 1605), A Trick to Catch the Old- one (1608), A Mad World, My Masters (1608), A Chast Mayd in Cheape- side (c. 1613), and A Game at Chess (1625).

middot \me-'dot\ In Jewish biblical interpretation, the principles used to explicate the meaning of biblical words or passages. The middot are used especially to determine the bearing that a passage has on a new question or situation. The first known middot were compiled by Hillel in the 1st century bc; others were compiled by Ishmael ben Elisha (c. ad 100) and Eliezer ben Yose the Galilaean (c. ad 150). Among the best-known are the kol wa-homer (“how much more”), in which the interpreter pro¬ ceeds from a minor to a major premise, and the gezera show a (compari¬ son of similar expressions or laws), in which an inference is made by analogy.

Mideast See Middle East

Midgard In Norse mythology, the dwelling place of humankind. According to legend, it was made from the body of the first created being, the giant Aurgelmir (Ymir). The gods killed him and rolled his body into the central void of the universe, forming the land from his flesh, the oceans from his blood, the mountains from his bones, and so on. Aurgelmir’s skull, held up by four dwarfs, became the dome of the heavens. The sun, moon, and stars were made of scattered sparks caught in the skull.

midge Any of a group of tiny dipterans, sometimes called gnats and classified as nonbiting (family Chi- ronomidae), biting (family Cerato- pogonidae), or gall (family Cecidomyiidae) midges. Nonbiting midges resemble mosquitoes but are harmless. Humming swarms can be found around water in late afternoon.

The often blood-red, aquatic larvae (bloodworms) are important food for aquatic animals. Biting midges (no- see-ums) are the smallest bloodsuck¬ ing insect (about 0.04 in., or 1 mm, long). Punkies or sand flies (genera Culicoides and Leptoconops ) attack humans but do not transmit disease; many species attack other insects. Gall-midge larvae cause tissue swell¬ ings (galls) in plants.

Midgley, Thomas, Jr. (b. May 18, 1889, Beaver Falls, Pa., U.S.—d. Nov. 2, 1944, Worthington, Ohio) U.S. engineer and chemist. After study¬ ing at Cornell University, he worked as an industrial researcher and administrator. In 1921 he discovered the effectiveness of tetraethyl lead as an antiknock additive for gasoline. He also discovered dichlorodiflu- oromethane, a refrigerant sold commercially as Freon-12 (see Freon), which with related compounds came into universal use as refrigerants and later as aerosol propellants. Midgley conducted extensive research on natural and synthetic rubbers and discovered one of the first catalysts for “cracking” (breaking down) hydrocarbons.

Midhat Pasha Xmid-'hat-pa-'shaV (b. October 1822, Constantinople, Ottoman Empire—d. May 8, 1883, Al-Ta’if, Arabian Peninsula) Civil ser¬

vant and grand vizier of the Ottoman Empire. As governor of Nis and Baghdad, his successful reforms earned the respect of the sultan Abdiilaziz, who in 1872 appointed him grand vizier, a post he held only three months. In 1876 he helped depose Abdiilaziz and eventually replaced him with Abdiilhamid II. Again appointed grand vizier, he was dismissed after six months. Afterward, he was banished but later was recalled and made governor of Smyrna. He then was arrested and con¬ victed for Abdiilaziz’s death. His death sentence was commuted to per¬ manent exile. See also Tanzimat.

MIDI \'mi-de\ in full Musical Instrument Digital Interface Pro¬ tocol for transmission of musical data between digital components, such as synthesizers and a computer’s sound card. MIDI uses 8-bit asynchro¬ nous serial transmission with a data rate of 31.25 kilobytes per second. The transmitted data do not directly represent musical sound but specify various aspects (pitch, loudness, starting and stopping points in time). The data are then applied to waveforms stored digitally on a computer chip to create a specific sound.

Mid rash \me-'drash, 'mi-,drash\ In Judaism, a large collection of writ¬ ings that examine the Hebrew Bible in the light of oral tradition. Midrashic activity reached its height in the 2nd century ad with the schools of Ish¬ mael ben Elisha and Akiba ben Joseph. The Midrashim are divided into two groups: Halakhah, which clarify legal issues; and Haggadah, nonlegal writings intended simply to enlighten. The Midrashim are extensively quoted in the Talmud.

Midway formerly Brooks Islands Unincorporated U.S. territory, central Pacific Ocean. Midway consists of two coral islands, Eastern and Sand islands, with a total land area of 2 sq mi (5 sq km); there is no per¬ manent population. Claimed for the U.S. in 1859 by Capt. N.C. Brooks, the islands were formally annexed in 1867. Their location, over 1,300 mi (2,100 km) northwest of Honolulu, gave them strategic importance for U.S. forces during World War II, and in 1941 the U.S. Navy established an air and submarine base there. The Battle of Midway (1942) took place in nearby waters. Midway also served as a commercial air base. Its air¬ field was closed in 1993.

Midway, Battle of (June 3-6, 1942) Major World War II naval battle between the U.S. and Japan. Japanese naval forces under Yamamoto Iso- roku sought to seize Midway Island by engaging the numerically inferior U.S. Pacific fleet. U.S. intelligence had broken the Japanese naval code, and the U.S. prepared for the assault by mobilizing about 115 land-based aircraft as well as three aircraft carriers. On June 3 its bombers began striking Japan’s carrier force. Japan was unable to match the U.S. air power and, after heavy losses, abandoned efforts to land on Midway. The battle brought the Pacific naval forces of Japan and the U.S. to approxi¬ mate parity and marked the turning point of the war between the two countries.

Midwest or Middle West Region, northern and central U.S., lying midway between the Appalachian and Rocky mountains, and north of the Ohio River. As defined by the federal government, it comprises the states of Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, and Wisconsin. It includes much of the Great Plains, the region of the Great Lakes, and the upper Mississippi River valley.

midwifery \mid-'wif-9r-e\ Art of attending women in childbirth. It is known to date to ancient biblical, Greek, and Roman times. It declined in the Middle Ages, when childbirth carried high mortality for mothers and infants, but advanced considerably in the 17th-19th century. Later, with advances in obstetrics and gynecology, most women gave birth in hospitals. In the 1960s, the natural childbirth movement, feminism, and other factors renewed interest in the personal care given by mid wives. In the U.S., certified nurse-mid wives (CNMs)—registered nurses trained in midwifery—accept only low-risk patients. If problems develop, a physi¬ cian is called. CNMs also provide pre- and postnatal care and reproduc¬ tive health advice. Lay midwives usually have no formal training, are unlicensed, and deliver (at home) about three-fourths of infants bom throughout the world, mostly in developing countries and rural areas of developed nations.

Mies van der Rohe Ymes-.van-do-'ro-oV, Ludwig orig. Maria Ludwig Michael Mies (b. March 27, 1886, Aachen, Ger.—d. Aug. 17, 1969, Chicago, Ill., U.S.) German-born U.S. architect and designer. Mies learned masonry from his father and later worked in the office of

Midge (Chironomidae)

N.A. CALLOW/EB INC.

Miescher ► Mika’il I 1255

Peter Behrens. His first great work was the German Pavilion for the 1929 International Exposition in Barcelona, Spain, a travertine plat¬ form with chromed steel columns and spaces defined by planes of extravagant onyx, marble, and frosted glass. The steel-and-leather Barcelona chair he designed for the space went on to become a 20th- century classic. He was director of the Bauhaus in 1930-33, first in Des¬ sau and then, during its final months, in Berlin. After moving to the U.S. in 1937, he became director of the School of Architecture at Chicago’s Armour Institute (now the Illinois Institute of Technology), where he designed the school’s new campus (1939^11). The International Style, with Mies its undisputed leader, reached its zenith during the next 20 years. His other projects included Chicago’s Lake Shore Drive Apartments (1949-51), and the Seagram Building (1956-58, with Philip Johnson) in New York City. These build¬ ings, steel skeletons sheathed in glass curtain-wall facades, exemplify Mies’s dictum that “less is more.” His later works include Berlin’s New National Gallery (1963-68). Modernist steel-and-glass office buildings influenced by his work were built all over the world over the course of the 20th century.

Miescher Vme-shsrV Johann Friedrich (b. Aug. 13, 1844, Basel, Switz.—d. Aug. 26, 1895, Davos) Swiss biologist. In 1869 he discovered a substance containing both phosphorus and nitrogen in the nuclei of white blood cells found in pus. The substance, first named nuclein because it seemed to come from cell nuclei, became known as nucleic acid after Miescher separated it into a protein and an acid component. He also was one of the earliest researchers to propose that it is the carbon dioxide con¬ centration (rather than the oxygen concentration) in the blood that regu¬ lates breathing.

Mieszko \'myesh-ko\ I (b. c. 930—d. May 25, 992) Prince or duke of Poland (9637-992). He accepted Christianity from Rome (966) to avoid forced conversion by the Germans and the incorporation of Poland into the Holy Roman Empire. He expanded Poland southward into Galicia and northward as far as the Baltic Sea.

Mifune \mi-'fu-na\ Toshiro (b. April 1, 1920, Tsingtao, Shantung prov¬ ince, China—d. Dec. 24, 1997, Mitaka, near Tokyo, Japan) Japanese film actor. After serving in the Japanese army in World War II, he made his screen debut in These Foolish Times (1947). He followed it with Drunken Angel (1948) and achieved international fame in Rashomon (1950). He acted in more than 100 films and was known internationally for his ener¬ getic, flamboyant portrayals of samurai characters in the films of Kuro¬ sawa Akira, including Seven Samurai (1954), The Hidden Fortress (1958), Yojimbo (1961), and Sanjuro (1962); he also played legendary samurai Miyamoto Musashi in three films. His other films include Throne of Blood (1957), The Lower Depths (1957), Red Beard (1965), and Mid¬ way (1976).

MiG \'mig\ Any member of a family of Russian military fighter aircraft produced by a design bureau founded in 1939 by Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich. The early MiGs, built in World War II, were propeller- driven. The MiG-15, first flown in 1947, was among the best of the early jet fighters; it saw extensive combat in the Korean War. The MiG-21, a lightweight, single-engine interceptor introduced in 1955, became the principal fighter of North Vietnam and was built for more than 40 other countries. More modern jets include the MiG-29, a single-seat, twin- engine air-to-air fighter that can also be used for ground attack.

MiG officially ANPK imeni A.I. Mikoyana formerly OKB-155 Russian design bureau that is the country’s major producer of jet fight¬ ers. The company originated in 1939 within another Soviet design bureau as a department under Artem Mikoyan and his deputy, Mikhail Gurevich. Three years later it became the independent bureau OKB-155. Its first design, a single-engine interceptor (first flown 1940), eventually bore the name MiG-1 (“MiG” being an acronym based on “Mikoyan” and “Gure¬

vich”). After World War II it produced the first Soviet jet fighter, the MiG-9 (1946), and followed on with some of the U.S.S.R.’s most notable high-speed aircraft (see MiG [fighter aircraft]). The last major fighters designed under Mikoyan (died 1970) were the variable-wing MiG-23 (entered service 1972), and the MiG-25 (introduced 1970; capable of about Mach 3). The organization later produced several new designs, including the MiG-29 and MiG-31 (both first flown in the 1970s). In the late 1980s its formal name became ANPK imeni A.I. Mikoyana. In the 1990s, after the breakup of the Soviet Union, MiG was consolidated with several other major firms into the giant state-owned aerospace complex VPK MAPO. MiG diversified modestly into the civilian passenger plane market and continued to develop advanced fighter concepts, including the 1.42 (1.441) multifunctional fifth-generation fighter (first flown 2000).

Mighty Five, The see Five, The

migmatite Vmig-mo-.thA Rock composed of a metamorphic host mate¬ rial that is streaked or veined with granite; the name means “mixed rock.” Many migmatites probably represent partial fusion of the metamorphic host; some components of the rock are fused and gather to produce the streaks of granite. Migmatite also can form near large intrusions of gran¬ ite when some of the magma is injected into neighbouring metamorphic rocks.

migraine Recurrent vascular headache, usually on one side of the head. Severe throbbing pain is sometimes accompanied by nausea and vomit¬ ing. Some migraine patients have warning symptoms (an “aura”) before the headache, including visual disturbance, weakness, numbness, or diz¬ ziness. If a stimulus (e.g., a particular food or drink) is found to trigger attacks, avoidance can prevent them. Drugs may be taken as an attack begins (to abort it) or daily by patients with very frequent attacks (to pre¬ vent them or reduce their severity).

migrant labour Semiskilled or unskilled workers who move from one region to another, offering their services on a temporary, usually seasonal, basis. In North America, migrant labour is generally employed in agri¬ culture and moves seasonally from south to north following the harvest. In Europe and the Middle East, migrant labour usually involves urban rather than agricultural employment and calls for longer periods of resi¬ dence. The migrant labour market is often disorganized and exploitative. Many workers are supervised by middlemen such as labour contractors and crew leaders, who recruit and transport them and dispense their pay. Labourers commonly endure long hours, low wages, poor working con¬ ditions, and substandard housing. In some countries, child labour is wide¬ spread among migrant labourers, and even in the U.S. those children who do not work often do not go to school, since schools are usually open only to local residents. Workers willing to accept employment on these terms are usually driven by even worse conditions in their home coun¬ tries. Labour organizing is made difficult by mobility and by low rates of literacy and political participation, though some migrant labourers in the U.S. have been unionized. See also Cesar Chavez.

migration, human Permanent change of residence by an individual or group, excluding such movements as nomadism and migrant labour. Migrations may be classed as internal or international and as voluntary or forced. Voluntary migration is usually undertaken in search of a better life; forced migrations include expulsions during war and the transporta¬ tion of slaves or prisoners. The earliest humans migrated from Africa to all the continents except Antarctica within about 50,000 years. Other mass migrations include the forced migration of 20 million people as slaves from Africa to North America in the 16th-19th centuries and the Great Atlantic Migration of 37 million people from Europe to North America between 1820 and 1980. War-related forced migrations and refugee flows continue to be very large, as are voluntary migrations from developing nations to industrialized ones. Internal migrations have tended to be from rural areas to urban centers.

mihrab \'me-rob\ Arabic mihrab Semicircular prayer niche in the qiblah wall (the wall facing Mecca) of a MOSQUE, reserved for the prayer leader {imam). The mihrab originated in the reign of the Umayyad caliph al-Walld I (705-715), when the famous mosques at Medina, Jerusalem, and Damascus were built. It was adapted from the prayer niches common in Coptic Christian monasteries. Mihrabs are usually ornately decorated.

MTka’Tl \mi-'kal\ In Islam, the counterpart of the biblical archangel Michael. Mika’il is mentioned only once in the Qur’an, but, according to legend, he and JibrTl were the first angels to obey God’s order to worship

The Lake Shore Drive Apartments, Chi¬ cago, designed by Mies van der Rohe; photographed in 1955

EZRA STOLLER C. ESTO

1256 I Mikan ► military unit

Adam. The two are credited with purifying Muhammad’s heart before his ascension to heaven (see mir'aj). Mika’Il is said to have been so shocked at the sight of hell when it was created that he never laughed again. He is also believed to have helped the Muslims win their first significant military victory in Arabia in 624.

Mikan Vml-konX, George (Lawrence) (b. June 18, 1924, Joliet, Ill., U.S.—d. June 1, 2005, Scottsdale, Ariz.) U.S. basketball player and executive. He was an outstanding centre at DePaul University, where he also took his law degree. Standing about 6 ft 10 in. (2.08 m) tall, he was the first of the dominant big men in post-World War II professional bas¬ ketball. He played for the Minneapolis Lakers (now the Los Angeles Lak¬ ers) in 1947-54 and 1955-56, leading them to six championships. He was later named the first commissioner of the American Basketball Associa¬ tion (1967-69). An Associated Press poll in 1950 named him the greatest basketball player of the first half of the 20th century.

Mikotajczyk \,me-k6l-'I-chik\, Stanisfaw (b. July 18, 1901, Hol- sterhausen, near Gelsenkirchen, Ger.—d. Dec. 13, 1966, Washington, D.C., U.S.) Polish statesman. He cofounded the Peasant Party and served as its leader (1931-39). After the German invasion of Poland (1939), he fled to London, where he served in the Polish govemment-in-exile as prime minister (1943-44). He returned in 1945 and became second deputy premier in the communist-dominated provisional government. He tried to effect a democratic government, but persecution of the noncommunist Peasant Party forced him to flee in 1947 to Britain and then the U.S.

Mikon See Micon

Mikoyan Vme-ko-'yanX, Anastas (Ivanovich) (b. Nov. 25, 1895, Sanain, Armenia—d. Oct. 21, 1978, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Russian statesman. After joining the Bolsheviks in 1915, he became a party leader in the Caucasus. His support of Joseph Stalin earned him a post on the Communist Central Committee (1923). He was commissar of trade from 1926, a member of the Politburo from 1935, and deputy premier (1946- 64), directing the country’s trade. He supported Nikita Khrushchev’s rise to power and became his close adviser and a first deputy premier of the Soviet Union. He was chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet

(1964-65).

milad See Mawlid

Milan Vmo-'lan, mo-'lanN Italian Milano \me-'la-no\ Capital (pop., 2001 prelim.: 1,182,693), Lombardy region, northern Italy. The area was settled by the Gauls c. 600 bc. Known as Mediolanum, it was conquered by the Romans in 222 bc. Attacked in ad 452 by Attila and in 539 by the Goths, it fell to Charlemagne in 774. Milan’s power grew in the 11th century, but it was destroyed by the Holy Roman Empire in 1162. Rebuilt as part of the Lombard League in 1167, Milan achieved independence in 1183. In 1450 Francesco Sforza founded a new dynasty there; after 1499 it was ruled alternately by the French and the Sforza family until 1535, when the Hab- sburgs obtained it. Napoleon took power in 1796, and in 1805 it became the capital of his kingdom of Italy. It was incorporated into unified Italy in 1860. Milan was heavily damaged during World War II but was rebuilt. It is Italy’s most important economic centre, with industrial development and textile manufacturing. It is noted for its fashion industry and produc¬ tion of electronic goods and is also Italy’s financial centre. Its historic sites include the medieval Duomo, Europe’s third largest cathedral; the Palazzo di Brera (1651); the 15th-century monastery that houses Leonardo da Vinci’s Last Supper, and La Scala opera house.

Milan Decree (Dec. 17, 1807) Economic policy in the Napoleonic Wars. It was part of the Continental System invoked by Napoleon to block¬ ade trade with the British. It expanded the blockade of continental ports to those of neutral ships trading with Britain and eventually affected U.S. shipping.

mildew Conspicuous mass of threadlike hyphae (see mycelium) and fruit¬ ing structures produced by various fungi (division Mycota; see fungus). Mildew grows on cloth, fibres, leather goods, and plants, using these sub¬ stances as food for growth and reproduction. Downy mildew and pow¬ dery mildew are plant diseases that affect hundreds of species.

mile Any of various units of distance, including the statute mile of 5,280 ft (1.61 km). It originated from the Roman mille passus, or “thousand paces,” which measured 5,000 Roman ft (4,840 English ft [1,475 km]). A nautical mile is the length on the Earth’s surface of one minute of arc or, by international definition, 1,852 m (6,076.12 ft [1.1508 statute mi]);

it remains in universal use in both marine and air transportation. A knot is one nautical mile per hour. See also International System of Units; met¬ ric system.

Miletus \ml-'le-t3s\ Ancient Greek city of western Anatolia. Before 500 bc it was the greatest Greek city in the east. Distinguished as a commer¬ cial and colonial power, it was also known for its intellectual figures, including Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, and Hecataeus. Ruled by Greek tyrants, it later passed successively under the control of Lydia and the Persian Achaemenian dynasty. About 499 bc Miletus led the Ionian revolt that sparked the Persian Wars, and it was destroyed by the Persians in 494 bc. After the Greeks defeated the Persians, it joined the Delian League. It fell to Alexander the Great in 334 bc but retained its commer¬ cial importance. By the 6th century ad its two harbours had silted up, and it was eventually abandoned. Now an archaeological site, it is located near the mouth of the Menderes River.

Milford Sound Inlet of the Tasman Sea, southwestern coast of South Island, New Zealand. About 2 mi (3 km) wide, the sound extends inland for 12 mi (19 km). It was named by a whaler in the 1820s for its resem¬ blance to Milford Haven in Wales. It is the northernmost fjord in Fiord¬ land National Park and is the site of Milford Sound town, one of the region’s few permanently inhabited places.

Milhaud \me-'y6\, Darius (b. Sept. 4, 1892, Aix-en-Provence, France—d. June 22, 1974, Geneva, Switz.) French composer. Milhaud studied at the Paris Conservatoire, then at the Schola Cantorum with Vin¬ cent d'Indy. He became known as one of Les Six, a group of young French composers. His music is characterized by polytonality (simultaneous use of different keys), as in Saudades do Brazil (1921); though dissonant, his compositions retain a lyrical quality. The influence of jazz is audible in his best-known work, the ballet The Creation of the World (1923). He wrote many ballets, operas, and film scores in the 1920s, culminating in the grand opera Christophe Colomb (1928). Milhaud had a longtime asso¬ ciation with the Aspen Music Festival, which he helped found in 1949.

miliaria V.mi-le-'ar-e-oX Inflammatory skin disorder, with multiple small sites at sweat pores. Blockage of ducts causes sweat to escape into vari¬ ous levels of the skin and produce different inflammatory reactions. The most common type, known as prickly heat, results when sweat escapes into the epidermis. Pinhead blisters or pimplelike bumps occur mostly on the trunk and limbs and cause itching and burning. It mainly affects infants in tropical climates. See also perspiration, sweat gland.

Military Academy, U.S. See United States Military Academy

military engineering Art and practice of designing and building military works and of building and maintaining lines of military transport and communications. It includes both tactical support (see tactics) on the battlefield, including construction of fortifications and demolition of enemy installations, and strategic support (see strategy) away from the front lines, such as construction or maintenance of airfields, ports, roads, railroads, bridges, and hospitals. Its most notable feat in ancient times was the Great Wall of China. The preeminent military engineers of the ancient Western world were the Romans, who maintained their power by con¬ structing not only forts and garrisons but roads, bridges, aqueducts, har¬ bors, and lighthouses. See also civil engineering.

military government Administration of territory by an occupying power. The definition does not cover military forces stationed in neutral or friendly territory that share administrative responsibilities with local civil authorities. Military government must also be distinguished from military law and martial law. Its control lasts until it either gives up power voluntarily or is overthrown. The term is popularly used for rule of a country by its own military, whether it comes to power through a COUP d'etat or is the legitimate governing body.

military law Law prescribed by statute for governing the armed forces and their civilian employees. It in no way relieves military personnel of their obligations to their country’s civil code or to the codes of interna¬ tional law. Mutiny, insubordination, desertion, misconduct, and other offenses injurious to military discipline constitute violations of military law; offenders may be subject to court-martial. Lesser offenses may be penalized summarily by a commanding officer (e.g., through the with¬ drawal of privileges or the cancellation of liberty).

military unit Group of a prescribed size with a specific combat role within a larger military organization. The chief units in the ancient world

militia ► Mill I 1257

were the Greek phalanx and the Roman legion. Modern units originated in the 16th—18th century, when professional armies reemerged in Europe after the end of the Middle Ages. Since then the basic units—company, battalion, brigade, and division—have remained in use. The smallest unit today is the squad, which has 7-14 soldiers and is led by a sergeant. Three or four squads make up a platoon, and two or more platoons make up a company, which has 100-250 soldiers and is commanded by a captain or a major. Two or more companies make up a battalion, and several bat¬ talions form a brigade. Two or more brigades, along with various spe¬ cialized battalions, make up a division, which has 7,000-22,000 troops and is commanded by a major general. Two to seven divisions make up an army corps, commanded by a lieutenant general, which with 50,000- 300,000 troops is the largest regular army formation, though in wartime two or more corps may be combined to form a field army (commanded by a general), and field armies in turn may be combined to form an army group.

militia \m3-'li-sh3\ Military organization of citizens with limited mili¬ tary training who are available for emergency service, usually for local defense. In many countries the militia is of ancient origin. The Anglo- Saxons required every able-bodied free male to serve. In colonial America it was the only defense against hostile Indians when regular British forces were not available. In the American Revolution the militia, called the Min- utemen, provided the bulk of the American forces. Militias played a simi¬ lar role in the War of 1812 and the American Civil War. State-controlled volunteer militias in the U.S. became the National Guard. British militia units, begun in the 16th century for home defense and answerable to the county sheriff or lord lieutenant, were absorbed into the regular army in the 20th century. Today various paramilitary organizations, from U.S. white supremacists to revolutionaries in the developing world, use the term militia to accentuate their populist origins.

milk Liquid secreted by the mammary glands of female mammals to nourish their young. The milk of domesticated animals is also an impor¬ tant food source for humans. Most milk consumed in Western countries is from cows; other important sources include sheep, goats, water buffalo, and camels. Milk is essentially an emulsion of fat and protein in water, along with dissolved sugar, minerals (including calcium and phosphorus), and vitamins, particularly vitamin B complex. Commercially processed cow’s milk is commonly enriched with vitamins A and D. Many countries require pasteurization to protect against naturally occurring and artificially introduced microorganisms. Cooling further prevents spoilage (souring and curdling). Fat from whole milk (about 3.5% fat content) can be removed in a separator to produce cream and leave low-fat milk (1-2% fat) or skim milk (0.5% fat). Milk is usually homogenized, forced under high pressure through small openings to distribute the fat evenly. It may also be condensed, evaporated, or dehydrated for preservation and ease of transport. Other dairy products include butter, cheese, and yogurt.

Milk, Harvey (Bernard) orig. Glimpy Milch (b. May 22, 1930, Woodmere, Long Island, N.Y., U.S.—d. Nov. 27, 1978, San Francisco, Calif.) U.S. political leader. After graduating from college, he served in the U.S. Navy and was discharged in 1955 (although Milk claimed that he was dishonourably discharged due to his homosexuality, military records do not support the allegation). He later settled in San Francisco and soon gained a following as a leader of the city’s gay community. In 1977 he was elected to the city’s Board of Supervisors, becoming one of the first openly gay elected officials in U.S. history. In 1978 Milk and the city’s mayor, George Moscone (1929-78), were shot and killed in City Hall by Dan White, a conservative former city supervisor. At White’s murder trial, his attorneys argued that his judgment had been impaired by eating junk food (a tactic later derided as the “Twinkie defense”); his con¬ viction on the less serious charge of voluntary manslaughter sparked riots in the city. Milk was the subject of numerous books and movies, includ¬ ing the 1984 documentary The Times of Harvey Milk, which received an Academy Award.

Milken, Michael R. (b. July 4, 1946, Encino, Calif., U.S.) U.S. fin- ancier and entrepreneur. He studied at the University of Pennsylvania’s Wharton School and went to work in 1969 for what was to become Drexel Burnham Lambert Inc., an investment-banking company. In 1971 he became head of its bond-trading department. He persuaded many of his clients to invest in junk bonds issued by new or financially troubled com¬ panies; the capital he raised financed a new class of “corporate raiders” who carried out numerous mergers, acquisitions, hostile takeovers, and leveraged buyouts in the 1980s. By the end of the decade, the junk-bond

market was worth $150 billion, and Drexel was a leading financial firm. In 1986 its client Ivan Boesky, convicted of insider trading, implicated Milken and the firm in his dealings. Charged with securities fraud and heavily fined, Drexel declared bankruptcy in 1990 when the junk-bond market collapsed. Milken pled guilty to securities fraud the same year and was sentenced to 10 years in prison and a $600-million fine; released after 22 months, he since made a second fortune.

milkweed family Family Asclepiadaceae, composed of about 2,000 species of flowering herbaceous plants or shrubby climbers in more than 280 genera. Most family members have milky juice, podlike fruits, and tufted silky-haired seeds that drift on wind currents to new locations for sprouting. Common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) and bloodflower {A. curassavica) often are cultivated as ornamentals. Hoya carnosa, com¬ monly called wax plant because of its waxy white flowers, is often grown indoors as a potted plant. The family also includes some succulents, some PITCHER PLANTS, and BUTTERFLY WEED.

Milky Way Galaxy Large spiral galaxy (roughly 150,000 light-years in diameter) that contains Earth’s soiar system. It includes the multitude of stars whose light is seen as the Milky Way, the irregular luminous band that encircles the sky defining the plane of the galactic disk. The Milky Way system contains hundreds of billions of stars and large amounts of interstellar gas and dust. Because the dust obscures astronomers’ view of many of its stars, large areas could not be studied before the development of infrared astronomy and radio astronomy (see radio and radar astronomy). Its precise constituents, shape, and true size and mass are still not known; it is believed to contain large amounts of dark matter and a massive black hole at its core. The Sun lies in one of the Galaxy’s spiral arms, about 27,000 light-years from the centre.

Mill, James (b. April 6, 1773, Northwater Bridge, Forfarshire, Scot.—d. June 23, 1836, London, Eng.) Scottish philosopher, historian, and economist. After studying at the University of Edinburgh and teach¬ ing, he went to London in 1802, where he met Jeremy Bentham and became a major promulgator of Bentham’s utilitarianism. He wrote for several journals, including the Edinburgh Review (1808-13), and contributed articles on government and education to the Encyclopaedia Britannica. He helped found London University in 1825. After completing his His¬ tory of British India (3 vol., 1817), he was appointed an official in India House (1819) and later became head of the examiner’s office (1830). His criticism of British rule led to changes in the government of India. His Elements of Political Economy (1821) summarized the views of David Ricardo, and his Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind (1829) associated psychology with utilitarianism, a doctrine continued by his son, John Stuart Mill. Mill is considered the founder of philosophical radical¬ ism.

Mill, John Stuart (b. May 20, 1806, London, Eng.—d. May 8, 1873, Avignon, France) British philosopher and economist, the leading exposi¬ tor of utilitarianism. He was educated exclusively and exhaustively by his father, James Mill. By age 8 he had read in the original Greek Aesop’s Fables, Xenophon’s Anabasis, and all of Herodotus, and he had begun a study of Euclid’s geometry; at age 12 he began a thorough study of scho¬ lastic logic. In 1823 he cofounded the Utilitarian Society with Jeremy Bentham, though he would later significantly modify the utilitarianism he inherited from Bentham and his father to meet the criticisms it encoun¬ tered. In 1826 he and Bentham cofounded London University (now Uni¬ versity College). From 1828 to 1856 he was an assistant examiner in India House, where from 1836 he was in charge of the East India Company’s relations with the Indian states. In the 1840s he published his great sys¬ tematic works in logic and political economy, chiefly A System of Logic (2 vol., 1843) and Principles of Political Economy (2 vol., 1848). As head of the examiner’s office in India House from 1856 to 1858 he wrote a defense of the company’s government of India when the transfer of its powers was proposed. In 1859 he published On Liberty, a trenchant defense of individual freedom. His Utilitarianism (1863) is a closely rea¬ soned attempt to answer objections to his ethical theory and to address misconceptions about it; he was especially insistent that “utility” include the pleasures of the imagination and the gratification of the higher emo¬ tions and that his system include a place for settled rules of conduct. In 1869 he published The Subjection of Women (written 1861), now the clas¬ sical theoretical statement of the case for woman suffrage. Prominent as a publicist in the reforming age of the 19th century, he remains of lasting interest as a logician and ethical theorist. See also Mill's methods.

1258 I Millais ► Miller

Millais Vmi-.la, mi-Ta\, Sir John Everett (b. June 8, 1829, Southamp¬ ton, Hampshire, Eng.—d. Aug. 13,

1896, London) British painter and illustrator. In 1848 he became a founding member of the Pre- Raphaelites, a group founded in oppo¬ sition to contemporary academic painting. His period of greatest achievement came in the 1850s, with The Return of the Dove to the Ark (1851) and one of his greatest public successes. The Blind Girl (1856), a tour de force of Victorian sentiment and technical facility. He was popu¬ lar as a portraitist and also as a book illustrator, notably for the novels of Anthony Trollope.

Milland \mi-Tand\, Ray orig.

Reginald Truscott-Jones (b.

Jan. 3, 1907, Neath, Glamorganshire,

Wales—d. March 10, 1986, Tor¬ rance, Calif., U.S.) Welsh-born U.S. actor. He made his film debut in 1929 and moved to Hollywood in 1930.

The debonair romantic leading man in many movies of the 1930s and ’40s, he won acclaim for his perfor¬ mance as an alcoholic writer in The Lost Weekend (1945, Academy Award) and also played dramatic parts in The Big Clock (1948), Some¬ thing to Live For{ 1952), and Dial M for Murder (1954). In his later years, he generally only played minor roles. He also directed several movies in the 1950s and early ’60s.

Millay, Edna St. Vincent (b. Feb. 22, 1892, Rockland, Maine, U.S.—d. Oct. 19, 1950, Austerlitz, N.Y.) U.S. poet and dramatist. Her work is filled with the imagery of the Maine coast and countryside. In the 1920s, when she lived in Greenwich Village, she came to personify the romantic rebellion and bravado of youth. Among her volumes are Rena¬ scence (1917); A Few Figs from Thistles (1920); The Harp Weaver (1923, Pulitzer Prize); The Buck in the Snow (1928), which introduced a more sombre tone; the sonnet sequence Fatal Interview (1931); and Wine from These Grapes (1934).

Mi lie, Agnes de See Agnes de Mille

millefleurs tapestry \mel-'fbrz\ French "thousand flowers"

Tapestry characterized by a background motif of many small flowers. Most millefleurs tapestries show secular scenes or allegories. They are thought to have been made first in the Loire district of France in the mid-15th century. As they became popular, they were produced in many parts of France and the Low Countries until the end of the 16th century.

millennialism or millenarianism Belief in the millennium of Christian prophecy (Revelation 20), the 1,000 years when Christ is to reign on earth, or any religious movement that foresees a coming age of peace and prosperity. There are two expressions of millennialism. Premil- lennialism holds that the Second Coming of Christ will occur before the millennium and will initiate the final battle between good and evil, which will be followed by the establishment of the 1,000-year kingdom on earth or in heaven. Postmillennialism maintains that Jesus will return after the creation of the millennial kingdom of peace and righteousness, which prepares the way for the Second Coming. Throughout the Christian era, periods of social change or crisis have tended to lead to a resurgence in millennialism. The legend of the last emperor and the writings of Joachim of Fiore are important examples of medieval millennialism, and, during the Reformation, Anabaptists, Bohemian Brethren, and other groups held millennial beliefs. It is now associated especially with such Protestant denominations as the Adventists, Jehovah's WiTNESSes, and Mormons. In a broader sense, many non-Christian traditions, including Pure Land Bud¬ dhism and the Ghost Dance religion, are understood as millennialist.

millennium Period of 1,000 years. The Gregorian calendar, put forth in 1582 and subsequently adopted by most countries, did not include a year 0 in the transition from bc (years before Christ) to ad (those since his birth). Thus, the 1st millennium is defined as spanning years 1-1000

and the 2nd years 1001-2000. Although numerous popular celebrations marked the start of the year 2000, the 21st century and 3rd millennium ad began on Jan. 1, 2001.

millennium bug See Y2K bug

miller or owlet moth Any of the more than 20,000 moth species in the lepidopteran family Noctuidae, common worldwide. Some species have a 1-ft (30-cm) wingspan, the largest of any moth, but most species have a wingspan of 1.5 in. (4 cm) or less. The wings are usually dull-coloured. Both larvae and adults of most species feed at night. Adults feed on fruits, sap, and nectar. The larvae of many species are agricultural pests (e.g., cutworm, bollworm) that feed on foliage and seeds, bore into stems and fruits, and eat or sever roots. A few species prey on scale insects.

Miller, Arthur (b. Oct. 17, 1915, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Feb. 10, 2005, Roxbury, Conn.) U.S. playwright. He began writing plays while a student at the University of Michigan. His first important play, All My Sons (1947), was followed by his most famous work, Death of a Sales¬ man (1949, Pulitzer Prize), the tragedy of a man destroyed by false val¬ ues that are in large part the values of his society. Noted for combining social awareness with a searching concern for his characters’ inner lives. Miller wrote many other plays, including The Crucible (1953), which uses a plot about the Salem witch trials to attack McCarthyism, A View from the Bridge (1955), After the Fall (1964), The Last Yankee (1992), and Resurrection Blues (2002). He also wrote short stories, essays, and the screenplay for The Misfits (1961), which starred his second wife, Marilyn Monroe.

Miller, George A(rmitage) (b. Feb. 2, 1920, Charleston, W.Va., U.S.) U.S. psychologist. He taught at Harvard, Rockefeller, and Prince¬ ton universities. He is known for his work in cognitive psychology, par¬ ticularly communication and psycholinguistics. In Plans and the Structure of Behavior (with Eugene Galanter and Karl Pribram, 1960), Miller exam¬ ined how knowledge is accumulated and organized into a practical “image” or plan. His other works, including Language and Communica¬ tion (1951) and The Science of Words (1991), focus on the psychology of language and communication. He received the National Medal of Science in 1991.

Miller, (Alton) Glenn (b. March 1, 1904, Clarinda, Iowa, U.S.—d. Dec. 16, 1944, at sea) U.S. trombonist and leader of one of the most popular dance bands of the swing era. Miller formed his band in 1937. His music was characterized by the precise execution of arrangements that featured a clarinet leading the saxophone section. Miller disbanded in 1942 to join the war effort by leading a military band. He was traveling from London to Paris by plane when the craft disappeared over the English Channel and was never recovered. His recordings of numbers such as “Moonlight Sonata,” “Chattanooga Choo-Choo,” “In the Mood,” and “String of Pearls” are classics of the era.

Miller, Henry (Valentine) (b. Dec. 26, 1891, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. June 7, 1980, Pacific Pali¬ sades, Calif.) U.S. writer and peren¬ nial bohemian. Miller wrote about his Brooklyn, N.Y., childhood in Black Spring (1936). Tropic of Can¬ cer (1934), a monologue about his life as an impoverished expatriate in Paris, and Tropic of Capricorn (1939), which draws on his earlier New York phase, were banned as obscene in the U.S. and Britain until the 1960s. The Air-Conditioned Nightmare (1945) is a critical account of a tour of the U.S. He settled on the California coast, where he became the centre of a colony of admirers and wrote his Rosy Cruci¬ fixion trilogy, Sexus, Plexus, and Nexus (U.S. ed., 1965).

Miller, Jonathan (Wolfe) (b.

July 21, 1934, London, Eng.) British director, writer, and actor. After earning a medical degree at Cambridge University, he made his profes¬ sional stage debut at the Edinburgh Festival in the hit satirical revue Beyond the Fringe (1960). As a director of plays, he gained notoriety for

The Blind Girl, oil painting by Sir John Everett Millais, 1856; in the Birming¬ ham City Museum and Art Gallery, Birmingham, Eng.

COURTESY OF THE BIRMINGHAM MUSEUMS AND ART GALLERY

Henry Miller.

CAMERA PRESS

Miller ► Milne I 1259

his controversial interpretations of classic works. His innovative opera productions, such as Pyotr Tchaikovsky’s Eugene Onegin , for the English National Opera and other groups have become internationally celebrated. He wrote the BBC medical series The Body in Question (1977) and States of Mind (1982).

Miller, Neal E(lgar) (b. Aug. 3, 1909, Milwaukee, Wis., U.S.—d. March 23, 2002, Hamden, Conn.) U.S. psychologist. He earned his Ph.D. from Yale University and remained at Yale’s Institute of Human Rela¬ tions to continue his experiments on learning. In Social Learning and Imitation (1941) and Personality and Psychotherapy (1950), he and John Dollard presented a theory of motivation based on the satisfaction of psy¬ chosocial drives, combining elements of earlier reinforcement theories of behaviour and learning. Miller suggested that behaviour patterns were produced through the modification of biologically or socially derived drives by conditioning and reinforcement. He taught at Rockefeller Uni¬ versity (1966-81).

Millerand \mel-'ra n \, Alexandre (b. Feb. 10, 1859, Paris, France—d. April 7, 1943, Versailles) French politician. He was an editor of socialist journals (1883-98) and served in the Chamber of Deputies from 1885 to 1920. He implemented reforms while serving in various governments as minister of commerce (1899-1901), public works (1909-10), and war (1912-15). He became premier in 1920, and, as leader of a moderate coa¬ lition, was elected president of France (1920-24). After advocating a revision of the constitution to strengthen the power of the presidency, he was forced to resign by the Cartel des Gauches. He served in the Senate from 1927 to 1940.

millet Any of various grasses (family Poaceae, or Gramineae), that pro¬ duce small edible seeds used as forage crops and as food cereals. Most millets range in height from 1 to 4 ft (0.3 to 1.3 m). Except for pearl mil¬ let ( Pennisetum glaucum , or P. americanum), seeds remain enclosed in hulls after threshing. Cultivated in China since at least the 3rd millennium bc, millets are today an important food staple in much of Asia, Russia, and western Africa. High in carbohydrates, they are somewhat strong in taste and cannot be made into leavened bread, so they are consumed mainly in flatbreads and porridges or prepared and eaten much like rice. In the U.S. and western Europe they are used chiefly for pasture or to produce hay.

millet \mo-Tet\ Turkish term referring to an autonomous religious com¬ munity under the Ottoman Empire (c. 1300-1923). Each millet was respon¬ sible to the central government for obligations such as taxes and internal security and also had responsibility for social and administrative func¬ tions not provided by the state. Beginning in 1856, a series of secular legal reforms known as the Tanzimat (“Reorganization”) eroded much of their administrative autonomy.

Millet \me-'ya,\ English \mi-'la\, Jean-Francois (b. Oct. 4, 1814, Gruchy, France—d. Jan. 20, 1875, Barbizon) French painter. Born to a peasant family, he studied with a painter in Paris, but when one of his two submissions to the Salon was rejected (1840), he returned to Cherbourg, where initially he painted mostly portraits. His first success came with The Milkmaid (1844), and in 1848 another peasant scene. The Winnower, was shown at the Salon. In 1849 he settled in the village of Barbizon. Because he continued to exhibit peasant scenes that emphasized the labours of rustic life, he was accused of being a socialist, but his aims were not political. His Angelus (1859) became one of the most popular paintings of the 19th century. In his later life he was linked with the Bar¬ bizon SCHOOL.

Millikan, Robert (Andrews) (b. March 22, 1868, Morrison, HI., U.S.—d. Dec. 19, 1953, San Marino, Calif.) U.S. physicist. He received his doctorate from Columbia University and taught physics at the Uni¬ versity of Chicago (1896-1921) and the California Institute of Technol¬ ogy (from 1921). To measure electric charge, he devised the Millikan oil- drop experiment. He verified Albert Einstein’s photoelectric equation and obtained a precise value for the Planck constant. He was awarded a 1923 Nobel Prize.

Millikan oil-drop experiment Vmil-s-konX First method for direct measurement of the electric charge of a single electron, originally per¬ formed in 1909 by Robert Millikan. He used a microscope to measure the rate of descent of tiny oil droplets directed through the top of a box. By halting the descent of droplets carrying their own electric charge by means of precisely adjusting the voltage between the box’s metal top and bot¬

tom, he discovered that the electric charges on the drops were all whole- number multiples of a lowest value, the elementary electric charge itself, and thus that electric charge exists in basic natural units.

milling See fulling

milling machine Machine tool that rotates a circular tool with numer¬ ous cutting edges arranged symmetrically about its axis, called a milling cutter. The metal workpiece is usually held in a vise clamped to a table that can move in three perpendicular directions. Cutters of many shapes and sizes are available for a wide variety of milling operations. Milling machines cut flat surfaces, grooves, shoulders, inclined surfaces, dove¬ tails, and T-slots. Various form-tooth cutters are used for cutting concave forms and convex grooves, for rounding comers, and for cutting gear teeth.

millipede Any of about 10,000 species of the arthropod class Diplopoda, found worldwide. Most species live in and eat decaying plant matter. Some injure living plants, and a few are predators and scavengers. Millipedes are 1—11 in. (2.5-28 cm) long and have from 11 to more than 100 diplosomites, double segments formed from the fusion of two seg¬ ments. The head is legless; the next three segments have one pair of legs each; and the remaining segments have two pairs each. In defense, mil¬ lipedes do not bite; most species tuck headfirst into a tight coil, and many secrete a pungent, toxic liquid or gas.

Mills, Billy in full William Mervin Mills (b. June 30, 1938, Pine Ridge, S.D., U.S.) U.S. athlete. Part Oglala Sioux, he spent his early years on a reservation in Pine Ridge and was orphaned at age 12. At the Uni¬ versity of Kansas he excelled in track. He became the first American to win an Olympic gold medal in the 10,000-m race (1964), in an electri¬ fying upset victory over Australian Ron Clarke. In 1965 he set an outdoor world record in the 6-mi run and U.S. records in the 10,000-m and indoor 3-mi races.

Mills, C(harles) Wright (b. Aug. 28, 1916, Waco, Texas, U.S.—d. March 20, 1962, Nyack, N.Y.) U.S. sociologist. After studying at the Uni¬ versity of Texas (B.A., M.A., 1939) and the University of Wisconsin (Ph.D., 1941), Mills joined the faculty of Columbia University; there he became associated with the theories of Max Weber and with issues regard¬ ing the role of intellectuals in modern life, and he contributed to the development of a critical sociology in the U.S. and abroad. Mills believed social scientists should shun “abstracted empiricism” and become activ¬ ists on behalf of social change. His radical analysis of U.S. business and society appeared in White Collar (1951) and The Power Elite (1956); other works include The Causes of World War Three (1958) and The Sociological Imagination (1959). A colourful public figure, he wore black leather and rode a motorcycle. His death at 45 resulted from heart dis¬ ease.

Mill's methods Five methods of experimental reasoning distinguished by John Stuart Mill in his System of Logic (1843). Suppose one is inter¬ ested in determining what factors play a role in causing a specific effect, E, under a specific set of circumstances. The method of agreement tells us to look for factors present on all occasions when E occurs. The method of difference tells us to look for some factor present on some occasion when E occurs and absent on an otherwise similar occasion when it does not. The joint method of agreement and difference combines the two pre¬ vious methods. The method of residues applies when part of E is expli¬ cable by reference to known factors, and tells us to attribute the “residue” to the remaining circumstances under which E occurs. The method of concomitant variation is used when E can be present in various degrees; if we identify a factor F, such as temperature, whose variations are posi¬ tively or negatively correlated with variations in E, for instance, size, then we can infer that F is causally connected with E.

millstone Either of two flat, round stones used for grinding grain to make flour. The stationary bottom stone is carved with shallow grooved channels that radiate from the centre. The upper stone rotates horizon¬ tally, and has a central hole through which grain is poured. The channels of the bottom stone lead the grain onto the flat grinding section, called the land, and to the edge, where it emerges as flour. The best millstones are made from French buhrstone, quarried near Paris. In the U.S., quartz conglomerate, quartzite, sandstone, or granite is used. Stone-ground flour accounts for only a small proportion of milled flour today.

Milne Vmiln\, A(lan) A(lexander) (b. Jan. 18, 1882, London, Eng.—d. Jan. 31, 1956, Hartfield, Sussex) English writer. He joined the

1260 I Milne Bay ► Milyukov

staff of Punch in 1906 and produced successful light comedies and a memorable detective novel. The Red House Mystery (1922), before verses written for his son Christopher Robin grew into the collections When We Were Very Young (1924) and Now We Are Six (1927), which became beloved classics. Stories about the adventures of Christopher Robin and the toy animals Pooh, Pig¬ let, Kanga, Roo, Tigger, Rabbit,

Owl, and Eeyore are told in the immensely popular Winnie-the-Pooh (1926) and The House at Pooh Cor¬ ner (1928).

Milne Bay Inlet of the South Pacific Ocean, Papua New Guinea.

Located at the southeastern end of the island of New Guinea, the bay is 30 mi (50 km) long and 6-8 mi (10-13 km) wide. A Spanish explorer charted the bay in 1606; it was named by the British for Adm. Alexander Milne in 1873. European interest in it increased during the 1889-99 gold rush. Samarai, an island in the China Strait, became a boomtown from which prospectors spread through the islands of Milne Bay and to the mainland. As a Japanese base of operations in World War II, Milne Bay was the scene of Japan’s first major setback in 1942, and it served as an Allied base for the remainder of the war.

Milner, Alfred later Viscount Milner (of St. James's and Cape Town) (b. March 23, 1854, Giessen, Hesse-Darmstadt—d. May 13, 1925, Sturry Court, near Canterbury, Kent, Eng.) British high com¬ missioner in South Africa (1897-1905). At the crucial Bloemfontein Con¬ ference with Pres. Paul Kruger (1899), Milner advocated granting full citizenship to the Uitlanders (British residents in the Transvaal) after five years’ residence. Kruger opposed the policy but was prepared to make concessions. Milner was not, claiming that “war has got to come”; Boer forces invaded Natal four months later, marking the beginning of the South African War. Milner later served as secretary for war (1916-19) and colonial secretary (1919-21).

Milon Vmi- I lan\ of Croton or Milo of Croton (fl. late 6th century bc) Ancient Greek athlete. The most renowned wrestler of antiquity, he won numerous Olympic and Pythian games. His name has long been syn¬ onymous with extraordinary strength, and he is said to have carried an ox on his shoulders across the Olympic stadium.

Milosevic \mi-'lo-s3-,vich\, Slobodan (b. Aug. 29, 1941, Pozarevac, Serbia, Yugos.—found dead March 11, 2006, The Hague, Neth.) Serbian nationalist politician and president of Serbia (1989-97). He joined the Communist Party at age 18 and later became head of the state-owned gas company and president of a major Belgrade bank. Advised by his wife, a communist ideologue, he became head of the Communist Party in Bel¬ grade (1984) and later in Serbia (1987). He replaced party leaders with his supporters, and in 1989 the Serbian assembly named him president of the republic. He maintained his power by repression and control of the mass media. He abrogated the constitutional autonomy of the Albanian province of Kosovo in 1989, which contributed to the secessionist move¬ ments in Slovenia, Croatia, and Macedonia and the breakup of Yugosla¬ via in 1991. He then supported Serbian militias fighting Muslims in Bosnia and Croatia (see Bosnian conflict) but later signed a peace agree¬ ment (1995) on behalf of the Bosnian Serbs. In 1999, after pro¬ independence insurgents began killing Serbian police and politicians, he retaliated with ruthless attacks on the province (see Kosovo conflict). NATO responded with a massive bombing campaign of Serbian targets. The subsequent ethnic cleansing of the province by troops under Milosevic’s command drove hundreds of thousands of Albanian Koso¬ vars to other countries as refugees and earned him worldwide loathing as a war criminal. In 2000 he was defeated in national elections. The fol¬ lowing year he was arrested and extradited to The Netherlands to stand trial for genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. The trial began in February 2002 but was frequently delayed because of Milosevic’s poor health. On March 11, 2006, he was found dead in his prison cell.

Milosz Vme-loshN, Czeslaw (b. June 30, 1911, Sateiniai, Lith., Rus¬ sian Empire—d. Aug. 14, 2004, Krakow, Pol.) Polish-U.S. author, trans¬ lator, and critic. Milosz was a socialist by the time he published his first book of verse at age 21. During the Nazi occupation of Poland, he was active in the resistance. After serving briefly as a diplomat for commu¬ nist Poland, he immigrated to the U.S., where he taught for decades at the University of California at Berkeley; he became a naturalized U.S. citi¬ zen in 1970. His poetry, including such collections as Bells in Winter (1978), is noted for its classical style and preoccupation with philosophi¬ cal and political issues. His well-known essay collection The Captive Mind (1953) condemned the accommodation of many Polish intellectu¬ als to communism. U.S. critic Helen Vendler wrote that Milosz’s Trea¬ tise on Poetry (1957) seemed to her “the most comprehensive and moving poem” of the latter half of the 20th century. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1980.

Milstein Vmil-.stln, 'mil-.stenV Cesar (b. Oct. 8, 1927, Bahia Blanca, Arg.—d. March 24, 2002, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, Eng.)

Argentinian-born British immunologist. In 1975 Milstein and Georges Kohler (1946-95) fused short-lived, highly specific lymphocytes with the cells of a myeloma, a type of tumour that can reproduce indefinitely. The hybrid cells, like lymphocytes, secreted antibody to a single antigen and, like myeloma cells, perpetuated themselves. This enabled production of large quantities of pure antibodies against single antigenic characteristics (monoclonal antibodies). Milstein, Kohler, and Niels K. Jeme (1911-94) shared the Nobel Prize in 1984.

Miltiades Vmil-'tl-o-.dezX the Younger (b. c. 554, Athens—d. prob¬ ably 489 bc, Athens) Athenian general. He was sent by Hippias to strengthen Athenian control of the sea routes from the Black Sea and made himself a petty tyrant there. He fought the Scythians with Darius I in 513 and supported the Persians until the Ionian revolt (499-494). When the revolt failed, he fled to Athens and led the Athenian army to victory at the Battle of Marathon (490). He was put on trial and fined the next year for a failed naval expedition meant to punish Paros for collaborating with Persia; he died in prison soon after from a gangrenous wound.

Milton, John (b. Dec. 9, 1608, London, Eng.—d. Nov. 8, 1674, Chal- font St. Giles, Buckinghamshire) English poet. A brilliant youth, Milton attended Cambridge University (1625-32), where he wrote poems in Latin, Italian, and English; these included “L’Allegro” and “II Penseroso”, both published later in Poems (1645). During 1632-38 he engaged in pri¬ vate study—writing the masque Comus (1637) and the extraordinary elegy “Lycidas” (1638)—and toured Italy. Concerned with the Puritan cause in England, he spent much of 1641-60 pamphleteering for civil and religious liberty and serving in Oliver Cromwell’s government. His best- known prose is in the pamphlets Areopagitica (1644), on freedom of the press, and Of Education (1644). He lost his sight c. 1651, and thereafter dictated his works. His disastrous first marriage ended with his wife’s death in 1652; two later marriages were more successful. After the Res¬ toration he was arrested as a noted defender of the Commonwealth but was soon released. In Paradise Lost (1667), his epic masterpiece on the Fall of Man written in blank verse, he uses his sublime “grand style” with superb power; his characterization of Satan is a supreme achievement. He further expressed his purified faith in God and the regenerative strength of the individual soul in Paradise Regained (1671), an epic in which Christ overcomes Satan the tempter, and Samson Agonistes (1671), a tragedy in which the Old Testament figure conquers self-pity and despair to become God’s champion. Considered second only to William Shakes¬ peare in the history of English-language poetry, Milton had an immense influence on later literature; though attacked early in the 20th century, he had regained his place in the Western canon by mid century.

Milwaukee City (pop., 2000: 596,974) and lake port, southeastern Wisconsin, U.S. The state’s largest city, it is situated on Lake Michigan. Visited by French missionaries and fur traders in the 17th century, it was called Mahn-a-waukee Seepe (“Gathering Place by the River”) by local Indians. Although settled in 1800, the town did not develop until the Indi¬ ans relinquished their claims in 1831-33. Milwaukee was formed in 1839 and incorporated in 1846. It was a centre of German immigration until c. 1900. It is a major Great Lakes port, shipping especially grain; it also pro¬ duces electrical machinery. It has several educational institutions, includ¬ ing Marquette University and the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.

Milyukov \m y il-yu-'k6f\, Pavel (Nikolayevich) (b. Jan. 27, 1859, Moscow, Russia—d. March 3, 1943, Aix-les-Bains, France) Russian poli-

A.A. Milne, pen and ink drawing by P. Evans, c. 1930; in the National Portrait Gallery, London

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY,

LONDON

Mimamsa ► Minas Basin I 1261

tician and historian. He taught history at Moscow University until 1895 and wrote the acclaimed Outlines of Russian Culture (3 vol., 1896-1903). A liberal who admired the political values of democratic countries, he cofounded the progressive Constitutional Democratic Party in 1905 and led the party in the Duma (1907-17). In 1917 he helped form the provisional government under Prince Georgy Y. Lvov and served briefly as minister of foreign affairs. He tried to form a moderate coalition against the Bol¬ sheviks but was forced to leave Russia and eventually settled in Paris.

Mimamsa \me-'mam-sa\ Probably the earliest of the six orthodox sys¬ tems (darshans) of Indian philosophy. Mimamsa is fundamental to Vedanta and has deeply influenced Hindu law. Its aim is to give rules for the interpretation of the Vedas and to provide a philosophical justification for the observance of Vedic ritual. The earliest work of the system, the Mimamsa-sutra of Jaimini (c. 4th century bc), was followed by the writ¬ ings of a long line of interpreters and teachers, notably Kumarila Bhatta and Prabhakara Mishra (8th century). Kumarila is credited with using Mimamsa to defeat Buddhism in India; Prabhakara was a realist who believed that sense perceptions were true.

Mimana See Kaya

mime and pantomime Dramatic performance in which a story is told solely by expressive body movement. Mime appeared in Greece in the 5th century bc as a comic entertainment that stressed mimetic action but included song and spoken dialogue. A separate Roman form developed from c. 100 bc and centred on crude and licen¬ tious subjects. Roman pantomime differed from Roman mime by its loftier themes and its use of masks, which called for expression through posture and hand gestures. Mime was also important in Asian drama from ancient times, and it is an ele¬ ment in major Chinese and Japanese dramatic forms (e.g., no theatre). The Roman tradition of pantomime was modified in the 16th-century comme- dia dell'arte, which in turn influenced the 18th-century French and English comic interludes that developed into 19th-century pantomime, a chil¬ dren’s entertainment emphasizing spectacle. Modern Western mime developed into a purely silent art in which meanings are conveyed through gesture, movement, and expression. Famous mimes include Jean-Gaspard Deburau, Etienne Decroux (who developed a system¬ atic language of gesture), and Mar¬ cel Marceau. Charlie Chaplin was an accomplished mime, as were Sid Caesar and the circus clown Emmett Kelly.