Britannica Concise 2005

Strand, Mark (b. April 11, 1934, Summerside, P.E.I., Can.) Canadian- born U.S. poet and writer of short fiction. Educated in the U.S., he taught at several American universities. His poetry, influenced by Latin Ameri¬ can surrealism and European writers such as Franz Kafka, is known for its symbolic imagery and its minimalist sensibility. His volumes include the collections Sleeping with One Eye Open (1964), The Story of Our Lives (1973), and Blizzard of One (1998); Dark Harbor (1993), a book- length poem; and Mr. and Mrs. Baby and Other Stories (1985). He was named U.S. poet laureate in 1990.

Strand, Paul (b. Oct. 16, 1890,

New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. March 31,

1976, Oregeval, France) U.S. pho¬ tographer. He studied photography with Lewis Hine. At Hine’s urging, he frequented Alfred Stiegutz’s “291” gallery; the avant-garde paintings by Pablo Picasso, Paul Cezanne, and Georges Braque that he saw there led him to emphasize abstract form and pattern in his photographs, such as Wall Street (1915). He rejected soft- focus Pictorialism in favour of the

White Fence, photograph by Paul Strand, 1916.

COURTESY OF PAUL STRAND

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Strasberg ► Stratford-upon-Avon I 1829

minute detail and rich tonal range afforded by the use of large-format cameras. Much of his later work was devoted to North American and European scenes and landscapes. He collaborated on documentary films with Charles Sheeler and Pare Lorentz.

Strasberg, Lee orig. Israel Strassberg (b. Nov. 17, 1901, Budza- now, Pol., Austria-Hungary—d. Feb. 17, 1982, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Russian-born U.S. theatre director and teacher. At age seven he immi¬ grated to New York City with his family. After acting lessons with teach¬ ers who had studied under Konstantin Stanislavsky, he became an actor and stage manager with the Theatre Guild. In 1931 he cofounded the Group Theatre, where he directed brilliant experimental plays such as Men in White (1933). After working in Hollywood (1941-48), he returned to New York City to become artistic director of the Actors Studio, where he expanded Stanislavsky’s teachings to further develop method acting, in which actors use their own emotional memory for the purpose of dra¬ matic motivation. He trained actors such as Marlon Brando, Marilyn Mon¬ roe, Dustin Hoffman, Geraldine Page, and Julie Harris.

Strasbourg \'stras-,burg\ German Strassburg \'shtras-,burk\ City (pop., 1999: 264,115), eastern France. Located on the Franco-German border, Strasbourg was originally a Celtic village; it became a garrison under the Romans. The Franks captured it in the 5th century, and in 842 the Oath of Strasbourg, uniting the western and eastern Franks, was con¬ cluded there. It became a free city within the Holy Roman Empire in 1262. It was seized by the French in 1681 and captured by Germany in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71). It reverted to France after World War I but was occupied by Germany again during World War II, when it suf¬ fered considerable damage. A major river port and industrial centre, it is the seat of the Council of Europe and an international communications centre. Notable buildings include the restored medieval cathedral with its 14th-century astronomical clock. The parliament of what is now the Euro¬ pean Union has met there since 1979.

Strasser Vshtra-sorN, Gregor; and Strasser, Otto (respectively b. May 31, 1892, Geisenfeld, Ger.—d. June 30, 1934, Berlin; b. Sept. 10, 1897, Windsheim, Ger.—d. Aug. 27, 1974, Munich) German politicians. The brothers joined the Nazi Party in the early 1920s. Gregor became the party’s leader in the north and built a mass movement with the help of Otto and the young Joseph Goebbels, appealing to the lower middle classes and workers by advocating a socialism couched in nationalist and racist terminology. Otto resigned in 1930, disillusioned by Adolf Hitler’s non¬ socialist goals. Gregor became head of the Nazi political organization, second only to Hitler in power, but he came to share his brother’s disil¬ lusionment and resigned in 1932. Gregor was murdered on Hitler’s orders in 1934; Otto escaped into exile in Canada, then returned to Germany in

Strassmann, Fritz (b. Feb. 22, 1902, Boppard, Ger.—d. April 22, 1980, Mainz, W.Ger.) German physical chemist. He helped develop the method of rubidium-strontium dating widely used in geochronology. Begin¬ ning in 1934, he joined Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner in their investigations of the radioactive products formed when uranium is bombarded by neu¬ trons. In 1938 they discovered lighter elements produced from the neu¬ tron bombardment, which were the result of the splitting of the uranium atom into two lighter atoms (nuclear fission). In 1946 he joined the fac¬ ulty at the University of Mainz, where he established the Institute of Inor¬ ganic Chemistry (later the Institute of Nuclear Chemistry), and he directed the chemistry department at the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry

(1945-53).

Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) Negotiations between the U.S. and the Soviet Union aimed at curtailing the manufacture of strate¬ gic nuclear missiles. The first round of negotiations began in 1969 and resulted in a treaty regulating antiballistic missiles and freezing the number of intercontinental ballistic missiles and submarine-launched ballistic mis¬ siles. It was signed by Leonid Brezhnev and Richard Nixon in 1972. A sec¬ ond round of talks (1972-79), known as SALT II, addressed the asymmetry between the two sides’ strategic forces and ended with an agreement to limit strategic launchers (see MIRV). Signed by Brezhnev and Jimmy Carter, it was never formally ratified by the U.S. Senate, though its terms were observed by both sides. Subsequent negotiations took the name Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START). See also intermediate-range nuclear weapons; Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty.

Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START) Negotiations between the U.S. and the Soviet Union aimed at reducing those countries’ nuclear

arsenals and delivery systems. Two sets of negotiations (1982-83, 1985- 91) concluded in an agreement signed by George Bush and Mikhail Gor¬ bachev that committed the Soviet Union to a reduction from 11,000 to 8,000 nuclear weapons and the U.S. to a reduction from 12,000 to 10,000. After the Soviet Union’s collapse (1991), a supplementary agreement (1992) obligated Ukraine, Belarus, and Kazakhstan to destroy the nuclear weapons on their soil or to give them to Russia. Subsequent U.S. efforts to develop an antimissile defense system threatened new complications for the arms control regime. See also Strategic Arms Limitation Talks.

Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) also called Star Wars Pro¬ posed U.S. strategic defense system against nuclear attacks. Announced as a 20-year, $20 billion effort by Pres. Ronald Reagan in 1983, SDI was intended to defend the U.S. from a full-fledged Soviet attack by inter¬ cepting ICBMs in flight. The interception was to be effected by technol¬ ogy not yet developed, including space- and ground-based laser stations and air- and ground-based missiles. The space component of SDI led to its being derisively dubbed “Star Wars” after the popular film. Though the program was roundly criticized by opposition politicians and arms-control advocates as unworkable and as a dangerous violation of the Antiballis¬ tic Missile (ABM) Treaty of 1972, Congress granted initial funding for it. Early development efforts were largely unsuccessful, and with the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 the concept lost urgency. During the Bush and Clinton administrations, ballistic missile defense was scaled back to focus on protecting the U.S. from limited attack by a “rogue” state or a single accidentally launched missile. In 2002 the U.S. withdrew from the ABM treaty to begin active testing of a limited antimissile program. See also ANTIBALLISTIC MISSILE.

strategus \str3- , te-gss\ In ancient Greece, a general, often functioning as a magistrate with wide powers. Cleisthenes introduced an annual board of 10 strategi in Athens to be commanders of the army; one or more, all equal, were responsible for each operation. In the 5th century bc they gained political influence, in part because they were elected and could be reelected, thus were able to entrench themselves in office. In the Hellenis¬ tic Age they were the supreme magistrates in most federations and leagues. In Egypt (3rd century Bc^tth century ad) they were civil governors.

strategy In warfare, coordinated application of all the forces of a nation to achieve a goal. In contrast to tactics, strategy’s components include a long-range view, the preparation of resources, and planning for the use of those resources before, during, and after an action. The term has expanded far beyond its original military meaning. As society and warfare have steadily grown more complex, military and nonmilitary factors have become more and more inseparable in the conduct of war and in programs designed to secure peace. In the 20th century, the term grand strategy, meaning the art of employing all the resources of a nation or coalition of nations to achieve the objects of war (and peace), steadily became more popular in the literature of warfare and statecraft.

Stratemeyer \ , stra-t3- 1 ml-9r\ / Edward (b. Oct. 4, 1862, Elizabeth, N.J., U.S.—d. May 10, 1930, Newark, N.J.) U.S. writer of popular juve¬ nile fiction. He began writing stories in imitation of Horatio Alger and other adventure writers, and he later edited several publications and began writing series of books. In 1906 he founded the Stratemeyer Literary Syn¬ dicate, which would publish the Rover Boys, Hardy Boys, Tom Swift, Bobbsey Twins, and Nancy Drew series, written by himself and a stable of hack writers under a variety of names. After his death his company was largely directed by his daughter, Harriet Stratemeyer Adams (1893?— 1982), who also wrote many books in several series.

Stratford, Viscount See Stratford Canning

Stratford Festival Canadian summer theatrical festival. The foremost classical repertory theatre in North America, it was founded by Tom Patter¬ son in Stratford, Ontario, in 1953. It includes three permanent theatres: the 220° open-stage Festival Theatre, the Avon Theatre, and the Tom Patterson Theatre, which is reserved for experimental works. The festi¬ val features productions of William Shakespeare’s plays (Stratford was cho¬ sen as its locale because the town’s name matched that of Shakespeare’s birthplace) but also performs other classic dramatic works.

Stratford-upon-Avon Town (pop., 1995 est.: 28,000), Warwickshire, England. It is located on the River Avon. The town’s first royal charter was granted in 1553. For centuries a country market town, it became a tourist centre because of its association with William Shakespeare, who was born and died there; his grave is in the parish church of Holy Trinity. The

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1830 I Strathclyde ► strawberry

Shakespeare Centre in Stratford includes a library and art gallery (opened 1881) and a theatre (opened 1932). Every year from March until Octo¬ ber, Shakespeare’s plays are performed in the Royal Shakespeare The¬ atre.

Strathclyde Medieval Celtic kingdom, Scotland. Located south of the River Clyde, it was established in the 6th century. Its capital was Dumb¬ arton. The Piets and Vikings ravaged the kingdom in the 8th-9th centu¬ ries. It suffered several defeats by the English, who took it over in the early 10th century. The Anglo-Saxon King Edmund I leased it in 945 to the Scots king Malcolm I. It became a province of Scotland in the 11th century after the death of its king, who had helped Malcolm II defeat the English at Carham.

stratification Layering that occurs in most sedimentary rocks and in igneous rocks that are formed at the Earth’s surface, such as from lava flows and volcanic deposits. The layers (strata) may range from thin sheets that cover many square miles to thick lenslike bodies that are only a few feet wide.

stratigraphy \str3-'ti-gr9-fe\ Scientific discipline concerned with describing rock successions and interpreting them in terms of a general time scale. It provides a basis for historical geology, and its principles and methods are applied in such fields as petroleum geology and archaeology. Stratigraphic studies deal primarily with sedimentary rocks but may also encompass layered igneous rocks (e.g., those resulting from successive lava flows) or metamorphic rocks formed either from such extrusive igne¬ ous material or from sedimentary rocks.

Stratofortress See B-52

stratosphere Layer of the atmosphere that is located above the tropo¬ sphere. The stratosphere extends from a lower boundary of about 11 mi (17 km) altitude to an upper boundary (the stratopause) at about 30 mi (50 km). The ozone layer is a part of the stratosphere.

Straus Vstraus\ family German-U.S. merchandising family that dis¬ tinguished itself in public service and philanthropy. The family originated in Bavaria, and the patriarch, Lazarus Straus, immigrated to the U.S. in 1852, followed by his wife and three sons: Isidor (1845-1912), Nathan (1848-1931), and Oscar Solomon (1850-1926). They established a mer¬ chandising firm that allowed them to gain an interest in Macy and Co., which led to complete ownership in 1896. Isidor established the depart¬ ment store chain of Abraham & Straus, served briefly in the U.S. Con¬ gress, and engaged in philanthropic works; he and his wife perished aboard the Titanic after giving Mrs. Straus’s place in a lifeboat to their maid. Nathan was noted for his philanthropy; he distributed food and coal in New York and supplied pasteurized milk to children in 36 cities dur¬ ing the 1892 depression, built the first tuberculosis preventorium for chil¬ dren (1909), and provided food for New York’s poor during the harsh winter of 1914-15. He devoted the last years of his life to public-health work in Palestine. Oscar was appointed Secretary of Commerce and Labor by Pres. Theodore Roosevelt, becoming the first Jewish Cabinet member (1906-09); he also served as emissary to Ottoman Turkey and as an adviser to Pres. Woodrow Wilson, and he was a strong advocate for the protection of Jewish minorities in Europe.

Strauss \'shtraus\, Franz Josef (b. Sept. 6, 1915, Munich, Ger.—d. Oct. 3, 1988, Regensburg, W.Ger.) German politician. Strauss studied at the University of Munich and was an active member of a Roman Catho¬ lic youth organization that clashed with the Nazis. Called up for military service in 1939, he was captured by U.S. forces near the end of World War II. After his release in 1945, he served as councillor to the Bavarian Ministry of the Interior and in 1946 was appointed deputy county direc¬ tor in the Schongau district by the U.S. occupation authorities. He helped found the Bavarian Christian Social Union (CSU) in 1945 and was elected to the Bundestag in 1949. He served as minister of defense (1956-62) and minister of finance (1966-69). Head of the CSU from 1961, he was the party’s unsuccessful candidate for chancellor in 1980. As premier of Bavaria (1978-88), he pursued economic policies that made it one of Germany’s most prosperous states.

Strauss Vshtraus,\ English Ystraus\, Johann (Baptist) (b. Oct. 25, 1825, Vienna, Austria—d. June 3, 1899, Vienna) Austrian composer. His father, Johann Strauss the Elder, was a self-taught musician who estab¬ lished a musical dynasty in Vienna. A violinist, he played in a dance orchestra from 1819; when it split in two (1824), he took over the sec¬ ond group, for which he began to write waltzes, galops, polkas, and qua¬

drilles, eventually publishing more than 250 works. As bandmaster of a local regiment, he also wrote marches, including the Rcidetzsky March. Johann the Younger left his family in 1842 and soon surpassed his father’s popularity and productivity, becoming known as the “Waltz King.’’ By inducing his brothers, Josef and Eduard, to take over his conducting duties, he gained more time to compose the symphonic waltzes for which he is best known, including The Blue Danube (1867) and Tales from the Vienna Woods (1868). His operettas include the popular Die Fledermaus (1874) and The Gypsy Baron (1885). Eduard’s son Johann, a conductor and composer in Berlin, was the last of the dynasty.

Strauss, Richard (Georg) (b. June 11, 1864, Munich, Ger.—d. Sept. 8, 1949, Garmisch-Partenkirchen)

German composer and conductor.

Son of a horn player, he began com¬ posing at age six. Before he was 20, he had already had major premieres of two symphonies and a violin con¬ certo. In 1885 the conductor of the Meiningen Orchestra, Hans von Bulow, made Strauss his successor.

Strongly influenced by the work of Richard Wagner, he began to write programmatic orchestral tone poems, including Don Juan (1889),

Till Eulenspiegel’s Merry Pranks (1894-95), and Also sprach Zar- athustra (1896). After 1900 he focused on operas; his third such work, Salome (1903-05), was a suc- ces de scandale. Elektra (1906-08) marked the beginning of a produc¬ tive collaboration with the poet Hugo von Hofmannsthal, with whom Strauss wrote his greatest operas, including Der Rosenkavalier (1909- 10). He remained in Austria through World War II and held a music post in the German government, but he was later cleared of wrongdoing in connection with the Nazi regime. After many years writing lesser works, he produced several remarkable late pieces, including Metamorphosen (1945) and the Four Last Songs (1948).

Stravinsky, Igor (Fyodorovich) (b. June 17, 1882, Oranienbaum, Russia—d. April 6, 1971, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Russian-bom U.S. com¬ poser. Son of an operatic bass, he decided to be a composer at age 20 and studied privately with Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov (1902-08). His Fireworks (1908) was heard by the impresario Sergey Diaghilev, who commissioned Stravinsky to write the Firebird ballet (1910); its dazzling success made him Russia’s leading young composer. The great ballet score Petrushka (1911) followed. His next ballet, The Rite of Spring (1913), with its shift¬ ing and audacious rhythms and its unresolved dissonances, was a land¬ mark in music history; its Paris premiere caused an actual riot in the theatre, and Stravinsky’s international notoriety was assured. In the early 1920s he adopted a radically different style of restrained Neoclassicism— employing often ironic references to older music—in works such as his Octet (1923). His major Neoclassical works include Oedipus rex (1927) and the Symphony of Psalms (1930) and culminate in the opera The Rake’s Progress (1951). From 1954 he employed serialism, a compositional tech¬ nique. His later works include Agon (1957)—the last of his many ballets choreographed by George Balanchine —and Requiem Canticles (1966).

straw Stalks of grasses, particularly cereal grasses such as wheat, oats, rye, barley, and buckwheat. Used collectively, the term means stalks aggregated into bales or piles after the drying and threshing of grain. Since ancient times, humans have used straw as litter and fodder for cattle, as a covering for floors, for coarse bedding, and even as clothing. It can also be woven into baskets, hats, floor mats, and furniture coverings. Thatched roofs consist of straw laid down approximately 1 ft (30 cm) thick and secured by strong cords, with the fibers running in the direction to be taken by rainwater. Chemically pulped straw is used in the manufacture of coarse paper and strawboard, a cardboard for cheap paper boxes.

strawberry Fruit plant of eight main species of the genus Fragaria (rose family), the chief cultivated varieties of which are F. virginiana and F. chiloensis, native to the Americas. The low-growing, herbaceous plant has a fibrous root system and a crown from which basal leaves arise. The

Richard Strauss, portrait by Max Lie- bermann, 1918; in the National- Galerie, Berlin

COURTESY OF THE STAATLICHE MUSEEN ZU BERLIN, GERMANY

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Strayhorn ► streptomycin I 1831

leaves are compound, with three leaflets, sawtooth-edged and hairy. Small clusters of white flowers grow on slender stalks. Botanically, the straw¬ berry fruit is not a berry or a single fruit, but is instead a greatly enlarged stem end that contains many partially embedded true fruits (achenes), popularly called seeds. The plant propagates by stolons as it ages. Straw¬ berries are very perishable and require cool, dry storage. They are eaten fresh or prepared for use in desserts or preserves. Rich in vitamin C, they also provide iron and other minerals.

Strayhorn, Billy orig. William Thomas Strayhorn (b. Nov. 29, 1915, Dayton, Ohio, U.S.—d. May 31, 1967, New York, N.Y.) U.S. pia¬ nist, composer, and arranger. Strayhorn approached jazz composer and bandleader Duke Ellington with a composition in 1938, and he was soon contributing arrangements and original works to Ellington’s band. His “Take the ‘A’ Train,” recorded in 1941, became the band’s theme song. His work so complemented Ellington’s that it is often impossible to dis¬ tinguish their respective contributions. Strayhorn made expressive ballads his specialty and became noted for the structural and harmonic sophisti¬ cation of pieces such as “Lush Life,” “Something to Live For,” “Passion Flower,” and “Day Dream.”

streak Colour of a mineral in its powdered form, usually obtained by rubbing the mineral on a hard, white surface (e.g., a tile of unglazed por¬ celain) to yield a streak of fine powder. The streak’s colour is usually con¬ stant for a given mineral, even if the mineral varies in colour as it occurs in the field or if the streak is different from the colour of the unpowdered mineral. Streak is diagnostically useful because it may distinguish between mineral species that are otherwise similar in appearance.

stream of consciousness Narrative technique in nondramatic fic¬ tion intended to render the flow of myriad impressions—visual, auditory, tactile, associative, and subliminal—that impinge on an individual con¬ sciousness. To represent the mind at work, a writer may incorporate snatches of thought and grammatical constructions that do not seem coher¬ ent because they are based on the free association of ideas and images. The term was first used by William James in The Principles of Psychology (1890). In the 20th century, writers attempting to capture the total flow of their characters’ consciousness commonly used the techniques of inte¬ rior monologue, which represents a sequence of thought and feeling. Nov¬ els in which stream of consciousness plays an important role include James Joyce’s Ulysses (1922), William Faulkner’s The Sound and the Fury (1929), and Virginia Woolf’s The Waves (1931).

stream bed or stream channel Any long, narrow, sloping depres¬ sion on land that had been shaped by flowing water. Streambeds can range in width from a few feet for a brook to several thousand feet for the larg¬ est rivers. The channel may or may not contain flowing water at any given time; some carry water only occasionally. Streambeds may be cut in bed¬ rock or through sand, clay, silt, or other unconsolidated materials.

streaming Method of transmitting a media file in a continuous stream of data that can be processed by the receiving computer before the entire file has been completely sent. Streaming, which typically uses data com¬ pression, is especially effective for downloading large multimedia files from the Internet; it permits, for example, a video clip to begin playing on a user’s computer as soon as it begins to be downloaded from a Web site. Even with improved modems and connection speeds, downloading and playing large audio and video files without the use of streaming tech¬ niques still takes an inconveniently long time. To accept streaming data, the receiving computer needs to be running a player, a program that decompresses the incoming data and sends the resulting signals to the display and speakers. The audio and video files may be prerecorded, but streaming can also accommodate a live feed over the Internet.

streamline In fluid mecfianics, the path of imaginary particles suspended in the fluid and carried along with it. In steady flow, the fluid is in motion but the streamlines are fixed. Where streamlines crowd together, the fluid speed is relatively high; where they open out, the fluid is relatively still. See also laminar flow, turbulent flow.

Streep, Meryl orig. Mary Louise Streep (b. June 22, 1949, Sum¬ mit, N.J., U.S.) U.S. film actress. She studied at Vassar College and the Yale School of Drama before appearing on Broadway and in the televi¬ sion films The Deadliest Season (1977) and The Holocaust (1978, Emmy Award). An unusually versatile and expressive actress, she won stardom in The Deer Hunter (1978), Manhattan (1979), and Kramer vs. Kramer (1979, Academy Award). Her later films include Sophie’s Choice (1982,

Academy Award), Silkwood (1983), Out of Africa (1985), A Cry in the Dark (1988), The Bridges of Madison County (1995), and The Hours

( 2002 ).

streetcar or trolley car Passenger-carrying vehicle that runs on rails laid in city streets. Streetcars in the 1830s were pulled by horses. Elec¬ tric motors later supplied the power, with electricity transmitted by a trol¬ ley from overhead electric lines. From the 1890s to the 1940s, streetcars were widely used in cities around the world; they were gradually replaced by the automobile, the bus, and the subway, and by the 1950s few remained. A variant, the cable car, invented in 1873 for use on San Francisco’s steep hills, is drawn by a continuous cable set in a slot between the tracks.

Streicher Yshtri-korV Julius (b. Feb. 22, 1885, Fleinhausen, Ger.—d. Oct. 16, 1946, Niirnberg, W.Ger.) German Nazi demagogue and politi¬ cian. He joined the Nazi Party in 1921 and became a friend of Adolf Hit¬ ler. In 1923 he founded the anti-Semitic weekly Der Stiirmer, which provided a focus for Hitler’s racial policies. As one of the most virulent advocates of persecution of the Jews, Streicher initiated the campaign that led to the passage of the Niirnberg Laws in 1935. He was appointed gaule- iter (district leader) of Franconia, but his sadistic excesses alienated party officials, and he was stripped of his posts in 1940; he remained editor of Der Stiirmer, however, owing to Hitler’s protection. In 1945 he was arrested by the Allies, prosecuted at the Niirnberg trials, and hanged as a war criminal.

Streisand, Barbra orig. Barbara Joan Streisand (b. April 24, 1942, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. singer and actress. She sang in night¬ clubs before appearing on Broadway in I Can Get It for You Wholesale (1962), and she became a major star with Funny Girl (1964; film and Academy Award, 1968). Her richly beautiful voice made her one of the world’s most popular singers in the 1970s and ’80s. An exuberant comic and dramatic actress, she starred in movies such as Hello, Dolly! (1969), What’s Up Doc? (1972), The Way We Were (1973), and A Star Is Born (1976), and she later directed and starred in Yentl (1983) and The Prince of Tides (1991). She avoided live performances for several years, but in the 1990s she appeared in a series of concerts that broke box office sales records. In 1995 she received a Grammy Award for lifetime achievement.

Streltsy Russian "musketeers" Russian military corps. Established in the mid-16th century, the streltsy formed the bulk of the Russian army for about 100 years and provided the tsar’s bodyguard. A hereditary mili¬ tary caste by the mid-17th century, they numbered about 55,000 and per¬ formed police and security duties in Moscow and the garrisoned border towns. In 1682 the corps became involved in the succession struggle that led to the regency of Sophia. When she was displaced (1689), they were forcibly disbanded by Peter I; hundreds were executed or deported. The corps was gradually absorbed into the regular army.

strength of materials Engineering discipline concerned with the abil¬ ity of a material to resist mechanical forces when in use. A material’s strength in a given application depends on many factors, including its resistance to deformation and cracking, and it often depends on the shape of the member being designed. See also fracture, impact test, materials sci¬ ence, TENSILE STRENGTH, TESTING MACHINE.

streptococcus \,strep-t3-'ka-k9s\ Any of the spheroidal bacteria that make up the genus Streptococcus. The cells characteristically group together in chains resembling a string of beads. Streptococci are gram¬ positive (see gram stain) and stationary and do not require oxygen. Some species cause infections, including rheumatic fever, scarlet fever, strep throat, and tonsillitis. Others are used in commercial starters for the pro¬ duction of butter, cultured buttermilk, and certain cheeses. See also pneu¬ mococcus.

streptomyces \,strep-t3- , ml-sez\ Any of the threadlike bacteria that make up the genus Streptomyces, occurring in soil and water. These gram¬ positive (see gram stain), oxygen-requiring bacteria form a branching net called a mycelium that bears chains of spores at maturity. Many species are important in the decomposition of organic matter in soil, contributing in part to the earthy odour of soil and decaying leaves and to the fertility of soil. Certain species produce antibiotics such as tetracycline and strep¬ tomycin. See also actinomycete.

streptomycin \,strep-t9-'ml-sen\ Antibiotic synthesized by the actino¬ mycete Streptomyces griseus, found in soil. It was among the first antibi¬ otics discovered (1943, by Selman Waksman), after penicillin, gramicidin, and tyrocidine. The first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis, it inter-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1832 I Stresa Front ► strip mining

feres with the tubercle bacillus’s ability to synthesize certain vital pro¬ teins. It still has some use in combination with penicillin for treating endocarditis and with tetracyclines in the treatment of plague, tularemia, and brucellosis.

Stresa Front \'stra-za\ (1935) Coalition of France, Britain, and Italy formed at Stresa, Italy, to oppose Adolf Hitler’s announced intention to rearm Germany, which violated terms of the Treaty of Versailles. When Italy invaded Ethiopia, France and Britain tried to reconcile the action with the need to remain united against Germany, but the coalition soon dissolved.

Stresemann \'shtra-z9- 1 man\ / Gustav (b. May 10, 1878, Berlin, Ger.—d. Oct. 3, 1929, Berlin) Ger¬ man chancellor and foreign minister of the Weimar Republic. Noted as an expert on municipal affairs and a writer on economics, he was elected to the Reichstag (1907) as a member of the National Liberal Party. In 1918 he founded the German People's Party and sought to form coalitions with other democratic parties. As chancellor (1923) and foreign minis¬ ter (1923-29), he worked to restore Germany’s international status, pur¬ suing a conciliatory policy with the Allied Powers. He negotiated the Pact of Locarno, supported the repa¬ rations revisions in the Dawes and Young plans, and secured Germany’s admission to the League of Nations.

He shared the 1926 Nobel Prize for Peace with Aristide Briand.

stress In phonetics, an emphasis given to a syllable of speech by mak¬ ing it louder than the rest of the word. This emphasis may have no mean¬ ing; for example, Czech words are regularly stressed on the first syllable. It may, however, distinguish the meanings of similarly spelled but differ¬ ently pronounced words; for example, permit is stressed on the first syl¬ lable as a noun and on the second as a verb. It may also be applied to a word to express its importance in a sentence. See also intonation.

stress In the physical sciences and engineering, the force per unit area within materials that arises from externally applied forces, uneven heat¬ ing, or permanent deformation. Normal stress refers to the stress caused by forces that are perpendicular to a cross-section area of the material. Shear stress arises from forces that are parallel to the plane of the cross section. Stress is expressed as the quotient of a force divided by an area.

stress In psychology, a state of bodily or mental tension resulting from factors that tend to alter an existent equilibrium. Stress is an unavoidable effect of living and is an especially complex phenomenon in modem technological society. It has been linked to coronary heart disease, psycho¬ somatic disorders, and various other mental and physical problems. Treat¬ ment usually consists of a combination of counseling or psychotherapy and medication.

strike Collective refusal by employees to work under the conditions set by employers. Strikes may arise from disputes over wages and working conditions. They may also be conducted in sympathy with other striking workers, or for purely political goals. Many strikes are organized by labour unions; strikes not authorized by the union (wildcat strikes) may be directed against union leadership as well as the employer. The right to strike is granted in principle to workers in nearly all industrialized coun¬ tries, and its use has paralleled the rise of labour unions since the 19th century. Most strikes are intended to inflict a cost to employers for fail¬ ure to meet specific demands. Among Japanese unions, strikes are not intended to halt production for long periods of time and are more akin to demonstrations. In western Europe and elsewhere, workers have carried out general strikes aimed at winning changes in the political system rather than concessions from employers. The decision to call a strike does not come easily, because union workers risk a loss of income for long peri¬ ods of time. They also risk the permanent loss of their jobs, especially when replacement workers hired to continue operations during the strike stay on as permanent employees. See also boycott; lockout.

strike In geology, the direction of the line formed by the intersection of a fault, bed, or other planar feature and a horizontal plane. Strike indi¬ cates the orientation of planar structural features such as faults, beds, joints, and folds.

Strindberg Ystrin- I ber y ,\ English Vstrind-.bsrgV (Johan) August (b. Jan. 22,1849, Stockholm, Swed.—d.

May 14, 1912, Stockholm) Swedish playwright and novelist. While working as a journalist, he wrote the historical drama Master 0/o/(1872); though rejected by the national the¬ atre and not produced until 1890, it is now considered the first modem Swedish drama. He won fame with his novel The Red Room (1879), which satirized the Stockholm art world. His unhappy life included three marriages and episodes of mental instability. In his most cre¬ ative period he moved restlessly around Europe for six years, writing his three major plays: The Father (1887), Miss Julie (1888), and The Creditors (1890). These iconoclastic works portrayed the battle of the sexes using a combination of dra¬ matic naturalism and psychology.

During this period he also wrote three novels. After a mental breakdown he experienced a religious conversion that inspired symbolic dramas such as The Dance of Death (1901), A Dream Play (1902), and five “chamber plays,” including The Ghost Sonata (1907).

string quartet Ensemble consisting of two violins, viola, and cello, or a work written for such an ensemble. Since c. 1775 such works have been perhaps the predominant genre of chamber music. It was principally devel¬ oped (if not quite invented) by Joseph Haydn, who wrote some 70 quar¬ tets between 1757 and 1803. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Schubert, Bela Bartok, and Dmitry Shostakovich are the preeminent subsequent quartet composers. Works called string quartets have traditionally observed the four-movement design of the sonata and symphony. Like most chamber music genres, quartet music was tradition¬ ally intended primarily for the private enjoyment of amateur musicians rather than for public performance.

string theory Any of a number of theories in particle physics that treat elementary particles (see subatomic particle) as infinitesimal one¬ dimensional “stringlike” objects rather than dimensionless points in space- time. Different vibrations of the strings correspond to different particles. Introduced in the early 1970s in attempts to describe the strong force, string theories became popular in the 1980s when it was shown that they might provide a fully self-consistent quantum field theory that could describe gravitation as well as the weak, strong, and electromagnetic forces. The development of a unified quantum field theory is a major goal in theoretical particle physics, but inclusion of gravity usually leads to dif¬ ficult problems with infinite quantities in the calculations. The most self- consistent string theories propose 11 dimensions; 4 correspond to the 3 ordinary spatial dimensions and time, while the rest are curled up and not perceptible.

stringed instrument Any musical instrument that produces sound by the vibrations of strings. The strings may be of gut, metal, fibre, or plas¬ tic, and may be plucked, bowed, or struck. The orchestral stringed instru¬ ments include the violin, viola, cello, double bass, and harp. Keyboard stringed instruments include the clavichord, harpsichord, piano, and vir¬ ginal. See also Aeolian harp; balalaika; dulcimer; guitar; kithara; koto; lute; lyre; mandolin; pipa; sitar; c 0d; ukulele; viol; zither.

strip mining Technique for the surface mining of coal by removing the soil and rock overburden above a seam and extracting the exposed min¬ eral. The method is used to best advantage where the coal seam is thin and not deeply buried. (Thicker and deeper seams would be extracted by open-pit or underground mining.) Strip mining is most economical where flat terrain and horizontal seams permit a large area to be stripped. Where deposits occur in rolling or mountainous terrain, a contour method is used that creates a shelf with a slope on one side and an almost vertical wall

Strindberg, lithograph by Edvard Munch, 1896

COURTESY OF THE MUNCH-MUSEET, OSLO; PHOTOGRAPH, O. VAERING

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

strobilus > structural system I 1833

on the other. A variety of equipment is used, including dozers, scrapers, hydraulic shovels, draglines, and bucket-wheel excavators. Concern over the environmental effects of strip mining have resulted in numerous requirements for the reclamation of excavated land.

strobilus See cone

stroboscope Instrument that repeatedly illuminates a rotating or vibrat¬ ing object in order to study the motion of the object or to determine its rotation speed or vibration frequency. The effect is achieved by produc¬ ing light in very short bursts timed to occur when the moving part is in the same phase of its motion. By use of the stroboscope, a machine part, for example, may be made to appear to slow down or stop.

Stroessner \'stres-nor\, Alfredo (b. Nov. 3, 1912, Encamacion, Para.) Military leader and president of Paraguay (1954-89). The son of a Ger¬ man immigrant, Stroessner joined the army in 1932 and rose to become commander in chief in 1951. He deposed Pres. Federico Chavez (b. 1881?—d. 1978) and was the sole candidate in the 1954 presidential elec¬ tions. He stabilized the currency, moderated inflation, and provided some new schools and public health facilities, but he spent half the national income on the military establishment in order to preserve his authority and harshly suppressed his political opponents. After his election to an eighth successive term, he was deposed in a coup d’etat and went into exile.

Strogonov Vstro-go-noA school School of icon painting named for its original patrons, the Stroganov fam¬ ily, that flourished in Russia in the late 16th and 17th century. The art¬ ists perfected their work in the ser¬ vice of the tsar in Moscow. The paintings, designed for private use, were produced in a muted colour range dominated by golden browns with gold and silver linear high¬ lights. Small and exquisitely detailed and embellished with frames and halos of beaten gold and silver, they represent the last vital stage of Rus¬ sian medieval painting before the westernization of Russian art at the end of the 17th century.

Stroheim \'shtro- l him,\ English \'stro-,hIm\, Erich von orig. Erich Oswald Stroheim (b. Sept. 22,

1885, Vienna, Austria—d. May 12,

1957, near Paris, France) Austrian- U.S. film director and actor. He was the son of a Jewish hatmaker, and he immigrated to the U.S. after his mili¬ tary service. He arrived in Holly¬ wood in 1914, where he worked for D.W. Griffith and performed his trademark role as a Prussian officer.

His directorial debut. Blind Hus¬ bands (1919), was followed by The Devil’s Passkey (1920) and Foolish Wives (1922). Greed (1924), his masterpiece, was a landmark in film realism; however, it was cut from 9 hours to 140 minutes—without his approval—before its release. It was followed by The Merry Widow (1925), The Wedding March (1928), and Queen Kelly (1928). His extravagance and demand for artistic control scuttled his directing career, and he returned to acting, notably in Grand Illusion (1937) and Sunset Boulevard (1950).

stroke or cerebrovascular accident (CVA) Sudden impairment of brain function due to hypoxia, which may cause death of brain tissue. Hypertension, atherosclerosis, smoking, high cholesterol, diabetes, old age, atrial fibrillation, and genetic defects are risk factors. Strokes due to throm¬ bosis (the most common cause), embolism, or arterial spasm, which cause

ischemia (reduced blood supply), must be distinguished from those due to hemorrhage (bleeding), which are usually severe and often fatal. Depending on its site in the brain, a stroke’s effects may include aphasia, ataxia, local paralysis, and/or disorders of one or more senses. A massive stroke can produce one-sided paralysis, inability to speak, coma, or death within hours or days. Anticoagulants can arrest strokes caused by clots but worsen those caused by bleeding. If the cause is closure of the major artery to the brain, surgery may clear or bypass the obstruction. Reha¬ bilitation and speech therapy should begin within two days to retain and restore as much function as possible, since survivors may live many more years. Transient ischemic attacks (“mini strokes”), with short-term loss of function, result from blockage of blood flow to small areas. They tend to recur and may worsen, leading to multi-infarct dementia or stroke.

stromatolite \stro- , ma-t 3 l-,It\ Layered deposit, mainly of limestone, formed by the growth of blue-green algae (see cyanobacteria). These struc¬ tures are usually characterized by thin, alternating light and dark layers that may be flat, hummocky, or dome-shaped. Stromatolites were com¬ mon in Precambrian time (more than 543 million years ago). Some of the first forms of life on Earth are recorded in stromatolites in rocks 3.5 bil¬ lion years old. Stromatolites continue to form in certain areas today, most abundantly in Shark Bay in western Australia.

Stromboli \ , stram-bo-( l )le\ Volcano, Stromboli Island, off northeastern Sicily, Italy. One of Europe’s most active volcanoes, it is 3,038 ft (926 m) high. Though the last serious eruption was in 1921, lava flows continu¬ ously from its crater to the sea. Tourists are attracted to the island by its volcano, climate, and beaches.

Strong, William (b. May 6, 1808, Somers, Conn., U.S.—d. Aug. 19, 1895, Lake Minnewaska, N.Y.) U.S. jurist. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1847-51) and on the Pennsylvania state supreme court (1857-68). In 1870 he was appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court by Ulysses S. Grant. In 1871 he spoke for the majority as the court overturned the Hepburn decision of the previous year, a reversal that allowed Congress the power to issue paper money as legal tender, a position favoured by Grant. Strong retired from the court in 1880.

strong force or strong nuclear force Fundamental force acting between elementary particles of matter, mainly quarks. The strong force binds quarks together in clusters to form protons and neutrons and heavier short-lived particles. It holds together the atomic nucleus and underlies interactions among all particles containing quarks. In strong interactions, quarks exchange gluons, carriers of the strong force, which are massless particles with one unit of intrinsic spin. Within its short range (about 10 -15 m), the strong force appears to become stronger with distance. At such distances, the strong interaction between quarks is about 100 times greater than the electromagnetic force.

strontium \'stran(t)-she-3m, 'stran-te-omN Chemical element, one of the alkaline earth metals, chemical symbol Sr, atomic number 38. A soft metal, it has a silvery lustre when freshly cut but reacts rapidly with air. In both the metal and the compounds (in which it has valence 2), strontium resembles calcium and barium so closely that it has few uses that the other two elements cannot supply more cheaply. The nitrate and chlorate, very volatile, give off brilliant crimson flames and are used in flares, fireworks, and tracer bullets. The radioactive isotope strontium-90 (see radioactivity), produced in nuclear explosions, is the principal health hazard in fallout; it can replace some of the calcium in foods, concentrate in bones and teeth, and cause radiation injury.

structural geology Scientific discipline concerned with rock defor¬ mation on both small and large scales. Its scope ranges from submicro- scopic lattice defects in crystals to fault structures and fold systems of the Earth’s crust. Depending on the scale, the general techniques used are the same as those used in petrology, field geology, and geophysics. Further¬ more, since the processes that cause rocks to deform can rarely be observed directly, computer models are also used.

structural system In building construction, the particular method of assembling and constructing structural elements of a building so that they support and transmit applied loads safely to the ground without exceed¬ ing the allowable stresses in the members. Basic types of systems include bearing-wall, post-and-beam, frame, membrane, and suspension. They fall into three major categories: low-rise, high-rise, and long-span. Systems for long-span buildings (column-free spaces of over 100 ft, or 30 m) include tension and compression systems (subject to bending) and funic-

"SS. Boris and Gleb," icon by a fol¬ lower of Prokopy Chirin, Stroganov school, 17th century; in the State Trety¬ akov Gallery, Moscow NOVOSTI PRESS AGENCY, MOSCOW

Erich von Stroheim in Foolish Wives,

BROWN BROTHERS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1834 I structuralism ► Stubbs

ular systems, which are shaped to experience either pure tension or pure compression. Bending structures include the girder and two-way grids and slabs. Funicular structures include cable structures, membrane structures, and vaults and domes. See also framed structure; post-and-beam system; shell

STRUCTURE.

structuralism European critical movement of the mid-20th century. It is based on the linguistic theories of Ferdinand de Saussure, which hold that language is a self-contained system of signs, and the cultural theo¬ ries of Claude Levi-Strauss, which hold that cultures, like languages, can be viewed as systems of signs and analyzed in terms of the structural rela¬ tions among their elements. Central to structuralism is the notion that binary oppositions (e.g., male/female, public/private, cooked/raw) reveal the unconscious logic or “grammar” of a system. Literary structuralism views literary texts as systems of interrelated signs and seeks to make explicit their hidden logic. Prominent figures in the structuralist move¬ ment are Michel Foucault, Jacques Lacan, Roman Jakobson, and Roland Barthes. Areas of study that have adopted and developed structuralist pre¬ mises and methodologies include semiotics and narratology. See also DECONSTRUCTION.

Structured Query Language See SQL

Struma River River, western Bulgaria and northeastern Greece. Ris¬ ing in the Rhodope Mountains southwest of Sofia, Bulg., it courses 258 mi (415 km) southeast to the Aegean Sea. Its upper valley is a major source of brown coal for Bulgaria, and its lower course flows through a wide agricultural valley.

Struve Yshtru-vsV Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von (b. April 15, 1793, Altona, Den.—d. Nov. 23, 1864, St. Petersburg, Russia) German- bom Russian astronomer. He left Germany for Russia in 1808 to avoid conscription in the Napoleonic armies; he subsequently joined the faculty at the University of Dorpat and became director of its observatory. The founder of the modern study of binary stars, he measured some 3,000 binaries in his survey of more than 120,000 stars. He was also among the first to measure stellar parallax. In 1835, at the request of Tsar Nicholas I, he went to Pulkovo to supervise construction of a new observatory, becoming its director in 1839. His son, Otto Struve (1819-1905), served as director of Pulkovo Observatory (1862-89); his grandson Gustav Wil¬ helm Ludwig Struve (1858-1920) was director of University of Kharkov observatory; Otto Struve was his great-grandson.

Struve \ English Vstru-ve\, Otto (b. Aug. 12, 1897, Kharkov, Ukraine, Russian Empire—d. April 6, 1963, Berkeley, Calif., U.S.) Russian-bom U.S. astronomer. The great-grandson of Friedrich G.W. von Struve, he sus¬ pended his studies to serve in the Russian army in World War I before immigrating to the U.S. On the staff of Yerkes Observatory, he made important contributions to stellar spectroscopy and astrophysics, notably the discovery of the widespread distribution of hydrogen and other ele¬ ments in space. He served as director of Yerkes (beginning 1932) and later of McDonald Observatory in Texas, which he organized. He later taught at the University of Chicago (beginning 1947) and UC-Berkeley, and he directed the National Radio Astronomy Observatory in Green Bank, W.V. (1959-62). A prolific writer, he published about 700 papers and several books.

Struve Vstrii-vsV Pyotr (Berngardovich) (b. Feb. 7, 1870, Perm, Russia—d. Feb. 26, 1944, Paris, France) Russian economist and journal¬ ist. In 1894 he wrote a well-regarded Marxist analysis of Russian capi¬ talism and in 1898 a manifesto for the newly formed Russian Social- Democratic Workers' Party. After his arrest and exile in 1901, he broke with revolutionary Marxism; from 1902 to 1905 he edited the illegal but widely read journal Osvobozhdeniy (“Liberation”), in which he called for a constitutional monarchy. He returned to Russia in 1905, joined the Con¬ stitutional Democratic Party, and edited the moderate journal Russkaya my sly (“Russian Thought”). In 1917 he opposed the Bolshevik takeover and left Russia for Paris and (after 1928) Belgrade.

strychnine Vstrik-.nlnX Organic compound, a poisonous alkaloid obtained from seeds of the nux vomica tree of India and related plants of the genus Strychnos. It does not dissolve in water nor well in alcohol, and it has an intense bitter taste. It has been used in rodent poisons. Within 20 minutes after ingestion, it causes painful muscle contractions and con¬ vulsions, pulling the head back and arching the back; death usually results from respiratory muscle spasms. It is used in small doses by veterinarians as a stimulant.

Stuart, Charles Edward See Charles Edward, the Young Pretender

Stuart, Gilbert (Charles) (b. Dec. 3, 1755, North Kingston, R.I., U.S.—d. July 9, 1828, Boston,

Mass.) U.S. painter. He went to Lon¬ don in 1775 and worked six years with Benjamin West. He opened his own London studio in 1782 and enjoyed great success but fled to Dublin in 1787 to escape his credi¬ tors. After six years there, he returned to the U.S. He developed a distinctively American portrait style and quickly established himself as the nation’s leading portraitist. Crit¬ ics have praised his painterly brush- work, luminous colour, and psychological penetration. Of his nearly 1,000 portraits, the most famous is an unfinished head of George Washington (1796).

Stuart, house of or house of Stewart or Steuart Royal house of Scotland (1371-1714) and of England (1603—49, 1660-1714). The earliest members of the family were stewards in 11th-century Brittany; in the 12th century a member entered the service of David I (r. 1124-53) in Scotland and received the title of steward. The 6th steward married the daughter of King Robert I the Bruce, and in 1371 their son became King Robert II, the first Stewart king of Scotland (r. 1371-90). His descendants in the 15th—17th centuries included the Scottish monarchs James I, James II, James III, James IV, Mary, Queen of Scots, and James VI (who inherited the English throne as James I). The Stuarts (who eventually adopted the French-influenced spelling of their name) were excluded from the English throne after Charles I until the restoration of Charles II in 1660. He was followed by James II, William III and Mary II, and Anne. The Stuart royal line ended in 1714, and the British crown passed to the house of Hanover, despite later claims by James II’s son James Edward (the Old Pretender) and grandson Charles Edward (the Young Pretender).

Stuart, James Edward See James Edward, the Old Pretender

Stuart, Jeb orig. James Ewell Brown Stuart (b. Feb. 6, 1833, Patrick county, Va., U.S.—d. May 12, 1864, Yellow Tavern, near Rich¬ mond, Va.) U.S. army officer. He graduated from West Point and was an aide to Col. Robert E. Lee in the defeat of John Brown’s raid on Harpers Ferry. In 1861 he joined the Confederate army, becoming brigadier general of a cavalry brigade. On scouting raids he obtained information on Union troop movements that contributed to Confederate victories at the Seven Days’ Battle and the Second Battle of Bull Run; Lee called Stuart the “eyes of the army.” As major general, he helped win the battles of Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville. Before the Battle of Gettysburg, he was instructed by Lee to gather information on Union troop movements; he was delayed on a raid and arrived after the battle had begun. Though criticized for his action, he continued to provide intelligence to Confederate forces. He was mortally wounded in the Confederate defeat at Spotsylvania Courthouse.

Stuart style Style of visual arts produced in Britain during the reign of the house of Stuart (1603-1714, excepting the interregnum of Oliver Cromwell). Though the period encompassed several specific stylistic movements, artists through much of the period looked for inspiration to contemporary movements (primarily the Baroque) on the Continent, espe¬ cially in Italy, Flanders, and France. Masters of the Stuart style included the architects Inigo Jones and Christopher Wren. See also Jacobean age; Queen Anne style.

Stubbs, George (b. Aug. 24, 1724, Liverpool, Eng.—d. July 10, 1806, London) British animal painter and anatomical draftsman. Son of a pros¬ perous tanner, he was briefly apprenticed to a painter but was basically self-taught. His masterly depictions of hunters and racehorses brought him innumerable commissions. Perhaps more impressive than the single por¬ traits are his pictures of informal groups of horses, such as Mares and Foals in a Landscape (c. 1760-70). He also painted many other animals, including lions, tigers, giraffes, monkeys, and rhinoceroses, which he was able to observe in private menageries. His book The Anatomy of the Horse (1762), containing 18 masterfully engraved plates, was widely acclaimed.

Mrs. Richard Yates , oil painting by Gil¬ bert Stuart, 1793-94; in the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART, WASHINGTON, D.C., ANDREW MELLON COLLECTION

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

stucco ► Stuyvesant I 1835

stucco Exterior or interior plasterwork used as three-dimensional orna¬ mentation, as a smooth paintable surface, or as a wet ground for fresco painting. Today the term is most often restricted to the rough plaster coat¬ ing of exterior walls. Examples occur worldwide; stucco was applied to the temple walls of ancient Greece as early as 1400 bc. Roman architects stuccoed the rough stone or brick walls of monuments such as the baths at Hadrian's Villa. Stucco was widely used in Baroque and Renaissance architecture. Because of the many ways in which it can be treated, stuc¬ cowork has remained popular. In the warmer regions of the U.S., the 1920s stucco bungalow became virtually ubiquitous.

Studebaker family U.S. automobile manufacturers whose firm became the world’s largest producer of horse-drawn vehicles and a leader in automobile manufacturing. In 1852 Clement Studebaker (1831-1901) started a blacksmith and wagon shop in South Bend, Ind., with his brother Henry (1826-1895). Later joined by their brothers John, Peter, and Jacob, the family business supplied vehicles to the U.S. government during the American Civil War and later helped outfit settlers moving west. By 1902 the company had built its first electric cars and, by 1904, gasoline- powered cars. In 1954 the Studebaker Corp. merged with the Packard Motor Car Co.; in 1966 it ceased production.

Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) Activist student orga¬ nization in the U.S. Founded at the University of Michigan in 1960, its chapters were initially principally involved in the civil rights movement. Its “Port Huron Statement” of principles (1962) called for a new “participa¬ tory democracy.” After organizing a national march in 1965 to protest U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, it became more militant, organizing stu¬ dent sit-ins to protest universities’ participation in defense-related research. By 1969 the SDS had split into factions; the most notorious was the terrorist-oriented Weathermen, or Weather Underground. By the mid- 1970s the group was defunct.

studio system System whereby U.S. movie companies controlled all aspects of production, distribution, and exhibition. In the 1920s film stu¬ dios such as Paramount and MGM acquired theatre chains to strengthen their vertical control of the industry, and Warner Brothers, RKO, and Twentieth Century-Fox built similar empires soon thereafter. Studio heads exerted control over the types of movies to be made and the directors and actors to be hired; only a few directors maintained some independent control over their films. The studio system also developed the “star sys¬ tem,” by which certain actors and actresses were groomed for stardom, with studio executives choosing their roles, publicizing their glamorized offscreen lives, and keeping them under control through long contracts. The system declined after a 1948 Supreme Court decision forced the large studios to sell their theatre chains and increasing competition from tele¬ vision forced studios to limit their staffs, and by the 1960s it had effec¬ tively ended.

stupa Monument erected in memory of the Buddha or a Buddhist saint, often marking a sacred spot, com¬ memorating an event, or housing a relic. Stupas are architectural sym¬ bols of the Buddha’s death. A simple stupa may consist of a circular earth¬ enware base supporting a massive solid dome from which projects an umbrella, symbolizing protection.

This basic design is the inspiration for other types of Buddhist monu¬ ments, including pagodas, seen throughout Asia. Worship consists of walking clockwise around a stupa.

Many important stupas have become places of PILGRIMAGE.

sturgeon Any of about 20 species (family Acipenseridae) of large, primitive fishes that live mainly in southern Russia, Ukraine, and North America. Most species live in the sea and ascend rivers to spawn; a few live permanently in fresh water. Four tactile barbels near the toothless mouth detect invertebrates and small fishes on the mud bottom. Sturgeon flesh and eggs, or roe (caviar), are sold for food. The swim bladder is used in isin¬ glass, a gelatin. The Baltic sturgeon (Acipenser sturio) and several other species are endangered. The Atlantic sturgeon (A. oxyrhynchus), however, is common along the eastern coast of North America and generally is about 10 ft (3 m) long and weighs about 500 lb (225 kg). See also beluga.

Sturges Vstar-jssV Preston orig. Edmond Preston Biden (b.

Aug. 29, 1898, Chicago, Ill., U.S.—d. Aug. 6, 1959, New York, N.Y.) U.S. film director. Initially a playwright, he wrote the Broadway hits Strictly Dishonorable (1929) and Child of Manhattan (1931). After mov¬ ing to Hollywood, he became a noted screenwriter and won an Academy Award for The Great McGinty (1940), the first film he directed. He went on to write and direct distinctive satirical comedies such as The Lady Eve (1941), Sullivan’s Travels (1941), The Palm Beach Story (1941), The Miracle of Morgan’s Creek (1944), Hail the Conquering Hero (1944), and Unfaithfully Yours (1948), characterized by their witty dialogue, rapid pace, and memorable minor characters.

Sturm und Drang X.shturm-unt-'draq, .sturm-ont-'draqX German "storm and stress" German literary movement of the latter half of the 18th century characterized by a revolt against what the writers saw as the Enlightenment cult of rationalism and the sterile imitation of French literature. It exalted nature, intuition, impulse, instinct, emotion, fancy, and inborn genius as the wellsprings of literature. Influenced by Jean- Jacques Rousseau, Johann Gottfried Herder, and others, it took its name from the title of a play by Friedrich von Klinger (1752-1831). Dramatic works were the movement’s most characteristic product. Its most gifted representatives were Friedrich Schiller and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, whose Sorrows of Young Werther (1774) epitomizes its spirit.

Sturtevant Vstort-o-vonA, Alfred (Henry) (b. Nov. 21, 1891, Jack¬ sonville, Ill., U.S.—d. April 5, 1970, Pasadena, Calif.) U.S. geneticist. He received his Ph.D. from Columbia University and taught principally at California Institute of Technology (1928-70). In 1912 he developed a technique for mapping the location of specific genes of the chromosomes in Drosophila. He later proved that crossing-over (the exchange of genes between chromosomes) could be prevented in Drosophila. He was one of the first to warn against the hazards of fallout as a consequence of nuclear bomb testing.

Sturzo Ystiirt-soX, Luigi (b. Nov. 26, 1871, Caltagirone, Sicily—d. Aug. 8, 1959, Rome, Italy) Italian priest and political leader. Ordained a priest in 1894, he earned a doctorate in Rome, then returned to his native Sic¬ ily to help the oppressed miners and peasants. As mayor of Caltagirone (1905-20), he built community housing and other public works. In 1919 he founded the Italian Popular Party and became its political secretary. Refusing to support Benito Mussolini, he went into exile in 1924. He returned in 1946, when his political movement was revived as the Chris¬ tian Democratic Party. In 1952 he was appointed senator for life. He wrote several works of Christian social philosophy, including Church and State (1939) and Italy and the Coming World (1945).

stuttering or stammering or dysphemia \dis-'fe-me-9\ Speech defect affecting the rhythm and fluency of speech, with involuntary rep¬ etition of sounds or syllables and intermittent blocking or prolongation of sounds, syllables, and words. Stutterers consistently have trouble with words starting with consonants, first words in sentences, and multisylla¬ ble words. Stuttering has a psychological, not a physiological, basis, tend¬ ing to appear in children pressured to speak fluently in public. In earlier times, stutterers were subjected to often torturous efforts to cure them. Today it is known that about 80% recover without treatment, usually by early adulthood. This probably results from increased self-esteem, accep¬ tance of the problem, and consequent relaxation. See also speech therapy.

Stuttgart \'shtut-,gart\ City (pop., 2002 est.: city, 587,152; urban agglom., 2,529,675), southwestern Germany. Located on the Neckar River, Stuttgart was originally a 10th-century stud farm. It became a town in the 13th century and passed to the counts of Wurttemberg, serving as their capital until the 19th century. The Thirty Years' War, French invasions in the 17th century, and heavy bombing during World War II took a toll on the city. Many historic buildings have been rebuilt, including the 13th- century castle. It is a cultural, transportation, industrial, and publishing centre. The University of Stuttgart was founded in 1829.

Stuyvesant Vsti-vo-sontV, Peter (b. c. 1592, Scherpenzeel, Friesland, Neth.—d. February 1672, near New York, N.Y.) Dutch colonial governor. In 1643 he became director of the Dutch West India Co.’s Caribbean colonies and in 1645 director general of all Dutch possessions in North America, including New Netherland and the Caribbean. He arrived in New Amsterdam (later New York City) in 1647 and soon faced the burgh¬ ers’ demands for self-government. He established a municipal govern¬ ment but continued to control it. He settled the boundary with Connecticut (1650), expelled the Swedes from New Sweden on the Delaware River,

Stupa III and its single gateway, San- chi, Madhya Pradesh state, India

HOLLE BILDARCHIV

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1836 I sty ► submarine

and incorporated the colony into Dutch territory (1655). Incursions from the New England colonies and a squadron sent by Charles II forced him to surrender New Netherland to the British (1664).

sly or hordeolum \h6r-'de-9-bm\ Infection of an eyelid gland. An external sty results from infection of a sebaceous gland at the edge of the eyelid; tears flow and the eye feels tender, as if something is in it. The sty reddens and swells. Warm compresses help it break sooner. An inter¬ nal sty is caused by infection of a meibomian gland under the eyelid lin¬ ing. More painful than an external sty, it usually breaks through the inner lining of the lid when it discharges and may leave a painless cyst (cha¬ lazion) at the site. See also boil.

Style Moderne See Art Deco

stylistics Aspect of literary study that emphasizes the analysis of vari¬ ous elements of style (such as metaphor and diction). The ancients saw style as the proper adornment of thought. In this view, which prevailed throughout the Renaissance, devices of style can be catalogued and ideas can be framed with the help of model sentences and prescribed types of figures suited to the mode of discourse. In more recent theories, the rela¬ tionship of style and the individual writer’s unique vision of reality is emphasized.

stylolite \ , stl-b- l llt\ Sedimentary structure consisting of a series of rela¬ tively small, alternating, interlocked, toothlike columns of stone; it is common in limestone, marble, and similar rock. The individual columns never appear singly but occur as a succession of interpenetrations that in cross section make a zigzag suture across the face of the stone. Most geologists believe that they are of secondary origin; that is, they result from differential chemical solution as groundwater circulates along a part¬ ing in hardened rock.

Styne, Jule orig. Julius Kerwin Stein (b. Dec. 31, 1905, London, Eng.—d. Sept. 20, 1994, New York, N.Y., U.S.) British-born U.S. song¬ writer. Bom to Ukrainian Jewish parents, he and his family settled in Chi¬ cago, Ill., U.S., in 1912. His first hit song was published in 1926. In the early 1930s he changed his name to avoid confusion with another per¬ former. He moved to Hollywood, Calif., in 1937 to write film musicals. In the 1940s he worked with lyricist Sammy Cahn, writing ballads for Frank Sinatra, the film musical Anchors Aweigh (1945), and the Broadway musi¬ cal High Button Shoes (1947). He collaborated with other lyricists on musicals such as Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1949), Bells Are Ringing (1956), Gypsy (1959), and Funny Girl (1964). His songs include “Let It Snow,” “The Party’s Over,” and “People.”

Styron, William (b. June 11, 1925, Newport News, Va., U.S.) U.S. novelist. Educated at Duke University, Styron became part of the Ameri¬ can expatriate community in Paris in the 1950s. His first novel. Lie Down in Darkness (1951), tells of a disturbed young woman who commits sui¬ cide. His fourth, the controversial Confessions of Nat Turner (1967, Pulitzer Prize), vividly evokes the slavery era. His later work includes Sophie’s Choice (1979), examining ramifications of the Holocaust; and Darkness Visible (1990), a nonfiction account of his depression. His works often treat violent themes in a rich, Faulknerian style.

Styx \'stiks\ In Greek mythology, a river of the underworld. The name comes from a Greek word that denotes both hatred and extreme cold, and it expresses loathing of death. In the epics of Homer, the gods swore by the water of Styx as their most binding oath. Hesiod personified Styx as the daughter of Oceanus and the mother of Emulation, Victory, Power, and Might. The ancients believed that its water was poisonous and would dissolve any vessel except one made of the hoof of a horse or an ass.

Su Song or Su Sung \'su-'suq\ (b. 1020, Fujian Province, China—d. 1101, Kaifeng) Chinese scholar and administrative and financial expert in the imperial bureaucracy. His Illustrated Pharmacopoeia (1070) revealed his knowledge of drugs, zoology, metallurgy, and related technology. An armillary clock that he built to serve as the basis of calendrical reform was housed in a 35-ft (11-m) tower and powered by a waterwheel and chain drive; its mechanism anticipated techniques that would not be used in Europe for hundreds of years.

Suarez \'swa-rath\, Francisco (b. Jan. 5, 1548, Granada, Spain—d. Sept. 25, 1617, Lisbon) Spanish theologian and philosopher. In his Meta¬ physical Disputations (1597), he drew on the works of Aristotle, St. Tho¬ mas Aquinas, John Duns Scotus, and Luis de Molina (1535-1600) to discuss the free will problem and other metaphysical topics. He is widely

considered the greatest Scholastic philosopher after Aquinas (see Scho¬ lasticism) and the major Jesuit theologian. His departures from Aquinas’s positions have been considered significant enough to warrant the separate designation of his system as Suarezianism.

Suarez, Hugo Banzer See Hugo Banzer Suarez

subatomic particle or elementary particle Any of various self- contained units of matter or energy. Discovery of the electron in 1 897 and of the atomic nucleus in 1911 established that the atom is actually a com¬ posite of a cloud of electrons surrounding a tiny but heavy core. By the early 1930s it was found that the nucleus is composed of even smaller particles, called protons and neutrons. In the early 1970s it was discov¬ ered that these particles are made up of several types of even more basic units, named quarks, which, together with several types of leptons, con¬ stitute the fundamental building blocks of all matter. A third major group of subatomic particles consists of bosons, which transmit the forces of the universe. More than 200 subatomic particles have been detected so far, and most appear to have a corresponding antiparticle (see antimatter).

subbituminous coal Dark-brown to black coal, intermediate in rank between lignite and bituminous coal. It contains less water and is harder than lignite, making it easier to transport, store, and use. It has lower heating value than bituminous coal, but its sulfur content is often low, so that a number of coal-fired electric-power plants have switched from bitu¬ minous to subbituminous coal and lignite (which also tends to have rela¬ tively low sulfur). Subbituminous deposits are found in the U.S., Canada, Brazil, Germany, Russia, Ukraine, Australia, and China.

subconscious See unconscious

subduction zone Oceanic trench area in which, according to the theory of plate tectonics, the seafloor underthrusts an adjacent plate, drag¬ ging the accumulated trench sediments downward into the Earth’s upper mantle. See also deep-sea trench.

Subic Bay Inlet of the South China Sea, southwestern Luzon, Philip¬ pines. From 1901 it was the site of the U.S.-operated Subic Bay Naval Station, the largest naval installation in the Philippines. The area suffered heavy damage in World War II and was occupied by the Japanese in 1942-44. The base played a prominent supply and maintenance role in the Vietnam War (1955-75). Control of the bay was transferred to the Philippines in 1992, and it subsequently was redeveloped as a free-trade zone and recreational and tourist destination.

sublimation In physics, the change of state of a substance from a solid to a gas without first becoming liquid. One example is the vaporization of frozen carbon dioxide, or dry ice, at ordinary atmospheric pressure and temperature. The phenomenon occurs at pressures and temperatures (both relatively low) where solid and vapour phases coexist in equilibrium. Pres¬ ervation of food by freeze-drying involves sublimation of water from the food in a frozen state under vacuum.

submachine gun Lightweight automatic small-arms weapon cham¬ bered for relatively low-energy pistol cartridges and fired from the hip or shoulder. Submachine guns usually have box-type magazines that hold 10-50 cartridges, or occasionally drums holding more rounds. A short- range weapon, they are rarely effective at more than 200 yards (180 m). They can fire 650 or more rounds per minute and weigh 6-10 lbs (2.5- 4.5 kg). Important types include the Thompson submachine gun, or tommy gun (patented 1920), the British Sten gun of World War II, and the later Israeli Uzi.

submarine Naval vessel capable of operating underwater for sustained periods. In the 18th and 19th centuries, American inventors such as David Bushnell (17427-1824) and Robert Fulton experimented with hand- powered submarines. In 1898 John P. Holland (1840-1914) launched the Holland , which had both a gasoline engine for surface locomotion and a battery-powered electric motor for submerged cruising; it was purchased by the U.S. government in 1900. The innovations of Simon Lake (1866— 1945) were adopted first in Europe and later in the U.S. By the eve of World War I, all major navies had diesel-electric submarines. German U-boats were an especially potent threat; through World War II they intro¬ duced such innovations as the snorkel, which supplied fresh air to the die¬ sel engine without having to surface the boat. Nuclear-powered submarines began service with the launching of the USS Nautilus in 1954. The abundant power provided by uranium-fueled reactors means that nuclear submarines can remain submerged and operate at high speed

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submarine canyon ► suckering I 1837

indefinitely. Only the navies of the U.S., Russia, Britain, France, and China have nuclear-powered submarines; other navies rely on conven¬ tional diesel-electric power. Subs may be armed with torpedoes, cruise missiles, or ballistic missiles fitted with nuclear warheads. Because they are so difficult to locate, they are of great importance in the forces of almost all maritime states. See also depth charge; sonar; Trident missile.

submarine canyon Narrow, steep-sided underwater valley cut into a continental slope. Submarine canyons resemble river canyons on land, usually having steep, rocky walls. They are found along most continental slopes. Those of the Grand Bahama Canyon, which are thought to be the deepest, cut nearly 3 mi (5 km) deep into the continental slope. Most sub¬ marine canyons extend only about 30 mi (50 km) or less, but a few are more than 200 mi (300 km) long.

submarine fan Accumulation of land-derived sediment on the sea¬ floor; a fan is shaped like the section of a cone, with its apex at the mouth of a subbmarine canyon. The sediments consist largely of sandy material that drops from the canyon current in successively finer layers. Subma¬ rine fan valleys, with low relief and natural levees, often occur on sub¬ marine fans. Several fans may coalesce laterally.

submarine fracture zone Long, narrow, and mountainous subma¬ rine lineation that generally separates ocean-floor ridges differing in depth by as much as 1 mi (1.6 km). The largest fracture zones, in the eastern Pacific, are more than 1,000 mi (1,600 km) long and 60-125 mi (100- 200 km) wide. Numerous shorter fracture zones in the Atlantic are asso¬ ciated with the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

submarine mine In military and naval operations, a stationary explo¬ sive device placed in the water and designed to destroy ships that touch or approach it. Submarine mines have been used since the mid-19th cen¬ tury. They consist of an explosive charge fitted with a device that deto¬ nates the charge when a ship or submarine is nearby. Placed by vessels called minelayers or dropped by aircraft, they are anchored to the sea floor by a cable. Various types of submarine mines are detonated by contact, by an approaching ship’s magnetic field, by changes in water pressure, or by the sound of a ship’s propellers. The mine was the most effective antisubmarine weapon in World War I. Its role was even greater in World War II, when mines sank 1,118 Allied ships and 1,316 Axis ships. See also LAND MINE, MINESWEEPER.

submarine plateau See oceanic plateau

submarine slump In a submarine canyon or on a continental slope, a relatively rapid and sporadic downslope moving mass composed of sedi¬ ment and organic debris that has built up slowly into an unstable or mar¬ ginally stable mass. After an individual slump in a canyon, however, the material tends to continue falling in a series of slumps until the sediment mass attains a shallower, more stable slope. A slumping episode may also trigger other slumps farther down the canyon.

subpoena \s3-'pe-n3\ In law, a writ commanding the person upon whom it has been served to appear in court or before a congressional committee, grand jury, or some other body, under a penalty for failure to comply. Unlike a summons, a subpoena may command the recipient to produce evidence necessary to the resolution of a legal matter or contro¬ versy.

subsidy Financial assistance, either through direct payments or through indirect means such as price cuts and favourable contracts, to a person or group in order to promote a public objective. Subsidies to transportation, housing, agriculture, mining, and other industries have been instituted on the grounds that their preservation or expansion is in the public interest. Subsidies to the arts, sciences, humanities, and religion also exist in many nations where the private economy is unable to support them. Examples of direct subsidies include payments in cash or in kind, while more- indirect subsidies include governmental provision of goods or services at prices below the normal market price, governmental purchase of goods or services at prices above the market price, and tax concessions. Although subsidies exist to promote the public welfare, they result in either higher taxes or higher prices for consumer goods. Some subsidies, such as pro¬ tective tariffs, may also encourage the preservation of inefficient produc¬ ers. A subsidy is desirable only if its effects increase total benefits more than total costs (see cost-benefit analysis).

subsistence farming Form of farming in which nearly all the crops or livestock raised are used to maintain the farmer and his family, leav¬

ing little surplus for sale or trade. Preindustrial agricultural peoples throughout the world practiced subsistence farming. As urban centers grew, agricultural production became more specialized and commercial farming developed, with farmers producing a sizable surplus of certain crops, which they traded for manufactured goods or sold for cash. Sub¬ sistence farming persists today in sub-Saharan Africa and other develop¬ ing areas.

subsoil Layer (stratum) of earth immediately below the surface soil, consisting predominantly of minerals and leached materials such as iron and aluminum compounds. Humus remains and clay accumulate in sub¬ soil, but the teeming macroscopic and microscopic organisms that make the topsoil rich with organic matter spend little time in the subsoil layer. Below the subsoil is a layer of partially disintegrated rock, and underly¬ ing bedrock. Stripping topsoil while clearing land for crop growth or commercial development exposes the subsoil and increases the rate of erosion of soil minerals.

substantive law See procedural law

subsurface water See groundwater

Subud \'su-biid\ Indonesian religious movement based on spontaneous and ecstatic exercises. Founded in 1933 by Muhammad Subuh, a student of Sufism who underwent a mystical experience in 1925, the movement was largely confined to Indonesia until it spread to Europe and the U.S. in the 1950s, chiefly because of the work of George Gurdjieff. The cen¬ tral feature of Subud is the latihan, a group spiritual activity in which practitioners allow the power of God to express itself through unrestrained spontaneous activity. Unprogrammed singing, dancing, shouting, and laughter are thought to give rise to feelings of rapture and release and to promote psychological and physical healing.

subway Underground railway system used to transport passengers within urban and suburban areas. The first subway line, 3.75 mi (6 km) long, opened in London in 1863 and carried 9Vi million passengers in its first year. The first electrified subway opened in 1890 in London (where it is called the underground or tube). Subways opened in Budapest in 1896 (the first on the European continent), Boston in 1897, Paris in 1900 (where it is called the metro), Berlin in 1902, New York in 1904, and later in Madrid (1919), Tokyo (1927), and Moscow (1935). Improvements in sys¬ tems built from the 1970s on (including San Francisco, Washington, D.C., and Los Angeles) include computer technology to run subway trains by remote control, and refinements in track and car construction for faster, smoother, and quieter rides.

succubus See incubus and succubus

succulent Any plant with fleshy, thick tissues adapted to water storage. Some succulents (e.g., the cactus) store water only in the stem and have no leaves or very small leaves; others (e.g., agaves) store water mainly in the leaves. Most have deep or broad root systems and are native to either deserts or regions that have a semiarid season. In succulents, the stomata (see stoma) close during the day and open at night—the opposite of the usual pattern—in order to minimize transpiration.

Suchow See Yibin

sucker Any of 80-100 species (family Catostomidae) of freshwater food fishes found mostly in North America. Suckers can be distin¬ guished from minnows by the suck¬ ing mouth, with protrusible lips, on the underside of the head. Generally sluggish, they suck up detritus, invertebrates, and plants from the bottom of lakes and slow streams.

The species vary greatly in size. The lake chubsucker (Erimyzon sucetta) grows to 10 in. (25 cm) long; the big- mouth buffalo fish (Ictiobus cyp- rinellus ) grows to 35 in. (90 cm) and over 70 lbs (32 kg).

suckerfish See remora

suckering Vegetative formation of a new stem and root system from an adventitious bud of a stem or root, either naturally or by human action. Such asexual reproduction is based on the ability of plants to regenerate tissues and parts. Examples of plants that spread by suckers include red

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1838 I sucking louse ► sudden infant death syndrome

raspberry, forsythia, and lilac. Suckering allows horticulturists and agricul¬ turists to reproduce a desired plant over and over without significant variation.

sucking louse Any of more than 400 species (suborder Anoplura, order Phthiraptera) of small, wingless, flat ectoparasitic insects found world¬ wide. They have piercing and sucking mouthparts for extracting their food of mammals’ blood and tissue fluids. The nymphs mature after several molts. Species are host-specific: Pediculus infests humans (see human louse), whereas other sucking lice (genera Haematopinus and Linog- nathus) attack domestic animals, such as hogs, cattle, horses, and dogs.

suckling In mammals, the drawing of milk into the mouth from the nipple of a mammary gland. In human beings, it is referred to as nursing or breast-feeding. The word also denotes an animal that has not yet been weaned—that is, whose access to milk has not yet been withdrawn, a pro¬ cess that gradually accustoms the young to accept an adult diet.

Suckling, Sir John (b. February 1609, Whitton, Middlesex, Eng.—d. 1642, Paris, France) English Cavalier poet, dramatist, and courtier. He inherited his father’s considerable estates at age 18 and became promi¬ nent at court as a gallant and a gamester; he is credited with inventing cribbage. After participating in a foiled plot to rescue the Earl of Strafford from the Tower of London, he fled to France and is believed to have com¬ mitted suicide. He wrote four plays, the best being the lively comedy The Goblins (1638). His reputation as a poet rests on his lyrics, the best of which are easy and natural. His masterpiece is “A Ballad upon a Wed¬ ding,” written in the style and metre of the contemporary street ballad.

Sucre \'sii-kra\ Judicial capital (pop., 2001: 193,873), Bolivia. Founded by the Spanish (c. 1539) on the site of a Charcas Indian village, it became the capital of the Charcas territory of Upper Peru in 1561 and in 1609 the seat of an archdiocese. Many of its colonial churches survive. It was an early scene (1809) of the revolt against Spain. The Bolivian declaration of independence was signed there in 1825, and it became the capital in 1839. An effort to move the capital to La Paz in 1898 precipitated a civil war, which left the two cities sharing capital status. Sucre is also the seat of the national supreme court. It is a growing commercial centre. The University of San Francisco Xavier, one of the oldest universities in South America, was founded there in 1624.

Sucre \'su-kra\ (Alcala), Antonio Jose de (b. Feb. 3, 1795, Cumana, New Granada—d. June 4, 1830, Berruecos, Gran Colombia) Liberator of Ecuador and first president of Bolivia (1826-28). A close ally of Simon Bolivar, Sucre fought in the revolutionary struggles of Venezu¬ ela, Colombia, Gran Colombia (now Ecuador), Peru, and Upper Peru (now Bolivia), defeating royalist forces throughout the region. In 1826 he set up a Bolivian government and briefly served as president, but he soon retired to Gran Colombia. In 1829 he was called back into service to defend Gran Colombia against a Peruvian invasion. He was assassinated in 1830 at age 35. He is remembered as one of the most respected lead¬ ers of the Latin American wars for independence.

sucrose \'su- 1 kros\ or table sugar Organic compound, colourless, sweet-tasting crystals that dissolve in water. Sucrose (C 12 H 22 0 11 ) is a disaccharide; hydrolysis, by the enzyme invertase, yields “invert sugar” (so called because the hydrolysis results in an inversion of the rotation of plane polarized light), a 50:50 mixture of fructose and glucose, its two constituent monosaccharides. Sucrose occurs naturally in sugarcane, sugar beets, sugar-maple sap, dates, and honey. It is produced commercially in large amounts (especially from sugarcane and sugar beets) and is used almost entirely as food. See also sugar.

Sudan Vast tract of open savanna plains, north-central Africa. Extend¬ ing across 2,000,000 sq mi (5,000,000 sq km), it lies between the south¬ ern limits of the Sahara and Libyan deserts and the northern limits of the equatorial rainforests. It extends from the western coast more than 3,500 mi (5,500 km) to the mountains of Ethiopia and the Red Sea. The Sahel comprises the northern reaches.

Sudan \su-'dan\ / The officially Republic of the Sudan Country, northeastern Africa. Area: 966,757 sq mi (2,503,890 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 36,233,000. Capitals: Khartoum (executive), Omdurman (leg¬ islative). Muslim Arab and other ethnic groups live in the northern and central two-thirds of the country, while non-Muslim Dinka, Nuer, and Zande peoples live in the south. Languages: Arabic (official), Dinka, Nubian languages, Beja, Zande, English. Religions: Islam (official; pre¬ dominantly Sunni); also Christianity, traditional beliefs. Currency:

Sudanese dinar. The largest country in n Tr „„„ . Africa, The Sudan encompasses an 5—' 260 ' 4ook m immense plain with the Sahara Desert in the north, sand dunes in the west, semiarid shrub lands in the south-central belt, and enormous swamps and tropical rainforests in the south. The Nile River flows through the entire length of the country. Wildlife includes lions, leopards, elephants, girafFes, and zebras. The Sudan has a developing mixed economy based largely on agriculture. One of the largest irrigation projects in the world provides water to farms between the White Nile and the Blue Nile. Chief cash crops are cotton, peanuts, and sesame; livestock is also important. Major industries include food processing and cotton ginning, and petroleum is the main export. The country is ruled by an Islamic military regime; the head of state and government is the presi¬ dent. Evidence of human habitation dates back tens of thousands of years. From the end of the 4th millennium bc, Nubia (now northern Sudan) peri¬ odically came under Egyptian rule, and it was part of the kingdom of Cush from the 11th century bc to the 4th century ad. Christian missionaries converted the Sudan’s three principal kingdoms during the 6th century ad; these black Christian kingdoms coexisted with their Muslim Arab neighbours in Egypt for centuries, until the influx of Arab immigrants brought about their collapse in the 13th—15th centuries. Egypt had con¬ quered all of the Sudan by 1874 and encouraged British interference in the region; this aroused Muslim opposition and led to the revolt of the MahdI, who captured Khartoum in 1885 and established a Muslim theoc¬ racy in the Sudan that lasted until 1898, when his forces were defeated by the British. The British ruled, generally in partnership with Egypt, until the region achieved independence as The Sudan in 1956. Since then the country has fluctuated between ineffective parliamentary government and unstable military rule. The non-Muslim population of the south began rebellion against the Muslim-controlled government of the north in the early 1980s, leading to famines and the displacement of millions of people; a peace agreement was signed in 2005. Meanwhile, fighting broke out in 2003 between non-Arab Muslims in the Darfur region of western Sudan and government-backed Arab militias; tens of thousands of people were killed and hundreds of thousands were displaced.

sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) or crib death Unex¬ pected death of an apparently well infant. It occurs almost always during sleep at night and usually at 2^f months of age. Sleeping facedown and exposure to cigarette smoke have been implicated. It is more common in cases of premature birth, low birth weight, and poor prenatal care. Many cases that would once have been labeled SIDS prove to be due to suffo¬ cation in bedding or overheating. Some babies who die of SIDS have been found to have brain stem abnormalities that interfere with their response to high levels of carbon dioxide in the blood.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Sudetenland > sugarcane I 1839

Sudetenland Nsii-'da-Fn-.landN Sections of northern and western Bohe¬ mia and northern Moravia around the Sudeten mountain ranges. Formerly part of Austria, the predominantly German-speaking area was incorpo¬ rated into Czechoslovakia after World War I. Discontent among the Sude¬ ten Germans was exploited in the mid-1930s by the Nazi Party and its local leader Konrad Henlein. The inflammatory situation convinced Brit¬ ain and France that, to avoid war, Czechoslovakia must be persuaded to give the region autonomy. Adolf Hitler’s demand that the region be ceded to Germany was initially rejected, but the cession was later accomplished by the Munich agreement. After World War II the region was restored to Czechoslovakia, which expelled its German inhabitants and repopulated the area with Czechs.

Sudra See Shudra

Suetonius \swe-'to-ne-9s, .su-o-'to-ne-osV Latin Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (b. ad 69, probably Rome—d. after 122) Roman biogra¬ pher and antiquarian. Suetonius’s family was of the knightly class. His writings include Concerning Illustrious Men, short biographies of liter¬ ary figures that were the ultimate source of nearly all that is known about the lives of eminent Roman authors. Lives of the Caesars, his other major work, is seasoned with bits of gossip and scandal related to the first 11 emperors; it is largely responsible for the vivid picture of Roman society and its decadent leaders that dominated historical thought until modified in modern times by the discovery of nonliterary evidence.

Suez, Gulf of Northwestern extension of the Red Sea. It is located between Africa and the Sinai Peninsula and is roughly 195 mi (314 km) long and 12-20 mi (19-32 km) wide. Linked to the Mediterranean Sea by the Suez Canal, it is an important shipping route. In the 1970s and ’80s, oil was discovered at numerous locations in the gulf.

Suez Canal Ship canal, Isthmus of Suez, Egypt. Connecting the Red Sea with the eastern Mediterranean Sea, it extends 100 mi (160 km) from Port Said to the Gulf of Suez and allows ships to sail directly between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. Built by the French-owned Suez Canal Co., it was completed in 1869 after 11 years of construction. Its ownership remained largely in French and British hands until Egypt nationalized it in 1956, setting off an international crisis (see Suez Crisis). It has a minimum width of 179 ft (55 m) and a depth of about 40 ft (12 m) at low tide. Though protected by international treaty, the canal has been closed twice. The first closing was during the Suez Crisis. The canal again was closed by the Six-D ay War (1967) and remained inoperative until 1975. It is one of the world’s most heavily used shipping lanes.

Suez Crisis (1956) International crisis that arose when Egyptian presi¬ dent Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal after Western coun¬ tries withdrew promised financial aid to build the Aswan High Dam. The French and British, who had controlling interests in the company that owned the canal, sent troops to occupy the canal zone. Their ally Israel seized the Sinai Peninsula. International opposition quickly forced the French and British out, and Israel withdrew in 1957. The incident led to the resignation of Britain’s prime minister, Anthony Eden, and was widely perceived as heralding the end of Britain as a major international power. Nasser’s prestige, by contrast, soared within the developing world. See also Arab-Israeli Wars.

Suffolk Administrative (pop., 2001: 668,548) and historic county, east¬ ern England, on the North Sea. There are prehistoric flint mines in the north of the county. During Anglo-Saxon times Suffolk formed part of the kingdom of East Anglia; the Sutton Hoo ship burial dates from this time. Its medieval prosperity was based largely on the woolen cloth industry. Since then, agriculture has been the major economic activity; crops include cereals, sugar beets, and vegetables. The Suffolk town of New¬ market is famous for its racing stables, and the Suffolk coast is dotted with holiday resorts. The county seat is Ipswich.

Suffolk Breed of medium-wool, dark-faced, hornless sheep developed in England in the early 19th century by mating Norfolk horned ewes (females) with Southdown rams (males). Suffolks are prolific, early- maturing sheep with excellent mutton carcasses. They are energetic and have an alert carriage and great stamina. Introduced into the U.S. in 1888, the Suffolk is a popular lamb producer.

Suffolk, Thomas Howard, 1 st earl of (b. Aug. 24, 1561—d. May 28, 1626, London, Eng.) English naval officer and politician. Son of the 4th duke of Norfolk, Howard held naval commands and distinguished himself in the attack on the Spanish Armada (1588). He led naval forays

against the Spanish in the reign of Elizabeth I. Created earl of Suffolk in 1603, he served James I as lord chamberlain (1603-14) and lord high trea¬ surer (1614-18). In 1618 he was deprived of his office on charges of embezzlement and was briefly imprisoned with his wife, who had taken bribes from Spain.

Sufism Vsti-.fi-zonA Mystical movement within Islam that seeks to find divine love and knowledge through direct personal experience of God. It consists of a variety of mystical paths that are designed to ascertain the nature of mankind and God and to facilitate the experience of divine love and wisdom in the world. Sufism arose as an organized movement after the death of Muhammad (ad 632), among different groups who found orthodox Islam to be spiritually stifling. The practices of contemporary Sufi orders and suborders vary, but most include the recitation of the name of God or of certain phrases from the Qu’ran as a way to loosen the bonds of the lower self, enabling the soul to experience the higher reality toward which it naturally aspires. Though Sufi practitioners have often been at odds with the mainstream of Islamic theology and law, the importance of Sufism in the history of Islam is incalculable. Sufi literature, especially love poetry, represents a golden age in Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and Urdu languages. See also Ahmadiyyah; dervish; Malamatiyyah; tariqa.

sugar Any of numerous sweet, colourless organic compounds that dis¬ solve readily in water and occur in the sap of seed plants and the milk of mammals. Sugars (whose names end in - ose ) are the simplest carbohy¬ drates. The most common is sucrose, a disaccharide; there are numerous others, including glucose and fructose (both monosaccharides); invert sugar (a 50:50 mixture of glucose and fructose produced by enzyme action on sucrose); and maltose (produced in the malting of barley) and lactose (both disaccharides). Commercial production of sugars is almost entirely for food.

Sugar Act (1764) British legislation to raise revenue from North Ameri¬ can colonies. A revision of the unenforced Molasses Act of 1733, it imposed new duties on sugar and molasses imported into the colonies from non-British Caribbean sources and provided for the seizure of car¬ goes violating the new rules. The act was the first attempt to recoup from the colonies the expenses of the French and Indian War and the cost of maintaining British troops in North America. The colonists objected to the act as taxation without representation, and some merchants agreed not to import British goods. Protests increased with passage of the Stamp Act.

sugar beet Variety of beet (Beta vulgaris ) that accounts for about two-fifths of global sugar produc¬ tion, making it second only to sug¬ arcane as a source of the world’s sugar. Unlike sugarcane, sugar beets can be grown in temperate or cold climates in Europe, North America, and Asia; that is, within the densely populated, well-developed areas where much of the product is con¬ sumed. The sugar beet was grown as a garden vegetable and for fodder long before it was valued for its sugar content.

sugarcane Giant, thick, perennial GRASS ( Saccharum officinarum\ fam¬ ily Poaceae, or Gramineae), culti¬ vated in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide for its sweet sap, a major source of sugar and molasses.

The plant grows in clumps of solid stalks with regularly spaced nodes or joints, each with a bud that can be planted for commercial asexual propagation. Graceful, sword-shaped leaves, similar to those of the corn plant, fold in a sheath around the stem. Mature canes may be 10-20 ft (3-6 m) tall and 1-3 in. (2.5-7.5 cm) in diameter. Molasses, the syrup remaining after sugar is crystallized out of the juice, is used in cooking, in

Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris ).

GRANT HEILMAN

Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)

RAY MANLEY-SHOSTAL ASSOC.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1840 I Sugawara Michizane ► Sukhoy

making rum, and as feed for farm animals. Residual cane fibre (bagasse) is burned as fuel or used as filler for paper and particleboard.

Sugawara Michizane Vsu-'ga-wa-ra-.me-cho-'za-naX (b. 845, Japan—d. March 26, 903, Dazaifu) Japanese scholar of Chinese literature during the Heian period, later deified as Tenjin, patron of scholarship and literature. He was given important government posts by the emperor Uda, who saw him as a counterbalance to the powerful Fujiwara family. When Uda’s son took the throne, Michizane’s fortunes were reversed, and he was sent into exile when the new emperor was persuaded that Michizane was plotting against him. Following his death in exile, calamities in the capital were attributed to his vengeful spirit, and he was posthumously reinstated. At shrines dedicated to Tenjin, schoolchildren often buy amu¬ lets for good luck on school entrance exams.

Suger \suj-'zher\ (b. 1081, near Paris—d. Jan. 13, 1151) Abbot of Saint- Denis and adviser to Louis VI and Louis VII. A peasant boy educated at the abbey of Saint-Denis, he was a schoolmate and close friend of the future Louis VI. In 1122 he was elected abbot, and he used popular veneration for the saint and for the church’s banner to rally military support for the king. Suger’s work on the church of Saint-Denis was instrumental in the development of Gothic architecture. He arranged a treaty ending the civil war between Louis VII and his vassal Thibaut, and he served as regent (1147-49) while the king was away on the Second Crusade.

Suharto (b. June 8, 1921, Kemusu Argamulja, Java, Dutch East Indies) Second president of Indonesia (1967-98). Suharto initially served in the Dutch colonial army, but after the Japanese conquest (1942) he joined a Japanese-sponsored defense corps. After Japan’s surrender he joined the guerrilla forces seeking independence from the Dutch. When Indonesia became independent (1950), he was a lieutenant colonel.

A strong anticommunist, he crushed what was purported to be an attempted communist coup d’etat in 1965 with a ruthless purge of com¬ munists and leftists throughout the country that left as many as 1,000,000 dead. He deposed the sitting presi¬ dent, Sukarno, and was himself appointed president in 1967. He estab¬ lished authoritarian rule and was repeatedly elected without opposition. In 1975 he brutally annexed the former Portuguese colony of East Timor. A severe economic downturn focused public attention on his govern¬ ment’s corruption, and this led to massive demonstrations that prompted his resignation in 1998, after 31 years in power.

Suhrawardi V.suh-ra-'war-deX, al- in full Shihab al-DIn Yahya ibn Habash ibn Amlrak al-Suhraward? or al-MaqtuI (b. c.

1155, Suhraward, Iran—d. 1191, Aleppo, Syria) Muslim theologian and philosopher. He studied in Esfahan, a leading centre of Islamic scholar¬ ship. His works fell into two categories: doctrinal and philosophical tracts, many of which took account of the ancient Greek philosophers, and shorter treatises intended to guide the mystic toward esoteric knowledge. His best-known work. The Wisdom of Illumination, held that existence is a single continuum that culminates in pure light, representing God. Charged with heresy by rivals in the Muslim clergy, he was executed by the Ayyubid prince Malik al-Zahir—thus earning himself the appellation al-Maqtul (“the Killed”).

Sui \'swe\ dynasty (581-618) Short-lived Chinese dynasty that unified northern and southern China after centuries of division. Under the Sui, the cultural and artistic renaissance that was to reach its height under the succeeding Tang dynasty was set in motion. The first Sui emperor, Wendi, established uniform institutions of government throughout the country, promulgated a new legal system, conducted a census, recruited officials through examinations, and reestablished Confucian rituals. The Sui con¬ ducted three costly and unsuccessful campaigns against the Korean king¬ dom of Koguryo. The Sui capital at Chang 7 an was, in design, six times the size of the modern city of Xi’an at the same site.

suicide Act of intentionally taking one’s own life. Suicide may have psy¬ chological origins such as the difficulty of coping with depression or other mental disorders; it may be motivated by the desire to test the affection of loved ones or to punish their lack of support with the burden of guilt. It may

also stem from social and cultural pressures, especially those that tend to increase isolation, such as bereavement or estrangement. Attitudes toward suicide have varied in different ages and cultures; convicted criminals in ancient Greece were permitted to take their own lives, and the Japanese custom of seppuku (also called hara-kiri), or self-disembowelment, allowed samurai to commit ritual suicide as a way of protecting honour and dem¬ onstrating loyalty. Jews committed suicide rather than submit to ancient Roman conquerors or crusading knights who intended to force their con¬ version. In the 20th century, members of new religious movements, notably the Peoples Temple and Heaven’s Gate, committed mass suicide. Buddhist monks and nuns have also committed sacrificial suicide by self-immolation as a form of social protest. Japan’s use of kamikaze suicide bombers during World War II was a precursor to the suicide bombing that emerged in the late 20th century as a form of terrorism, particularly among Islamic extrem¬ ists. Suicide, however, is generally condemned by Islam, Judaism, and Christianity, and attempts to commit suicide are still punishable by law in many countries. Some communities around the world have sought to legal¬ ize physician-assisted suicide for the terminally ill. Euthanasia was legal¬ ized in The Netherlands in 2001 and Belgium in 2002, and it is openly practiced in Colombia. Since the 1950s suicide-prevention organizations have been established in many countries, with telephone hot lines serving as a source of readily available counseling.

Suir \'shur. River River, southeastern Ireland. It rises in northern County Tipperary and flows south and east. It is joined by the Barrow and the Nore before entering Waterford Harbour 114 mi (183 km) later. In the 1760s the river was made navigable to Clonmel.

suite Set of instrumental dances or dancelike movements. The suite originated in the paired dances of the 14th-16th centuries (pavane- galliard, basse danse-saltarello, etc.). In the 16th— 17th centuries German composers began to write sets of three or four dances, as in Johann Her¬ mann Schein’s Banchetto musicale (1617). In the late 17th century a basic ordering of four dances— allemande, courante, sarabande, and gigue— became established as standard; other dances came to be interpolated between the sarabande and gigue. In the 19th century suite came to refer to sets of instrumental excerpts from operas and ballets.

Sukarno (b. June 6,1901, Surabaja, Java, Dutch East Indies—d. June 21, 1970, Jakarta, Indon.) First president of Indonesia (1949-67). Son of a Jav¬ anese schoolteacher, he excelled in languages, mastering Javanese, Sun- danese, Balinese, and modern Indonesian, which he did much to create. He emerged as a charismatic leader in the country’s independence movement. When the Japanese invaded in 1942, he served them as a chief adviser, while pressuring them to grant Indonesia independence. Immediately fol¬ lowing Japan’s defeat, he declared independence; the Dutch did not trans¬ fer sovereignty until 1949. Once he became president, Indonesia made gains in health, education, and cultural self-awareness, but democracy and the economy foundered. His government was corrupt, inflation soared, and the country experienced a continuous state of crisis. An attempted coup, purportedly by communists, in 1965 led to a military takeover by Suharto and a purge of alleged communists. Stripped of his power in 1966, Sukarno resigned in 1967 and lived under house arrest until his death.

Sukhothai \'su-k3-'tl\ kingdom Former kingdom, north-central Thai¬ land. It was founded in the mid-13th century when a local Tai ruler led a revolt against Khmer rule. It remained only a small local power until its third ruler, Ramkhamhaeng, inherited the kingdom c. 1279. He extended its power to the south onto the Malay Peninsula, to the west into what is now Myanmar (Burma), and to the northeast into modem Laos. On his death in 1298 the kingdom began to lose its power, and in 1438 it was absorbed into the kingdom of Ayutthaya.

Sukhothai style Vsii-ko-'tA Canonical style for Buddha icons devel¬ oped probably in the kingdom of Sukhothai (modern Thailand), begin¬ ning in the 14th century. The Sukhothai Buddhas—typically either seated in the half-lotus posture with right hand performing the earth-touching gesture or walking with one foot forward and the right hand raised to the chest—have a boneless, weightless elegance. The parts of the body fol¬ low abstract ideals based on analogy with natural forms (e.g., shoulders like an elephant’s trunk, torso like a lion). The head typically bears a flamelike protuberance above a cranial bump, which the faithful believe contains an extra brain cavity.

Sukhoy officially OKB imeni P.O. Sukhoy formerly OKB-51 Russian aerospace design bureau that is the country’s second most impor¬ tant producer of jet fighters (after MiG). The origin of Sukhoy dates to

Suharto

AP/WIDE WORLD PHOTOS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

sukiya ► Sulla I 1841

1953, when the Soviet government allowed Pavel Sukhoy to reassemble his World War II aircraft-design team into a new bureau, which was des¬ ignated OKB-51. In the 1950s and ’60s OKB-51 planned and built a series of supersonic jet fighters, including the Su-7 and Su-9, which were later modified and used extensively by the U.S.S.R. and other Warsaw Pact countries. It improved the Su-9 into the Su-11 and Su-15 fighter- interceptors. After Sukhoy’s death (1975) his name was added to that of the bureau. Perhaps the best known Sukhoy design was the versatile Su-27 air- superiority fighter (first flown 1977). In the 1990s the bureau introduced the Su-34 fighter-bomber and the redesigned Su-39 ground-attack aircraft. Its fifth-generation multirole S-37 Berkut air-superiority fighter (1997), had state-of-the-art electronics, forward-swept wings, and thrust vector con¬ trol. In 1997 Russia formed the partially state-owned AVPK Sukhoy by combining the design bureau with its production plant and other affiliates. At the start of the 21st century Sukhoy began diversifying into the civilian market with sports aircraft, freight vehicles, and passenger aircraft.

sukiya \su-'ke-3\ style Japanese architectural style developed in the Azuchi-Momoyama (1574-1600) and Tokugawa (1603-1867) periods, originally used for teahouses and later also for private residences and res¬ taurants. Based on an aesthetic of naturalness and rustic simplicity, build¬ ings in this style are intended to harmonize with their surroundings. Timber construction is employed, with wood left in a natural state, some¬ times with the bark still attached. Walls are typically made of clay. Great attention is paid to detail and proportions, and the effect is one of refined simplicity. The architect Yoshida Isoya (1894-1974) pioneered a modern sukiya style using contemporary materials.

Sulaiman Range Vsii-lI-.manX Mountain range, central Pakistan, west of the Indus River. It extends about 280 mi (450 km), with summits aver¬ aging 6,000-7,000 ft (1,800-2,100 m) tall. The highest peaks, at the north¬ ern end, are the twin peaks called Solomon’s Throne. The higher of the two, at 18,481 ft (5,633 m), is the site of a popular shrine.

Sulawesi See Celebes

Suleyman \sm-la-'man\ I or Suleyman the Magnificent (b.

November 14947/April 1495?—d. Sept. 5/6, 1566, near Szigetvar, Hung.) Ottoman sultan (r. 1520-66). He became sultan of the Ottoman Empire after serving as a provincial governor under his grandfather Bayezid II and his father, Selim I (r. 1512-20). He immediately began leading campaigns against the Christians, taking Belgrade (1521) and Rhodes (1522). At the Battle of Mohacs (1526) he broke the military strength of Hungary. In 1529 he laid siege to Vienna but failed to capture it. Further campaigns in Hungary (1541, 1543) left the region divided between Habsburg- and Ottoman-dominated areas. Iraq and eastern Anatolia were captured dur¬ ing his first campaign (1534-35) against the Persian Safavid dynasty; his second (1548-49) brought conquests in southern Anatolia around Lake Van; but his third (1554-55) was unsuccessful. His navy, under Bar- barossa, controlled the Mediterranean Sea. He built mosques, bridges, and aqueducts and surrounded himself with great poets and legal scholars. His reign is considered a high point of Ottoman civilization.

sulfa drug Common term for sulfonamide drug, any member of a class of synthetic antibacterial drugs with a particular chemical structure includ¬ ing both sulfur and nitrogen atoms. Their effectiveness against bacteria was discovered in 1932 by Gerhard Domagk, and they became the first chemical substances systematically used against human bacterial infec¬ tions. Sulfa drugs inhibit the growth and multiplication of certain bacteria (but do not kill them) by interfering with the synthesis of fouc acid. Because of their toxicity and growing bacterial resistance, sulfa drugs are no longer in common use (except for urinary-tract infections, certain forms of malaria, and preventing infection of burns), having been largely superseded by less toxic antibiotics.

sulfate Any of numerous inorganic and organic chemical compounds related to sulfuric acid (H 2 S0 4 ). One subgroup comprises salts containing the sulfate ion (S0 4 2- ) linked via ionic bonds with any of various cations. Another subgroup of sulfates, the esters, are organic compounds in which sulfuric acid’s hydrogen atoms are replaced by organic groups (e.g., methyl, ethyl, phenyl); a carbon atom in the organic group bonds to an oxygen atom, whose second bond is to the sulfur atom. (In sulfonates, a carbon atom bonds directly to the sulfur atom.) See also bonding.

sulfide mineral or sulphide mineral Any member of a group of compounds of sulfur with one or more metals. The metals that occur most commonly are iron, copper, nickel, lead, cobalt, silver, and zinc. They are

the ore minerals of most metals used by industry (e.g., antimony, bismuth, copper, lead, nickel, and zinc). Other industrially important metals such as cadmium and selenium occur in trace amounts in numerous common sulfides and are recovered in refining processes.

sulfur Nonmetallic chemical ele¬ ment, chemical symbol S, atomic number 16. It is very reactive but occurs native in deposits, as well as combined in various ores (e.g., pyrite,

GALENA, CINNABAR); in COAL, PETROLEUM, and natural gas; and in the water in sulfur springs. Sulfur is the third most abundant constituent of miner¬ als and one of the four most impor¬ tant basic chemical commodities.

Pure sulfur, a tasteless, odourless, brittle yellow solid, occurs in several crystalline and amorphous allo- tropes, including brimstone and flowers of sulfur. It combines, with valence 2, 4, or 6, with nearly all other elements. Its most familiar compound is hydrogen sulfide, a poi¬ sonous gas that smells like rotten eggs. All metals except gold and platinum form sulfides, and many ores are sulfides. The oxides are sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide, which when dissolved in water make sulfurous acid and sulfuric acid, respec¬ tively. Several sulfur compounds with halogen elements are industrially important. Sodium sulfite (Na 2 S0 3 ) is a reducing agent used to pulp paper and in photography. Organic compounds with sulfur include several amino acids, the sulfa drugs, and many insecticides, solvents, and substances used in making rubber and rayon.

sulfur bacteria Any of a diverse group of bacteria that are capable of metabolizing sulfur and its compounds and are important in the sulfur cycle. Members of the genus Thiobacillus, widespread in marine and ter¬ restrial habitats, react with sulfur to produce sulfates useful to plants; in deep ground deposits they generate sulfuric acid, which dissolves metals in mines and corrodes concrete and steel. Desulfovibrio desulficans reduces sulfates in waterlogged soils and sewage to hydrogen sulfide, a gas with the common rotten-egg odour.

sulfur butterfly See sulphur butterfly

sulfur dioxide Inorganic compound, heavy, colourless, poisonous gas (S0 2 ). It has a pungent, irritating odour (the smell of a just-struck match). It occurs in volcanic gases and dissolved in the waters of some warm springs. Huge quantities are made industrially for use as a bleach, as a reducing agent, and as sulfites, which are food preservatives. It is a pre¬ cursor of the trioxide (S0 3 ), used to make sulfuric acid. Sulfur dioxide is formed when sulfur-containing fuels are burned; in the atmosphere it can combine with water vapour to form sulfuric acid, a major component of ACID RAIN.

sulfuric \,s3l-'fyur-ik\ acid or oil of vitriol Dense, colourless, oily, corrosive liquid inorganic compound (H 2 S0 4 ). A very strong acid, it forms ions of hydrogen or hydronium (H + or H 3 0 + ), hydrogen sulfate (HS0 4 ), and sulfate (SOj - ). It is also an oxidizing (see oxidation-reduction) and dehydrating agent and chars many organic materials. It is one of the most important industrial chemicals, used in various concentrations in manu¬ facturing fertilizers, pigments, dyes, drugs, explosives, detergents, and inorganic salts and acids, in petroleum refining and metallurgical pro¬ cesses, and as the acid in lead-acid storage batteries. It is made industri¬ ally by dissolving sulfur trioxide (S0 3 ) in water, sometimes beyond the saturation point to make oleum (fuming sulfuric acid), used to make cer¬ tain organic chemicals.

Sulla (Felix), Lucius Cornelius (b. c. 138—d. 79 bc, Puteoli, near Naples) Victor in the Roman civil war (88-82) and dictator (82-79). He fought alongside Gaius Marius against Jugurtha, whose capture through Sulla’s trickery led to a break with Marius. After being made consul, he

Pyrite from Butte, Mont.

COURTESY OF JOSEPH AND HELEN GUETTERMAN COLLECTION; PHOTOGRAPH, JOHN H. GERARD

Sulfur crystals from Sicily (greatly enlarged)

COURTESY OF THE ILLINOIS STATE MUSEUM; PHOTOGRAPH, JOHN H. GERARD

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1842 I Sullivan ► sulphur butterfly

was given command in the war against Mithradates VI; when Marius was named to replace him, he marched on Rome, and Marius fled.

Though he succeeded in subduing Mithradates, the reigning popular party declared him a public enemy.

From southern Italy he marched again successfully on Rome (83).

Proclaimed dictator with no time limit (at which time he took the name Felix, “Lucky”), he reestablished the power of the Senate, increased the number of criminal courts, and passed new treason and citizen- protection laws, but he became chiefly known for his ruthlessness.

He resigned in 79 and died that year.

Sullivan, Sir Arthur (Sey¬ mour) (b. May 13, 1842, London,

Eng.—d. Nov. 22, 1900, London)

British composer. He attended the Royal Academy and the Leipzig Conservatory, then supported himself by teaching, playing organ, and composing for provincial festivals. His music for The Tempest (1861) achieved great success and was followed by his Irish Symphony (1866) and songs such as “Onward, Christian Soldiers” and “The Lost Chord.” In 1871 he first collaborated in comic opera with playwright W.S. Gilbert, and in 1875 their Trial by Jury became a hit, setting the course for both their careers. Their collaboration continued with The Sorceror (1877), H.M.S. Pinafore (1878), The Pirates of Penzance (1879), Patience (1881), Iolanthe (1882), Princess Ida (1883), The Mikado (1885), Ruddigore (1887), The Yeomen of the Guard (1888), The Gondoliers (1889), and others, many of which would continue to delight international audiences for more than a century.

Sullivan, Ed(ward Vincent) (b. Sept. 28, 1901, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Oct. 13, 1974, New York City) U.S. television host. He began his career as a journalist and wrote a Broadway gossip column for the Daily News. Known for his talent at discovering interesting new perform¬ ers, he was hired by CBS to host its variety program Toast of the Town (1948-55), later called The Ed Sullivan Show (1955-71), where he pre¬ sented diverse entertainment (combining, for example, a concert pianist, a singing fireman, and a boxing referee with Hollywood celebrities in a single show) in a program that became a national institution for more than 20 years. Sullivan’s terse way of introducing guest performers and dis¬ tinctive mannerisms made him a popular target for comedians.

Sullivan, Harry Stack (b. Feb. 21, 1892, Norwich, N.Y., U.S.—d. Jan. 14, 1949, Paris, France) U.S. psychiatrist. He engaged in clinical research at the Pratt Hospital in Maryland (1923-30), pursuing his interest in the use of psychotherapy to treat schizophrenia, which he viewed as stemming from disturbed interpersonal relationships in early childhood. He asserted that psychi¬ atric symptoms arise out of conflicts between the individual and his human environment and that person¬ ality development likewise stems from a series of interactions with other people. He helped establish the William Alanson White Psychiatric Foundation (1933) and the Washing¬ ton School of Psychiatry (1936), and he also founded (1938) and served as editor of the journal Psychiatry. His works include The Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry (1953) and The Fusion of Psychiatry and Social Sci¬ ence (1964).

Sullivan, John L(awrence) (b.

Oct. 15, 1858, Roxbury, Mass.,

U.S.—d. Feb. 2, 1918, Abington, Mass.) U.S. boxer. Sullivan became the world heavyweight champion in 1882 by knocking out Paddy Ryan in nine rounds. His 75-round knockout of Jake Kilrain in 1889 was the last title bout under London Prize Ring (bare-knuckle) rules. In his only cham¬ pionship defense under the Queensberry rules, he was knocked out by Jim Corbett (b. 1866—d. 1933) in 21 rounds in 1892. From 1878 to 1905 Sullivan had 35 bouts, of which he won 31, 16 by knockouts. Some box¬ ing historians regard Sullivan only as a U.S. champion since he had only one international match of consequence and refused to fight the great black Australian heavyweight Peter Jackson.

Sullivan, Louis H(enry) (b. Sept. 3, 1856, Boston, Mass., U.S.—d. April 14, 1924, Chicago, Ill.) U.S. architect, the father of modern U.S. architecture. Sullivan was accepted at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris but was a restless student. After working for several Chicago firms, he joined the office of Dankmar Adler (1844-1900) in 1879, becoming Adler’s partner at age 24. Their 14-year association produced more than 100 buildings, many of them landmarks. Their first important work was the Auditorium Building in Chicago (1889), a load-bearing stone struc¬ ture with a 17-story tower, unadorned on the arcaded exterior and daz- zlingly rich on the interior. Their most important skyscraper is the 10-story steel-framed Wainwright Building, St. Louis, Mo. (1890-91); above its two-story base, the vertical elements are stressed and horizontals recessed, and it is capped by a decorative frieze and cornice. During this period the young Frank Lloyd Wright spent six years as apprentice to Sullivan, who would be a major influence on the younger architect. In 1895 Sullivan’s partnership with Adler dissolved, and his practice began a steady decline. One of his few major commissions was the Carson Pirie Scott store in Chicago (1899-1904), noted for its broad windows and exuberant orna¬ mentation. Sullivan’s ornamentation was based not on precedent but on geometry and natural forms. He considered it obvious that building design should indicate a building’s functions and that, where the function does not change, the form should not change; hence his influential dictum “form follows function.”

Sully \sie-'le\, Maximilien de Bethune, duke de (b. Dec. 13, 1560, Mantes, France—d. Dec. 22, 1641, Villebon) French statesman. Son of a French Huguenot noble, he was sent to the court of Henry of Navarra (later Henry IV). He fought in the Wars of Religion and helped negotiate the Peace of Savoy (1601). As superintendent of finances from 1598, he instituted reforms in taxation and administration. A trusted agent to the king, he was rewarded with royal offices and created duke de Sully in 1606. He promoted a system of national improvements, encouraged agri¬ culture, and strengthened the military. His political role ended with Hen¬ ry’s assassination (1610), and he resigned in 1611.

Sully Prudhomme VsiE-le-prLe-'doirA orig. Rene-Francois- Armand Prudhomme (b.

March 16, 1839, Paris, France—d.

Sept. 7, 1907, Chatenay) French poet. Inspired at first by an unhappy love affair, he published fluent and melancholic verse in volumes begin¬ ning with Stances et poemes (1865), containing his well-known “Le Vase brise.” He later adopted the more objective approach of the Parnassian poets and attempted to represent philosophical concepts in verse.

Among his best-known later works are La Justice (1878) and Le Bon- heur( 1888). In 1901 he was awarded the first Nobel Prize for Literature, over such greatly admired figures as Leo Tolstoy.

sulphide mineral See sulfide min¬ eral

sulphur butterfly or sulfur butterfly Any of several species of butterflies (family Pieridae) that are found worldwide. Adults have a wing¬ span of 1.5-2.5 in. (35-60 mm). The colour and pattern of many species vary seasonally and between sexes, but they are generally bright yellow or orange. Some have two colour patterns; for example, Colias eurytheme is usually orange with black wing margins, but some females are white

Sulla, marble bust; in the Vatican Museum.

AUNARI/ART RESOURCE, NEW YORK

Sully Prudhomme.

H. ROGER-VIOLLET

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Sulu Archipelago ► sumo I 1843

with black margins. Pupae are attached to a twig by a posterior spine and a girdle of silk. The larvae feed on clover and may seriously damage crops.

Sulu Archipelago Volcanic and coral archipelago, southwestern Phil¬ ippines, between Mindanao and Borneo. A double island chain, it extends 170 mi (270 km) and includes about 400 named islands and more than 500 unnamed ones; they cover an area of 1,038 sq mi (2,688 sq km). The islanders were converted to Islam by Abu Bakr in the mid-15th century. The Spanish tried, at first unsuccessfully, to subdue the inhabitants, whom they called Moros. The islands finally became a Spanish protectorate in the 19th century, and in 1899 came under U.S. authority. The archipelago was ceded to the Philippines in 1940. The islands provide a haven for smugglers and pirates.

Sulzberger Ysslz-.bar-garV, Arthur Hays (b. Sept. 12, 1891, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Dec. 11, 1968, New York City) U.S. newspaper- publisher. The son-in-law of Adolph Ochs, he joined the staff of The New York Times after marrying Iphigene Ochs in 1917. He was the paper’s pub¬ lisher (1935-61), overseeing the extension of its news coverage into more specialized subject areas as well as important changes in technology and a growth in circulation. He was succeeded by his son, Arthur Ochs Sulzberger.

Sulzberger, Arthur Ochs (b. Feb. 5, 1926, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. newspaper publisher. Grandson of Adolph Ochs and son of Iphigene and Arthur Hays Sulzberger, he spent a dozen years as a reporter and in other newspaper posts before becoming publisher of The New York Times in 1963. During his tenure he introduced many innovations that strength¬ ened the paper’s reputation while modernizing and streamlining the orga¬ nization of its staff, including the unification of the daily Times with the Sunday edition in 1964 and an increase in coverage of fields such as eco¬ nomics, the environment, medicine, law, and science. In 1992 he was suc¬ ceeded by his son, Arthur Sulzberger, Jr. (b. 1951).

sumac Vshu-.mak, 'su-,mak\ Any of certain species of shrubs and small trees in the genus Rhus of the family Anacardiaceae (the sumac, or cashew, family), native to temperate and subtropical zones. All sumacs have a milky or resinous sap, which in some species (e.g., poison sumac) can irri¬ tate the skin. Used in the past as a source of dyes, medicines, and beverages, sumacs are now valued as ornamentals, soil binders, and cover plants. The sumacs grown for landscape use display a graceful form, spectacular fall colour, or colourful fruit clusters. The smooth, or scarlet, sumac ( R . gla¬ bra ), native to the eastern and central U.S., is the most common.

Sumatra \su-'ma-tro\ Island (pop., 2000 including adjoining islands: 43,309,707), western Indonesia. It is one of the Sunda Islands and the sec¬ ond largest island of Indonesia. It is 1,060 mi (1,706 km) long and 250 mi (400 km) wide. A chief city is Palembang. Located on the seaborne trade routes, the island had early contact with Hindu civilization. The Srivijaya empire arose in the 7th century and came to dominate much of the island. It fell under the Majapahit empire in the 14th-16th centuries. First the Portuguese, then the Dutch and English established forts there begin¬ ning in the 16th century. It was occupied by Japan in World War II and in 1950 became part of the Republic of Indonesia. Its exports include rub¬ ber, tobacco, coffee, pepper, and timber products; mineral reserves include petroleum and coal. In 2004 a large tsunami generated by a massive earthquake off the west coast of Sumatra caused widespread death and destruction in coastal areas bordering the Indian Ocean.

Sumba \'sum-ba\ English Sandalwood Island Island, Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia. The island, 140 mi (225 km) long and up to 50 mi (80 km) wide, is mainly a high plateau with good harbours on the northern coast. Its chieftains were brought by treaty under Dutch control in 1756. Sumba became part of independent Indonesia in 1950. It is known for the Sandalwood horse and Ongole cattle, and its woven cloth is famous for its design. Corn is the main crop; copra is exported.

Sumbawa \sum-'ba-wa\ Island, Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia. Its irregular coastline includes Bima Bay, one of the best harbours in Indo¬ nesia. The island, 175 mi (282 km) long and 55 mi (88 km) wide, is mountainous. Its highest point is volcanic Mount Tambora (9,354 ft [2,851 m]), which erupted in 1815, killing 50,000 people. Sumbawa was once part of the Majapahit empire. In 1674 the Sumbawanese nobility signed agreements that gave the Dutch East India Company some power over the island; the Dutch gained direct control in the early 20th century. Sum¬ bawa became part of independent Indonesia in 1950. Agricultural prod¬ ucts include rice, com, coffee, and copra.

Sumer Vsii-morX Region of southern Mesopotamia and site of the earli¬ est known civilization. It was first settled c. 4500-4000 bc by a non- Semitic people called the Ubaidians. They were the first civilizing force in Sumer, draining the marshes for agriculture and developing trade. The Sumerians, who spoke a Semitic language that came to dominate the region, arrived c. 3300 bc and established the world’s first known cities. These polities evolved into city-states, which eventually developed monarchical systems that later came to be loosely united under a single city, beginning with Kish c. 2800 bc. Thereafter, Kish, Erech, Ur, Nippur, and Lagash vied for ascendancy for centuries. The area came under the control of dynasties from outside the region, beginning with Elam (c. 2530-2450 bc) and later Akkad, led by the Akkadian king Sargon (r. 2334-2279 bc). After the Akkadian dynasty collapsed, the city-states were largely independent until they were reunified under the 3rd dynasty of Ur (21st-20th centuries bc). That final Sumerian dynasty declined after being weakened by foreign invasions, and the Sumerians as a distinct political entity disappeared, becoming part of the Babylonia in the 18th century bc. The Sumerian legacy includes a number of technological and cultural innovations, including the first known wheeled vehicles, the potter’s wheel, a system of writing (see cuneiform), and written codes of law.

Summerhill School Experimental primary and secondary boarding school in Leiston, Suffolk, England. Founded in 1921 by Alexander Suth¬ erland Neill (1883-1973), the school is self-governing (students and staff have a voice in policy matters) and emphasizes the student’s own moti¬ vation to learn (class attendance is optional). Neill’s highly influential and controversial book Summerhill (1960) stimulated much debate about alter¬ natives to conventional schooling, particularly in the U.S.

summons In law, written notification that one is required to appear in court. In civil (noncriminal) cases, it notifies a defendant that he or she must appear and defend (e.g., by filing an answer) within a specified time or a default judgment will be rendered for the plaintiff. The summons is also used in cases involving minor criminal offenses (e.g., traffic viola¬ tions) to call defendants to appear and answer to charges against them. See also subpoena.

Sumner, Charles (b. Jan. 6, 1811, Boston, Mass., U.S.—d. March 11, 1874, Washington, D.C.) U.S. poli¬ tician. He practiced law while cru¬ sading for the abolition of slavery, prison reform, world peace, and edu¬ cational reform. He was elected to the U.S. Senate (1852-74) and spoke out against slavery. He denounced the Kansas-Nebraska Act as the “crime against Kansas” and scorned its authors, Sen. Stephen A. Douglas and Sen. Andrew R Butler. In 1856 an incensed relative of Butler, Con¬ gressman Preston S. Brooks of South Carolina, invaded the Senate and severely beat Sumner with a cane.

He returned to the Senate in 1859, and as chairman of the foreign rela¬ tions committee (1861-71) he helped resolve the Trent Affair.

Sumner, James (Batcheller)

(b. Nov. 19, 1887, Canton, Mass.,

U.S.—d. Aug. 12, 1955, Buffalo,

N.Y.) U.S. biochemist. He taught at Cornell University (1929-55). In 1926 he became the first researcher to crystallize an enzyme (urease); he later crystallized catalase and worked on purification of various other enzymes, which led to recognition that most enzymes are proteins. This work earned him (with John Howard Northrop and Wendell Meredith Stanley) a 1946 Nobel Prize. In 1947 he became director of Cornell’s laboratory of enzyme chemistry, established in rec¬ ognition of his work.

sumo \'su-mo\ Japanese form of wrestling.A contestant loses if he is forced out of the ring (a 15-ft circle) or if any part of his body except the soles of his feet touches the ground. In sumo, a wrestler’s weight, size, and strength are of the greatest importance, though speed and suddenness of attack are also useful. The wrestlers, who are fed a special protein diet and may weigh over 300 lbs (136 kg), wear only loincloths and grip each

Charles Sumner

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1844 I Sumter ► Sunday

other by the belt. Sumo wrestling is an ancient sport with a complex sys¬ tem of ranking; at the top of the hierarchy is the yokozuna (“grand cham¬ pion”). Lengthy rituals and elaborate posturings accompany the bouts, which are extremely brief, often lasting only a few seconds.

Sumter, Thomas (b. Aug. 14, 1734, Hanover county, Va.—d. June 1, 1832, South Mount, S.C., U.S.) American Revolutionary officer. He served in the French and Indian War and later moved to South Carolina. In the American Revolution he was commissioned a brigadier general and escaped to North Carolina after the fall of Charleston (1780). He led the state militia to victories over the British in several engagements. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1789-93, 1797-1801) and the Senate (1801-10). Fort Sumter was named for him (see Fort Sumter National Monument).

Sun Star around which the components of the solar system revolve. It is about five billion years old and is the dominant body of the system, with more than 99% of its mass. It converts five million tons of matter into energy every second by nuclear fusion reactions in its core, producing neu¬ trinos (see solar neutrino problem) and solar radiation. The small amount of this energy that penetrates Earth’s atmosphere provides the light and heat that support life. A sphere of luminous gas 864,950 mi (1,392,000 km) in diameter, the Sun has about 330,000 times the mass of Earth. Its core tem¬ perature is close to 27 million °F (15 million °C) and its surface tempera¬ ture about 10,000 °F (6,000 °C). The Sun, a spectral type G (yellow) star, has fairly average properties for a main-sequence star (see Hertzsprung- Russell diagram). It rotates at different rates at different latitudes; one rota¬ tion takes 36 days at the poles but only 25 days at the equator. The visible surface, or photosphere, is in constant motion, with the number and position of sunspots changing in a regular solar cycle. External phenomena include magnetic activity extending into the chromosphere and corona, solar flares, solar prominences, and the solar wind. Effects on Earth include auroras and disruption of radio communications and power-transmission lines. Despite its activity, the Sun appears to have remained relatively unchanged for bil¬ lions of years. See also eclipse; heliopause.

sun bear or honey bear Smallest member (Helarctos malayanus ) of the bear family (Ursidae), found in South Asian forests. Nocturnal and tree-climbing, the sun bear weighs 60-140 lbs (27-64 kg) and is 3-4 ft (1-1.2 m) long, with a 2-in. (5-cm) tail, large forepaws, and short black fur with an orange-yellow crescent on the chest. It uses its long, curved claws to tear or dig for insect nests, particularly those of bees and ter¬ mites. It also eats fruit, honey, and small vertebrates. The sun bear is shy and intelligent; legends say that its chest crescent represents the sun.

sun dance Most spectacular and important religious ceremony of the 19th-century Plains Indians. Ordinarily held by each tribe once a year in early summer, it was an occasion for purification and strengthening and an opportunity to reaffirm basic beliefs about the universe and the super¬ natural through rituals. The ceremony, which originated with the Lakota, was most highly developed among the Arapaho, the Cheyenne, and the Oglala division of the Lakota Sioux. The central rite involved male danc¬ ers who, to fulfill a vow or seek “power” (spiritual energy and insight), danced for several days without stopping for food, drink, or sleep, their ordeal ending in frenzy and exhaustion. Among some tribes, piercing and sun gazing were practiced.

sun worship Veneration of the sun or its representation as a deity. It appears in several early cultures, notably in ancient Egypt, Indo-Europe, and Mesoamerica, where urban civilizations were combined with a strong ideology of sacred kingship, in which kings ruled by the power of the sun and claimed descent from it. The imagery of the sun as the ruler of both the upper and the lower world, which he visits daily, was prominent. Sun heroes and deities also figure in many mythologies, including Indo- Iranian, Greco-Roman, and Scandinavian. In late Roman history, sun wor¬ ship was of such importance that it was later called “solar monotheism.” See also Amaterasu, Re, Shamash, Sol, Surya, Tonatiuh.

Sun Yat-sen Vsun-'yat-'senV or Sun Yixian Vsim-'e-she-'onV (b. Nov. 12, 1866, Xiangshan, Guangdong province, China—d. March 12, 1925, Beijing) Leader of the Chinese Nationalist Party, known as the father of modern China. Educated in Hawaii and Hong Kong, Sun embarked on a medical career in 1892, but, troubled by the conservative Qing dynasty’s inability to keep China from suffering repeated humiliations at the hands of more advanced countries, he forsook medicine two years later for poli¬ tics. A letter to Li Hongzhang in which Sun detailed ways that China could gain strength made no headway, and he went abroad to try organizing

expatriate Chinese. He spent time in Hawaii, England, Canada, and Japan and in 1905 became head of a revo¬ lutionary coalition, the Tongmenghui (“Alliance Society”). The revolts he helped plot during this period failed, but in 1911 a rebellion in Wuhan unexpectedly succeeded in over¬ throwing the provincial government.

Other provincial secessions fol¬ lowed, and Sun returned to be elected provisional president of a new government. The emperor abdi¬ cated in 1912, and Sun turned over the government to Yuan Shikai. The two men split in 1913, and Sun became head of a separatist regime in the south. In 1924, aided by Soviet advisers, he reorganized his Nation¬ alist Party, admitted three commu¬ nists to its central executive committee, and approved the establishment of a military academy, to be headed by Chiang Kai-shek. He also delivered lectures on his doctrine, the Three Principles of the People (nationalism, democracy, and people’s livelihood), but died the following year without having had the opportunity to put his doctrine into practice. See also Wang Jingwei.

Sunbelt Region, south and southwestern U.S. It is characterized by a warm climate, rapid population growth since 1970, and relatively con¬ servative voting patterns. Comprising 15 states, it extends from Virginia and Florida in the southeast through Nevada in the southwest, and includes southern California.

sunburn Acute skin inflammation caused by overexposure to ultraviolet radiation from sunlight or other sources. More common and severe in light-skinned people, it ranges from mild redness and tenderness to intense pain, edema, and blistering, sometimes with shock, fever, and nausea. The process begins after 15 minutes in the sun, but redness starts 6-12 hours later and peaks within a day. Pigment cells in the skin increase melanin production (“tan”). Cold compresses and analgesics reduce pain. Limit¬ ing sun exposure, using sunscreen, and wearing protective clothing can prevent severe sunburn. Long-term sun exposure can eventually cause skin cancer, as well as skin wrinkling and thickening.

Sunda Islands Archipelago extending from the Malay Peninsula to the Moluccas. The islands make up most of the land area of Indonesia, with only northern and northwestern Borneo and the eastern portion of Timor not under Indonesian political control. They include the Greater Sunda Islands (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Sulawesi, and adjacent smaller islands) and the Lesser Sunda Islands (Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Sumba, Flores, Timor, Alor, and adjacent smaller islands). Most of the islands are part of a geo¬ logically unstable and volcanically active island arc. Malay cultures and languages predominate in the area.

Sunda Strait Channel between the islands of Java and Sumatra. It is 16-70 mi (26-110 km) wide and links the Java Sea with the Indian Ocean. It contains several volcanic islands, the most famous of which is Kraka- toa (Krakatau).

Sundanese Any member of the highland people of western Java, Indon., distinguished from the Javanese mainly by their language and their strict adherence to Islam. First mentioned in the 8th century ad, they are one of the three principal ethnic groups on the island. They once followed Mahay ana Buddhism but converted to Islam in the 16th century under the influence of Muslim trade. Sundanese villages are ruled by a headman and a council of elders. Marriage, birth, and death ceremonies conform closely to the Javanese pattern but are often mixed with Hindu elements. Modem developments have tended to erase differences between the Sun¬ danese and other peoples of Java. The Sundanese number about 26 mil¬ lion.

Sunday, Billy orig. William Ashley Sunday (b. Nov. 19, 1862/ 63, Ames, Iowa, U.S.—d. Nov. 6, 1935, Chicago, Ill.) U.S. religious revivalist. He became a professional baseball player with the Chicago White Sox in 1883 and later played in Pittsburgh, Pa., and Philadelphia. In 1887 he underwent a conversion experience; he began preaching in 1897 and was ordained in the Presbyterian church in 1903. A flamboyant

Sun Yat-sen

BROWN BROTHERS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Sunderland ► Sunzi I 1845

preacher of fundamentalist theology whose sermons reflected the social upheaval caused by the transition from a rural to an urban society, he advocated a strict morality and campaigned effectively for Prohibition. He conducted hundreds of revival meetings and reached an estimated 100 million people. His popularity faded in the 1920s, but he continued preaching until his death.

Sunderland Town, seaport, and metropolitan borough (pop., 2001: 280,807), northern England. Located at the mouth of the River Wear on the North Sea, the town was known as Wearmouth in Saxon times; it for¬ merly included Monkwearmouth, site of a monastery built in 674 where the Venerable Bede studied. Sunderland itself (named for the part of Monkwearmouth “sundered” from the monastery by the river) was char¬ tered in the late 12th century. The port grew rapidly as the coal trade developed in the 17th century, and by the mid- 18th century it was a major shipbuilding centre. Modern industries include glassware and automobile manufacturing. Within the borough are the seaside resorts of Roker and Seabum. In addition to the town of Sunderland, the city and metropoli¬ tan borough includes the towns of Washington, Houghton-le-Spring, and Hetton-le-Hole.

Sunderland, Robert Spencer, 2nd earl of (b. Sept. 5, 1641, Paris, France—d. Sept. 28, 1702, Althorp, Northamptonshire, Eng.) English statesman and chief adviser in the reigns of Charles II, James II, and William III. After a period in diplomatic service, he twice served as secretary of state (1679-81, 1683) and became the chief architect of Charles’s pro-French foreign policy. He converted to Roman Catholicism to maintain his influence in James’s reign. After William became king, Sunderland renounced his Catholicism and became the principal interme¬ diary between the king and Parliament. He was appointed lord chamber- lain in 1697, but Whig opposition soon forced him from office.

sundew Any of about 100 species of annual and perennial flowering carnivorous plants in four genera, notably Drosera, that make up the fam¬ ily Droseraceae (sundew family). Sundews are found throughout tropical and temperate regions. Their leaves are usually in a basal rosette. Both leaf surfaces are generally covered with sticky, gland-tipped hairs and sensitive tentacles that trap insects. After the trapped prey has been digested by enzymes secreted by the tentacles, the leaf reopens, resetting the trap. The best-known sundew is the Venus's-flytrap. See also pitcher PLANT.

Sundiata \sun-‘ja-t9\ (d. 1255) Monarch of the ancient Mali empire in West Africa. After organizing a private army and consolidating his posi¬ tion among his own Malinke people, Sundiata launched attacks against neighbouring states in the 1230s. In 1240 he seized and razed Kumbi, the last capital of the ancient Ghana empire. During his reign over Mali he established its territorial base and laid the foundations for its future pros¬ perity and political unity.

sunfish Any of numerous species o carnivorous freshwater fishes placed with the crappies and black basses in the family Centrarchidae. Usually less than 8 in. (20 cm) long, sun- fishes are fine food and game fishes.

The best-known are the black- banded sunfish ( Enneacanthus cha- etodon) of the eastern U.S. and the bluegill ( Lepomis macrochirus), which has an orange belly and blue markings. The longear sunfish has orange spots and wavy, bright blue streaks. The pumpkinseed, or com¬ mon sunfish, has an orange belly and a red spot on its ear. The rock bass has irregular dark markings.

sunflower Any of 60 species of annual herbaceous plants in the genus Helianthus (composite family), native mostly to North and South America. The common sunflower (H. annuus ) has a rough, hairy stem 3—15 ft (1^1.5 m) high; broad, coarsely toothed, rough leaves 3-12 in. (7.5-30 cm) long; and large (3-6

brightly coloured North American

Pumpkinseed sunfish (Lepomis gibbo- sus).

JACQUES SIX

, ✓ *

Sunflower (Helianthus annuus).

JOHN H. GERARD

in., or 7.5-15 cm, in diameter), flat, platelike compound flowers. Disk flowers swirl in a tight brown, yellow, or purple spiral; ray flowers are yellow. The leaves are used as fodder, the flowers yield a yellow dye, and the seeds contain oil and are used for food. The oil is used for cooking, as an ingredient of soaps and paints, and as a lubricant. Only a few spe¬ cies are cultivated, some for their spectacular size.

Sung-chiang See Songjiang Sung dynasty See Song dynasty Sung-hua Chiang See Sungari River

Sungari \ 1 suq-g3- , re\ River Chinese Songhua Vsurj-'hwaV Jiang or Sung-hua Chiang River, northeastern China. Rising in the Changbai Mountains, it is joined by its chief tributary, the Nen River, before it enters the Amur River 1,197 mi (1,927 km) later. The Amur’s largest tributary, it passes through a fertile plain and is navigable for much of its course.

sunna \'su-no\ Body of traditional social and legal custom and practice that constitutes proper observance of Islam. Early Muslims did not concur on what constituted sunna, because of the wide variety of pre-Islamic prac¬ tices among converted peoples that had to be assimilated, reconciled, or abandoned. In the 8th century the sunna of Muhammad, as preserved in eye¬ witness records, was codified as the Hadith by AbO ‘Abd Allah Shaf'iI. Later Muslim scholars strengthened the authority of sunna by devising a system for attesting the authenticity of various practices claimed as descending from Muhammad. See also ‘ilm al-hadith; isnad; SharI'ah; tafsIr.

Sunnite \'su-,nlt\ Larger of the two major divisions of Islam, compris¬ ing 90% of the world’s Muslims. Sunnites regard theirs as the mainstream and traditionalist branch of Islam, as distinguished from the minority branch, the SHfiTEs. Sunnites recognize the first four Umayyad caliphs (see Umayyad dynasty) as Muhammad’s rightful successors. Because the Sun¬ nites understood Muhammad’s theocratic state to have been an earthly, temporal dominion, they were willing to accept unexceptional and even foreign caliphs, provided order and religious orthodoxy were maintained. Sunnite orthodoxy emphasizes consensus based on the views and customs of the majority of the community, thereby enabling them to incorporate various customs and usages that arose historically but that had no roots in the Qur’an. Sunnites recognize the six authentic books of the HadIth and accept the four major schools of Islamic law. In the early 21st cen¬ tury, Sunnite Muslims numbered about one billion.

Sunnyvale City (pop., 2000: 131,760), western California, U.S. Sunny¬ vale was settled in 1850 and was incorporated in 1912. It was originally a fruit-processing centre; its economic base shifted when the U.S. Navy built a dirigible base nearby in the 1930s and the Joshua Hendy Iron Works (later Westinghouse Electric Corp.) expanded in 1942. Its popula¬ tion grew rapidly in the 1960s. Chief manufactures include guided mis¬ siles.

Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument Preserve, north- central Arizona, U.S. Established in 1930, the monument covers 5 sq mi (13 sq km) and contains the brilliant-hued cinder cone of an extinct vol¬ cano that erupted c. 1064. It rises 1,000 ft (300 m) and has a crater 400 ft (120 m) deep and 1,280 ft (390 m) in diameter. The tract contains numerous lava flows, fumaroles, and lava beds.

sunspot Cooler-than-average region of gas on the Sun’s surface asso¬ ciated with strong local magnetic activity. Sunspots appear as dark spots, but only in contrast with the surrounding photosphere, which is several thousand degrees hotter. Spots several times larger than Earth are visible to the unaided eye (viewed through a filter); very small ones are hard to see even with a telescope. They come and go as part of the solar cycle, usually in pairs or groups, and may last for months; their cause appears to be related to the magnetic field reversals that occur every 11 years. The reality of these apparent flaws in the Sun was generally accepted only c. 1611. Periods of high sunspot activity are associated on Earth with brighter auroras and interference with radio signals.

SUNY See State University of New York

Sunzi or Sun-tzu \'sun-'dzu\ (fl. 5th century bc) Chinese military strat¬ egist. A general who served the state of Wu late in the Spring and Autumn period (770-476 bc), he is traditionally regarded as the author of the ear¬ liest known treatise on war and military science, The Art of War , though it was more likely written early in the Warring States period (475-221 bc). A systematic guide to strategy and tactics, it discusses various maneuvers

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1846 I Super Bowl ► supply and demand

and the effect of terrain, stresses the importance of accurate information about the enemy’s forces, and emphasizes the unpredictability of battle and the need for flexible responses. Its insistence on the close relation¬ ship between political considerations and military policy influenced mod¬ ern strategists, notably Mao Zedong.

Super Bowl Annual championship game of the National Football League. It is played by the winners of the league’s American Football Conference and National Football Conference. The first Super Bowl com¬ petition was held in 1967. It normally falls in January, usually on the last Sunday, and is watched by more Americans than any other sporting event.

supercharger Air compressor or blower used in piston-type internal- combustion engines to increase the amount of air drawn into the cylinders by the movement of the pistons during each intake stroke. With the addi¬ tional air, more fuel is burned, and the engine’s power is increased. In aircraft engines, supercharging compensates for the reduced atmospheric pressure at high altitudes. Development of the gas turbine, which requires a constant flow of air and fuel, led to the turbosupercharger, a centrifugal blower driven by a small gas turbine powered by the exhaust gases from the engine cylinders.

supercomputer Any of a class of extremely powerful digital comput¬ ers. The term is commonly applied to the fastest high-performance sys¬ tems available at a given time; current personal computers are more powerful than the supercomputers of just a few years ago. Supercomput¬ ers are used primarily for scientific and engineering work. Unlike con¬ ventional computers, they usually have more than one CPU, often functioning in parallel (simultaneously); even higher-performance super¬ computers are now being developed through use of massively parallel processing, incorporating thousands of individual processors. Supercom¬ puters have huge storage capacity and very fast input/output capability, and can operate in parallel on corresponding elements of arrays of num¬ bers rather than on one pair of elements at a time.

superconductivity Almost total lack of electrical resistance in certain materials when they are cooled to a temperature near absolute zero. Super¬ conducting materials allow low power dissipation, high-speed operation, and high sensitivity. They also have the ability to prevent external mag¬ netic fields from penetrating their interiors and are perfect diamagnets (see diamagnetism). Since it was first discovered in mercury by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes in 1911, similar behaviour has been found in some 25 other chemi¬ cal elements and in thousands of alloys and compounds. Superconductors have applications in medical imaging, magnetic energy-storage systems, motors, generators, transformers, computer components, and sensitive magnetic-field measuring devices.

superego In Freudian psychoanalytic theory, one of the three aspects of the human personality, along with the id and the ego. The last of the three elements to develop, the superego is the ethical component of the personality, providing the moral standards by which the ego operates. The superego is formed during the first five years of life in response to paren¬ tal punishment and approval; children internalize their parents’ moral standards as well as those of the surrounding society, and the developing superego serves to control aggressive or other socially unacceptable impulses. Violation of the superego’s standards gives rise to feelings of guilt or anxiety.

superfluidity Unusual property of liquid helium cooled below -455.75 °F (-270.97 °C). At such low temperatures, helium exhibits an enormous rise in heat conductivity and rapid flow through capillaries or over the rim of its container. To explain such behaviour, the substance is described in terms of a “two-fluid” mixture model consisting of normal helium and superfluid helium. In normal helium the atoms are in excited states (see excitation), whereas in superfluid helium they are in their ground state. As the temperature is lowered below -455.75 °F, more of the helium becomes superfluid. It is assumed that the superfluid component can move through the container without friction, thereby explaining the unusual behaviour.

Superfund U.S. government fund intended to pay for the cleanup of hazardous-waste dump sites and spills. The 1980 act creating it called for financing by a combination of general revenues and taxes on polluting industries. The Environmental Protection Agency was directed to create a list of the most dangerous sites; it would then compel the polluter to pay for the cleanup or would pay for the cleanup itself through the Superfund and sue for reimbursement. By the 1990s the Superfund had received bil¬ lions of dollars, and work had begun on many sites. In response to wide¬

spread charges of waste, mismanagement, and inefficiency, the Superfund streamlined its procedures, and by the beginning of the 21st century clean¬ ups at more than 750 sites had been completed. In the early 21st century, various proposals were introduced to alter the financing of the Superfund. See also Love Canal.

supergiant star Star of very great natural luminosity and relatively enormous size, typically several magnitudes brighter and several times larger than a giant star. Like other classes of stars, they are distinguished in practice by examination of certain lines in their spectra (see spectros¬ copy). A supergiant may have a diameter several hundred times that of the Sun and a luminosity nearly a million times as great. Supergiants live probably only a few million years, an extremely short life for a star.

Superior, Lake Lake, U.S. and Canada. The largest of the five Great Lakes, Superior is the world’s largest freshwater lake. It is 383 mi (616 km) long and 160 mi (258 km) at its widest, with an area of 31,800 sq mi (82,362 sq km) and depths reaching 1,330 ft (405 m). Lake Superior is known for its picturesque coastline and its numerous shipwrecks; its islands include Isle Royale. The head of the Great Lakes-SAINT Lawrence Seaway system, it is connected to Lake Huron at its southeastern end via the Sault Ste. Marie locks. Ships transport grain, flour, and iron ore dur¬ ing the eight-month navigation season. The French Jesuit missionary Claude-Jean Allouez charted the lake in 1667. The region came under British control (1763-83) and remained in British hands until 1817, when the American Fur Co. took over south of the Canadian border.

supermarket Large retail store operated on a self-service basis, sell¬ ing groceries, produce, meat, bakery and dairy products, and sometimes nonfood goods. Supermarkets were first established in the U.S. during the 1930s as no-frills retail stores offering low prices. In the 1940s and ’50s they became the major food marketing channel in the U.S.; the 1950s also saw them spread through much of Europe. Their growth is part of a trend in developed countries toward reducing cost and simplifying marketing. In the 1960s supermarkets began appearing in developing countries in the Middle East, Asia, and Latin America, where they appealed to individu¬ als who had the necessary buying power and food storage facilities.

supernova Any of a class of violently exploding stars whose luminos¬ ity after eruption suddenly increases many millions of times above its normal level. Like novas, supernovas undergo a tremendous, rapid bright¬ ening lasting a few weeks, followed by a slow dimming, and show blue- shifted emission lines on spectroscopy, which implies that hot gases are blown outward. Unlike a nova, a supernova explosion is a catastrophic event for a star, leading to its collapse into a neutron star or back hole. Amounts of its matter equal to the mass of several Suns may be blasted into space with such energy that the exploding star outshines its entire home galaxy. Only seven supernovas are known to have been recorded before the 17th century, the most famous in ad 1054; its remnants are visible today as the Crab Nebua. The closest and most studied supernova in modem times is SN 1987A, which appeared in 1987 in the Large Magelanic Cloud. Supernova explosions release not only tremendous amounts of radio energy and X-rays but also cosmic rays; in addition, they create and fling into interstellar space many of the heavier elements found in the universe, including those forming Earth’s solar system.

supervenience \,su-p9r-'ven-y3ns\ In philosophy, the asymmetrical reation of ontological dependence that holds between two generically different sets of properties (e.g., mental and physical properties) if and only if every change in an object’s properties belonging to the first set— the supervening properties—entails and is due to a change in properties belonging to the second set (the base properties). Supervenience has often been appealed to by philosophers who want to uphold physicalism while rejecting the identity theory: Though it may be impossible to identify men¬ tal properties with physical properties in a one-to-one fashion, mental properties may still supervene on, and thus be grounded in, physical prop¬ erties. Thus, no two things that are physically alike can be mentally (or psychologically) different, and a being’s mental properties will be deter¬ mined by its physical ones.

supply and demand Relationship between the quantity of a com¬ modity that producers have available for sale and the quantity that con¬ sumers are willing and able to buy. Demand depends on the price of the commodity, the prices of related commodities, and consumers’ incomes and tastes. Supply depends not only on the price obtainable for the com¬ modity but also on the prices of similar products, the techniques of pro¬ duction, and the availability and costs of inputs. The function of the market

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

supply-side economics ► surfing I 1847

is to equalize demand and supply through the price mechanism. If buy¬ ers want to purchase more of a commodity than is available on the mar¬ ket, they will tend to bid the price up. If more of a commodity is available than buyers care to purchase, suppliers will bid prices down. Thus, there is a tendency toward an equilibrium price at which the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied. The measure of the responsiveness of sup¬ ply and demand to changes in price is their elasticity.

supply-side economics Theory that focuses on influencing the sup¬ ply of labour and goods, using tax cuts and benefit cuts as incentives to work and produce goods. It was expounded by the U.S. economist Arthur Laffer (b. 1940) and implemented by Pres. Ronald Reagan in the 1980s. Supporters point to the economic growth of the 1980s as proof of its effi¬ cacy; detractors point to the massive federal deficits and speculation that accompanied that growth.

suprarenal gland See adrenal gland

Supremacy, Act of (1534) English act of Parliament that recognized Henry VIII as the “Supreme Head of the Church of England.” The act also required an oath of loyalty from English subjects that recognized his mar¬ riage to Anne Boleyn. It was repealed in 1555 under Mary I, but in 1559 Parliament adopted a new Act of Supremacy during the reign of Elizabeth I.

Suprematism First movement of pure geometrical abstraction in art, introduced in Russia c. 1913. Originated by Kazimir Malevich and dissemi¬ nated by El Lissitzky and the Bauhaus school, it had far-reaching influence on Western art and design. Malevich aimed to convey the “supremacy of feeling in art,” which he believed could be expressed through the simplest of visual forms. He exhibited the first Suprematist compositions in 1915, the year he issued the Suprematist manifesto. The purest embodiment of Suprematist ideals can be seen in his White on White series (1917-18).

Supreme Court of the United States Final court of appeal in the U.S. judicial system and final interpreter of the Constitution of the United States. The Supreme Court was created by the Constitutional Convention of 1787 as the head of a federal court system, though it was not formally established until Congress passed the Judiciary Act in 1789. It was granted authority to act in cases arising under the Constitution, laws, or treaties of the U.S.; in controversies to which the U.S. is a party; in controver¬ sies between states or between citizens of different states; in cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; and in cases affecting ambassadors or other ministers or consuls. Its size, which is set by Congress, varied between 6 and 10 members before being set at 9 in 1869. Justices are appointed by the president but must be confirmed by the Senate. The court has exercised the power of judicial review since 1803, when it first declared part of a law unconstitutional in Marburyw. Madison, though the power is not explicitly granted to it by the Constitution. Though the court can sometimes serve as a trial court through its original jurisdiction, relatively few cases reach the court in this manner; most cases arise by appeal or by certiorari. Among the most important doctrinal sources used by the Supreme Court have been the commerce, due-process, and equal-protection clauses of the Constitution. It also has often ruled on controversies involv¬ ing civil liberties (see civil liberty), including freedom of speech and the right of privacy. Much of its work consists of clarifying, refining, and testing the Constitution’s philosophic ideals and translating them into working principles.

Supremes U.S. pop-soul vocal trio. The original Supremes—Diana Ross (byname of Diane Earle; b. 1944), Mary Wilson (b. 1944), and Flo¬ rence Ballard (1943-76)—began recording for Motown (as The Primettes) on graduating from high school in Detroit, Mich. Their long string of Motown hits in the mid-1960s, many written by Brian and Eddie Holland and Lamont Dozier, began with “Where Did Our Love Go?” and included “Baby Love” and “Stop! In the Name of Love.” In 1966 Bal¬ lard was replaced with Cindy Birdsong (b. 1939). Ross left the Supremes in 1969, and Wilson left in 1977. Ballard died in relative poverty of car¬ diac arrest. Ross’s highly successful solo career included film roles (nota¬ bly in Lady Sings the Blues, 1972) and a free 1983 Central Park concert that drew an audience of record-setting size.

Sur See Tyre

Surabaya \ 1 sur-3-'bI-3\ Seaport city (pop., 1995 est.: 2,701,000), north¬ eastern coast of Java, Indonesia. It is Indonesia’s second-largest city and has been eastern Java’s chief trading center since the 14th century. The Dutch gained control in the 18th century and built their main East Indies naval base there. Occupied by the Japanese in World War II, it suffered

heavy damage; it was damaged again during Indonesia’s war for inde¬ pendence (1945—49). It is the site of Indonesia’s main naval base and a naval college, and of Airlangga University (1954).

surah or sura Any chapter of the Qur’an. According to Muslim belief, each of the 114 surahs, which vary in length from several lines (known as ayahs) to several pages, encompasses one or more divine revelations of Muhammad. All but three lines are in the form of a direct address from God. The tone of each varies but is generally moralistic, demanding obe¬ dience to a transcendent but compassionate God. Except for the opening surah, known as fdtihah (the “opening”), they are arranged in descend¬ ing order of length and numbered serially. They carry conventional names (e.g., Cow, Spider, Blood Clot) deriving from some image contained in them that is not necessarily indicative of their meaning or theme.

Surat Vsur-st, s3-'rat\ City (pop., 2001: 2,433,835), southeastern Gujarat state, west-central India. It is near the mouth of the Tapti River and the Gulf of Khambhat (Cambay). A major seaport from the 16th century, it was conquered by the Mughals in 1573 and was twice sacked by the Marathas in the 17th century. It became a centre for textile manufacturing and ship¬ building. The British established their first factory (trading post) in India there c. 1612, marking the beginning of the British imperial presence in India. The city declined in the 18th century but prospered again with the opening of India’s railways. Surat’s cottons, silks, brocades, and objects of gold and silver are still famous.

surface In geometry, a two-dimensional collection of points (flat sur¬ face), a three-dimensional collection of points whose cross section is a curve (curved surface), or the boundary of any three-dimensional solid. In general, a surface is a continuous boundary dividing a three- dimensional space into two regions. For example, the surface of a sphere separates the interior from the exterior; a horizontal plane separates the half-plane above it from the half-plane below. Surfaces are often called by the names of the regions they enclose, but a surface is essentially two- dimensional and has an area, while the region it encloses is three- dimensional and has a volume. The attributes of surfaces, and in particular the idea of curvature, are investigated in differential geometry.

surface Outermost layer of a material or substance. Because the par¬ ticles (atoms or molecules) on the surface have nearest neighbours beside and below but not above, the physical and chemical properties of a sur¬ face differ from those of the bulk material; surface chemistry is thus a branch of physical chemistry. The growth of crystals, the actions of cata¬ lysts and detergents, and the phenomena of adsorption, surface tension, and capillarity are aspects of behaviour at surfaces. The appearance of the sur¬ face, whether achieved with electroplating, paint, oxidation-reduction, bleaching (see bleach), or another means, is aesthetically important.

surface integral In calculus, the integral of a function of several vari¬ ables calculated over a surface. For functions of a single variable, definite integrals are calculated over intervals on the x-axis and result in areas. For functions of two variables, the simplest double integrals are calculated over rectangular regions and result in volumes. More generally, an integral cal¬ culated over a plane or curved surface results in a surface integral repre¬ senting a volume, though it also has many nongeometric applications.

surface tension Property of a liquid surface that causes it to act like a stretched elastic membrane (see elasticity). Its strength depends on the forces of attraction among the particles of the liquid itself and with the particles of the gas, solid, or liquid with which it comes in contact. Sur¬ face tension allows certain insects to stand on the surface of water and can support a razor blade placed horizontally on the liquid’s surface, even though the blade may be denser than the liquid and unable to float. Sur¬ face tension results in spherical drops of liquid, as the liquid tends to minimize its surface area.

surfing Sport of riding breaking waves toward the shore, especially with a surfboard. The sport originated prehistorically in the South Seas. In 1777 and 1778 Capt. James Cook first reported seeing surfers in Tahiti and on Oahu. In 1821 surfing was banned by missionaries who thought it immoral. It was revived in the 1920s by the Hawaiian swimmer Duke Kahanamoku (1890-1968). Today surfing is enjoyed on beaches with breakers throughout the world, and several international championships are held. The goal is to maneuver on the unbroken face of the wave, pref¬ erably as far back toward the curl (“tube”) as possible. In addition to surf¬ boards, surfers can use belly-boards, kneeboards, or kayaks, or they can bodysurf using no board at all.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1848 I surgeonfish ► Surrey

surgeonfish or tang Any of about 75 species (family Acanthuridae)

of thin, deep-bodied, tropical marine fishes that are small-scaled, with a single dorsal fin and one or more dis¬ tinctive, sharp spines on either side of the tail base. The spines resemble a surgeon’s scalpel and may be either fixed or hinged at the rear so that they can be opened outward and directed forward. Surgeonfishes are mostly algae eaters and usually do not exceed 20 in. (50 cm) long. The yellow surgeon, or yellow tang (Zebrasoma flavescens), is an Indo- Pacific species, and the blue tang (Acanthurus coeruleus ) is found in the Atlantic and Caribbean.

Surgeonfish (Acanthurus leucosternon)

JANE BURTON-BRUCE COLEMAN LTD.

surgery Branch of medicine concerned with treatment by physical means rather than drugs. In addition to operations requiring access to the inside of the body (open surgery), it includes manipulation from outside the body (e.g., setting of a broken bone, skin grafts). Modern surgery began in the mid-19th century with use of anesthetics and antiseptics. Other important advances have included diagnostic imaging, blood typing, intu¬ bation to support breathing, intravenous administration of fluids and drugs, heart-lung machines (see artificial heart), endoscopy, and devices that monitor body functions. Specialized instruments used in surgery include scalpels to cut tissue, forceps to hold blood vessels closed or grasp and manipulate structures, clamps to immobilize or crush tissues, gauze sponges to absorb fluids and keep an area dry, retractors to hold incisions open, and curved needles to suture them closed. Pre- and postoperative care is crucial to the success of surgery. See also microsurgery, open-heart SURGERY, ORTHOPEDICS, PLASTIC SURGERY, TRANSPLANT.

Suriname \ 1 su-r9-'na-m9\ officially Republic of Suriname formerly Dutch Guiana Country, northern coast of South America. Area: 63,251 sq mi (163,820 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 493,000. Capital: Para-

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maribo. The population includes South Asians, Creoles, Javanese, and smaller groups of people of African, Chinese,

American Indian, and Dutch descent. Lan¬ guages: Dutch (official), English, Sranan (a

creole language), Javanese, Sarnami (derived from Hindi and Urdu). Reli¬ gions: Christianity (Roman Catholic, Protestant, other Christians), Hin¬ duism, Islam, traditional beliefs. Currency: Suriname dollar. Suriname has a low, narrow coastal plain, inland savannas, a forested plateau region,

and mountain ranges. A number of major rivers, including the Couran- tyne, Maroni, and Suriname, cross the country to empty into the Atlantic. Bauxite mining, aluminum production, and agriculture are the largest sec¬ tors of the economy. Exports include rice, bananas, sugarcane, oranges, and shrimp. Suriname is a republic with one legislative house; its head of state and government is the president. It was inhabited by various South American Indian peoples prior to European settlement. Spanish explor¬ ers claimed Suriname in 1593, but the Dutch began to settle there in 1602, followed by the English in 1651. It was ceded to the Dutch in 1667, and in 1682 the Dutch West India Company introduced coffee and sugarcane plantations and African slaves to cultivate them. Slavery was abolished in 1863, and indentured servants were brought from China, Java, and India to work the plantations, adding to the ethnic mix of the population. Except for brief interludes of British rule (1799-1802, 1804-15), Suriname remained a Dutch colony. It gained internal autonomy in 1954 and inde¬ pendence in 1975. A military coup in 1980 ended civilian control until the electorate approved a new constitution in 1987. Military control resumed after a coup in 1990. Elections were held in 1992, and civilian democratic government returned.

Suriname River River, central and eastern Suriname. Rising in the highlands and flowing toward the northeast for some 300 mi (480 km), it empties into the Atlantic Ocean just north of Paramaribo. It was dammed at Afobaka to create W. J. van Blommestein Lake, the largest lake in Suri¬ name.

Surma River Vsur-m9\ River, northeastern India and eastern Bang¬ ladesh. It rises in northern Manipur state, India, where it is called the Barak River, and flows west into Bangladesh. There it passes through a rich tea¬ growing valley and eventually enters an old channel of the Brahmaputra and becomes the Meghna River, before entering the Ganges. It is 560 mi (900 km) long.

Surrealism Movement in the visual arts and literature that flourished in Europe between World Wars I and II. Surrealism grew principally out of the earlier Dada movement, which before World War I produced works of anti-art that deliberately defied reason; Surrealism developed in reac¬ tion against the “rationalism” that had led to World War I. The movement was founded in 1924 by Andre Breton as a means of joining dream and fantasy to everyday reality to form “an absolute reality, a surreality.” Drawing on the theories of Sigmund Freud, he concluded that the uncon¬ scious was the wellspring of the imagination. Breton was a poet, but Sur¬ realism’s major achievements were in painting. Some artists practiced organic, emblematic, or absolute Surrealism, expressing the unconscious through suggestive yet indefinite biomorphic images (e.g., Jean Arp, AAax Ernst, Andre Masson, Joan Miro). Others created realistically painted images, removed from their context and reassembled within a paradoxi¬ cal or shocking framework (Salvador Dali, Rene Magritte). With its empha¬ sis on content and free form. Surrealism provided a major alternative to the contemporary, highly formalistic Cubist movement and was largely responsible for perpetuating in modern painting the traditional emphasis on content.

Surrey Administrative county (pop., 2001: 1,059,015) and historic county, southern England. Surrey is located southwest of London. Sheep raising was an important medieval activity for the county, and by the 16th century a cloth trade was also growing. Its forested hills were a source of timber for charcoal, construction, and shipbuilding. Transport of these products, originally dependent on rivers, was facilitated in 1801 when the Surrey Iron Railway was established as the first public railway. During the 19th century the world’s densest network of suburban railways devel¬ oped in northern Surrey. Suburban growth continued after World War II, proceeding under planning restraints. The county seat is Guildford.

Surrey, Henry Howard, earl of (b. 1517, Hunsdon, Hertfordshire, Eng.?—d. Jan. 13, 1547, London) English poet. Because of his aristo¬ cratic birth and connections, Surrey was involved in the jockeying for place that accompanied Henry VIII’s policies. After returning to England in 1546 from a campaign abroad, he was accused of treason by his rivals. After his sister admitted he was still a Roman Catholic, he was executed at age 30. Most of his poetry was published 10 years later. With Thomas Wyat, he introduced into England the styles and metres of the Italian humanist poets, laying the foundation of a great age in English poetry. He translated two books of Virgil’s Aeneid, marking the first use in English of blank verse and was the first to develop the sonnet form used by Wil¬ liam Shakespeare.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

surrogate motherhood ► Sutherland I 1849

surrogate motherhood Practice in which a woman (the surrogate mother) bears a child for a couple unable to produce children, usually because the wife is infertile or unable to carry a pregnancy to term. The surrogate is impregnated either through artificial insemination (usually with the sperm of the husband) or through the implantation of an embryo pro¬ duced by in vitro fertilization. The surrogate traditionally gives up all parental rights, though this has been subject to legal challenge.

Surtees, Robert Smith (b. May 17, 1803, The Riding, Northumber¬ land, Eng.—d. March 16, 1864, Brighton, Sussex) English novelist. Pas¬ sionately addicted to riding to hounds from his youth, Surtees devoted nearly all his writings to horses and riding. In 1831 he launched New Sporting Magazine. His famous comic character Mr. Jorrocks, a blunt Cockney grocer entirely given over to fox hunting, appeared in Jorrocks’s Jaunts and Jollities (1838), Handley Cross (1843), and Hillingdon Hall (1845). Among his other novels, which also portray the boredom, ill man¬ ners, discomfort, and coarse food of English provincial life, are Hawbuck Grange (1847) and Mr. Facey Romford’s Hounds (1865).

Surtsey \'s9rt-se\ Volcanic island off southern Iceland. It emerged from the ocean in a fiery eruption in November 1963. Over four years its vol¬ canic core built up an island 1 sq mi (2.5 sq km) in area, with elevations over 560 ft (170 m). Named for the fire god of Icelandic mythology, it is now a nature reserve and the site of a joint Icelandic-U.S. biological research program.

surveying Method of making relatively large-scale, accurate measure¬ ments of the earth’s surfaces. Its principal modern uses are in the fields of transportation, building, land use, and communications. Surveying is divided into the categories of plane surveying (mapping small areas) and geodetic surveying (mapping large areas of the globe). The Romans are said to have used the plane table, which consists of a drawing board mounted on a tripod or other support and a straightedge along which lines are drawn. It was the first device capable of recording or establishing angles. With the publication of logarithmic tables in 1620, portable angle¬ measuring instruments, called topographic instruments, or theodolites, came into use; they included pivoted arms for sighting and could be used for measuring both horizontal and vertical angles. Two revolutionary 20th-century innovations were photogrammetry (mapping from aerial photographs) and electronic distance measurement, including the use of the laser.

Surveyor Any of a series of seven unmanned U.S. space probes sent to make soft landings on the Moon in 1966-68. Surveyor 2 crashed on the Moon, and radio contact with Surveyor 4 was lost minutes before landing, but the rest sent back thousands of photographs; some were equipped to sample and test lunar soil. Surveyor 6 made the first liftoff from an extraterrestrial body; Sur¬ veyor 7 landed in the lunar highlands and returned data showing that the landscape and soil there differ from those of lower areas. See also Luna;

Pioneer; Ranger.

Surya In Hinduism, the sun and the sun god. Though once ranking with the major Hindu deities, he is now primarily worshiped only as one of the five important deities of the Smarta sect and as the supreme deity by the small Savra sect. Neverthe¬ less, he is still invoked by all ortho¬ dox Hindus in daily prayer, and his temples are found throughout India.

He is the father of Manu, Yama, and several other gods. The Puranas record that the weapons of the gods were forged from pieces trimmed from Surya.

Suryavarman V.sur-yo-'var-monV II (d. c. 1150) Khmer (Cambodian)

king under whom Angkor Wat was SuryQ| stone image from Deo . built. Suryavarman established sole Barunarak, Bihar, India, 9th century ad. rule over Cambodia in c. 1113, pramodchandra reuniting the country after 50 years

of unrest. He expanded his country to include much of what is now Thai¬ land, portions of Vietnam, and part of the Malay Peninsula. He promul¬ gated Vaishnavism (a form of Hinduism), rather than the Buddhism of his predecessors, as the official religion. Construction of Angkor Wat, the world’s largest religious structure, began under Suryavarman, and he fig¬ ures prominently in its decorations. He died during a campaign against the kingdom of Champa; the Chams eventually ravaged Angkor.

Susanna Figure in an apocryphal book of the Bible. The History of Susanna, set in Babylon during the Jewish exile, tells of a woman falsely accused of adultery by two elders who had earlier tried to seduce her. She is saved from death by Daniel’s intervention. The tale is one of a cycle of traditions added to the book of Daniel when it was translated into Greek. The scene in which the elders spy on her at her bath was a popular sub¬ ject for Renaissance artists.

Suslov Vsiis-.loA, Mikhail (Andreyevich) (b. Nov. 21, 1902, Sha- khovskoye, Russia—d. Jan. 25, 1982, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Soviet ideologue. He joined the Communist Party in 1921 and was sent to Mos¬ cow for his education, after which he taught economics. In the 1930s he helped supervise the Stalinist purges in the Urals and Ukraine. Later a leading official in the Caucasus, he supervised the deportation of ethnic minorities in World War II. He was appointed to the Politburo in 1952, and from 1955 he held a pivotal position in the ruling clique. A political conservative, he helped Nikita Khrushchev quell a conspiracy in the Polit¬ buro in 1957, but he organized the bloodless coup in 1964 that ousted Khrushchev and substituted Leonid Brezhnev. Thereafter, he concentrated on relations between the Soviet Communist Party and other communist parties around the world.

suspension, automobile Elastic members designed to cushion the impact of road irregularities on a portion of an automotive vehicle. The members link the vehicle’s tires with its suspended portion, and usually consist of springs and shock absorbers. Spring elements used for auto¬ mobile suspension members include (in increasing order of ability to store elastic energy per unit of weight) leaf springs, coil springs, torsion bars, rubber-in-shear devices, and air springs. The springs absorb the energy of impacts of the tires along the road surface, and the shocks damp or dis¬ sipate that energy, using hydraulics, so that the suspended portion of the vehicle does not keep bouncing. See illustration on following page.

Susquehanna N.sos-kwo-'ha-noV River River, central New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, U.S. One of the longest rivers in the east¬ ern U.S., it is about 444 mi (715 km) long. It rises in Otsego Lake, cen¬ tral New York, and winds through the Appalachian Mountains before flowing into northern Chesapeake Bay. Though it was never an important waterway because of obstructions, including rapids, its valley was at one time a significant land route to the Ohio River system and was later a coal¬ mining region.

Susskind Vs3s- 1 klnd\, David (Howard) (b. Dec. 19, 1920, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Feb. 22, 1987, New York City) U.S. television pro¬ ducer and host. After being educated at the University of Wisconsin and Harvard University, he worked as a publicist before forming the agency Talent Associates in 1952. He produced numerous television programs, including Circle Theater (1955-63) and Dupont Show of the Month (1957-64), but he became best known as host of the talk shows Open End (1958-67) and The David Susskind Show (1967-86), for which he won many Emmy Awards. Open End began at 11:00 pm and ran until the pro¬ gram’s participants grew too tired to continue. Noted for his provocative discussions of controversial issues such as race relations, organized crime, and the Vietnam War, he also interviewed international leaders, notably Nikita Khrushchev (1960).

Sutherland, Graham (Vivian) (b. Aug. 24, 1903, London, Eng.—d. Feb. 17, 1980, London) British painter. After studying art in London, he taught and practiced printmaking (1926-40) at the Chelsea School of Art. His early work was characterized by an exacting repre- sentationalism that evolved into Surrealism. He turned primarily to paint¬ ing c. 1935 and served as official war artist 1940-45; his war paintings are an evocative record of desolation. His “thorn period” began with his Crucifixion (1946), considered to be one of the most important religious paintings of the 20th century. In such late works he incorporated anthro¬ pomorphic insect and plant forms, particularly thorns, which he trans¬ formed into powerful, frightening totemic images. Sutherland was known, too, for his expressionistic, penetrating portraits. He also designed the enormous tapestry (c. 1955-61) for the new Coventry Cathedral.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1850 I Sutherland ► Suvorov

upper

Two forms of automobile suspension. A vehicle is suspended over its wheels by springs, usually either coil or leaf springs (top and bottom, respectively). Irregulari¬ ties in the road surface are transmitted mechanically to the springs. The energy in the compressed springs is dissipated by shock absorbers mounted inside or outside coil springs or beside leaf springs.

© MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

Sutherland, Dame Joan (b. Nov. 7, 1926, Sydney, Austl.) Austra¬ lian soprano. After debuting in Sydney in 1947, she moved to London. Having sung minor roles at Co vent Garden from 1952, she established her status as one of the leading coloraturas of the 20th century in a 1959 performance of Lucia di Lammermoor. She made her Metropolitan Opera debut in 1961, and she became a favourite there and worldwide in bel canto roles until her retirement in 1991.

Sutlej River Vs9t-,lej\ River, Asia. The longest of the “Five Rivers” that give Punjab its name, it is 900 mi (1,450 km) long. It rises in southwest¬ ern Tibet and flows west through the Himalayas, across Himachal Pradesh and Punjab, India, then southwest across Punjab province of Pakistan. It forms 65 mi (105 km) of the Indo-Pakistani border. It joins the Chenab River in Pakistan to become the Panjnad, the link between the Five Riv¬ ers and the Indus. Its middle course is used extensively for irrigation.

sutra Ysii-tre\ Pali sutta In Hinduism, a brief aphoristic composition; in Buddhism, a more extended exposition of a subject and the basic form of the scripture of both Theravada and Mahay ana traditions. Since the early Indian philosophers did not work with written texts at all, and later phi¬ losophers often disdained them, there was a need for very brief explana¬ tory works that could be committed to memory. The earliest sutras were expositions of ritual procedures, but their use spread, and eventually nearly all Indian philosophical systems had their own sutras. See also Avatamsaka-sutra, Diamond Sutra, Lotus Sutra, Tripitaka.

Sutta Pitaka Vsut-to-'pi-to-koX Major section of the Tripitaka, the canon of Theravada Buddhism, largely attributed to the Buddha himself. It is divided into five collections, or Nikayas: the Digha Nikaya (“Long Col¬ lection”), containing 34 lengthy sutras, including some of the most impor¬ tant doctrinal expositions; the Majjhima Nikaya (“Medium Collection”), containing 152 sutras dealing with a variety of subjects; the Samyutta Nikaya (“Cluster Collection”), with more than 7,000 sutras arranged according to subject; the Anguttara Nikaya (“Gradual Collection”), a numerical arrangement, for mnemonic purposes, of 9,557 terse sutras; and the Khuddaka Nikaya (“Short Collection”). See also Abhidhamma Pitaka; Vinaya Pitaka.

suttee or sati Yso-.te, ,s9-'te\ Indian practice whereby a widow burns herself to death either on the funeral pyre of her husband or soon after his death. The custom may be rooted in ancient beliefs that a husband needed his companions in the afterlife, though opponents point to it as an indication of a value system deeply hostile to women. Developed by the 4th century bc, it became widespread in the 17th—18th centuries but was banned in British India in 1829. Frequent instances of suttee continued to occur for many years thereafter, and occasional instances in remote areas are still reported today.

Sutter, John (Augustus) orig. Johann August Suter (b. Feb. 15, 1803, Kandern, Baden—d. June 18, 1880, Washington, D.C., U.S.) German-bom U.S. pioneer. Fleeing financial failures, he left his family in Switzerland and arrived in the U.S. in 1834. He obtained a land grant from the Mexican governor and established the colony of Nueva Helvetia (later Sacramento, Calif.). On the American River he built Sutter’s Fort, a frontier trading post, in 1841. When gold was found there in 1848, he tried to keep it a secret. In the resulting gold rush, squatters and gold seekers invaded his land and stole his goods and livestock. U.S. courts denied his claim to his Mexican land grant, and Sutter was bankrupt by