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246 I Bonaparte ► bone

relations between the brothers. However, he offered Napoleon help dur¬ ing the Hundred Days and was the last to defend Napoleon’s prerogatives at the time of his second abdication, after which he lived in Italy.

Bonaparte, (Marie-) Pauline (b. Oct. 20, 1780, Ajaccio, Corsica—d. June 9, 1825, Florence) French noblewoman. A sister of Napoleon, in 1797 she married one of his staff officers, Gen. C.V.E. Leclerc (1772-1802). After Leclerc’s death, she married Prince Camillo F.L. Borghese (1803) and went with him to Rome. She soon tired of him and returned to Paris, where her behaviour caused some scandal. In 1806 she received the title of duchess of Guastalla. She died of cancer in Flo¬ rence.

Bonaventure N.ba-no-'ven-chsrV Saint (b. 1217, Bagnoregio, Papal States—d. July 15, 1274, Lyon; canonized April 14, 1482; feast day July 15) Italian medieval theologian, cardinal, and minister general of the Fran¬ ciscans. The son of a physician from near Viterbo, he recovered from a near-fatal childhood illness through the intercession of St. Francis of Assisi. After study at the University of Paris, he entered the Franciscan order in 1244. In 1254 he assumed control of the Franciscan school in Paris. He defended the mendicants against the charge that they defamed the Gos¬ pels by begging for alms. Elected Franciscan minister-general in 1257, he healed an incipient rift between those who favoured a rigorous approach to poverty and those favouring a looser regimen, and he wrote a new life of St. Francis. His theological works include a commentary on the Sen¬ tences of Peter Lombard and Journey of the Mind to God (1259). Pope Gregory X appointed him cardinal of Albano (Italy) in 1273, and at the Second Council of Lyon he reconciled parish clergy with the mendicant orders.

bond In construction, the systematic arrangement of bricks or other building units (e.g., concrete blocks, glass blocks, or clay tiles) to ensure stability. Units laid with their ends toward the face of a wall are called headers; units with their lengths parallel to the wall are called stretchers. Common types are the English bond (courses of stretchers and headers alternate), the Flemish or Dutch bond (headers and stretchers are laid alternately within each course, each header being centered over the stretcher below it), and the American bond (every fifth or sixth course consists of headers, the rest being stretchers). See also masonry.

bond In finance, loan contract issued by local, state, and national gov¬ ernments and by private corporations, specifying an obligation to return borrowed funds. The issuer promises to pay interest on the debt when due (usually semiannually) at a stipulated percentage of the face value and to redeem the face value of the bond at maturity in legal tender. Bonds usu¬ ally indicate a debt of substantial size and are issued in more formal fash¬ ion than promissory notes, ordinarily under seal. Government bonds may be backed by taxes, or they may be revenue bonds, backed only by rev¬ enue from the specific project (toll roads, airports, etc.) to which they are committed. Bonds are rated based on the issuer’s creditworthiness. The ratings, assigned by independent rating agencies, generally run from AAA to D; bonds with ratings from AAA to BBB are regarded as suitable for investment. See also junk bond.

bond In law, a formal written agreement by which a person undertakes to perform a certain act (e.g., appearing in court or fulfilling the obliga¬ tions of a contract). Failure to perform the act obligates the person to pay a sum of money or to forfeit money on deposit. A bond is an incentive to fulfill an obligation; it also provides reassurance that compensation is available if the duty is not fulfilled. A surety usually is involved, and the bond makes the surety responsible for the consequences of the obligated person’s behaviour. See also bail.

Bond, (Horace) Julian (b. Jan. 14, 1940, Nashville, Tenn., U.S.) U.S. politician and civil-rights leader. The son of prominent educators, Bond graduated from Morehouse College. In 1960 he helped create the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). In 1965 he was elected to the Georgia legislature, but his support of a SNCC statement accusing the U.S. of violating international law in the Vietnam War caused the legis¬ lature to deny him his seat. He was twice reelected and was twice more refused entry. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled his exclusion unconstitu¬ tional in December 1966, and he assumed his seat in January 1967. He later served in the state senate (1975-87). In 1998 he became chairman of the NAACP.

bonding Any of the interactions that account for the association of atoms into molecules, ions, crystals, metals, and other stable species. When

atoms’ nuclei and electrons interact, they tend to distribute themselves so that the total energy is lowest; if the energy of a group arrangement is lower than the sum of the components’ energies, they bond. The physics and mathematics of bonding were developed as part of quantum mechan¬ ics. The number of bonds an atom can form—its valence —equals the number of electrons it contributes or receives. Covalent bonds form mol¬ ecules; atoms bond to specific other atoms by sharing an electron pair between them. If the sharing is even, the molecule is not polar; if it is uneven, the molecule is an electric dipole. Ionic bonds are the extreme of uneven sharing; certain atoms give up electrons, becoming cations. Other atoms take up the electrons and become anions. All the ions are held together in a crystal by electrostatic forces. In crystalline metals, a dif¬ fuse electron sharing bonds the atoms (metallic bonding). Other types include hydrogen bonding; bonds in aromatic compounds; coordinate cova¬ lent bonds; multicentre bonds, exemplified by boranes (boron hydrides), in which more than two atoms share electron pairs; and the bonds in coor¬ dination complexes (see transition element), still poorly understood. See also VAN DER WAALS FORCES.

Bonds, Barry in full Barry Lamar Bonds (b. July 24, 1964, Riv¬ erside, Calif.) U.S. baseball player. Bonds was a college All-American at Arizona State University. A left-handed power hitter and a superb base stealer, he played outfield for the Pittsburgh Pirates (1985-92) and the San Francisco Giants (from 1993). By the early 21st century, he had earned eight Gold Glove awards for fielding and had been named Most Valuable Player six times. In 2001 he hit 73 home runs, breaking Mark McGwire’s single-season record of 70; that year he also had 177 walks to top Babe Ruth’s record (170). His father, Bobby Bonds (1946-2003), was also an outstanding professional baseball player.

bone Rigid connective tissue of vertebrates, consisting of cells embedded in a hard matrix. Bones serve as the body’s supporting framework, pro¬ vide muscle-attachment points for movement, protect the internal organs, house the blood-cell formation system (red bone marrow), and hold about 99% of the calcium vital to many body processes. Bone consists of a matrix of crystals of calcium, chiefly the phosphate and carbonate, embed¬ ded among collagen fibres, providing strength and elasticity, and bone cells (less than 5% of its volume). An external layer of compact bone sur¬ rounds a central area of spongy bone, except at the marrow cavity. Bone does not grow by cell division; instead, different types of bone cells gen¬ erate bone matrix, break it down, and maintain it. Bone is remodeled by this process, which strengthens it in areas under greatest stress, permits healing of fractures, and helps regulate calcium levels in body fluid (see

physis (growth plate) epiphysis compact bone

Haversian

Volkmann

canal

periosteum

osteocyte

cancellous (spongy) bone

compact bone

medullary containing marrow

periosteum-

metaphysis

Haversian

canal

Internal structure of a human long bone, with a magnified cross section of the inte¬ rior. The central tubular region of the bone, called the diaphysis, flares outward near the end to form the metaphysis, which contains a largely cancellous, or spongy, interior. At the end of the bone is the epiphysis, which in young people is separated from the metaphysis by the physis, or growth plate. The periosteum is a connective sheath covering the outer surface of the bone. The Haversian system, consisting of inorganic substances arranged in concentric rings around the Haver¬ sian canals, provides compact bone with structural support and allows for metabo¬ lism of bone cells. Osteocytes (mature bone cells) are found in tiny cavities between the concentric rings. The canals contain capillaries that bring in oxygen and nutri¬ ents and remove wastes. Transverse branches are known as Volkmann canals.

Bone ► Bonn I 247

calcium deficiency). The process also causes underutilized bone, as in an immobilized limb, to atrophy. Bone disorders include rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, rickets, osteoporosis, and tumours. Bone can fracture sud¬ denly or over time, as in stress fractures.

Bone See Annaba

bone china Hard-paste porcelain containing bone ash. It was developed by Josiah Spode (1754-1827) in England c. 1800. The addition of bone ash to china stone and china clay (i.e., hard china) made bone china easier to manufacture; it is stronger, does not chip easily, and has an ivory-white colour that lends itself to decoration. Other factories (Minton, Derby, Worcester, Wedg¬ wood, Rockingham) adopted the for¬ mula in the early 19th century. Bone china remains popular for tableware in Britain and the U.S. See also STONEWARE.

bone marrow or myeloid tis¬ sue Soft, gelatinous tissue that fills bone cavities. Red bone marrow con¬ tains stem cells, progenitor cells, per- cursor cells, and functional blood cells (see reticuloendothelial system). Lymphocytes mature in the lymphoid organs (see lymphoid tissue). All other blood-cell formation occurs in red marrow, which also takes part in destruction of old erythrocytes (red blood cells). Yellow bone marrow mainly stores fats. Because the leukocytes (white blood cells) produced in bone marrow are involved in immune defenses, marrow transplants can treat some types of immunodeficiency. Radiation and some anticancer drugs can damage marrow and impair immunity. Bone-marrow examination helps diagnose diseases related to blood and blood-forming organs.

bonefish Marine game fish ( Albula vulpes) that inhabits coastal and island waters in tropical seas and is admired by anglers for its speed and strength. Its maximum length is about 30 in. (76 cm), and its maximum weight is 14 lbs (6.4 kg). The bonefish has a deeply notched caudal fin (near the tail) and a small mouth beneath a pointed, piglike snout. It grubs on the bottom for worms and other food.

bongo Large, brightly coloured antelope ( Boocercus , or Taurotragus, eurycerus) found in dense forests of central Africa. Shy, swift, and elu¬ sive, the bongo lives in small groups or in pairs. It stands about 51 in. (1.3 m) at the shoulder and has an erect mane running the length of the back.

Both sexes bear heavy, spirally twisted horns. The male is reddish brown to dark mahogany with black underparts, black-and-white legs, white head markings, and narrow, vertical white stripes on the body.

The female is similarly marked but usually a brighter reddish brown.

Bonheur \ba-'nor\, Rosa (b. March 16, 1822, Bordeaux, France—d. May 25, 1899, Melun) French animal painter. She was trained by her father, an art teacher, and began exhibiting regularly at the Paris Salon in 1841. Her unsentimental paintings of lions, tigers, horses, and other ani¬ mals became very popular; The Horse Fair (1853) gained her an inter¬ national reputation. A colourful personality, she dressed as a man to study horses at the actual Horse Fair in Paris, receiving formal permission from the police to do so. In 1865 she became the first woman to receive the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour.

Bonhoeffer Vbon- 1 hoe-f3r\ / Dietrich (b. Feb. 4, 1906, Breslau, Ger.—d. April 9, 1945, Flossenbiirg) German Lutheran pastor and theo¬ logian. He attended the Universities of Berlin and Tubingen, and from 1931 he lectured in theology at the University of Berlin. He became a leading spokesman for the Confessing Church and was active in the resis¬ tance movement under the guise of employment in military intelligence. He was arrested and imprisoned in 1943. The discovery of documents

connecting him with the 1944 attempt on Adolf Hitler’s life led to his execution a month before the end of World War II. One of the most insightful theologians of the 20th century, he argued for a new vision of Christianity that would abolish the division between the sacred and pro¬ fane and abandon the traditional privileges of the church in favour of active involvement in the world’s problems. His best-known works include The Cost of Discipleship (1937), Ethics (1949), and Letters and Papers from Prison (1951).

Boniface Vba-no-fosV Saint (b. 675, Wessex, Eng.—d. June 5, 754, Dokkum, Frisia; feast day June 5) English missionary and reformer. Origi¬ nally named Wynfrith, he became a Benedictine monk and then a priest. He made two attempts to convert the Frisian Saxons; in 718 he journeyed to Rome, where Pope Gregory II entrusted him with a mission to the pagans east of the Rhine and gave him the name Boniface. In 722 at Hesse he founded the first of many Benedictine monasteries. He was active for 10 years (725-735) in Thuringia. He established four bishoprics in Bavaria, paving the way for its incorporation into the Carolingian empire. He convened five synods (740-745) to reform the Frankish clergy and Irish missionaries and a council (747) to reform the entire Frankish king¬ dom. He was killed by a band of Frisians while reading the Bible to recent converts.

Boniface of Querfurt, Saint See Saint Bruno of Querfurt

Boniface VIII orig. Benedict Caetani (b. c. 1235, Anagni, Papal States—d. Oct. 11, 1303, Rome) Pope (1294-1303). Bom into an influ¬ ential Roman family, Caetani studied law in Bologna and rose through the papal government to become cardinal-deacon (1281) and pope. In 1296 his attempt to end hostilities between Edward I of England and Philip IV of France became embroiled in the issue of taxation of clergy without papal consent. When Boniface issued a bull forbidding such taxation, Philip fought back with economic measures. They clashed again in 1301 over control of the clergy when Philip had a French bishop tried and imprisoned. Eventually, hearing that Boniface planned to excommunicate Philip, Philip’s supporters captured the pope; though rescued two days later, he died shortly thereafter.

Bonifacio, Jose See Jose Bonifacio de Andrada e Silva

Bonin \'bo-nin\ Islands Japanese Ogasawara-shoto \o-,ga-sa- 'war-a-'sho-to\ Island group, western Pacific Ocean. Administratively part of Japan and located about 600 mi (950 km) south of Tokyo, the group consists of islands with a total area of about 40 sq mi (100 sq km). The Bonins include some 30 mountainous islands such as Chichi (the largest), Haha, Muko, and Yome. They were colonized in 1830 by a group of Europeans and Hawaiians. The islands were formally annexed by Japan in 1876; they were administered by the U.S. in 1945-68.

Bonington Vba-nirj-tanX, Richard Parkes (b. Oct. 25, 1801, Arnold, Eng.—d. Sept. 23, 1828, London) British painter active in France. In 1818 he went to Paris to study with Antoine-Jean Gros. His skill in waterco¬ lour, a novelty in Paris, attracted many imitators. He exhibited at the famous “English” Salon of 1824 and won a gold medal. With John Con¬ stable and J.M.W. Turner, he popularized the oil sketch, a rapidly executed record of the transitory effects of nature. He became influential in England and France as a master of the Romantic movement and a technical inno¬ vator. His death at age 26 cut short a brilliant career.

bonito \b3-'ne-to\ Swift, predaceous schooling fishes (genus Sarda ) of the mackerel family (Scombridae). Bonitos, found worldwide, have a striped back and silvery belly and grow to about 30 in. (75 cm) long. Like tunas, they are streamlined, with a narrow tail base, a forked tail, and a row of small finlets behind the dorsal and anal fins. Bonitos have both commercial and sporting value. The three generally recognized species are found in the Atlantic and Mediterranean, the Indo-Pacific, and the Pacific.

Bonn City (pop., 2002 est: city, 306,000; metro, area, 878,700), Ger¬ many. Located on the Rhine River south of Cologne, it was, until 1990, the capital of West Germany. An old settlement that predated the coming of the Romans, its name was continued in Castra Bonnensia, a lst-century Roman fortress. By the 9th century it had become the Frankish town of Bonnburg. It grew from the 13th century, becoming capital of the Elec¬ torate of Cologne. In 1815 Bonn was awarded to Prussia by the Congress of Vienna, and by the late 19th century it was a fashionable residential town. It was bombed heavily in World War II; its postwar redevelopment was accelerated when in 1949 it was chosen as West Germany’s capital.

Wedgwood bone china plate, Stafford¬ shire, 1815-20; in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.

COURTESY OF THE VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, LONDON: PHOTOGRAPH, EB INC.

Bongo (Boocercus euryceros).

TOM MCHUGH/PHOTO RESEARCHERS

248 I Bonnard ► booby

With Germany’s reunification in 1990, the national capital was moved to Berlin. Bonn was the birthplace of Ludwig van Beethoven.

Bonnard \bo-'nar\, Pierre (b. Oct. 3, 1867, Fontenay-aux-Roses, Fr.—d. Jan. 23, 1947, Le Cannet) French painter and printmaker. He studied at the Academie Julian and the Ecole des Beaux-Arts (1888-89). In the 1890s he became a leading member of the Nabis group and came under the influence of Art Nouveau and Japanese prints. With his friend Edouard Vuillard, he developed the intimate domestic interior scene, a genre known as Intimism, depicting fashionable Parisian life in the years before World War I. He also produced still lifes, self-portraits, seascapes, and large-scale decorative paintings. In 1910 he discovered the south of France and began a series of luminous landscapes of the Mediterranean region. He was fascinated by perspective, which he employed in paint¬ ings such as The Dining Room (1913). From the 1920s he specialized in landscapes, interiors, views of gardens, and bathing nudes. He produced illustrations for the celebrated journal Revue blanche and decorative pages for Paul Verlaine’s book of poetry Parallelement (1900). Bonnard was one of the greatest colourists of modem art.

Bonnefoy, Yves (b. June 24, 1923, Tours, France) French poet. A stu¬ dent of mathematics, Bonnefoy moved to Paris and came under the influ¬ ence of the Surrealists. His poetry describes a thought universe brought to life by an intuition of the “real world.” Among his poetry collections are In the Shadow’s Light (1987), The Beginning and End of Snow (1991), and New and Selected Poems (1995). Bonnefoy, also a scholar, compiled Mythologies (1981), a dictionary of mythologies and religions. He held the chair in comparative poetics at the College de France from 1981 to 1994.

Bonnet Vbo-'naV Georges-Etienne (b. July 23, 1889, Bassillac, France—d. June 18, 1973, Paris) French politician. Elected to the Cham¬ ber of Deputies (1924-40), he became a leader of the Radical-Socialist Party. He served as finance minister (1937-38) and foreign minister (1938-39) and was a prominent supporter of appeasement of Nazi Ger¬ many. He also supported the Vichy regime. After the liberation, proceed¬ ings against him were started but dropped. He was expelled from the Radical Party in 1944, readmitted in 1952, and again expelled in 1955. He later served in the Chamber of Deputies (1956-68).

bonnet monkey Agile Indian macaque ( Macaca radiata) named for the thatch of long hair forming a cap, or “bonnet,” on the crown. It is gray¬ ish brown and has a hairless pink face. It is 14-24 in. (35-60 cm) long, excluding its 20-28-in. (50-70-cm) tail, and weighs 7-20 lbs (3-9 kg). It sometimes raids gardens or stores of food.

Bonnie and Clyde in full Bon¬ nie Parker and Clyde Bar-

row (respectively b. March 24,

1909, Telico, Texas, U.S.—d. May 23, 1934, near Gibsland, La.; b. Oct.

1, 1910, Rowena, Texas, U.S.—d.

May 23, 1934, near Gibsland, La.)

U.S. criminals. After Barrow spent time in prison (1930-32), he and Parker began a 21-month crime spree, robbing gas stations, restau¬ rants, and small-town banks in Texas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Missouri and murdering a number of people. Their exploits received wide coverage in the press. Betrayed by a friend, they were ambushed by police officers along a highway in Gib¬ sland, La.; as they attempted to flee, police opened fire, killing them. Their exploits inspired numerous books and films.

Bonnie Prince Charlie See Charles Edward, the Young Pretender

bonobo \b3-'no-bo\ Species (Pan paniscus) of great ape. It was once considered a subspecies of the chimpanzee, which it closely resembles in size, appearance, and way of life. Its range, the lowland rainforests of central Congo (Kinshasa), is more restricted than that of the chimpanzee, and it has longer, more slender arms, a more slender body, and a less pro¬ truding face. Bonobos eat mainly fruits but also leaves, seeds, grass, and small animals. They form communities of 50-120 individuals. A striking

feature of their social lives is that they engage in sexual activity with great frequency, often as a means of settling quarrels, and with little regard for gender or age. Populations are shrinking, largely because of hunting and habitat destruction, and bonobos are an endangered species.

Bononcini 'v.bo-non-'che-neV Giovanni (b. July 18, 1670, Modena, Duchy of Modena—d. July 9, 1747, Vienna) Italian composer. His father was Giovanni Maria Bononcini (1642-78), maestro di cappella of Modena Cathedral and the composer of numerous church and chamber sonatas. Giovanni himself served as maestro di cappella at San Giovanni in Monte; he later held desirable positions in various European capitals. In London in the 1720s he had a celebrated operatic rivalry with George Frideric Handel. He wrote more than 30 operas, some 20 oratorios, and nearly 300 cantatas (most for solo voice and continuo), but they are rarely heard today. His brother Antonio Maria Bononcini (1677-1726) was also a composer.

bonsai (Japanese: “tray planting”) Living dwarf tree or trees; also, the art of training and growing them in containers. Bonsai specimens are ordinary trees and shrubs, not heredi¬ tary dwarfs; they are dwarfed by a system of pruning roots and branches and training branches by tying them with wire. The art origi¬ nated in China but has been pursued and developed primarily by the Japa¬ nese. The direct inspiration for bon¬ sai is found in nature, in trees that grow in harsh, rocky places and are dwarfed and gnarled throughout their existence. Prized characteristics are an aged-looking trunk and branches and weathered-looking exposed upper roots. Bonsai may live for a century or more and are handed down from one generation to another as valued family possessions. Bonsai pots, usually earthenware and of variable shape, are carefully chosen to harmonize in colour and propor¬ tion with the tree. A sizable bonsai industry exists as part of the nursery industry in Japan; California is home to a small-scale bonsai industry.

Bontemps\ban-'tam\, Arna(ud) (Wendell) (b. Oct. 13,1902, Alex¬ andria, La., U.S.—d. June 4, 1973, Nashville, Tenn.) U.S. writer of the Harlem Renaissance. At age three Bontemps moved with his family to California. His poetry began appearing in the black magazines Crisis and Opportunity in the 1920s. With Countee Cullen he turned his first novel, God Sends Sundays (1931), into the play St. Louis Woman. Two later nov¬ els dealt with slave revolts. He edited anthologies with Langston Hughes and wrote prolifically for children, mostly nonfiction works on African Americans and African American history. He worked at Fisk University for most of his adult life.

Bonus Army World War I veterans who gathered in Washington, D.C., in summer 1932 to demand payment of their promised bonuses. More than 12,000 veterans and their families camped near the U.S. Capitol, urging support for a bill to force early payment of bonuses already voted by Congress. When the bill was defeated, most of the crowd returned home, but some angry protests caused local authorities to ask Pres. Herbert Hoover for federal assistance. Army troops led by Gen. Douglas Mac- Arthur drove out the protesters and burned their camps. The resulting public outcry was a factor in Hoover’s defeat in the 1932 election. Another group of veterans gathered in 1933, but Congress again rejected bonus legislation. In 1936 Congress finally enacted a bill that paid nearly $2 billion in veterans’ benefits.

bony fish Any member of the vertebrate class Osteichthyes, including the great majority of living fishes and all the world’s sport and commer¬ cial fishes. Also called Pisces, the class excludes jawless fishes (hagfishes and lampreys) and cartilaginous fishes (sharks, skates, and rays). There are more than 20,000 species worldwide, all with a skeleton at least partly composed of true bone. Other features include, in most species, a swim bladder (an air-filled sac to give buoyancy), gill covers over the gill cham¬ ber, bony platelike scales, a skull with sutures, and external fertilization of eggs. Bony fishes occur in all freshwater and ocean environments.

booby Any of six or seven species of large tropical seabirds (family Sulidae), named for their presumed lack of intelligence. Two common species are wide-ranging in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans;

Bonnet monkey (Macaca radiata).

WARREN GARST/TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES

Bonsai pine.

JUDITH GROFFMAN

book ► Boolean algebra I 249

another is found in the Pacific from southern California to northern Peru and on the Galapagos Islands. The booby has a long bill, cigar-shaped body, and long, narrow, angular wings. It flies high above the ocean look¬ ing for schools of fish and squid, which it snatches in a vertical dive. Boo¬ bies vary in length from 25 to 35 in. (65-85 cm). They nest in colonies but are territorial.

book Written (or printed) message of considerable length, meant for cir¬ culation and recorded on any of various materials that are durable and light enough to be easily portable. The papyrus roll of ancient Egypt is more nearly the direct ancestor of the modern book than is the clay tab¬ let; examples of both date to c. 3000 bc. Somewhat later, the Chinese independently created an extensive scholarship based on books, many made of wood or bamboo strips bound with cords. Lampblack ink was introduced in China c. ad 400 and printing from wooden blocks in the 6th century. The Greeks adopted the papyrus roll and passed it on to the Romans. The parchment or vellum codex superseded the papyrus roll by ad 400. Medieval parchment or vellum leaves were prepared from the skins of animals. By the 15th century, paper manuscripts were common. Printing spread rapidly in the late 15th century. Subsequent technical achievements, such as the development of offset printing, improved many aspects of book culture. In the late 1990s, downloadable electronic books became available over the Internet.

book club Marketing service that offers books to subscribers through the mail, often at reduced prices. The first U.S. book club, the Book-of- the-Month Club, was founded in 1926; the rival Literary Guild appeared a year later. By the 1980s nearly 100 book clubs existed in the U.S., most of them specialized (e.g., for history books, mysteries, etc.). A common incentive for attracting new members is the offer of several free or heavily discounted books; long-standing members often receive bonuses.

Book of Common Prayer Liturgical book used by the churches of the Anglican Communion. First authorized for the Church of England in 1549, it went through several versions; the 1662 revision has remained the standard (with minor changes) throughout the Commonwealth of Nations. The Church of England and the Protestant Episcopal Church in the U.S. adopted a liturgy in contemporary language in the 1970s.

Book of Kells Illuminated manuscript version of the four Gospels, c. late 8th-early 9th century. A masterpiece of the ornate Hiberno-Saxon style, it features geometric design (rather than naturalistic representation), flat areas of colour, and complex interlaced patterns. The illumination was probably begun at the Irish monastery on the Scottish island of Iona; the book was apparently taken to the monastery of Kells in County Meath, Ire., after a Viking raid and may have been completed there. See also Lindisfarne Gospels.

Book of the Dead Ancient Egyptian collection of mortuary texts made up of spells and charms and placed in tombs to aid the deceased in the next world. It was probably compiled and reedited during the 16th cen¬ tury bc. Later compilations included hymns to Re. Scribes produced and sold copies, often colorfully illustrated, for burial use. Of the many extant copies, none contains all of the approximately 200 known chapters.

bookbinding Joining together of leaves of paper, parchment, or vel¬ lum within covers to form a book or codex. Bookbinding developed when the codex replaced the roll. Early bindings were often splendidly deco¬ rated, but the typical artistic bookbinding is of decorated leather and was first produced in the monasteries of Egypt’s Coptic Church. Rare books, historical documents, and manuscripts may be bound by hand. The cover (case) of the typical book is now affixed to the leaves by machine.

bookcase Piece of furniture fitted with shelves, formerly often enclosed by doors. In early times the ambry, or wall cupboard, was used to hold books. Bookcases were included in the medieval fittings of college librar¬ ies in Britain. The earliest dated domestic examples were made of oak in 1666 for the diarist Samuel Pepys.

Booker Prize in full (2002-) Man Booker Prize Prestigious Brit¬ ish award given annually to a full-length novel. It was established in 1968 by the multinational company Booker McConnell as a counterpart to the French Prix Goncourt. The Booker Prize Foundation administers the prize, aided by an advisory committee. Entries, which are nominated by publish¬ ers, must be written by an English-language author from the United King¬ dom, the Commonwealth countries, Ireland, or South Africa. Its winners have included Kingsley Amis, A.S. Byatt, Ruth Prawer Jhabvala, and Salman Rushdie. In 1992 a Booker Russian Novel Prize was introduced.

bookkeeping Recording of the money values of business transactions. Bookkeeping provides the information from which accounts are prepared but is distinct from accounting. Bookkeeping offers information on both the current value, or equity, of an enterprise and on its change in value (due to profit or loss) over a given time period. Managers require such information to examine the results of operations and budget for the future; investors need it to make decisions about buying or selling securities; and credit grantors use it to determine whether to grant a loan. Financial records were kept in Babylon and in ancient Greece and Rome. The double-entry method of bookkeeping began with the development of the Italian commercial republics of the 15th century. The Industrial Revolu¬ tion stimulated the spread of bookkeeping, and 20th-century taxation and government regulations made it a necessity. Two types of records con¬ tinue to be used in bookkeeping—journals and ledgers. They can be recorded by hand or entered into a computer. The journal contains daily transactions (sales, purchases, etc.), while the ledger contains the record of individual accounts. Each month an income statement and a balance sheet are posted in the ledger.

bookmaking Gambling practice of determining odds and receiving and paying off bets on the outcome of sporting events and other compe¬ titions. Horse racing is perhaps most closely associated with bookmak¬ ing, but boxing, baseball, football, basketball, and other sports have also long been of interest to bookmakers (“bookies”) and gamblers. Morning- line odds, established by legal bookmakers, are printed in the sports sec¬ tions of newspapers throughout the U.S. Illegal bookmaking operations have often been linked to organized crime. See also handicap.

bookplate Label with a printed design pasted inside the front cover of a book to identify its owner. It probably originated in Germany in the mid-15th century; the earliest extant dated bookplate (1516) is Ger¬ man. The earliest American example is dated 1749. Bookplate designs include portraits, views of libraries, and landscapes, as well as symbols of the owner’s interests or occupa¬ tion (e.g., military trophies, palettes), and, toward the end of the 19th cen¬ tury, nude figures.

Boole, George (b. Nov. 2, 1815,

Lincoln, Eng.—d. Dec. 8,1864, Ball- intemple, Ire.) British mathemati¬ cian. Though basically self-taught and lacking a university degree, in 1849 he was appointed professor of mathematics at Queen’s College in Ireland. His original and remarkable general symbolic method of logical inference is fully stated in Laws of Thought (1854). Boole argued per¬ suasively that logic should be allied with mathematics rather than with philosophy, and his two-valued alge¬ bra of logic, now called Boolean alge¬ bra, is used in telephone switching and by electronic digital computers.

Boolean algebra Symbolic sys¬ tem used for designing logic circuits and networks for digital computers. Its chief utility is in representing the truth value of statements, rather than the numeric quantities handled by ordinary algebra. It lends itself to use in the binary system employed by digital computers, since the only pos¬ sible truth values, true and false, can be represented by the binary digits 1 and 0. A circuit in computer memory can be open or closed, depending on the value assigned to it, and it is the integrated work of such circuits that

Jane Patterson's bookplate designed by Robert Anning Bell, English, 1890s

COURTESY OF THE VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, LONDON

George Boole, engraving.

COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM; PHOTOGRAPH, J.R. FREEMAN & CO. LTD.

250 I boomerang ► borage

give computers their computing ability. The fundamental operations of Boolean logic, often called Boolean operators, are “and,” “or,” and “not”; combinations of these make up 13 other Boolean operators.

boomerang Curved throwing stick used chiefly by the aborigines of Australia for hunting and warfare. About 12-30 in. (30-75 cm) in length, the returning boomerang varies in shape from a deep curve to almost straight sides of an angle. The ends are twisted or skewed in opposite directions. It is held at one end, above and behind the thrower’s shoul¬ der, and swung forward rapidly. Just before release, the thrower adds spin by flicking the wrist so that the stick will loop around and return to him. Returning boomerangs were used only in eastern and western Australia as playthings, in tournament competition, and by hunters to imitate hawks for driving flocks of game birds into nets. The longer, straighter, and heavier nonreturning boomerang can kill animals and even humans.

boomslang Venomous snake (. Dispholidus typus ) of the savannas of sub-Saharan Africa, the only species of its family that is decidedly dan¬ gerous to humans. When hunting, it lies in wait in a bush or tree for cha¬ meleons and birds; the forepart of the body often extends motionless into the air. The boomslang’s body and eye colours are extremely variable and provide excellent camouflage. In defense it inflates its neck, showing the dark skin between the scales, and then may strike. Its venom causes hemorrhages and can be fatal to humans in small amounts.

Boone, Daniel (b. c. Nov. 2,

1734, Berks county, Pa.—d. c. Sept.

26, 1820, St. Charles, Mo., U.S.)

U.S. frontiersman and legendary hero. He lived on the North Carolina frontier as a hunter and trapper. He made several trips through the Cumberland Gap into eastern Kentucky (1767, 1769-71) and in 1775 was employed to blaze a permanent trail, called the Wilderness Road. He established the settlements of Boones- boro and Harrodsburg. As a militia captain he defended Boonesboro against the Indians; he was captured by the Shawnee in 1778 but escaped after five months to warn Boonesboro of an impending attack. After los¬ ing his Kentucky land claims in the late 1780s, he moved to the Missouri Territory. His exploits were featured in a widely read history of Kentucky and in Lord Byron’s epic poem Don Juan.

Boorman, John (b. Jan. 18, 1933, Shepperton, Middlesex, Eng.) Brit¬ ish film director. As head of the BBC’s documentary film unit in Bristol (1962-64) he produced the acclaimed Citizen 63 series. After directing his first feature film in 1965, Boorman directed Point Blank (1967) and Hell in the Pacific (1968) in the U.S. His successful Deliverance (1972) was a harrowing tale of endurance and survival. Later films include Excal- ibur (1981) and Hope and Glory

(1987).

Booth, Edwin (Thomas) (b.

Nov. 13, 1833, near Belair, Md.,

U.S.—d. June 7, 1893, New York,

N.Y.) U.S. actor. Bom into a noted theatrical family, he played his first starring roles in Boston and New York City in 1857. He became famous as Hamlet, appearing in the role for 100 consecutive nights in 1864-65. When his brother John Wilkes Booth assassinated Pres.

Abraham Lincoln, Edwin withdrew from the stage until 1866. In 1869 he opened his own theatre, but misman¬ agement forced him to sell it in 1873.

His interpretations of Hamlet, Iago, and King Lear won great acclaim in England and Germany. He founded the Players’ Club in New York in

Booth, John Wilkes (b. May 10, 1838, near Bel Air, Md., U.S.—d. April 26, 1865, near Port Royal, Va.) U.S. actor and assassin of Pres. Abraham Lincoln. Born into a family of famous actors, he achieved suc¬ cess in Shakespearean roles but resented the greater acclaim enjoyed by his brother, Edwin Booth. A fanatical believer in slavery and the Southern cause, he made plans with co-conspirators to abduct Lincoln; after sev¬ eral failed attempts, he vowed to destroy the president and his cabinet. On April 14, 1865, he shot Lincoln during a performance at Ford’s Theatre. Though he broke his leg jumping from the president’s box, he was able to escape on horseback to a Virginia farm. Tracked down, he refused to surrender and was shot, either by a soldier or by himself.

Booth, William (b. April 10, 1829, Nottingham, Nottinghamshire, Eng.—d. Aug. 20, 1912, London) British religious leader, founder and general (1878-1912) of the Salvation Army. At age 15 he underwent a religious conversion and became a revivalist preacher. In 1849 he went to London, where he became a regular preacher of the Methodist New Connection (1852-61) and then an independent revivalist. Aided by his wife, Catherine Mumford Booth (1829-90), a fellow preacher and social worker, he founded the Christian Mission in 1865, which in 1878 became the Salvation Army. He traveled worldwide to lecture and organize branches of the Army. His proposals for remedying social ills received widespread acceptance and the encouragement of Edward VII.

Boothia Peninsula Peninsula, Nunavut, Canada. Almost an island, it is the northernmost point of the North American mainland, reaching 71°58' N, and was formerly the location of the north magnetic pole. With an area of 12,483 sq mi (32,330 sq km), it extends into the Arctic Ocean and is separated from Baffin Island by the Gulf of Boothia and from Prince of Wales Island by the Franklin Strait. It was discovered in 1829 by James Clark Ross, who named it Boothia Felix for Sir Felix Booth, the expe¬ dition’s financier. It is sparsely populated.

bootlegging Illegal traffic in liquor in the U.S. The term was probably first used to describe the practice of concealing flasks of illicit liquor in boot tops when going to trade with Indians. It became widely used in the 1920s when the 18th Amendment to the Constitution and the Volstead Act of 1919 effected the prohibition of liquor manufacturing and sales. Early bootleggers smuggled foreign-made liquor into the U.S. from Canada and Mexico and from ships anchored in international waters. Later sources included medicinal whiskey, denatured alcohol, and the manufacture of com liquor. Bootlegging led to the rise of organized-crime syndicates that controlled operations from the manufacture of liquor to its distribution in restaurants and speakeasies. In 1933 Prohibition was repealed by the 21st Amendment. Some counties and municipalities continue to ban liquor, and bootlegging is still practiced.

bop See bebop

Bophuthatswana \,bo-pu-ta-'tswa-na\ Former political entity, South Africa. Consisting of a group of noncontiguous black enclaves, it was established by South African authorities as a “homeland” for the Tswana people and granted its independence in 1977, with its capital at Mma- batho. It was never internationally recognized as independent. Under the 1993 South African constitution, Bophuthatswana was dissolved and the area was reincorporated into South Africa. Its various enclaves, with a population of more than 2,500,000, became parts of Orange Free State (now Free State) and the newly created North-West and Eastern Trans¬ vaal (now Mpumalanga) provinces.

Bopp Yb6p\, Franz (b. Sept. 14, 1791, Mainz, archbishopric of Mainz—d. Oct. 23, 1867, Berlin, Prussia) German linguist. He published the first lengthy comparative analysis of Indo-European languages, his voluminous Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, Zend, Latin, Lithuanian, Old Slavic, Gothic, and German (1833-52). Though the relation of San¬ skrit to European languages was known at the time, Bopp was a pioneer in isolating common elements in the verbal and nominal morphology of Sanskrit and other older Indo-European languages. Most of his career was spent at the University of Berlin.

borage Large hairy annual herb ( Borago officinalis ), an ornamental species with large, rough, oblong leaves and loose, drooping clusters of starlike blue flowers. It is a member of the family Boraginaceae, which contains mostly herbs but also some trees and shrubs, all found in tropi¬ cal, subtropical, and temperate areas and most concentrated in the Medi¬ terranean region. Several other ornamental species are grown in gardens, including the Virginia bluebell ( Mertensia virginica), forget-me-nots,

Boomslang (Dispholidus typus )

DADE THORNTON FROM THE NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCIETY COLLECTION-PHOTO RESEARCHERS/EB INC.

Edwin Booth, photograph by Bradley and Rulofson

COURTESY OF THE THEATRE COLLECTION, THE NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY AT LINCOLN CENTER, ASTOR, LENOX AND T1LDEN FOUNDATIONS

Borah ► Borges I 251

heliotropes, and lungworts ( Pulmo- naria). Borage is also used as an herbal and bee plant and eaten as a vegetable.

Borah, William E(dgar) (b.

June 29, 1865, Fairfield, Ill.,

U.S.—d. Jan. 19, 1940, Washington,

D.C.) U.S. senator (1907-40). He practiced law in Boise, Idaho, and in 1892 became the state’s Republican Party chairman. In the Senate he wielded great power as chairman of the foreign relations committee from 1924. A champion of isolationism in foreign policy, he was best known for his role in preventing the U.S. from joining the League of Nations; he also opposed efforts to aid the Allies before the U.S. entered World War II. A maverick Republican, he supported many of the New Deal pro¬ grams to relieve economic hardship and sponsored bills establishing the Department of Labor as well as the federal Children’s Bureau.

borax or tincal Vtiq-koL Sodium tetraborate decahydrate (Na 2 B 4 0 7 •10H 2 O), a soft, light, colourless crystalline mineral used as a component of glass and pottery glazes in the ceramics industry, as a solvent for metal-oxide slags in metallurgy, as a flux in welding and soldering, and as a fertilizer additive, a soap supplement, a disinfectant, a mouthwash, and a water softener. About 50% of the world’s supply comes from south¬ ern California deserts, including Death Valley.

Borch, Gerard ter See Gerard Terborch

Bordeaux \bor-'do\ City (pop., 1999: city, 215,363; metro, area, 753,931), southwestern France. Lying on the Garonne River above its junction with the Dordogne, Bordeaux has long been noted for its wine production. As Burdigala, it was the chief town of the Bituriges Vivisci, a Celtic people. Under Roman rule it was capital of Aquitania province. As part of the inheritance of Eleanor of Aquitaine, Bordeaux became English in 1154 on her husband’s accession to the English throne as Henry II. It enjoyed great prosperity through a thriving trade with the English until it was united with France on the English defeat in the Hundred Years' War (1453). As a Girondin centre, it suffered severely in the French Revo¬ lution. In 1870, during the Franco-Prussian War, the French government was transferred to Bordeaux, as it was again in 1914 at the outbreak of World War I. Its university, founded in 1441, educated such figures as Montesquieu. The economy focuses on the service sector.

Borden, Sir Frederick (William) (b. May 14, 1847, Cornwallis, Nova Scotia—d. Jan. 6, 1917, Canning, Nova Scotia, Can.) Canadian politician. After studying at Harvard University, he returned to Nova Scotia to practice medicine. In 1874 he was elected as a Liberal Party member to the House of Commons, where he served almost continuously until 1911. As minister of militia and defense (1896-1911), he improved the training of the armed services and helped create a Canadian navy.

Borden, Lizzie (Andrew) (b. July 19, 1860, Fall River, Mass., U.S.—d. June 1, 1927, Fall River) U.S. murder suspect. The daughter of a businessman, she lived with her wealthy but parsimonious father and stepmother. On Aug. 4, 1892, Lizzie (according to her testimony) discov¬ ered her father and his wife dead in their home, brutally mutilated with a sharp instrument. Lizzie and the maid admitted to being in the house at the time of the murders. Lizzie was arrested and tried for both crimes, the maid being suspected as an accomplice. Evidence against Lizzie included her attempt to buy prussic acid (a poison) the day before the murders took place. An ax, which some suspected was the murder weapon, was found in the basement. Acquitted because of the circumstantial nature of the evidence, she remained in Fall River until her death, largely ostracized by the community.

Borden, Sir Robert (Laird) (b. June 26, 1854, Grand Pre, Nova Scotia—d. June 10, 1937, Ottawa, Ont., Can.) Prime minister of Canada (1911-20). He practiced law in Halifax, Nova Scotia, from 1874 and later founded one of the largest law firms in the Maritime Provinces. In 1896 he was elected to the Canadian House of Commons; he became leader of the Conservative Party in 1901. As prime minister, he implemented con¬ scription in World War I and represented Canada in Britain’s imperial war

Borage (Borago officinalis).

A TO Z BOTANNICAL COLLECTION/EB INC.

cabinet. He insisted on separate Canadian membership in the League of Nations, which helped transform Canada from a colony to an independent country.

border collie Breed of long-haired sheepdog that has been used along the English-Scottish border for about 300 years. Usually black and white, it stands about 20 in. (50 cm) and weighs 30-50 lbs (14-23 kg). It is the most popular working sheepdog in the British Isles.

Bordet \b6r-'da\, Jules (-Jean-Baptiste-Vincent) (b. June 13, 1870, Soignies, Belg.—d. April 6, 1961, Brussels) Belgian bacteriologist and immunologist. In 1895 he found that two blood serum components cause bacteriolysis (bacterial cell-wall rupture), one a heat-stable antibody in animals immune to the bacterium and the other a heat-sensitive comple¬ ment in all animals. In 1898 he discovered hemolysis (rupture of foreign erythrocytes), a similar process that also requires complement. This research was vital to the foundation of serology, the study of immune reactions in body fluids. His work with Octave Gengou led to serological tests for many diseases, including typhoid, tuberculosis, and syphilis (the Wassermann test). In 1906 they discovered Bordetella pertussis, which causes whooping cough. In 1919 Bordet received a Nobel Prize.

Borduas Vbor-dui-'asV Paul-Emile (b. Nov. 1, 1905, Saint-Hilaire, Que., Can.—d. Feb. 22, 1960, Paris, France) Canadian painter. He was trained in Montreal as a church decorator and later studied in Paris. In the early 1940s, influenced by Surrealism, he began to produce “automatic” paintings and with Jean-Paul Riopelle founded the radical abstract group known as Les Automatistes (c. 1946-51). His later works are reminiscent of those of Jackson Pollock, but the only U.S. influence he acknowledged was that of Franz Kune. See also automatism.

boreal forest See taiga

Borg, Bjorn (Rune) (b. June 6, 1956, Sodertalje, Swed.) Swedish ten¬ nis player. Turning professional at age 14, Borg was noted for his pow¬ erful serve and two-handed backhand. He became the first man to win the Wimbledon singles championship five successive times (1976-80) since Laurie Doherty (1902-6) and the first to win the French Open four times in a row and six times in all (1974-75, 1978-81). By the time he finally lost at Wimbledon to John McEnroe (1981), he had won a record 41 straight Wimbledon singles matches. He won a lifetime total of 11 grand- slam titles. He retired in 1983.

Borge \'b6r-go\, Victor orig. Borge Rosenbaum (b. Jan. 3, 1909, Copenhagen, Den.—d. Dec. 23, 2000, Greenwich, Conn., U.S.) Danish- born U.S. comedian and pianist. He studied at the Copenhagen Music Conservatory and later in Vienna and Berlin. Initially performing as a concert musician, he soon developed a style that combined comedy with classical music, and he toured throughout Europe. In 1940 he immigrated to the U.S., where he achieved fame appearing in various venues, includ¬ ing radio, films, concert halls, Broadway, and television. Though he per¬ formed as soloist and guest conductor with many of the world’s leading orchestras, his significant pianistic talent was often overshadowed by his highly popular humour.

Borges Vbor-has\, Jorge Luis (b. Aug. Arg.—d. June 14, 1986, Geneva,

Switz.) Argentine poet, essayist, and short-story writer. Educated in Swit¬ zerland, Borges recognized early that he would have a literary career. From the 1920s on he was afflicted by a growing hereditary blindness. In 1938 a severe head wound seemed to free his deepest creative forces. His blindness was total by the mid 1950s and forced him to abandon the writ¬ ing of long texts and begin dictating his works. From 1955 he held the honorary post of director of Argenti¬ na’s national library. Much of his work is rich in fantasy and meta¬ phorical allegory, including the story collections Ficciones (1944), which won him an international following, and The Aleph (1949). Dreamtigers (1960) and The Book of Imaginary

24, 1899, Buenos Aires,

Jorge Luis Borges.

252 I Borghese family ► Borneo

Beings (1967) almost erase the distinctions between prose and poetry. Though he later repudiated it, he is credited with establishing in South America the modernist Ultraist movement, a rebellion against the deca¬ dence of the established writers of the Generation of ’98.

Borghese family \bor-'ga-sa\ Noble Italian family, originally from Siena, who first gained fame in the 13th century as magistrates, ambas¬ sadors, and other public officials. They moved to Rome in the 16th cen¬ tury and there, after Camillo Borghese was elected (1605) as Pope Paul V, the family rose in wealth and fame. Prominent family members included the adopted Scipione Caffarelli (later Borghese) (1576-1633), a cardinal and patron of the arts, and Camillo F. L. Borghese (1775-1832), who married Pauline Bonaparte and played an important role in Franco- Italian relations.

Borgia Vb6r-ja\, Cesare later due de Valentinois \va-la n -ten-'wa\ (b. c. 1475/76, probably Rome—d. 1507, near Viana, Spain) Italian mili¬ tary leader, illegitimate son of Pope Alexander VI, and brother of Lucre- zia Borgia. He was made archbishop of Valencia (1492) and cardinal (1493). After his brother’s murder (1497), he took command of the papal armies. In 1498 he resigned his ecclesiastical offices and married the sis¬ ter of the king of Navarre, a move calculated to win French support for a campaign to regain control of the Papal States. Acting in concert with his father, Cesare won a series of military successes in the Papal States (1499-1503), gaining a reputation for ruthlessness and assassination; his political astuteness led Niccolo Machiavelli to cite him as an example of the new “Prince.” Cesare’s gains proved fruitless, however, when his father died (1503) and the new pope, Julius II, demanded that he give up his lands. He escaped from prison in Spain and died fighting for Navarre.

Borgia, Lucrezia (b. April 18,

1480, Rome—d. June 24, 1519, Fer¬ rara, Papal States) Italian noble¬ woman. The daughter of the future pope Alexander VI and sister of Cesare Borgia, she was probably more an instrument for their ambi¬ tious projects than, as has been sug¬ gested, an active participant in their many crimes. Her three marriages into prominent families helped aug¬ ment the political and territorial power of the Borgias. Her child may have been the issue of an incestuous relationship with her father. After her father’s death (1503), she ceased to play a political role and increasingly turned to religion. She died at age 39.

Borglum Vb6r-gbm\, (John)

Gutzon (de la Mothe) (b. March 25, 1867, St. Charles, Idaho,

U.S.—d. March 6, 1941, Chicago,

Ill.) U.S. sculptor. Born to Danish immigrant parents, he studied art in Paris. In 1901 he opened a studio in New York City. His bronze group The Mares of Diomedes was the first U.S. sculpture purchased by the Met¬ ropolitan Museum of Art. He carved the head of Abraham Lincoln in the U.S. Capitol rotunda. In 1916 he was commissioned to sculpt a memorial to the Confederacy on Stone Moun¬ tain, Ga., but disputes with his patrons caused him to abandon the project in 1924; it was completed by others. His most notable project was the Mount Rushmore National Memorial (completed 1941).

boring machine Machine tool for producing smooth and accurate holes in a workpiece by enlarging existing holes with a cutting tool, which may bear a single tip of steel,

Lucrezia Borgia, detail from the fresco the "Dispute of St. Catherine, " by Pintu- ricchio, 1492-94; in the Vatican.

AUNARI/ART RESOURCE, NEW YORK

Gutzon Borglum.

COURTESY OF THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

cemented carbide, or diamond or may be a small grinding wheel. The hole’s diameter is controlled by adjusting the boring head. Bored holes are more accurate in roundness, concentricity, and parallelism than drilled holes. Boring machines used in toolmaking shops have a vertical spindle and a work-holding table that moves horizontally in two perpendicular directions so that holes can be accurately spaced. In mass-production plants, boring machines with multiple spindles are common. See also drill; drill press; lathe.

Boris I orig. Mikhail (d. May 2, 907, Preslave, Bulg.) Khan of Bul¬ garia (852-89). He resolved to use Christianity to unite his ethnically divided country, and an unsuccessful war with the Byzantines led to his baptism in the Orthodox faith (864). Boris’s attempt to enforce mass bap¬ tism set off a pagan rebellion, which he quelled, and he helped establish the Bulgarian church. He sponsored missionaries to foster Slavic learn¬ ing and the use of the Old Church Slavic language. He abdicated in 889 to become a monk but returned to drive his reactionary son Vladimir from the throne. After installing another son, Simeon I, as khan, Boris went back to his monastery. He was later made an Orthodox saint.

Boris Godunov See Boris Godunov

Borlaug Vb6r-,l6g\, Norman (Ernest) (b. March 25, 1914, Cresco, Iowa, U.S.) U.S. agricultural scientist and plant pathologist. He earned his Ph.D. at the University of Minnesota. As a researcher with the Rock¬ efeller Foundation in Mexico (1944-60), he developed strains of grain that tripled Mexican wheat production. Later his dwarf wheats raised har¬ vests in Pakistan and India by 60%, ending the food shortages that had plagued the subcontinent in the 1960s. For helping lay the groundwork of the Green Revolution, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1970. Afterward he worked on improving crop yields in Africa and taught at Texas A&M University.

Bormann Vbor-.manX, Martin (b. June 17, 1900, Halberstadt, German Empire—d. May 1945, Berlin, Ger.) German Nazi leader. He joined the Nazi party in 1925 and served as Rudolf Hess’s chief of staff (1933^-1). He was appointed head of the party chancellery in 1941 and became one of Adolf Hitler’s closest lieutenants. A shadowy but extremely powerful presence, Bormann controlled all legislation, party promotions and appointments, and the personal access of others to Hitler. He disappeared shortly after Hitler’s death. Though some reports allege that he escaped to South America, German authorities officially declared him dead after exhuming his presumed remains.

Born, Max (b. Dec. 11, 1882, Breslau, Ger.—d. Jan. 5, 1970, Gottin¬ gen, W.Ger.) German physicist. He taught theoretical physics at the Uni¬ versity of Gottingen from 1921 to 1933, when he fled to Britain. There he taught principally at the Univer¬ sity of Edinburgh (1936-53). In 1921 he gave a very precise defini¬ tion of quantity of heat, the most sat¬ isfactory mathematical statement of the first law of thermodynamics. In 1926 he collaborated with his stu¬ dent Werner Heisenberg to develop the mathematical formulation that would adequately describe Heisen¬ berg’s first laws of a new quantum theory. He later showed, in the work for which he is perhaps best known, that the solution of the Schrodinger equation has a statistical meaning of Max Born physical significance. His later work concerned the scattering of atomic particles and calculations dealing

with the electronic structures of molecules. In 1954 he shared a Nobel Prize for Physics with Walther Bothe (1891-1957).

f ?

Borneo Island, Malay Archipelago. Bounded by the South China Sea, the Sulu and Celebes seas, the Makassar Strait, and the Java Sea, it is the third largest island in the world, measuring 290,320 sq mi (751,929 sq km). The northern part includes the Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak and the sultanate of Brunei; the southern section forms part of Indonesia. Borneo is mountainous and largely covered in dense rainforest; its high¬ est point is Mount Kinabalu, at 13,455 ft (4,101 m). Much of it is drained

Bornholm ► borzoi I 253

by navigable rivers, including the Rajang, which are the principal life¬ lines of trade and commerce. It is mentioned in Ptolemy’s Guide to Geog¬ raphy (c. ad 150); Roman trade beads give evidence of an earlier civilization. Brahman and Buddhist images in the Gupta style indicate the influence of Indians who apparently arrived in the 5th century. With the arrival of Islam in the 16th century, various Muslim kingdoms were founded, some of which owed allegiance to Java. Around the same time, the Portuguese, followed by the Spanish, set up trading stations. In the early 17th century the Dutch broke the Portuguese-Spanish monopoly, but they in turn had to deal with newly established British interests. After World War II, Sarawak and North Borneo (later Sabah) became British crown colonies. Strong nationalist sentiment emerged in Dutch Borneo, and sovereignty passed to Indonesia in 1949. The British relinquished Sabah and Sarawak to the Malaysian federation in 1963, while Brunei became independent in 1984.

Bornholm Island (pop., 2001: 44,126), Denmark. Lying in the Baltic Sea south of Sweden, it has an area of 227 sq mi (588 sq km). Its seat is at Rpnne. Once a Viking stronghold, it was seized by the Hanseatic League in 1510. Until 1660 it was held for varying periods by Sweden and Den¬ mark, but it has since been Danish. It is now a popular tourist resort.

bornite Common copper-ore mineral, copper and iron sulfide (Cu 5 FeS 4 ). Typical occurrences are found in Mount Lyell, Tasmania; Chile; Peru; and Butte, Mont. Bornite may form isometric crystals but occurs most commonly as irregular masses. Under appropriate geologic conditions, it alters to chalcocite and other copper minerals.

Bornu Historical region, northeastern Nigeria. Prominent physical fea¬ tures include a vast plain, a volcanic plateau, and swamps south of Lake Chad. Now inhabited chiefly by the Kanuri people, it constituted a Mus¬ lim kingdom from about the 11th century. Together with Kanem it later formed an empire (see Kanem-Bornu), which reached the height of its power c. 1570-1600. In 1902 it became part of Nigeria, which was then under British rule. The region is largely contained in Nigeria’s present- day state of Borno.

Borobudur N.bo-ro-bii-'durV Buddhist monument in central Java, built c. 778-850 under the Shailendra dynasty. Constructed with about 2 million cu ft (57,000 cu m) of gray volcanic stone, it resembles a stepped pyramid. Its base and first five ter¬ races are square; the highest three ter¬ races are circular. Reliefs on its terrace walls represent the ascending stages of enlightenment. The simple and spacious upper circular terraces carry 72 bell-shaped stupas, each con¬ taining a statue of the Buddha.

Borodin \,b6r-9-'den\, Aleksandr (Porfiryevich) (b. Nov. 12, 1833, St. Petersburg, Russia—d. Feb. 27, 1887, St. Petersburg) Russian composer. From 1862 he took lessons from Mily Balakirev; fired by nation¬ alist sentiment, the two men became the core of the group of Russian composers known as The Five. A professor of chemistry for much of his life, he left a small compositional output, which includes the orchestral suite In the Steppes of Central Asia (1880), two string quartets, and three symphonies, the second of which has remained highly popular. His opera Prince Igor —which contains the often-heard “Polovtsian Dances”—was left unfinished after 18 years of intermittent work.

Borodin \b9-r9-'dyen,\ English N.bor-o-'denX, Mikhail (Markovich) orig. Mikhail Gruzenberg (b. July 9, 1884, Yanovichi, Russia—d. May 29, 1951, Siberia) Russian diplomat. He joined the Bolshevik faction in 1903, was arrested (1906), and lived in exile in the U.S. He returned to Russia in 1917 and in 1923 was sent to China as an adviser to Sun Yat-sen. There he built the loosely structured Nationalist Party (Guomin- dang) into a highly centralized Leninist-style organization and helped the Chinese Nationalists develop their army. After leaving China (1927), he served as deputy director of the Tass news agency and editor of the Mos¬ cow Daily News (1932^49). He was arrested in a Stalinist purge of Jew¬ ish intellectuals and died in a Siberian labour camp.

Borodino, Battle of (Sept. 7, 1812) Bloody battle of the Napoleonic Wars, fought during Napoleon’s invasion of Russia, near the town of Borodino, about 70 miles (110 km) west of Moscow. Napoleon’s 130,000

Borobudur, Java, Indonesia.

ROBERT HARDING PICTURE UBRARY/PHOTOBANK BKK

troops won a narrow victory over 120,000 Russians under Mikhail Kutuzov. The Russians suffered about 45,000 dead and wounded, while the French lost about 30,000 men. The victory allowed Napoleon to occupy Moscow.

boron Semimetallic chemical element, chemical symbol B, atomic num¬ ber 5. Pure crystalline boron is a black, lustrous, very hard but brittle semi¬ conductor that does not occur naturally. Boron compounds are found widely dispersed as various minerals, including borax and the gemstone tourmaline. The element is used to harden certain steels, among other met¬ allurgical uses, and is also used in semiconductor devices. Its borate com¬ pounds, in which it has valence 3, are essential to plant growth and have many uses in soaps, mild antiseptics, and eye ointments. Industrially, they are used as herbicides, fire retardants in fabrics, and catalysts in numer¬ ous organic chemical reactions. They are also used in electroplating and glass and ceramic formulations. The exceptional hardness and inertness of certain boron compounds, including boron carbide, aluminum boride, and boron nitride (which has an electronic structure resembling that of diamond), make them useful as abrasives and reinforcing agents, particu¬ larly for high-temperature applications.

Borromeo \ I b6r-ro- , ma-o\ / Saint Charles (b. Oct. 1538, Arona, duchy of Milan—d. Nov. 3, 1584, Milan; canonized 1610; feast day November 4) Archbishop of Milan and leading figure in the Counter- Reformation. He earned a doctorate in canon and civil law at the Univer¬ sity of Pavia in 1559. His uncle, Pope Pius IV, appointed him cardinal and archbishop of Milan in 1560. He was active in directing the Council of Trent, and he later helped execute its decrees and draw up the Roman cat¬ echism in 1566. He established seminaries and colleges in Milan and nearby cities and gained renown for his heroic behaviour during the plague of 1576-78.

Borromini, Francesco orig. Francesco Castelli (b. Sept. 25, 1599, Bissone, Duchy of Lombardy—d. Aug. 2, 1667, Rome)

Italian Baroque architect. Though he worked with Gian Lorenzo Bernini on the design of the famous baldachin in St. Peter's Basilica, the two later became bitter rivals. Borromini’s first independent commission was the Roman church and monastery of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (1638-41), the dome of which appears to float because its spring points (see arch) and light sources are concealed below. His works, com¬ posed of flowing concave and convex forms, contain spaces that are irregu¬ lar ovals and polygons, as at Sant’Ivo della Sapienza (1642-60). His for¬ tunes declined in later years, and in 1667 he committed suicide. His influ¬ ence was felt in northern Italy and central Europe in the next century.

Borsippa \bor-'si-p3\ Ancient city, Babylonia. Located southwest of Babylon (near modern Al-Hillah, Iraq), its proximity to that capital helped it become an important religious centre. Hammurabi built or rebuilt the temple at Borsippa, dedicating it to the deity Marduk. During the reign of Nebuchadrezzar II, the city reached its greatest prosperity. Borsippa was destroyed by Xerxes I in the early 5th century bc and never fully recovered.

Interior of the dome of the church of S. Ivo della Sapienza, Rome, by Francesco Borromini, 1642-60.

GEKS

borzoi Vbor-.zoiX Breed of hound developed in Russia. It is descended

from the Arabian greyhound and a collielike Russian sheepdog. For¬ merly known as the Russian wolf¬ hound, it was originally bred to hunt wolves and hares. It is graceful, strong, and swift, attaining a height of about 26-31 in. (66-79 cm) and a weight of 55-105 lbs (25^48 kg). It has a long, narrow head; small ears; a deep but narrow chest; long, mus¬ cular hindquarters; and a long, curved tail. Its silky coat is flat or slightly curled and usually is white with darker markings. It is noted for its elegant appearance.

Borzoi

SALLY ANNE THOMPSON/EB INC.

254 I Bosanquet ► Bosnian conflict

Bosanquet Vbo-zan-.ketA, Bernard (b. June 14, 1848, Alnwick, Northumberland, Eng.—d. Feb. 8, 1923, London) British philosopher. He helped revive in Britain the absolute idealism of G.W.F. Hegel and sought to apply its principles to social and political problems. His debt to Hegel is most evident in his works on ethics, aesthetics, and metaphysics. His Some Suggestions in Ethics (1918) presents a view of reality as a synthe¬ sis in which traditional oppositions such as pleasure/duty and egoism/ altruism are reconciled. His other works include Knowledge and Reality (1885), Logic (1888), and History of Aesthetic (1892). His idealism was attacked by G.E. Moore and Bertrand Russell.

Bosch \'bosh\, Hieronymus orig. Jeroen van Aken or Jerome van Aken (b. c. 1450s, ’s Hertogenbosch, Brabant—d. Aug. 9, 1516, ’s Hertogenbosch) Netherlandish painter. He was the son and grandson of accomplished painters; his name comes from his native town of ’s Her¬ togenbosch. He enjoyed a successful career and was widely imitated. Of the numerous works attributed to him, none can be dated precisely. His paintings blend fantasy and reality in apocalyptic scenes of chaos with half-human, half-animal creatures, devils, and demons interacting with human figures in imaginary architecture and landscapes. Among his best- known works is The Garden of Earthly Delights , depicting the dreams that afflict people who live in a pleasure-seeking world. One of the most original northern European artists of the late Middle Ages, he was an out¬ standing draftsman and one of the first to make drawings as independent works. He also produced decorative works, altarpieces, and stained-glass designs.

Bosch (Gavino) \'bosh\, Juan (b. June 30, 1909, La Vega, Dom. Rep.—d. Nov. 1, 2001, Santo Domingo) Scholar, poet, and president of the Dominican Republic (1963). Bosch was raised in a lower-middle-class family. Dismayed by the brutality of the dictator Rafael Trujillo, he spent 24 years in exile but returned after Trujillo’s death to build a leftist anti¬ communist movement. After winning the first free presidential election in 38 years, he instituted liberal constitutional changes, many of which ben¬ efited the country’s poor. His reforms, however, alienated landholders and industrialists, and after only seven months in office Bosch was ousted in a military coup. When his supporters revolted against the ruling junta in 1965, U.S. Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson, claiming that Bosch’s followers were communists, sent troops to suppress the rebellion. Over the subse¬ quent three decades, Bosch ran repeatedly but unsuccessfully for presi¬ dent.

Bose Vbos\, Subhas Chandra (b. Jan. 23, 1897, Cuttack, Orissa, India—d. Aug. 18, 1945, Taipei, Taiwan?) Indian revolutionary. Prepar¬ ing in Britain for a career in the Indian civil service, he resigned his can¬ didacy on hearing of nationalist turmoil back home. Sent by Mohandas K. Gandhi to organize in Bengal, he was deported and imprisoned several times. He favoured industrialization, which put him at odds with Gan¬ dhi’s economic thought, and though he was elected president of the Indian National Congress in 1938 and 1939, without Gandhi’s support he felt bound to resign. He slipped out of India in 1941 and carried on his struggle against the British from Nazi Germany and later from Southeast Asia. In 1944 he invaded India from Burma (Myanmar) with a small army of Indian nationals and Japanese, but his army was soon forced to retreat. He fled Southeast Asia after the Japanese surrender in 1945 and died of bums suffered in a plane crash.

Bose-Einstein statistics One of two possible ways (the other is Fermi- Dirac statistics) in which a collection of indistinguishable particles may occupy a set of available discrete energy states. The gathering of particles in the same state, which is characteristic of particles that obey Bose- Einstein statistics, accounts for the cohesive streaming of laser light and the frictionless creeping of superfluid helium (see superfluidity). The theory of this behaviour was developed in 1924-25 by Satyendra Nath Bose (1894-1974) and Albert Einstein. Bose-Einstein statistics apply only to those particles, called bosons, which have integer values of spin and so do not obey the Pauli exclusion principle.

Bosna Vbos-na\ River River, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Rising at the foot of Mount Igman, it flows northward 168 mi (271 km) before enter¬ ing the Sava River. Major cities along the Bosna include Zenica and Doboj.

Bosnia and Herzegovina \ , baz-ne-o... 1 her-ts3-go- , ve-no\ Country, Balkan Peninsula, southeastern Europe. It is bounded by Serbia and Mon¬ tenegro and by Croatia. Area: 19,772 sq mi (51,209 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 3,853,000. Capital: Sarajevo. Major ethnic groups include Bosniacs (Bosnian Muslims; about two-fifths of the population), Serbs

(about one-third), and Croats (about one- fifth). Languages: Bosnian, Serbian, j= ■ 1 ■ " |0 - ( ’ ° mi Croatian (all official). Religions: Christian-

ity (mostly Eastern Orthodox; also Roman

Catholic), Islam. Currency: marka. The country’s relief is largely mountainous, and elevations of more than 6,000 ft (1,800 m) are common. The land, drained by the Sava, Drina, and Neretva rivers and their tributaries, drops abruptly southward toward the Adriatic Sea. Agriculture is a mainstay of the economy; though the area possesses a variety of minerals, it remains one of the poorest regions of the former Yugoslavia. Bosnia and Herzegovina is a republic with two legislative houses; its chief of state is the chairman of the tripartite presi¬ dency, and the head of government is the chairman of the Council of Ministers. Habitation long predates the era of Roman rule, during which much of the country was included in the province of Dalmatia. Slav settle¬ ment began in the 6th century ad. For the next several centuries, parts of the region fell under the rule of Serbs, Croats, Hungarians, Venetians, and Byzantines. The Ottoman Turks invaded Bosnia in the 14th century, and after many battles it became a Turkish province in 1463. Herzegovina, then known as Hum, was taken in 1482. In the 16th and 17th centuries the area was an important Turkish outpost, constantly at war with the Habsburgs and Venice. During this period much of the population converted to Islam. At the Congress of Berlin after the Russo-Turkish War of 1877- 78, Bosnia and Herzegovina were assigned to Austria-Hungary, and they were annexed in 1908. Growing Serbian nationalism resulted in the 1914 assassination of the Austrian archduke Francis Ferdinand at Sarajevo by a Bosnian Serb, an event that precipitated World War I. After the war the area became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. Fol¬ lowing World War II, the twin territories became a republic of commu¬ nist Yugoslavia. With the collapse of communist regimes in eastern Europe, Bosnia and Herzegovina declared its independence in 1992; its Serbian population objected, and conflict ensued among Serbs, Croats, and Muslims (see Bosnian conflict). A peace accord in 1995 established a loosely federated government roughly divided between the Muslim- Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Serb Republic. In 1996 a NATO peacekeeping force was installed there.

Bosnian conflict (1992-98) Ethnically rooted war in Bosnia and Herze¬ govina, a republic of Yugoslavia with a multiethnic population—44% Bosniac (formerly known as Muslim), 33% Serb, and 17% Croat. Unrest began with Yugoslavia’s breakup in 1990; after a 1992 referendum, the European Community (now European Union) recognized Bosnia’s inde¬ pendence. Bosnia’s Serbs responded violently, seized 70% of Bosnian territory, besieged Sarajevo, and terrorized Bosniacs and Croats in what came to be known as “ethnic cleansing.” After bitter fighting between the Bosnian Croats and the Bosnian government, international pressure forced

Bosnian crisis ► Boswell I 255

the two factions to sign a cease-fire and an agreement for a federation. Both then concentrated on their common enemy, the Serbs. After rejected peace plans and continued warring, Western nations, with NATO back¬ ing, imposed a final cease-fire negotiated at Dayton, Ohio, in 1995. Bos¬ nia and Herzegovina became a single state composed of two distinct entities. Today Bosnia and Herzegovina has three de facto monoethnic entities, three separate armies and police forces, and a very weak national government. See also Radovan Karadzic, Franjo Tudjman.

Bosnian crisis (1908) International crisis caused by Austria-Hungary’s annexation of the Balkan provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Russia supported Serbia, which protested the annexation and demanded that Aus¬ tria cede part of the territory to Serbia, but Austria-Hungary, supported by Germany, threatened to invade Serbia if it persisted in its demands. Since Russia could not risk war against both Germany and Austria-Hungary, it was forced to accept the annexation. Though the crisis was resolved with¬ out immediate warfare, it contributed to the outbreak of World War I.

boson \'bo-,zan\ Subatomic particle with integral spin that is governed by Bose-Einstein statistics. Bosons include mesons, nuclei of even mass num¬ ber, and the particles required to embody the fields of quantum field theory. Unlike fermions, there is no limit to the number of bosons that can occupy the same quantum state, a behaviour that gives rise to the superfluidity of helium-4.

Bosporus Vbas-po-rosX Turkish Karadeniz Bogazi

X.ka-ra-de-'nez-.bo-a-'ziX Strait separating European Turkey from Asian Turkey. Connecting the Sea of Marmara with the Black Sea, it is 19 mi (31 km) long and 2.8 mi (4.4 km) at its widest. Bosporus literally means “ox ford”; it is traditionally connected with the legendary figure of Io, who in the form of a heifer crossed the Thracian Bosporus in her wan¬ derings. Because of its strategic importance for the defense of Constan¬ tinople (modern Istanbul), which straddled its southern end, the Byzantine emperors and later the Ottoman sultans constructed fortifications along its shores. With the growing influence of the European powers in the 19th century, rules were codified governing the transit of vessels through the strait. An international commission assumed control of it after World War I; Turkey resumed control in 1936. Two of the world’s longest bridges, completed in 1973 and 1988, span the strait.

Bosporus, Kingdom of the or Cimmerian Bosporus Ancient Greek kingdom, in modern southern Ukraine. It was first settled by Mile¬ sians (6th century bc) at Panticapaeum, which later became the capital. Gradually the kingdom grew to include all of the Crimea. It maintained close ties with Athens in the 5th-3rd century bc, reaching the peak of its power in the 4th century bc. It came under the rule of the kings of Pon- tus after 110 bc. For 300 years it belonged to the Roman Empire, and after ad 342 it was alternately under barbarian and Byzantine control.

Bosra See Bostra

Bossuet \b6-'swa\, Jacques-Benigne (b. Sept. 25, 1627, Dijon, France—d. April 12, 1704, Paris) French bishop. Ordained a priest in 1652, he gained a reputation as a great orator and popular preacher. In 1681 he became bishop of Meaux. He was the most eloquent and influ¬ ential spokesman for the rights of the French church against papal author¬ ity in the 17th century. He is now chiefly remembered for his literary works, including funeral panegyrics.

Boston Seaport city (pop., 2000: 589,141), capital of Massachusetts, U.S. Located on Massachusetts Bay, an arm of the Atlantic Ocean, it is the state’s largest city. Settled in 1630 by Puritan Englishmen of the Mas¬ sachusetts Bay Company, Boston became the hub of the self-governing Massachusetts Bay Colony under the leadership of Gov. John Winthrop. At the forefront of the opposition to British trade restrictions on its Ameri¬ can colonies, Boston was a locus of events leading to the American Revo¬ lution: it was the scene of the Boston Massacre (1770) and Boston Tea Party (1773). It was the centre for the antislavery movement (1830-65). As the Industrial Revolution took hold in the U.S., Boston grew as an important manufacturing and textile centre. Today financial and high- technology industries are basic to the economy of the Boston area. Numer¬ ous institutions of higher education are located there, including Boston University. See also Cambridge.

Boston Globe, The Daily newspaper published in Boston, one of the more influential newspapers in the U.S. Founded in 1872, it was pur¬ chased in 1877 by Charles H. Taylor. Under his leadership, it began pub¬ lishing morning and evening editions, increased local and regional

coverage, and introduced big headlines, especially on sensational stories. In the 20th century, still headed by the Taylor family, the paper began providing more national and international news while maintaining a gen¬ erally liberal editorial stance. The New York Times Co. acquired the Globe in 1993.

Boston Massacre Skirmish on March 5, 1770, between British troops and a crowd in Boston. After provocation by the colonists, British sol¬ diers fired on the mob and killed five men, including Crispus Attucks. The incident was widely publicized by Samuel Adams, Paul Revere, and others as a battle for American liberty, and it contributed to the unpopularity of the British in the years before the American Revolution.

Boston Police Strike Strike in 1919 by most of Boston’s police force to protest the police commissioner’s decision to deny them the right to unionize. The mayor called in the city militia to restore order and break the strike; Gov. Calvin Coolidge later sent in the state militia, which gave him a reputation as a strong supporter of law and order and led to his nomination as vice president on the 1920 Republican ticket.

Boston Strangler American serial killer who murdered at least 11 and as many as 13 women in the Boston area between 1962 and 1964. The killer’s first victim, a 55-year-old woman, was sexually assaulted and strangled in her apartment on June 14, 1962. During the following months, several other elderly women were murdered in similar circumstances, though subsequent victims included young women. In 1965 Albert DeSalvo, an inmate at a state mental hospital, confessed to the murders. Although never charged with the killings because no physical evidence tied him to the murder scenes, he was convicted on separate counts of sexual assault and sentenced to life imprisonment. DeSalvo’s guilt remains controversial, in part because his confessions demonstrated igno¬ rance of many aspects of the crimes. DNA tests in 2001 confirmed that it was all but impossible that DeSalvo was guilty of the last of the murders, though it was one of the crimes to which he had confessed.

Boston Tea Party Incident on Dec. 16, 1773, in which American patriots dressed as Indians threw 342 chests of tea from three British ships into Boston Harbour. Their leader was Samuel Adams. The action was taken to prevent the payment of a British-imposed tax on tea and to protest the British monopoly of the colonial tea trade authorized by the Tea Act. In retaliation, Parliament passed the punitive Intolerable Acts, which further united the colonies in their opposition to the British.

Boston terrier Breed of dog developed in the late 19th century in Bos¬ ton. Bred from the English bulldog and a white English terrier, the Bos¬ ton terrier is one of the few breeds to have originated in the U.S. It has a terrier-like build, dark eyes, a short muzzle, and a short, fine coat of black or brindle, with white on the face, chest, neck, and legs. It stands 14-17 in. (36—43 cm) high and ranges in weight from 15 to 25 lbs (7-11 kg). The breed is characteristically gentle and affectionate.

Bostra modern Busra Vbus-roV al-Sham Ruined city, southwestern Syria. Lying south of Damascus, it was first a Nabataean city and was later conquered by the Romans (see Roman Republic and Empire) under Trajan. It was the capital of the Roman prov¬ ince of Arabia and served as a for¬ tress east of the Jordan River. It became the see of a bishop early in the 4th century ad but fell to the Muslims in the 7th century. Crusad¬ ers captured the city in the 12th cen¬ tury but failed to hold it, and it quickly fell into decline. It is the site of monumental remains of temples, triumphal arches, aqueducts, churches, and mosques.

Boswell, James (b. Oct. 29,

1740, Edinburgh, Scot.—d. May 19,

1795, London, Eng.) Scottish friend and biographer of Samuel Johnson.

Boswell, a lawyer, met Johnson in 1763 and visited him often (1772—

84), making a superlatively detailed record in his journals of Johnson’s conversations. His two-volume Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D. (1791) is

Boswell, detail of an oil painting from the studio of Sir Joshua Reynolds,

1786; in the National Portrait Gallery, London

256 I Bosworth Field ► Botswana

regarded as one of the greatest English biographies. His Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides (1785) is mainly an account of Johnson’s responses to their 1773 trip to Scotland. The 20th-century publication of Boswell’s journals showed him to have been also one of the world’s greatest dia¬ rists.

Bosworth Field, Battle of (Aug. 22, 1485) Final battle in the English Wars of the Roses. It was fought between the forces of King Richard III of York and the contender for the crown, Henry Tudor (later Henry VII) of Lancaster. The battle occurred when Henry returned from exile, landing with an army at Milford Haven and meeting Richard’s forces 12 mi (19 km) west of Leicester. The king’s men were defeated and put to flight, and Richard was unhorsed and killed in a bog (a scene depicted in Wil¬ liam Shakespeare’s Richard III). The battle established the Tudor dynasty on the English throne.

botanical garden or botanic garden Originally, a collection of living plants designed to illustrate relationships within plant groups. Most modern botanical gardens are concerned primarily with exhibiting orna¬ mental plants in a scheme that emphasizes natural relationships. A display garden of mostly woody plants (shrubs and trees) is often called an arbo¬ retum. The botanical garden as an institution can be traced to ancient China and many Mediterranean countries, where such gardens were often cen¬ ters for raising plants used for food and medicines. Botanical gardens are also reservoirs of valuable heritable characteristics, potentially important in the breeding of new varieties of plants. Still another function is the training of gardeners. The world’s most famous botanical garden is Kew Gardens.

botany Branch of biology that deals with plants, including the study of the structure, properties, and biochemical processes of all forms of plant life, as well as plant classification, plant diseases, and the interactions of plants with their physical environment. The science of botany traces back to the ancient Greco-Roman world but received its modem impetus in Europe in the 16th century, mainly through the work of physicians and herbalists, who began to observe plants seriously to identify those useful in medicine. Today the principal branches of botanical study are morphol¬ ogy, physiology, ecology, and systematics (the identification and ranking of all plants). Subdisciplines include bryology (the study of mosses and liverworts), pteridology (the study of ferns and their relatives), paleobot¬ any (the study of fossil plants), and palynology (the study of modern and fossil pollen and spores). See also forestry, horticulture.

Botany Bay Inlet of the South Pacific Ocean, southeastern Australia. Lying south of Sydney off Port Jackson, it is about 6 mi (10 km) at its widest. It was the scene of the first Australian landing by Capt. James Cook in 1770; he named the bay for its great variety of plants. It was selected in 1787 as the site for a penal settlement, but the settlement was soon transferred inland. Its shores are now ringed by Sydney’s suburbs.

Botero, Fernando (b. April 19, 1932, Medellin, Colom.) Colombian painter and sculptor. He began painting as a teenager. By the time he moved to New York City in 1960, he had developed his trademark style: the depiction of round, corpulent humans and animals. In these works, his use of flat, bright colour and boldly outlined forms reflected the influence of Latin American folk art, while his strong compositions often emulated the Old Masters. In 1973 Botero moved to Paris and began creating sculp¬ tures that again focused on rotund subjects. Successful outdoor exhibi¬ tions of his monumental bronze figures were staged around the world at the end of the 20th century.

botfly Any member of several dipteran families with beelike adults and larvae that are parasitic on mammals. Some species are serious pests of horses, cattle, deer, sheep, rabbits, and squirrels, and one species (the human botfly) attacks humans. Adults of several species lay many eggs (nits) on the host’s body, and the emerging larvae penetrate its skin. The larvae reemerge through the skin, then mature into egg-laying adults. In the New World tropics, the botfly’s infestation of cattle has led to loss of beef and hides. See also warble fly.

Botha Vbo-toV Louis (b. Sept. 27, 1862, near Greytown, Natal [South Africa]—d. Aug. 27, 1919, Pretoria, Transvaal) First prime minister (1910-19) of the Union of South Africa. Botha was elected to the South African Republic’s parliament in 1897, where he sided with moderates against Pres. Paul Kruger’s hostile policy toward Uitlanders (non-Boer, mostly English, settlers). In the South African War he commanded south¬ ern forces besieging Ladysmith and then tried unsuccessfully to defend

the Transvaal. As prime minister he sought earnestly to appease the English-speaking population and was bitterly attacked by Afrikaner nationalists. In World War I he acceded to British requests to conquer German South West Africa (Namibia).

Botha, P(ieter) W(illem) (b. Jan. 12, 1916, Paul Roux, S.Af.) Prime minister (1978-84) and first state president (1984-89) of South Africa. Elected to parliament as a National Party candidate in 1948, Botha served in several subsequent posts before replacing John Vorster as prime min¬ ister in 1978. His government faced serious difficulties, including the coming to power of black governments in Mozambique, Angola, and Zimbabwe, an insurgency in South West Africa (Namibia), and domestic unrest among black students and labour unions. Botha responded by back¬ ing antigovernment troops in the bordering states and suppressing rebel¬ lion at home. A target of criticism from within and outside his party, he fell ill and resigned in 1989.

Bothnia, Gulf of Northern arm of the Baltic Sea. Extending between Sweden and Finland, it covers about 45,200 sq mi (117,000 sq km). It is 450 mi (725 km) long and 50-150 mi (80-240 km) wide, with an aver¬ age depth of 200 ft (60 m). Because many rivers drain into it, its salinity is very low; annual ice cover consequently lasts up to five months.

Botox Trademark for botulinum toxin type A, a drug produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. It contains the same toxin that causes severe food poisoning (botulism). When locally injected, Botox blocks the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, interfering with the abil¬ ity of the muscle to contract. It is used to treat severe muscle spasm or severe, uncontrollable sweating. Botox can also be used for cosmetic pur¬ poses to treat facial wrinkles.

Botswana officially Republic of Botswana formerly Bechua- naland V.bech-'wa-ns-.landX Country, southern Africa. Area: 224,848 sq mi (582,356 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 1,765,000. Capital: Gabor-

of Khoekhoe and San, some of whom fol¬ low a traditional nomadic way of life. Languages: English (official), Tswana. Religions: Christianity (mostly independent and unaffiliated Christians; also Protestant), traditional beliefs. Currency: pula. Botswana is essentially a sand-filled basin, with a mean elevation of about 3,300 ft (1,000 m). Part of the Kalahari Desert is in the southwest and west, while the Okavango Swamp is in the north. The only sources of permanent sur¬ face water are the Chobe River, which marks the Namibian boundary; the Okavango River, in the far northwest; and the Limpopo River, which marks

Botticelli ► Boudicca I 257

the South African boundary in the southeast. The economy traditionally depends on livestock raising; the development of diamond mining has increased the country’s wealth. Botswana is a republic with one legisla¬ tive body; its head of state and government is the president. The region’s earliest inhabitants were the Khoekhoe and San. Sites were settled as early as ad 190 during the southerly migration of Bantu-speaking farmers. Tswana dynasties, which developed in the western Transvaal in the 13th— 14th centuries, moved into Botswana in the 18th century and established several powerful states. European missionaries arrived in the early 19th century, but it was the discovery of gold in 1867 that excited European interest. In 1885 the area became the British Bechuanaland Protectorate, remaining so until the 1960s. In 1966 the Republic of Bechuanaland was proclaimed as an independent member of the British Commonwealth, and later that year its name was changed to Botswana. Independent Botswana tried to maintain a delicate balance between its economic dependence on South Africa and its relations with the surrounding black countries; the independence of Namibia in 1990 and South Africa’s rejection of apart¬ heid eased tensions.

Botticelli X.bat-o-'chel-eV Sandro orig. Alessandro di Mariano Filipepi (b. 1445, Florence—d. May 17, 1510, Florence [Italy]) Italian Renaissance painter. As a youth he may have been apprenticed to a gold¬ smith, and he later trained with Fra Filippo Lippi in Florence. By 1470 he had developed a distinctive style and was established as a master. In 1481 he was among a team of Florentine and Umbrian artists called to Rome to decorate the Sistine Chapel; three of his finest religious frescoes (com¬ pleted 1482) can be seen there. Though prolific as a painter of religious images, his mythological paintings are his best-known works. His out¬ standing portraits show the influence of contemporary Flemish art in the placement of the figure in front of a landscape. Among his greatest works are the Primavera, Pallas and the Centaur, Venus and Mars, and The Birth of Venus, all painted c. 1477-90. About 75 of his paintings survive, many of them in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence. Interest in his work revived in the 19th century, and today he is one of the most esteemed painters of the Italian Renaissance.

The Birth of Venus, oil on canvas by Sandro Botticelli, c. 1485; in the Uffizi, Florence.

ART MEDIA/HERITAGE-IMAGES

bottlenose dolphin or bottle-nosed dolphin Widely recognized species ( Tursiops truncatus) of mammal belonging to the dolphin family, found worldwide in warm and temperate seas. Bottlenose dolphins reach an average length of 8-10 ft (2.5-3 m) and weight of 300-650 lb (135— 300 kg). Males are generally larger than females. A familiar performer at marine shows, the species is characterized by a “built-in smile” formed by the curvature of its mouth. It has also become the subject of scientific studies because of its intelligence and its ability to communicate with its kind through sounds and ultrasonic pulses.

bottom water Lowermost layer of ocean water that can be distin¬ guished by its characteristic low temperature, high density, and low oxygen content compared with surface waters. Most bottom waters are formed near Antarctica during the southern winter. The partial freezing of seawater over the Antarctic continental shelf produces salt-free ice and residual brine with a high density, which causes it to sink; it then flows northward along the seafloor. The Arctic Ocean is less important as a source of bottom water

because it is isolated by barriers such as the Bering Sill and submarine ridges and banks between Greenland and the British Isles.

botulism Vba-cho-.li-zomX Poisoning by botulinum toxin, one of the most potent toxins known, produced by Clostridium botulinum bacteria. It usually results from improperly sterilized canned (mostly home-canned) foods. Heat-resistant spores of these anaerobic bacteria in fresh food may survive canning. The bacteria multiply and secrete toxin, which remains potent if the food is not well heated before it is eaten. Botulism can also result from wound infection. Botulinum toxin blocks nerve-impulse trans¬ mission. If botulism is recognized in time, administered antitoxins can neutralize it. The first symptoms of botulism are nausea and vomiting, which usually appeal - six hours or less after the contaminated food is eaten. Fatigue, blurry vision, and general weakness follow. Respiratory paraly¬ sis can cause death if not treated with emergency tracheotomy and res¬ piratory aid. Most victims recover completely if they survive paralysis. The bacteria’s intense toxicity makes it a potentially deadly biological warfare agent.

Bouake \bwa-'ka\ City (pop., 1995 est.: 330,000), central Cote d’Ivoire. It was established as a French military post in 1899 on the road and rail¬ road line from Abidjan to Burkina Faso (then Upper Volta). Bouake is among the nation’s largest cities and is the commercial and transportation hub of the interior.

Boucher \bu-'sha\, Francois (b. Sept. 29, 1703, Paris, Fr.—d. May 30, 1770, Paris) French painter, engraver, and designer. He was probably trained by his father, a minor painter. In 1723 he won the Prix de Rome, but he was unable to travel to Italy until 1728. For his first major com¬ mission he produced 125 engravings of drawings by Antoine Watteau. He executed important decorative commissions for Madame de Pompadour at Versailles. His playful style and frivolous subject matter exemplify the Rococo style and embody the elegant superficiality of French court life in the mid 18th century. He became a member of the Royal Academy in 1734, a principal designer for the royal porcelain factories, and director of the Gobelins tapestry factory. In 1765 he was appointed director of the Royal Academy and first painter to Louis XV. One of the great painters and draftsmen of the 18th century, he mastered every branch of decora¬ tive and illustrative painting.

Boucher Vbau-choiA, Jonathan (b. March 12, 1738, Cumberland, Eng.—d. April 27, 1804, Epsom, Surrey) English-American clergyman. He went to Virginia in 1759 as a private tutor. As rector of Annapolis, Md., he tutored George Washington’s stepson and became a family friend. His royalist views cost him his position and he was forced to return to England in 1775. In his retirement he wrote A View of the Causes and Consequences of the American Revolution (1779); his glossary of “archaic and provincial words” was later used for Noah Webster’s dictionary.

Boucicault \'bu-si-,ko\, Dion orig. Dionysius Lardner Boursi- quot (b. Dec. 26, 1820/22, Dublin, Ire.—d. Sept. 18, 1890, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Irish-born U.S. playwright. He began acting in 1837 and wrote the successful comedy London Assurance (1841) and The Corsican Broth¬ ers (1852). In 1853 he moved to New York City, where he was instru¬ mental in obtaining the first copyright law for drama in the U.S. His successful play The Poor of New York (1857) was presented elsewhere— as, for example, The Poor of London. Concerned with social themes, he wrote a veiled attack on slavery in The Octoroon (1859). He also wrote a series of popular Irish plays, including The Colleen Bawn (1860) and The Shaughraun (1874).

Boudiaf \bu-'dyaf\, Mohamed (b. June 23, 1919, M’Sila, Alg.—d. June 29, 1992, Annaba) Algerian political leader. With Ahmed Ben Bella, he cofounded the Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN), which led the fight for Algerian independence from France (1954-62). He was impris¬ oned by the French from 1956 until Algerian independence in 1962, whereupon he became deputy premier under Ben Bella in the new gov¬ ernment. His opposition to Ben Bella’s autocratic style led to a 27-year exile. In 1992 he was invited back to head the government and to deal with rising religious influence in political affairs. He was assassinated by a bodyguard shortly thereafter. See also Islamic Salvation Front.

Boudicca \bu-'dik-9\ or Boadicea \ l bo-3d-3-'se-9\ (d. ad 60) Ancient British queen. When her husband, a Roman client king of the Iceni, died in ad 60, he left his estate to his daughters and the emperor Nero, hoping for protection. Instead the Romans annexed his kingdom and mistreated his family and tribesmen. Boudicca raised a rebellion in East Anglia, burning

258 I Boudin ► boulevard

Camulodunum (Colchester), Verulamium (St. Albans), and part of Lond- inium (London) and military posts; according to Tacitus, her forces massa¬ cred up to 70,000 Romans and pro-Roman Britons and destroyed the Roman 9th Legion. She is thought to have taken poison or died of shock when the Roman governor rallied his troops and destroyed her huge army.

Boudin \bu-'da n \, Eugene (b. July 12, 1824, Honfleur, Fr.—d. Aug. 8, 1898, Deauville) French landscape painter. Encouraged at an early age by Jean-Francois Millet, Boudin became a strong advocate of painting directly from nature. In 1874 he exhibited with the Impressionists, but, unlike those painters, he was not an innovator, and from 1863 to 1897 he exhib¬ ited regularly in the official Salon. His favourite subjects were beach scenes and seascapes, which show remarkable sensitivity to effects of atmosphere; on the backs of his paintings he recorded the weather, light, and time of day. His works link the careful naturalism of the mid 19th century and the brilliant colours and fluid brushwork of Impressionism.

boudinage \,biid- 3 n- , azh\ Cylinder-like structures making up a layer of deformed rock. They commonly lie adjacent to each other and are joined by short necks, giving the appearance of a string of sausages (boudin is French for “sausage”). The necks may be filled with recrystallized minerals such as quartz, feldspar, or calcite. Boudinage occurs in a variety of rock types and is one of the more common structures found in folded rocks.

Boudinot\'bud- a n-o\ / Elias (b. May 2, 1740, Philadelphia, Pa.—d. Oct. 24, 1821, Burlington, N.J., U.S.) U.S. public official. He became a law¬ yer in 1760. Though a conservative Whig, he supported the American Revolution. He was president of the Continental Congress in 1782-83 and later served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1789-95) and as direc¬ tor of the U.S. Mint at Philadelphia (1795-1805).

Bougainville Vbii-gon-.viL Island (pop., 2000: 175,160), Papua New Guinea. The largest of the Solomon Islands, near the northern end of that chain, it has a land area of about 3,600 sq mi (8,500 sq km). The Emperor Range, with its highest peak at Balbi (9,000 ft [2,743 m]), occupies the northern half of the island, while the Crown Prince Range occupies the southern half. It was visited by Louis-Antoine de Bougainville in 1768, and it came under German control in the late 19th century. After World War I it was included in an Australian mandate. Following World War II it was made part of the UN Trust Territory of New Guinea, and it passed to Papua New Guinea when that country became independent in 1975. A treaty signed in 2001 promised the island autonomy, which was attained in 2005.

Bougainville \bu-ga n -'vel\, Louis-Antoine de (b. Nov. 11, 1729, Paris, France—d. Aug. 3, 1811, Paris) French navigator. In 1764 he estab¬ lished a colony for France in the Falkland Islands. Commissioned by the government to circle the Earth in a voyage of exploration, he put to sea in 1766; after touching Samoa and the New Hebrides he continued west into waters not previously navigated by any European. He turned north on the fringes of the Great Barrier Reef and did not sight Australia. He stopped in the Moluccas and in Java before returning to Brittany in 1769. His widely read Voyage Round the World (1771) helped popularize a belief in the moral worth of people in their natural state. He was secre¬ tary to Louis XV (1772), led the French fleet in support of the American Revolution, and was named to the Legion of Honour by Napoleon. The plant genus Bougainvillea is named for him.

bougainvillea ^bii-gon-'vil-yo, .bii-gon-'ve-oX Any plant of the genus Bougainvillea, comprising about 14 species of shrubs, vines, or small trees (family Nyctaginaceae) native to South America and hardy in warm cli¬ mates. Many species are spiny. Only the woody vines are widely popu¬ lar; showy cultivated varieties of several species are often grown indoors. The inconspicuous flowers are surrounded by brightly coloured papery bracts, for which one species, B. glabra, is called paperflower. The bracts of various species range from purple to lemon-yellow.

Bouguereau \bu-g9-'ro\, William (-Adolphe) (b. Nov. 30, 1825, La Rochelle, Fr.—d. Aug. 19, 1905, La Rochelle) French painter. He entered the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in 1846 and was awarded the Prix de Rome in 1850. On his return from Italy in 1854, he became a successful proponent of academic painting and was instrumental in the exclusion of the radical Impressionists from the official Salon. Working in a smooth, highly finished style, he painted sentimental religious works, coyly erotic nudes, allegorical scenes, and realistic portraits. In 1876 he was elected to the Academy of Fine Arts. His influence was felt widely, particularly in the U.S.

Bouillaud \bu-'yo\, Jean-Baptiste (b. Sept. 16, 1796, Garat, Fr.—d. Oct. 29, 1881, Paris) French physician and researcher. He established the speech centre’s location in the brain and differentiated between speech loss because of inability to create and remember word forms and inabil¬ ity to control speech movements. In cardiology, he established the con¬ nection between carditis and acute articular rheumatism. He helped explain normal heart sounds and described many abnormal ones, and he was the first to name and accurately describe the endocardial membrane and endocarditis. He published important books on heart diseases and on rheumatism and the heart.

Boukhara See Bukhara

Boukharouba, Mohammed ben Brahim See Houari Boumedi-

ENNE

Boulanger \bu-la n -'zha\, Georges (-Ernest-Jean-Marie) (b.

April 29, 1837, Rennes, France—d.

Sept. 30, 1891, Brussels, Belg.)

French general and politician. He entered the army in 1856, helped sup¬ press the Paris Commune (1871), and rose in rank to brigadier general (1880) and director of infantry (1882). Named minister of war in 1886, he introduced various military reforms and was seen as the man des¬ tined to avenge France’s defeat in the Franco-Prussian War. In 1888 he led a short-lived but influential authori¬ tarian movement that threatened to topple the Third Republic. In 1889 the government decided to prosecute him, prompting him to flee Paris. He was convicted in absentia for treason, and in 1891 he committed suicide.

Boulanger \bii-la n -'zha\, Nadia (-Juliette) (b. Sept. 16,1887, Paris,

France—d. Oct. 22, 1979, Paris) French music teacher and conductor. Having studied composition with Charles-Marie Widor (1844-1937) and Gabriel Faur£, she stopped composing in her twenties (after the death of her sister, Lili, who was also a composer) and devoted the rest of her life to conducting, playing the organ, and teaching at the Ecole Normale (1920-39), Paris Conservatoire (from 1946), and especially the American Conservatory at Fontainebleau (from 1921). She became the most cel¬ ebrated composition teacher of the 20th century; her many students included Aaron Copland, Roy Harris, Darius Milhaud, Virgil Thomson, Elliott Carter, Leonard Bernstein, and Philip Glass. Her sister, Lili Boulanger (1893-1918), wrote a remarkable amount of vocal and other music and was the first woman composer to win the Prix de Rome (1913).

Boulder City (pop., 2000: 94,673), north-central Colorado, U.S. Located at the base of the Rocky Mountains northwest of Denver, it was settled by miners in 1858 and grew with the arrival of two railroads in 1873. An extensive government-industrial-educational complex has developed since the 1950s. It is the site of the University of Colorado.

Boulder Dam See Hoover Dam

boule \'bu-le\ Deliberative council in the city-states of ancient Greece. It existed in almost all constitutional city-states, especially from the late 6th century bc. In Athens the boule was created as an aristocratic body by Solon in 594 bc; later, under Cleisthenes, 500 members were elected to represent the 10 tribes (50 each). A certain number, in rough proportion to size, were allotted to each deme. Complementing the work of the eccle- sia and Areopagus, the boule controlled finances, managed the fleet and cavalry, evaluated officials, received foreign ambassadors, and advised the strategus. The boule model largely influenced the organization of coun¬ cils of other cities in the Hellenic period.

boules \'biilz\ French ball game, similar to bowls and boccie. Players take turns throwing or rolling a steel ball as close as possible to a small target ball; an opponent’s ball may be knocked away if necessary. The playing field is called a pitch.

boulevard Broad landscaped avenue that typically permits several lanes of vehicular traffic as well as pedestrian walkways. The earliest

Georges Boulanger

H. ROGER-VIOLLET

Boulez ► Bourgeois I 259

boulevards originally followed the city walls (the word originally meant “bulwark”) and were built in the ancient Middle East, especially at Anti¬ och. In Paris, straight and geometrically precise boulevards were incor¬ porated into design principles taught at the Ecole des Beaux- Arts, and they form a prominent feature of the city. Similar boulevards are found in other cities such as Washington, D.C. Formal curving boulevards are a feature of such cities as Vienna and Prague.

Boulez \bu-lez\, Pierre (b. March 26, 1925, Montbrison, France) French composer and conductor. Originally a student of mathematics, he later studied with the composer and organist Olivier Messiaen at the Paris Conservatoire. Inspired by the works of Anton Webern, in the 1950s he began to experiment with total serialism; his serialist music is marked by a sensitivity to the nuances of instrumental texture and colour. In 1954 he founded a series of avant-garde concerts, the Domaine Musicale. His important works include Le Soleil des eaux (1948), Structures I and II (1952, 1961), Le Marteau sans maitre (1957), Pli selon pli (1962), and three piano sonatas. By the 1960s he had gained an international reputation not only as a composer but also as a conductor, particularly of the 20th- century repertoire. He was chief conductor of the BBC Symphony Orches¬ tra (1971-74) and conductor of the New York Philharmonic (1971-78). In 1974 he founded the French national experimental studio IRC AM. With his greatly varied activities, including his often iconoclastic writings, he was the principal figure of the postwar international musical avant-garde.

Boulle Vbiil\, Andre-Charles or Andre-Charles Boule (b. Nov. 11, 1642, Paris, Fr.—d. Feb. 29, 1732, Paris) French cabinetmaker. After studying drawing, painting, and sculpture, he achieved fame as the most skillful furniture designer in Paris. In 1672 Louis XIV appointed him royal cabinetmaker at Versailles; his other patrons included Philip V of Spain and the duke of Bourbon. Boulle stretched the technique of marquetry to new heights, and his incorporation of elaborate brasswork and the inlaying of exotic woods (called boulle or buhl work, since his last name sometimes appeared as Buhl) was heavily imitated in the 18th—19th centuries.

Boullee \bii-'la\, Etienne-Louis (b. Feb. 12, 1728, Paris, Fr.—d. Feb. 6, 1799, Paris) French architect, theorist, and teacher. He studied archi¬ tecture and opened his own studio by age 19. Through his investigation of the properties of geometric forms, to which he attributed innate sym¬ bolic qualities, Boullee achieved a pure, modern Classicism. His greatest influence was as a teacher and theorist. In a series of theoretical plans for public monuments, culminating in the design (1784) for an immense sphere that would serve as a cenotaph honouring Isaac Newton, he gave imaginary form to his theories.

Boulogne, Jean See Giambologna

Boulsover Vbol-.zo-voA, Thomas (b. 1706, Elkington, Derbyshire, Eng.—d. September 1788, Sheffield) British inventor of fused plating (“old Sheffield plate"). As a craftsman of the Cutlers Co. in 1743, while repairing a copper-and-silver knife handle, he discovered that the two metals could be fused and that when the fused metals were rolled in a rolling mill they behaved like a single metal. His invention opened the way to economical production of a great variety of plated objects, from buttons and snuffboxes, which he himself made, to hollowware (e.g., tea sets) and utensils, which were soon manufactured in large quantity by other Sheffield workers.

Boulton \'bolt- 3 n\, Matthew (b. Sept. 3,1728, Birmingham, Warwick¬ shire, Eng.—d. Aug. 17, 1809, Birmingham) British manufacturer and engineer. With James Watt and William Murdock (1754-1839), he estab¬ lished the steam-engine industry by installing pumping engines to drain the Cornish tin mines. Foreseeing great industrial demand for steam power, he urged Watt to make various design improvements. Applying steam power to coining machinery, he made large quantities of coins for the British East India Co. and also supplied machinery to the Royal Mint. By 1 800, almost 500 steam engines had been installed in the British Isles and abroad.

Boumedienne \bu-mad-'yen\, Houari orig. Mohammed ben Brahim Boukharouba (b. Aug. 23, 1927, near Guelma, Alg.—d. Dec. 27, 1978, Algiers) Algerian political leader and president (1965-78). During Algeria’s fight for independence, he helped raise an Algerian army in the safety of Morocco and Tunisia. He deposed President Ahmed Ben Bella in 1965. His policies in the 1970s created tensions with Morocco and France, but he also negotiated important industrial contracts with Western nations and cultivated close relations with the Soviet bloc, becoming a leading figure in the nonaligned movement.

boundary layer In fluid mechanics, a thin layer of flowing gas or liq¬ uid in contact with a surface (e.g., of an airplane wing or the inside of a pipe). The fluid in the boundary layer is subjected to shear FORCES. A range of velocities is established across the boundary layer, from zero (provided the fluid is in contact with the surface) to maximum. Flow in boundary layers is more easily described mathematically than is flow in the free stream. Boundary layers are thinner at the leading edge of an aircraft wing and thicker toward the trailing edge; such boundary layers generally have laminar flow in the leading (upstream) portion and turbulent flow in the trailing (downstream) portion. See also drag.

Bounty, HMS British armed transport ship remembered for the mutiny of its crew on April 28, 1789. Commanded by Capt. William Bligh, it had sailed to Tahiti, taken on a cargo of breadfruit trees, and traveled as far as the Friendly Islands (Tonga) on the voyage to Jamaica when it was seized by the master’s mate, Fletcher Christian. The causes have been much debated; Bligh’s opponents charged him with tyranny, while Bligh argued that the mutineers had become attached to Tahiti and its women. Bligh and 18 loyal crew members were set adrift in a longboat; after a voyage of more than two months and some 3,600 mi (5,800 km), they reached Timor. Christian and eight others took the Bounty to Pitcairn Island, where the small colony they founded remained undiscovered until 1808 and where their descendants still live. Of the mutineers who later went to Tahiti, three were taken to Britain and hanged.

bourbon See whiskey

Bourbon, Charles-Ferdinand de See due de Berry

Bourbon \bur-'bo n ,\ English Vbur-bonV, House of One of the most important ruling houses of Europe. Its members were descended from Louis I, due de Bourbon from 1327 to 1342, grandson of the French king Louis IX. Bourbons subsequently ruled in France (1589-1792, 1814-48); in Spain (1700-1868, 1870-73, 1874-1931, and since 1975); and in Naples and Sicily (1735-1861). Among its prominent members were Henry IV, Louis XIII, Louis XIV, Louis XV, Louis XVI, and Philip V.

Bourbon Restoration (1814-30) In France, the period that began when Napoleon abdicated and the Bourbon monarchs were restored to the throne. The First Restoration occurred when Napoleon fell from power and Louis XVIII became king. Louis’s reign was interrupted by Napoleon’s return to France (see Hundred Days), but Napoleon was forced to abdicate again, leading to the Second Restoration. The period was marked by a constitutional monarchy of moderate rule (1816-20), followed by a return of the ultras during the reign of Louis’s brother, Charles X (1824-30). Reactionary policies revived the opposition liberals and moderates and led to the July Revolution, Charles’s abdication, and the end of the Bour¬ bon Restoration.

Bourbonnais V.biir-bo-'neV Historical region, central France. In Roman times it was part of Celtic Gaul under Julius Caesar and later part of Aquitania under Augustus. It gradually began a separate existence in the 10th century under a lord of Bourbon. It eventually passed to Louis, cre¬ ated duke de Bourbon in 1327, the ancestor of the Bourbon dynasty. Bourbonnais became part of the royal domain in 1527.

Bourdieu \bur-'dyoe\, Pierre (b. Aug. 1, 1930, Denguin, France—d. Jan. 23, 2002, Paris) French sociologist and public intellectual. Bourdieu introduced the concept of cultural capital, wealth based on social status and education, noting that success in school and society depends largely on the individual’s ability to absorb the cultural ethos, or what he termed habitus, of the dominant class. Influenced by structuralism, he suggested that habitus is similar to yet more fundamental than a language. His works include The Algerians (1962), Outline of a Theory of Practice (1977), Distinction (1984), and Acts of Resistance: Against the Tyranny of the Market (1998).

Bourgeois Vbiir-'zhwaV Leon (-Victor-Auguste) (b. May 21, 1851, Paris, France—d. Sept. 29, 1925, Chateau d’Oger, near Epernay) French politician. He entered the civil service in 1876 and was elected to the National Assembly in 1888. He served in several ministerial posts and was briefly premier (1895-96). He was a member of the Senate in 1905-23 and its president from 1920. An advocate of international coop¬ eration, he was appointed to the International Court of Justice in 1903. In 1919 he was France’s representative to the League of Nations, emerging as its champion. For this, in 1920 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace.

260 I Bourgeois ► bow and arrow

Bourgeois Vbur-'zhwaV Louise (b. Dec. 25, 1911, Paris, Fr.) French- born U.S. sculptor. She studied briefly with Fernand Leger and initially worked as a painter and engraver. In the late 1940s, after moving to New York City with her American husband, she turned to sculpture. She achieved recognition in the 1950s with wooden constructions painted uniformly black or white. She also worked in marble, plaster, latex, and glass. Though her works are abstract, they are suggestive of the human figure and express themes of betrayal, anxiety, and loneliness.

bourgeoisie X.burzh-.wa-'zeX In social and political theory, the social order dominated by the property-owning class. The term arose in medi¬ eval France, where it denoted the inhabitant of a walled town. The con¬ cept of the bourgeoisie is most closely associated with Karl Marx and those who were influenced by him. According to Marx, the bourgeoisie plays a heroic role in history by revolutionizing industry and moderniz¬ ing society; however, it also seeks to monopolize the benefits of modern¬ ization and exploit the property-less proletariat, thereby creating revolutionary tensions. The end result will be a final revolution in which the property of the bourgeoisie is expropriated and class conflict, exploi¬ tation, and the state are abolished. Much employed by 19th-century social reformers, the term had nearly disappeared from the vocabulary of politi¬ cal writers and politicians by the mid 20th century. In popular speech, it connotes philistinism, materialism, and a striving concern for “respect¬ ability.” See also social class.

Bourges, Pragmatic Sanction of See Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges

Bourguiba \bur-'ge-bo\, Habib (ibn Ali) (b. Aug. 3, 1903, Al-Munastlr, Tun.—d. April 6, 2000, Al-Munastlr) President of Tunisia (1957-87). He studied at the Sorbonne, where he met independence- minded Algerians and Moroccans. He founded a nationalist newspaper in 1932. In 1934 he founded the Neo-Destour Party and became central to the Tunisian liberation movement. His efforts led the French to imprison him for three years, but he negotiated Tunisia’s independence from that country in 1956. The Tunisian monarchy was abolished in 1957, and Bourguiba became president. During his 30 years in office he kept the army small and devoted much of the budget to improving education and health. Made president for life in 1975, he was removed from in 1987 because of ill health. He was succeeded by Zine el-Abidine Ben All

Bourke-White N.bork-'hwlA, Margaret (b. June 14, 1906, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Aug. 27, 1971, Stamford, Conn.) U.S. photographer. She began her professional career as an industrial and architectural pho¬ tographer in 1927. She gained a reputation for originality and in 1929 was hired by Henry R. Luce for his magazine Fortune. She covered World War II for Life magazine as the first woman photographer to serve with the U.S. armed forces. Several collections of her photographs have been published, including You Have Seen Their Faces (1937), about sharecrop¬ pers of the American South.

Bournemouth \'bom-moth \ Seaside resort and unitary authority (pop., 2001: 163,441), Dorset, southern England, on the English Channel. It dates from 1810 but did not grow rapidly until after the coming of the railway in 1870. Predominantly a resort and residential town, it is one of England’s main convention centres and is popular with retirees.

Bournonville Vbor-non-.ve-loV August (b. Aug. 21, 1805, Copen¬ hagen, Den.—d. Nov. 30, 1879, Copenhagen) Danish dancer, choreogra¬ pher, and director of the Royal Danish Ballet for almost 50 years. After studying and performing in Paris and Copenhagen, in 1830 he became director and choreographer of the Royal Danish Ballet, where he contin¬ ued to dance until 1848. He established the Danish style, characterized by bravura dancing and expressive mime. Many of his ballets were based on observations he made while on tour; Napoli (1842), for example, was inspired by a trip to Italy.

Boutros-Ghali \'bu-tros-'ga-le\, Boutros (b. Nov. 14, 1922, Cairo, Egypt) Sixth secretary-general of the United Nations (1992-96), the first Arab and first African to hold the office. A descendant of a distinguished Egyptian Coptic family, he was educated at Cairo University and the Uni¬ versity of Paris. After teaching at universities around the world, he joined Egypt’s foreign ministry in 1977. As foreign minister, he accompanied Pres. Anwar el-Sadat to Jerusalem. He became Egypt’s deputy prime minister in 1991 and was appointed UN secretary-general in 1992. Dur¬ ing his single term he oversaw peacekeeping operations in Bosnia, Soma¬

lia, and Rwanda and led the UN in its 50th-anniversary celebration. In 1996 the U.S. blocked his bid for a second term.

Bouts Vbauts\, Dirck (b. c. 1415, Haarlem, Holland—d. May 6, 1475, Louvain, Brabant) Netherlandish painter. He was active in Louvain, where he was influenced by Rogier van der Weyden. His best-known works are a triptych altarpiece (1464) for the church of St. Peter in Louvain, its pan¬ els representing the Last Supper and four Old Testament scenes, and two huge panels representing a scene of secular justice (1470-75) for the city hall, intended as examples of justice for the Louvain town council. His treatment of the human figure ranges from strong emotion expressed through symbolic gesture to great severity and restraint.

Bouvines Vbii-'venV, Battle of (July 27, 1214) Decisive victory won by the French king Philip II over an international coalition that included Emperor Otto IV, King John of England, and several powerful French vassals. Fought in the marshy plain between Bouvines and Toumai in Flanders, the battle was furiously contested but ended in a clear French victory. It confirmed Philip’s possession of French lands formerly held by the English and added to the power and prestige of the French monarchy. John’s defeat increased the opposition of his barons.

bouzouki \bu-'zii-ke\ Long-necked lute used in Greek popular music. Developed from a Turkish instrument early in the 20th century, it has a pear-shaped body and a fretted fingerboard. The modern instrument usu¬ ally has four courses of strings, which are plucked with a plectrum, typi¬ cally in a vigorous and agile style.

Boveri \bo-'va-re\, Theodor Heinrich (b. Oct. 12, 1862, Bamberg, Bavaria—d. Oct. 15, 1915, Wurzburg) German cell biologist. Working with roundworm eggs, Boveri proved that chromosomes are separate units within the nucleus of a cell. With Walter S. Sutton, he was the first to propose that genes were located on chromosomes. Boveri proved Edouard von Beneden’s theory that the ovum (egg) and sperm cell contribute equal numbers of chromosomes to the new cell created during fertilization. He later introduced the term centrosome and demonstrated that this structure is the division centre for a dividing egg cell.

bovid \'bo-vid\ Any ruminant of the family Bovidae. Bovids have hol¬ low, unbranched, permanently attached horns; they are grazing or brows¬ ing animals found in both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, most often in grasslands, scrublands, or deserts. Most species live in large herds. Species range in shoulder height from a 10-in. (25-cm) antelope to the 6.5-ft (2-m) bison. Some of the 138 species (including domestic cattle, sheep, goats) are of economic value to humans. Others (including bighorn and some antelope) are hunted for food, sport, horns, or hides. See also BUFFALO, ruminant.

Bow \'bo\, Clara (b. July 29, 1905, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.—d. Sept. 27, 1965, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. film actress. At age 16 she won a maga¬ zine contest that gave her a bit part in a film. Hired by Paramount Pic¬ tures in 1925, she played larger roles in silent films such as Mantrap (1926) and Kid Boots (1926). After her starring role as a flapper in the popular film It (1927), Bow became known as “the It girl,” with “It” being understood as the appeal of a liberated young woman. She starred in 20 more films (1927-30), but scandals and nervous breakdowns undermined her career.

bow and arrow Weapon con¬ sisting of a strip of wood or other flexible material, bent and held in tension by a string. The arrow, a long wooden shaft with a pointed tip, is stabilized in flight by a feathered tail. The arrow is fitted to the string by a notch in the end of the shaft and is drawn back to produce tension in the bow, which propels the arrow when the string is released. Bow con¬ struction ranges from wood, bone, and metal to plastic and fiberglass; arrowheads have been made from stone, bone, and metal. The origins of the bow and arrow are prehistoric. The bow was a primary military weapon from Egyptian times through the Middle Ages in the Mediterra-

Bow porcelain ► Bowles I 261

nean world and Europe and even longer in China and Japan. The Huns, Turks, Mongols, and other peoples of the Eurasian steppes excelled in warfare as mounted archers; horse archers were the most deadly weapon system of pre-gunpowder warfare. The crossbow, the compound bow, and the English longbow made the arrow a formidable battlefield missile. The powerful Turkish bow had a great impact on warfare in the late Middle Ages. In many cultures, the bow’s importance in warfare has been sec¬ ondary to its value as a hunting weapon. It is still sometimes used for recreational hunting. See also archery.

Bow porcelain Vbo\ English soft-paste porcelain made at a factory in Stratford-le-Bow, Essex, c. 1744-76. From 1750 bone ash was used in its production by Thomas Frye, an Irish engraver, who invented the process. Bow varies in appearance and quality, but at its best has a soft, creamy- white tone with a smooth glaze. Bow tablewares were among the first English porcelain to be ornamented with transfer-printed decorations (see Battersea enamelware). Bow also produced great quantities of figurines (e.g., statesmen, actors, birds, animals) in the Rococo style.

Bow \'bo\ River River, Alberta, Canada. Rising in Banff National Park on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains, it flows 315 mi (507 km) southeast through the park and east past Calgary to unite with the Old¬ man River and form the Saskatchewan River. It is important for hydro¬ electric power and irrigation. Bow Valley Provincial Park is 50 mi (80 km) west of Calgary.

Bowditch \'baud-ich\, Nathaniel (b. March 26, 1773, Salem, Mass., U.S.—d. March 16, 1838, Boston, Mass.) U.S. mathematician and astronomer. He was largely self-educated. After investigating the accuracy of J.H. Moore’s The Practical Navigator, he produced a revised edition in 1799. In 1802 he published The New American Practical Navigator, adopted by the U.S. Department of the Navy, it was recognized as the best navigation text of its time. He translated and updated four volumes of Pierre-Simon Laplace’s Celestial Mechanics (1829-39). He discovered the Bowditch curves (describing the motion of a pendulum), which have important applications in astronomy and physics. He refused professor¬ ships at several universities and instead worked for insurance companies.

Bowdler, Thomas (b. July 11, 1754, Ashley, near Bath, Somerset, Eng.—d. Feb. 24, 1825, Rhydding, near Swansea, Glamorganshire, Wales) English physician, philanthropist, and man of letters. He is known for his Family Shakspeare (1818), in which, by expurgation and para¬ phrase, he aimed to provide an edition of the plays suitable for a father to read aloud to his family without fear of offending their susceptibilities or corrupting their minds. The first edition (1807) contained a selection of 20 plays that probably were expurgated by Bowdler’s sister, Harriet.

Bowdoin \'bo-d 3 n\ College Private liberal arts college in Brunswick, Maine. Founded in 1794 as a men’s college, it was named for James Bowdoin (1726-90), first president of the American Academy of Aits and Sciences. It became coeducational in 1971. It offers bachelor’s degrees in the arts, humanities, natural sciences, and social sciences. Academic facilities include a marine research station and an arctic museum. Its his¬ toric buildings include the Walker Art Building, designed by Charles F. McKim and Stanford White. Notable alumni include Nathaniel Hawthorne and U.S. Pres. Franklin Pierce.

bowel movement See defecation

Bowen \'bo-on\, Elizabeth (Dorothea Cole) (b. June 7,1899, Dub¬ lin, Ire.—d. Feb. 22, 1973, London, Eng.) Irish-born British novelist and short-story writer. Among her novels are The House in Paris (1935), The Death of the Heart (1938), and The Heat of the Day (1949). Her short- story collections include The Demon Lover (1945). Her finely wrought prose style frequently details uneasy and unfulfilling relationships among the upper middle class. Her essays appear in Collected Impressions (1950) and Afterthought (1962).

Bowen, Norman L(evi) (b. June 21, 1887, Kingston, Ont., Can.—d. Sept. 11, 1956, Washington, D.C., U.S.) Canadian geologist. He worked on and off for more than 35 years for the Geophysical Laboratory in Washington, D.C., where he researched silicate systems. During World War I he made a brief foray into optics, but after the war he returned to his studies of silicate systems. In 1928 he published The Evolution of the Igneous Rocks, which had a profound influence on petrologic thought. At the University of Chicago (1937-47) he developed a school of experi¬ mental petrology. His achievements won him honours both in the U.S. and Europe.

bowerbird Vbau(-3)r-,b3rd\ Any of 17 bird species constituting the passerine family Ptilonorhynchidae, of Australia, New Guinea, and nearby islands. The male builds an elaborate structure (the bower) on the ground, decorates it with bright and shiny objects, and displays and sings loudly above it; females visit him and then lay their eggs in simple nests nearby. The mat, or platform, type of bower is a thick pad of plant material. The maypole type is a hut (sometimes as large as a child’s playhouse) of twigs erected around one or more saplings in a cleared court. The avenue type consists of two close-set parallel walls of sticks on a circular mat of twigs. See also catbird.

Bowes, Edward known as Major Bowes (b. June 14, 1874, San Francisco, Calif., U.S.—d. June 14, 1946, Rumson, N.J.) U.S. radio per¬ sonality. He promoted attendance at New York City’s Capitol Theatre by starting a variety show, the Major Bowes Capitol Family, which became the radio program Original Amateur Hour (1935-46). The show (later revived for television as The Ted Mack Original Amateur Hour [1948— 60]) gave aspiring singers and comedians, including Frank Sinatra and Bob Hope, a chance to perform before a national radio audience.

bowfin \'bo-,fin\ Voracious freshwater fish ( Amia calva ) that is the only living representative of the family Amiidae, which dates back to the Juras¬ sic period (206-144 million years ago). It is found in sluggish North Ameri¬ can waters from the Great Lakes southward to the Gulf of Mexico. Mottled green and brown, it has a long dorsal fin and strong conical teeth. The female, which is larger than the male, reaches a length of 30 in. (75 cm). The bowfin spawns in spring, when the male constructs a crude nest and guards both the fertilized eggs and the newly hatched young. It is sometimes called a dogfish.

Bowie \'bo-e\, David orig. David Robert Jones (b. Jan. 8, 1947, London, Eng.) British rock singer. In the mid-1960s Bowie sang in a number of bands in his native London. He changed his name in 1966 to avoid confusion with the lead singer of the Monkees. His first hit record¬ ing, “Space Oddity” (1969), and albums such as The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders From Mars (1972) ushered in the glam rock trend, marked by theatricality and androgyny. His style varied widely, from the disco romanticism of Young Americans (1975) to the avant-garde austerities of Low (1977) to the mainstream pop of Let’s Dance (1983). Bowie also acted in stage plays and in films such as The Man Who Fell to Earth (1976). He continued to record and perform into the 21st century.

Bowie \'bii-e\, Jim orig. James Bowie (b. 17967, Logan county, Ky., U.S.—d. March 6, 1836, San Antonio, Texas) U.S. soldier. Bowie migrated with his parents to Missouri (1800) and then to Louisiana (1802), where later he owned a sugar plantation and served in the state legisla¬ ture. In 1828 he settled in Texas, assumed Mexican citizenship, acquired land grants, and married the vice-governor’s daughter. In opposition to Mexican legislation to curb the immigration of U.S. settlers, he joined the Texas revolutionary movement and became a colonel in the Texas army. He is remembered for his gallant role in the defense of the Alamo. He invented the knife that bears his name. He became a legendary hero through Western song and ballad.

Bowles Vbolz\, Chester (Bliss) (b. April 5, 1901, Springfield, Mass., U.S.—d. May 25, 1986, Sussex, Conn.) U.S. advertising executive and diplomat. A graduate of Yale University, he and William Benton established the Benton and Bowles advertising company (1929), which became one of the largest in the world. After selling his interest in 1941, Bowles served as director of the Federal Price Administration (1943—46). Elected gov¬ ernor of Connecticut in 1948, he was defeated in 1950 because of his lib¬ eral stand on civil rights. He was ambassador to India (1951-53), served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1953-61), and returned to India as ambassador (1963-69).

Bowles, Paul (Frederic) (b. Dec. 30,1910, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Nov. 18, 1999, Tangier, Mor.) U.S.-Moroccan composer, writer, and trans¬ lator. Bowles studied musical composition with Aaron Copland and wrote music for more than 30 plays and films. He moved to Morocco in the 1940s. He set his best-known novel, The Sheltering Sky (1948; film, 1990), in Tangier. His protagonists, in that novel and other works, are often Westerners maimed by their contact with traditional cultures that bewilder them, and violent events and psychological collapse are recounted in a detached and elegant style. His wife, Jane Bowles (1917— 73), is known for the novel Two Serious Ladies (1943) and the play In the Summer House (1953).

262 I bowling ► boyar

bowling Game in which a heavy ball is rolled down a long, narrow lane to knock down a group of 10 wooden objects (called pins). Versions of the game have existed since ancient times. Ninepin bowling was brought to the U.S. in the 17th century by Dutch settlers; it became so popular and so associated with gambling that it was outlawed in several states. The game grew to enormous popularity in the 20th century, both as a recreational activity and (since 1958) as a professional sport. If all the pins are knocked down with the first ball, a strike is recorded (10 points). If pins remain standing but the second ball knocks them down, the player is awarded a spare (10 points). If a strike is thrown in a frame (turn), the number of pins knocked down by the next two balls bowled count in that frame. After a spare, the score of the next ball counts in the spare’s frame. Thus, the maximum point total for a single frame is 30. Each game is divided into 10 frames, and each player is allowed to deliver up to two balls per frame (except in the final frame, in which two addi¬ tional deliveries are permitted following a strike [one additional follow¬ ing a spare]. A perfect score is 300, or 12 strikes in a row. Versions of the game include candlepins, duckpins, and skittles.

bowls or lawn bowls or lawn bowling Bowling game similar to the Italian boccie and the French boules played on a green with wooden balls (called bowls) that are rolled at a target ball (the jack). The object is to roll one’s bowls so that they come to rest nearer to the jack than those of an opponent, sometimes achieved by knocking aside an oppo¬ nent’s bowl or jack. One point is awarded for each winning bowl. Depend¬ ing on the game, players use four, three, or two bowls, and games end at 18 or 21 points.

Bowman Vbo-monV Sir William (b. July 20, 1816, Nantwich, Cheshire, Eng.—d. March 29, 1892, near Dorking, Surrey) English sur¬ geon and histologist. His studies of organ tissues with his teacher Robert Todd led to major papers on the structure and function of voluntary muscle and of the kidneys and on the detailed anatomy of the liver. In the kid¬ neys, he found that the capsule (Bowman capsule) surrounding each glom¬ erulus (ball of capillaries) in the nephrons is a continuous part of the renal duct. This was of prime importance to his filtration theory of urine for¬ mation, key to understanding kidney function. Bowman and Todd pub¬ lished The Physiological Anatomy and Physiology of Man (2 vol., 1845— 56), a pioneering work in both physiology and histology. Turning to the eye, Bowman became one of the world’s foremost ophthalmic research scientists, London’s outstanding eye surgeon, and the first to describe several eye structures and their functions.

box In botany, an evergreen shrub or small tree (genus Buxus) of the box family (Buxaceae), best known for the ornamental and useful boxwoods. The family comprises seven genera of trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, native to North America, Europe, North Africa, and Asia. The plants bear male and female flowers, without petals, on separate plants. The leathery, evergreen leaves are simple and alternate. Fruits are one- or two-seeded capsules or drupes. Three species of the genus Buxus provide the widely grown boxwood: the common, or English, box ( B . sempervi- rens), used for hedges, borders, and topiary figures; the Japanese box ( B. microphylla)\ and the tall boxwood tree (B. balearica).

box elder Hardy and fast-growing tree ( Acer negundo ), also called ash-leaved maple, of the maple family, native to the central and eastern U.S. Its compound leaves (rare among maples) consist of three, five, or seven coarsely toothed leaflets. The single seed is borne in a samara (dry, winged fruit). Because of its rapid growth and its drought resistance, it was widely planted for shade by early settlers in the prairie regions of the U.S. Maple syrup and sugar are sometimes obtained from the box elder. Its wood is used for crates, furniture, paper pulp, and charcoal.

box turtle Any of several species of terrestrial turtle (genus Terrapene) found in the U.S. and Mexico. Box turtles have a high, rounded upper shell (carapace) that grows to a maximum length of about 7 in. (18 cm). The lower shell (plastron) is hinged across the center and can be drawn very tightly against the cara¬ pace to form a protective “box” that completely encloses the turtle’s soft parts. They feed on earthworms, insects, mushrooms, and berries.

Box turtles are often kept as pets.

boxer Smooth-haired breed of working dog named for its manner of “boxing” with its sturdy front paws when beginning to fight. Developed in Germany, it includes strains of bulldog and terrier in its heritage.

Because of its reputation for cour¬ age, aggressiveness, and intelli¬ gence, it has been used in police work; it is also valued as a watchdog and companion. Trim and squarely built, it has a short, square muzzle; a black mask on its face; and a shiny, shorthaired coat of reddish brown or brindle. It stands 21-24 in. (53-61 cm) high and weighs 60-70 lbs (27-32 kg).

Boxer

SALLY ANNE THOMPSON/EB INC.

Boxer Rebellion Officially sup¬ ported peasant uprising in 1900 in China that attempted to drive all for¬ eigners from the country. “Boxer” was the English name given to a Chinese secret society that practiced boxing and calisthenic rituals in the belief that it would make its members impervious to bullets. Support for them grew in northern China during the late 19th century, when China’s people were suffering from growing economic impoverishment and the country was forced to grant humiliating concessions to Western powers. In June 1900, after Boxers had killed Chinese Christians and Westerners, an international relief force was dispatched to quell the attacks. The empress dowager, Cixi, ordered imperial forces to block its advance; the conflict escalated, hundereds of people were killed, and the matter was not resolved until August, when Beijing was captured and sacked. Hos¬ tilities were ended with a protocol (1901) requiring China to pay a large indemnity to 11 countries. Britain and the U.S. later returned much of their reparations, the U.S. using its portion to further Chinese higher edu¬ cation. See also U.S. Open Door policy.

boxing Sport involving attack and defense with the fists. In the mod¬ ern sport, boxers wear padded gloves and fight bouts of up to 12 three- minute rounds in a roped-off square known as the ring. In ancient Greece fighters used leather thongs on their hands and forearms, while in Rome gladiators used metal-studded leather hand coverings (cesti) and usually fought to the death. Not until implementation of the London Prize Ring rules in 1839 were kicking, gouging, butting, biting, and blows below the belt eliminated from the boxer’s standard repertoire. In 1867 the Queens- berry rules called for the wearing of gloves, though bare-knuckle boxing continued into the late 1880s. The last of the great bare-knuckle fighters was John L. Sullivan. From Sullivan on, the U.S. became the premier box¬ ing venue, partly because immigrants supplied a constantly renewed pool of boxers. Boxing has been included among the Olympic Games since 1904. Today there are 17 primary weight classes in professional boxing; straw weight, to 105 lbs (48 kg); junior flyweight, to 108 lbs (49 kg); fly¬ weight, to 112 lbs (51 kg); junior bantamweight, to 115 lbs (52 kg); ban¬ tamweight, to 118 lbs (53.5 kg); junior featherweight, to 122 lbs (55 kg); featherweight, to 126 lbs (57 kg); junior lightweight, to 130 lbs (59 kg); lightweight, to 135 lbs (61 kg); junior welterweight, 140 lbs (63.5 kg); welterweight, to 147 lbs (67 kg); junior middleweight, 154 lbs (70 kg); middleweight, to 160 lbs (72.5 kg); super middleweight, 168 lbs (76 kg); light heavyweight, to 175 lbs (79 kg); cruiserweight, 190 lbs (86 kg); and heavyweight, over 190 lbs. A bout can be won either by knocking out or felling one’s opponent for a count of 10 (a KO) or by delivering the most solid blows and thus amassing the most points. The referee can also stop the fight when one boxer is being badly beaten (a technical knockout, or TKO) or he can disqualify a fighter for rules violations and award the fight to his opponent.

Boy Scouts See scouting

boyar \bo-'yar\ Any male member of the upper class of medieval Rus¬ sian society and state administration. In Kievan Rus (10th-12th centuries) the boyars belonged to the prince’s retinue, holding posts in the army and civil administration and advising the prince in matters of state through a boyar council, or duma. In the 13th-14th centuries the boyars constituted a privileged class of rich landowners in northeastern Russia. In the 15th- 17th centuries the boyars of Muscovy ruled the country along with the grand prince (later the czar) and legislated through the boyar council. Their importance declined in the 17th century, and the title was abolished by Peter I in the early 18th century.

boycott ► Bradlee I 263

boycott Collective and organized ostracism applied in labour, economic, political, or social relations to protest and punish practices considered unfair. The tactic was popularized by Charles Stewart Parnell to protest high rents and land evictions in Ireland in 1880 by the estate manager Charles C. Boycott (b. 1832—d. 1897). Boycotts are principally used by labour organizations to win improved wages and working conditions or by consumers to pressure companies to change their hiring, labour, environ¬ mental, or investment practices. U.S. law distinguishes between primary boycotts, which consist of the refusal by employees to purchase the goods or services of their employers, and secondary boycotts, which involve attempts to induce third parties to refuse to patronize the employer. The latter type of boycott is illegal in most states. Boycotts were used as a tac¬ tic in the U.S. civil rights movement of the 1950s and ’60s and also have been applied to influence the conduct of multinational corporations.

Boyer \bwa-'ya\, Charles (b. Aug. 28, 1897, Figeac, France—d. Aug. 26, 1978, Phoenix, Ariz., U.S.) French-U.S. actor. After earning a phi¬ losophy degree from the Sorbonne, he made his stage debut in Paris in 1920. He became a popular romantic leading man in French theatre and film, and his rich, accented voice and suave manner made him an inter¬ national star. His first successful U.S. film, Private Worlds (1935), was followed by such films as Algiers (1938) and Gaslight (1944).

Boyle, Kay (b. Feb. 19, 1902, St. Paul, Minn., U.S.—d. Dec. 27, 1992, Mill Valley, Calif.) U.S. writer. Boyle lived in Europe during the 1920s and ’30s. Later she served as a European correspondent for The New Yorker (1946-53). Her writing is noted for its elegant style and consis¬ tently leftist stance. Her novels, which include Plagued by the Nightin¬ gale (1931) and Generation Without Farewell (1960), are less highly regarded than her short stories, which include “The White Horses of Vienna,” “Keep Your Pity,” and “Defeat.”

Boyle, Robert (b. Jan. 25, 1627, Lismore Castle, County Waterford, Ire.—d. Dec. 31, 1691, London, Eng.) Irish-born English chemist and natural philosopher. The son of Richard Boyle, the “Great Earl of Cork” (1566-1643), he settled at Oxford in 1654 and, with his assistant Robert Hooke, began his pioneering experiments on the properties of GASes, including those expressed in Boyle’s law (see gas laws). He demonstrated the physical characteristics of air, showing that it is necessary in com¬ bustion, respiration, and sound transmission. In The Sceptical Chymist (1661) he attacked Aristotle’s theory of the four elements (earth, air, fire, and water), espousing a corpuscular view of matter that presaged the modern theory of chemical elements. A founding member of the Royal Society of London, he achieved great renown in his lifetime. His brother Roger Boyle, earl of Orrery (1621-79), was a general under Oliver Crom¬ well but eventually helped secure Ireland for Charles II.

Boyne, Battle of the (July 1690) Victory in Ireland for William III of England, a Protestant, over the former king James II, a Roman Catholic. James was attempting, with the help of the French and the Irish, to regain his throne. In this battle, fought on the banks of the River Boyne, some 35,000 men under William defeated about 21,000 of James’s troops, forc¬ ing James to flee the country. The battle is celebrated in Northern Ireland as a victory for the Protestant cause.

boysenberry Very large bramble fruit, usually considered, along with the loganberry and the youngberry, a variety of blackberry ( Rubus ursi- nus). The dark, reddish-black fruit is especially valued for canning and preserving. It is grown chiefly in the southern and southwestern U.S. and on the Pacific Coast from southern California into Oregon. It was devel¬ oped in the early 1920s by Rudolph Boysen (1895-1950) of Napa, Cal.

BP PLC formerly Anglo-Persian Oil Co., Ltd.,British Petro¬ leum Co. PLC, and BP Amoco British petrochemical corporation. Formed in 1909 as the Anglo-Persian Oil Co., Ltd., to finance an oil-field concession granted by the Iranian government to William Knox D'Arcy, it became one of the largest oil companies in the world, with oil fields and refineries in Alaska and the North Sea. The British government was for many years BP’s largest single stockholder, but by the late 1980s it had turned over the company to private ownership. In 1987 BP consolidated its U.S. interests by acquiring the Standard Oil Co. In 1998 it merged with Amoco (formerly Standard Oil of Indiana) to form BP-Amoco. In addition to oil and natural gas, it produces chemicals, plastics, and syn¬ thetic fibres. Its headquarters are in London.

Brabant \'bra-bant\ Old duchy, northwestern Europe. Located in what is now the southern part of The Netherlands and central and northern Bel¬

gium, the region in the 9th century ad was part of the kingdom of Lothar- ingia. In the late 12th century it became independent; it finally passed to the house of Burgundy in 1430. Inherited by the Habsburgs in 1477, it became a centre of culture and commerce (see Antwerp; Brussels). The northern section of Brabant took part in a revolt from Spain, and in 1609 it was awarded to the United Provinces, while the southern section remained part of Spanish (later Austrian) Netherlands. The northern sec¬ tion now forms the Dutch province of North Brabant. The southern sec¬ tion eventually became part of Belgium and is divided between the provinces of Flemish Brabant and Walloon Brabant.

Bracciolini, Gian Francesco Poggio See Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini

bracken or brake fern of the genus Pteridium, represented by a single species (P. aquilinum). Twelve varieties are found throughout the world in temperate and tropical regions. It is a noxious weed, with a perennial black rootstock that creeps extensively underground. At intervals along the rootstock, the plant sends up fronds that may reach a height of 15 ft (5 m) or more. Though they die in autumn, the fronds often remain stand¬ ing throughout winter, affording cover for wildlife in some areas. The fronds are used for thatching and as fodder.

bracket fungus or shelf fungus Basidiomycete that forms shelflike sporophores (spORE-producing organs). Bracket fungi are commonly found growing on trees or fallen logs in damp woodlands. They can severely damage cut lumber and stands of timber. Specimens 16 in. (40 cm) or more in diameter are not uncommon.

bract Modified, usually small, leaflike structure often positioned beneath a flower or inflorescence. What are often taken to be the petals of flowers are sometimes bracts—for example, the large, colourful bracts of poinset- tias or the showy white or pink bracts of dogwood blossoms.

Bradbury, Ray (Douglas) (b. Aug. 22, 1920, Waukegan, Ill., U.S.) U.S. author. Bradbury is best known for highly imaginative science-fiction stories and novels that blend social criticism with an awareness of the hazards of runaway technology. The Martian Chronicles (1950; televi¬ sion miniseries, 1980) is considered a science-fiction classic. His other short-story collections include The Illustrated Man (1951; film, 1969), The October Country (1955), I Sing the Body Electric! (1969; teleplay, 1981), and Quicker Than the Eye (1996); his novels include Fahrenheit 451 (1953; film, 1966), Dandelion Wine (1957; film, 1997), and Death Is a Lonely Business (1985).

Braddock, Edward (b. 1695, Perthshire, Scot.—d. July 13, 1755, Great Meadows, Pa.) British army commander in the French and Indian War. After service in Europe, he arrived in Virginia in 1755 to command British forces in North America against the French. He undertook an expedition to attack the French-held Fort Duquesne (now Pittsburgh, Pa.); his force, which included British regulars and provincial militiamen such as George Washington, cut the first road across the Allegheny Mountains and reached a point on the Monongahela River near the fort. There his army of over 1,400 men was ambushed and defeated by a group of 254 French and 600 Indians, and he was mortally wounded in the ensuing rout.

Bradford City and metropolitan borough (pop., 2001: 467,668), West Yorkshire, northern England. The manufacture of wool products was important to its economy as early as 1311; the fine worsted trade began in the late 17th century. By 1900 it emerged as the main wool-buying centre for Yorkshire. The city remains a centre of the textile industry and is the site of the University of Bradford.

Bradford, William (b. March 1590, Austerfield, Yorkshire, Eng.—d. May 9, 1657, Plymouth, Mass.) Governor of the Plymouth Colony in America for 30 years. A member of the Separatist movement within Puri¬ tanism, in 1609 he left England and went to Holland seeking religious freedom. Finding a lack of economic opportunity there, in 1620 he helped organize an expedition of about 100 Pilgrims to the New World. He helped draft the Mayflower Compact aboard the group’s ship, and he served as governor of the Plymouth Colony for all but five years from 1621 to 1656. He helped establish and foster the principles of self-government and reli¬ gious freedom that characterized later American colonial government. His descriptive journal provides a unique source of information on both the voyage of the Mayflower and the challenges faced by the settlers.

Bradlee, Benjamin C(rowninshield) (b. Aug. 26, 1921, Boston, Mass., U.S.) U.S. newspaper editor. Bradlee was a reporter for The Wash-

264 I Bradley ► Brahe

ington Post before joining Newsweek in Paris and then in Washington. Returning to the Post, he served as its executive editor 1968-91. During his tenure the Post published the Pentagon Papers, broke much of the story surrounding the Watergate scandal, and was recognized as one of the most important and influential newspapers in the U.S. Bradlee’s books include Conversations with Kennedy (1975) and the memoir A Good Life (1995).

Bradley, Bill in full William Warren Bradley (b. July 28, 1943, Crystal City, Mo., U.S.) U.S. basketball player and politician. Bradley attended Princeton University (1961-65), where, as a playmaker and high- scoring forward 6 ft 5 in. (196 cm) tall, he was named College Player of the Year in 1964-65. In a semifinal game he scored 58 points, an NCAA tournament record. In 1964 he helped the U.S. team win the Olympic gold medal. He studied at the University of Oxford as a Rhodes scholar, then returned to play with the New York Knicks until 1977, helping them win two NBA championships (1970, 1973). As a prominent U.S. senator from New Jersey (1979-97), he sought to raise public awareness of race rela¬ tions and poverty and was a critic of campaign-financing practices. In 1999-2000 he was an unsuccessful candidate for the Democratic presi¬ dential nomination.

her parents, and other Puritans to settle on Massachusetts Bay. She wrote many of her poems while rearing eight children. Without her knowledge, her brother-in-law took her poems to England, where they were published in 1650. She won critical acceptance in the 20th century, particularly for “Contemplations,” a sequence of religious poems first published in the mid 19th century. Her prose works include “Meditations,” a collection of aphorisms.

Brady, Mathew B. (b. c. 1823, near Lake George, N.Y., U.S.—d. Jan. 15, 1896, New York, N.Y.) U.S. photographer. He learned to make daguerreotypes from Samuel F.B. Morse. In 1844 he opened the first of two studios in New York City and began photographing famous people (including Daniel Webster, Edgar Allan Poe, and Henry Clay). In 1847 Brady opened a studio in Washington, D.C., and there created, copied, and collected portraits of U.S. presidents. He achieved international fame with A Gallery of Illustrious Americans (1850). In 1861 he set out to make a complete record of the American Civil War with a staff of more than 20 photographers, including Timothy H. O'Sullivan and Alexander Gard¬ ner. He probably photographed the battles of Bull Run, Antietam, and Get¬ tysburg himself.

Bradley, F(rancis) H(erbert) (b. Jan. 30, 1846, Clapham, Surrey, Eng.—d. Sept. 18, 1924, Oxford) British idealist philosopher. Influenced by G.W.F. Hegel, he considered mind to be more fundamental than mat¬ ter. In Ethical Studies (1876), he sought to expose confusions in utilitari¬ anism. In The Principles of Logic (1883), he denounced the psychology of the empiricists. His most ambitious work, Appearance and Reality (1893), maintained that, though reality is spiritual, the thesis cannot be demonstrated because of the fatally abstract nature of human thought. Instead of ideas, which could not properly contain reality, he recom¬ mended feeling, the immediacy of which could embrace the harmonious nature of reality. He was the first English philosopher to be awarded the Order of Merit. His brother was the eminent poetry critic A.C. Bradley

(1851-1935).

Bradley, Omar N(elson) (b. Feb. 12, 1893, Clark, Mo., U.S.—d. April 8, 1981, New York, N.Y.) U.S. army commander. After graduating from West Point, he directed the army’s infantry school at the start of World War II. In 1943 he commanded U.S. forces in the North Africa Campaign and contributed directly to the fall of Tunisia to the Allies; he then led the successful invasion of Sicily. As commander of the 1st Army, he helped plan the invasion of France and took part in the Normandy Campaign and the liberation of Paris. As commander of the 12th Army, the largest U.S. force ever placed under one general, he oversaw European operations until the German surrender. After the war he was appointed head of veterans’ affairs (1945-47) and chief of staff of the army (1948- 49). Admired by both officers and men, he was chosen the first chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (1949-53) and promoted to General of the Army (1950).

Bradley, Thomas (b. Dec. 29, 1917, Calvert, Texas, U.S.—d. Sept. 29, 1998, Los Angeles, Calif.) Mayor of Los Angeles (1973-93). The son of a sharecropper, he moved with his family to Los Angeles when he was seven and endured poverty after his father abandoned the family. In 1940 he began a 22-year tenure with the city’s police department, during which he earned a law degree (1956) by attending night school. In 1963 he became the city’s first African American council member, and in 1973 he was elected one of the country’s first two African American mayors of a major city (with Coleman Young of Detroit). During five terms as mayor, he helped transform Los Angeles into a bustling business and trading centre, overseeing massive growth and hosting the 1984 Olympic Games. He retired in 1992 after the city was consumed by riots following the acquittal of police officers in the beating of African American motorist Rodney King.

Bradman, Don (b. Aug. 27, 1908, Cootamundra, N.S.W., Austl.—d. Feb. 25, 2001, Adelaide, S.Aus.) Australian cricketer. One of the greatest run scorers in the history of the game, in test (international) matches Bradman scored 6,996 runs for Australia and set a record with his aver¬ age of 99.94 runs per match. In 1948 he was captain of the Australian team that was victorious in England, four matches to none. He retired from first-class cricket in 1949 and was knighted in the same year. Brad¬ man is often judged the greatest cricket player of the 20th century.

Bradstreet, Anne orig. Anne Dudley (b. c. 1612, Northampton, Northhamptonshire?, Eng.—d. Sept. 16, 1672, Andover, Massachusetts Bay Colony) English-born American poet, one of the first poets of the American colonies. At age 18 she sailed from England with her husband,

Bragg, Braxton (b. March 22, 1817, Warrenton, N.C., U.S.—d. Sept. 27, 1876, Galveston, Texas) U.S. and Confederate army officer. He gradu¬ ated from West Point and served in the Seminole Wars and the Mexican War. When North Carolina seceded, he joined the Confederate army and fought in the American Civil War. He was promoted to general in 1862 at the Battle of Shiloh. As commander of the Army of Tennessee, he led his troops to victory at the Battle of Chickamauga. His forces besieged the Union troops at Chattanooga but were eventually routed. He was relieved of his command but appointed military adviser to Con¬ federate Pres. Jefferson Davis.

Bragg law Relation between the spacing of atomic planes in crystals and the angles of incidence at which the planes produce the most intense reflections of electromagnetic radia¬ tion and particle waves. The law, first formulated by Lawrence Bragg, is useful for measuring wavelengths and for determining the lattice spacings of crystals (see crystal lattice), and is the principal way to make precise energy measurements of X rays and low-energy gamma rays. See also Wil¬ liam Bragg.

Braxton Bragg, engraving by George E. Perine

COURTESY OF THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

Bragg, Sir William (Henry) (b.

Eng.—d. March 12, 1942, London) 1 state physics. With his son (William) Lawrence Bragg (1890-1971), he shared a 1915 Nobel Prize for research on the determination of crystal structures and Lawrence’s discovery (1912) of the Bragg law of X-ray diffraction. The Bragg ioniza¬ tion spectrometer William designed and built is the prototype of all mod¬ ern X-ray and neutron diffractome¬ ters; the two men used it to make the first exact measurements of X-ray wavelengths and crystal data.

Brahe Vbra, 'bra-he\, Tycho (b. Dec. 14, 1546, Knudstrup, Scania, Den.—d. Oct. 24, 1601, Prague) Danish astronomer. Kidnapped by his wealthy but childless uncle, he was raised at his uncle’s castle and educated at the Universities of Copenhagen and Leipzig. He trav¬ eled through Europe (1565-70),

2, 1862, Wigton, Cumberland, ;h scientist, a pioneer in solid-

Tycho Brahe, engraving by Hendrik Goltzius of a drawing by an unknown artist, c. 1586.

COURTESY OF DET NATIONALHISTORISKE MUSEUM PA FREDERIKSBORG, DEN.

Brahma ► Braille I 265

acquiring mathematical and astronomical instruments, and, on inheriting his father’s and uncle’s estates, he built a small observatory. In 1573 he reported his discovery of a new star (later recognized as a supernova), news that shook faith in the immutable heavens. With the aid of Den¬ mark’s King Frederick II, he built a new, larger observatory (Uraniborg), which became northern Europe’s centre of astronomical study and dis¬ covery. There he undertook a comprehensive study of the solar system and accurately charted the positions of more than 777 fixed stars. The observational data left at his death was used by his pupil and assistant Johannes Kepler to lay the groundwork for Isaac Newton’s work.

Brahma One of three major gods in late Vedic Hinduism, c. 500 bc-c. ad 500. He was gradually eclipsed by the other two, Vishnu and Shiva. In classical times the doctrine of Trimurti identified the three as aspects of a supreme deity. Brahma was associated with the creator god Prajapati, whose identity he came to assume. All temples of Shiva or Vishnu con¬ tain an image of Brahma, but today there is no sect or cult devoted exclu¬ sively to him.

brahma-loka Vbra-mo-To-koX In Hinduism and Buddhism, the realm of pious celestial spirits. In Theravada, it includes the 20 uppermost planes of existence. The lower 16 of these are the rupa-brahma-loka, material realms inhabited by progressively radiant gods. The highest four realms, the arupa-brahma-loka, are devoid of substance. Rebirth into these realms is the reward for great virtue and meditation; the level attained is deter¬ mined by faithfulness to the Buddha, the dharma and the sangha. See also ARUPA-LOKA, RUPA-LOKA.

Brahmagupta V.bro-mo-'gup-toX (b. 598—d. c. 665, possibly Bhilla- mala, Rajasthan, India) Indian mathematician and astronomer. His prin¬ cipal work, the Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta (“The Opening of the Universe”), most of which deals with planetary motion, also contains important proofs of various geometrical theorems on quadratic equations, the geometry of right triangles, and the properties of geometric solids.

Brahman In the Upanishads, the eternal, infinite, and omnipresent spiri¬ tual source of the finite and changing universe. The schools of Vedanta differ in interpreting Brahman. The Advaita school defines Brahman as categorically different from any phenomenon, conceiving it as an abso¬ lute reality onto which human perceptions of differentiation are projected. The Bhedabheda school maintains that Brahman is not different from the world it produces. The Visistadvaita school holds that phenomenality is a glorious manifestation of Brahman. The Dvaita school maintains that both soul and matter are separate from and dependent on Brahman.

Brahman \'bra-mon\ or zebu \'ze-,bu\ Any of several varieties of cattle that originated in India and were crossbred in the U.S. with improved beef breeds to produce the hardy beef animal known as the Santa Gertrudis. Similar blending in Latin America resulted in the breed known as Indo-Brazil. The Brahman is characterized by a pronounced hump over the shoulder and neck, horns that usually curve up and back, and drooping ears. Gray is the prevalent colour, with deep shading in the fore and rear quarters of the bull. A red strain has also been developed.

Brahman or Brahmin Any member of the highest of the four var- nas, or social classes, in Hindu India. Their existence as a priestly caste dates to the late Vedic period, and they have long been considered to be of greater ritual purity than members of other castes and alone to be capable of performing certain religious tasks, including preservation of the collections of Vedic hymns. Because of their high prestige and tradi¬ tion of education, they dominated Indian scholarship for centuries. As the spiritual and intellectual elite, they advised the politically powerful war¬ rior caste, and after Indian independence they supplied many heads of state. They still retain traditional privileges, though these are no longer legally sanctioned. Ritual purity is maintained through taboos, vegetari¬ anism, and abstention from certain occupations.

Brahmana Vbra-mo-noN Any of a number of discourses on the Vedas that explain their use in ritual sacrifices and the symbolism of the priests’ actions. Dating to 900-600 bc, they constitute the oldest historical sources for Indian ritual. The Aitareya and Kausitaki Brahmana, compiled by fol¬ lowers of the Rig Veda, include discussions of daily sacrifices, the sac¬ rificial fire, new- and full-moon rites, and the rites for installation of kings. The Pancavimsa, Sadvimsa, and Jaiminiya Brahmana discuss the “going of the cows,” soma ceremonies, and atonements for mistakes in ritual. The Satapatha Brahmana introduces elements of domestic ritual, and the Gopatha Brahmana treats the priests’ supervision of sacrifices.

Brahmaputra ^bra-mo-'pii-troX River River, Central and South Asia. From its headsprings in Tibet (as the Zangbo River), it flows across south¬ ern Tibet to break through the Himalayas in great gorges (where it is known as the Dihang). It flows southwest through the Assam Valley and south through Bangladesh (where it is known as the Jamuna). There it merges with the Ganges (Ganga) to form the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta. About 1,800 mi (2,900 km) long, the river is an important source for irrigation and transportation. Its upper course was long unknown, and its identity with the Zangbo was only established by exploration in 1884-86.

Brahmo Samaj Vbra-mo-so-'majX Monotheistic movement within Hin¬ duism, founded in Calcutta (now Kolkata) in 1828 by Ram Mohun Roy. It rejected the authority of the Vedas and the doctrine of avatars, did not insist on belief in karma or rebirth, denounced polytheism and the caste sys¬ tem, and adopted some Christian practices. Roy’s intention was to reform Hinduism from within, but his successor, Debendranath Tagore, rejected Vedic authority. In 1866 Keshab Chunder Sen organized the more radi¬ cal Brahmo Samaj of India, which campaigned for the education of women and against child marriages. After Keshab nonetheless arranged a marriage for his underage daughter, a third group, Sadharan Brahmo Samaj, was formed in 1878. It gradually reverted to the teaching of the Upanishads but continued the work of social reform. The movement, always an elite group without significant popular following, lost force in the 20th century.

Brahms, Johannes (b. May 7, 1833, Hamburg—d. April 3, 1897, Vienna, Austria-Hungary) German composer. The son of a musician, he became a piano prodigy. In 1853 he met the composer Robert Schumann and his pianist wife, Clara (see Clara Schumann); Robert immediately proclaimed him a genius, and Clara became the lifelong object of his affections. In 1863 Brahms moved to Vienna, which would remain his principal home until his death. He took several positions as choral and orchestral conductor and performed as a soloist. The success of his Ger¬ man Requiem (1868) gave him an international reputation; his first sym¬ phony (1876) brought him even greater fame, and his violin concerto (1879) and second piano concerto (1882) led many to acclaim him the greatest living composer. His music complemented and counteracted the rapid growth of Romantic individualism in the second half of the 19th century. He was a traditionalist in the sense that he greatly revered the subtlety and power of movement displayed by the Classical composers Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. His orchestral works include four sym¬ phonies (1876, 1877, 1883, 1885), two piano concertos (1858, 1881), a violin concerto (1878), and a double concerto for violin and cello (1887). His chamber music includes four string quartets, two string sextets, two string quintets, three piano quartets, three piano trios, and violin, cello, piano, and clarinet sonatas. He also wrote choral music and more than 250 lieder (see lied).

Braille \'bral\ Universal system of writing and printing for the blind. The Frenchman Louis Braille invented the system in 1824. Characters embossed on paper are read by passing the fingers lightly over the manu¬ script. The system is based on a matrix of six dots arranged in two col¬ umns of three. The 63 combinations possible in this framework stand for letters, numbers, punctuation marks, and common words such as and and the. A Braille code for English was not adopted until 1932. Modifications

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