Britannica Concise 2005 - читать бесплатно онлайн полную версию книги автора Encyclopedia Britannica (ч. 68)

Khensu See Khons Khidr See Barbarossa

Khidr Vki-dorV a I- Legendary Islamic figure endowed with immortal¬ ity who became a popular saint, especially among sailors and Sufi mys¬ tics. His legend is based on a narrative from the Qur’an, which tells how a “man of God” helps Musa (Moses) search for a fish and at the same time performs seemingly senseless actions such as sinking a boat and killing a young man. By questioning him, Musa forfeits his patronage. Arab com¬ mentators embellished the story, giving him the name Khidr (“Green”) and claiming that he turned green upon diving into the spring of life. In Pakistan he is identified with a water deity who protects mariners and river travelers. Among Sufis he is associated with the ever-living spiritual function that can guide people on the spiritual path.

Khios See Chios Khitan See Liao dynasty

Khmelnytsky \kmyel-'nit-ske\, Bohdan (Zinoviy Mykhay- lovych) (b. c. 1595, Chigirin, Ukraine—d. Aug. 16, 1657, Chigirin) Ukrainian Cossack leader (1648-57). Although he was educated in Poland and served with the Polish military, he fled to the fortress of the Zapor- ozhian Cossacks in 1648 and organized a rebellion among them. After winning support from dissatisfied Ukrainian peasants and townspeople, he marched against Poland. After years of war, he sought aid from the Russians in 1654, and they subsequently invaded Poland, achieving the transfer of Ukrainian lands from Polish to Russian control. His attempts to secure autonomy for his Cossack followers resulted only in their later subjection to Russian rule.

Khmer \ko-'mer\ or Cambodian or Kampuchean Any member of the ethnolinguistic group that constitutes most of the population of Cambodia. Smaller numbers of Khmer also live in southeastern Thailand and the Mekong River delta of southern Vietnam. Traditional Khmer are a predominantly agricultural people, subsisting on rice and fish and liv¬ ing in villages. Their crafts include weaving, pottery making, and metal¬ working. They follow Theravada Buddhism, which coexists with pre- Buddhist animistic beliefs. Indian culture has historically been a strong influence on Khmer culture.

Khmer language or Cambodian language Mon-Khmer lan¬ guage spoken by more than seven million people in Cambodia (where it is the national language), southern Vietnam, and parts of Thailand. Khmer is written in a distinctive script, which, like the writing systems of Bur¬ mese, Thai, and Lao, is descended from the South Asian Pallava script (see Indic writing systems); the earliest inscription in Old Khmer is from the 7th century. During the Angkor period (9th-15th centuries), Khmer lent many words to Thai, Lao, and other languages of the region (see Tai languages). Khmer itself has borrowed many learned words from Sanskrit and Pali.

Khmer Rouge Vko-'mer-'riizhX French "Red Khmer" Radical com¬ munist movement that ruled Cambodia from 1975 to 1979. The Khmer Rouge, under the leadership of Pol Pot, opposed the government of the popular Norodom Sihanouk. They gained support after Sihanouk was toppled by Lon Nol (1970) and after U.S. forces bombed the countryside

in the early 1970s. In 1975 the Khmer Rouge ousted Lon Nol. Their extraordinarily brutal regime led to the deaths (from starvation, hardship, and execution) of one to two million people. Overthrown in 1979 by the Vietnamese, they retreated to remote areas and continued their struggle for power in Cambodia. The last Khmer Rouge guerrillas surrendered in

Khnum VkniimN or Khnemu Vkne-mu\ Ancient Egyptian god of fer¬ tility, associated with water and procreation. Worshiped as early as 2800 bc, he was represented as a ram with twisting horns or as a man with a ram’s head. He was believed to have created humankind from clay like a potter. His main temple was at Elephantine, near present-day Aswan, and he formed a triad of deities with the goddesses Satis and Anukis. Khnum also had an important cult at Esna, south of Thebes.

Khoekhoe \ , koi-,koi\ or Khoikhoi formerly Hottentot (pejora¬ tive) Group of peoples, speaking closely related Khoisan languages, who were among the first indigenous southern Africans encountered by Euro¬ peans. The precontact Khoekhoe were pastoralists who tended large herds of cattle and sheep. By 1800 Khoekhoe societies south of the Orange River in Cape Colony had been largely destroyed by disease and warfare, with the remnants either serving as bonded labourers for white farmers or blending into frontier communities of mixed descent, such as the Gri- qua. North of the Orange River in Namibia, the Nama are the largest Khoekhoe ethnic group, numbering about 230,000.

Khoisan Vkoi-.sanX languages Group of more than 20 languages presently spoken by perhaps several hundred thousand Khoekhoe and San peoples of southern Africa. A number of Khoisan languages are now either extinct or spoken by very few people. Their most distinctive linguistic characteristic is the original and extensive use of click consonants. The genetic unity of the Khoisan languages remains disputed.

Khomeini \ko-'ma-ne\, Ruhollah orig. Ruhollah Musavi (b. May

17, 1900?, Khomeyn, Iran—d. June 3, 1989, Tehran) Shfite cleric and leader of Iran (1979-89). He received a traditional religious education and settled in Qom c. 1922, where he became a Shfite scholar of some repute and an outspoken opponent first of Iran’s ruler, Reza Shah Pahlavi (r. 1926— 41), and then of his son, Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi (r. 1941-79). Popu¬ larly recognized as a grand ayatollah in the early 1960s, he was imprisoned and then exiled (1964) for his criticism of the government. He settled first in Iraq—where he taught at the shrine city of Al-Najaf for some years—and then, in 1978, near Paris, where he continued to speak out against the shah. During that time he also refined his theory of velayat-e faqih (“government of the jurist”), in which the Shfite clergy— traditionally politically quiescent in Iran—would govern the state. Iranian unrest increased until the shah fled in 1979; Khomeini returned shortly thereafter and was eventually named Iran’s political and religious leader (rcihbar). He ruled over a system in which the clergy dominated the gov¬ ernment, and his foreign policies were both anti-Western and anticom¬ munist. During the first year of his leadership, Iranian militants seized the U.S. embassy in Tehran—greatly exacerbating tensions with the U.S.— and the devastating Iran-Iraq War (1980-90) began.

Khons \'kons\ or Khensu \'ken-su\ or Chons \'kons\ Ancient Egyp¬ tian moon god. He was the son of the god Amon and the goddess Mut. He was usually depicted as a young man wearing a lunar disk and a rear¬ ing cobra on his head. He was also associated with baboons and was sometimes equated with Thoth, another moon god. In the late New King¬ dom (c. 1100 bc) a major temple was built for Khons in the Karnak com¬ plex at Thebes.

Khorana Xko-'ra-noV Har Gobind (b. Jan. 9, 1922, Raipur, India) Indian-born U.S. biochemist. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool and later taught in Canada and the U.S., from 1970 at MIT. He shared a 1968 Nobel Prize with Marshall Warren Nirenberg and Rob¬ ert William Holley for research that helped show how the genetic compo¬ nents of the cell nucleus control the synthesis of proteins. His contribution was to synthesize small nucleic acid molecules whose exact structure was known. Combined with the proper materials, his synthetic nucleic acids caused protein synthesis, just as in the cell; comparing these proteins with the nucleic acid showed which portions of the nucleic acid were the codes for each part of the protein. In 1970 he prepared the first artificial copy of a yeast gene.

Khorasan \,k6r-a-'san\ or Khurasan \,kur-a-'san\ Province (pop., 1996: 6,048,000), northeastern Iran. Its capital is Mashhad. The region

1032 I Khorram-dinan ► Kiarostami

was first named by the Sasanian dynasty, in whose language it means “Land of the Sun.” It was overrun by Muslim armies c. 650. Under Arab rule, it encompassed a vast territory including what is now southern Turk¬ menistan and northern Afghanistan. It was conquered c. 1220 by Genghis Khan and c. 1380 by Timur. Its current frontiers, as a province of Iran, were defined in 1881. Its population is composed of many ethnic groups as a result of numerous migrations and invasions over the centuries. The languages spoken are Turkish, Persian, and Kurdish. The province gives its name to the handcrafted Khorasan carpet.

Khorram-dman \k6r-,ram-de-'nan\ or Khorramiyyeh

\k6r-,ra-me-'yeh\ Islamic sect that flourished in the 9th-11th centuries. Though they were Muslims, some members of this sect believed in trans¬ migration of souls and in the Zoroastrian dualism of good and evil deities. Like the ShT'ites, they were partisans of c Au in the succession of the caliph¬ ate, and they held that Islam should be led by descendants of Muhammad. They differed from the Shfites in insisting that the leadership should be hereditary in the person of AbO Muslim. Claiming to be a descendant of Abu, their leader Babak led a rebellion against the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad, which ended with his capture and execution in 838. The sect died out in the 11th century.

Khosrow \kos-'rau\ I or Khosrow AnushTrvan (d. 579) Persian king (r. 531-579) of the Sasanian dynasty. He reformed taxation, reorga¬ nized the army, and launched military campaigns against the Hephthalites (a Central Asian people) and in Armenia, the Caucasus, and Yemen. He is said to have had Sanskrit texts imported for translation. Under his reign, chess was introduced from India, and astronomy, astrology, medicine, and philosophy flourished. The Avesta was purportedly codified under his reign, and in later eras his name became legend. Almost any pre-Islamic structure in Iran whose origin is unknown is credited to him.

Khosrow II or Khosrow ParvTz (d. 628) King of the Sasanian dynasty (r. 590-628) whose military exploits extended the empire to its furthest extent. He came to the throne—assisted by Maurice, the emperor of the Byzantine Empire —in troubled times. When a new Byzantine emperor took the throne, however, Khosrow launched a war against the empire, seizing Armenia and central Anatolia. In 613 his forces took Damascus, and Jerusalem fell in 614. His fortunes suffered a reverse when Byzan¬ tine forces recaptured lost ground and killed his ablest generals. Revolu¬ tion within the royal family followed, and Khosrow was executed. Under his reign, silverwork and carpet weaving reached a peak, and there is evi¬ dence of a renaissance in rock sculpture. After his death the empire rap¬ idly declined, falling to the Arabs during the Islamic conquests in 640.

Khrushchev \krush-'chof,\ English \'krush-chef\, Nikita (Sergeyevich) (b. April 17, 1894,

Kalinovka, Ukraine, Russian Empire—d. Sept. 11, 1971, Moscow,

Russia, U.S.S.R.) Soviet leader. The son of a miner, he joined the Com¬ munist Party in 1918. In 1934 he was elected to its Central Committee, and in 1935 he became first secretary of the Moscow party organization. He participated in Joseph Stalin’s purges of party leaders. In 1938 he became head of the Ukrainian party and in 1939 was made a member of the Politburo. After Stalin’s death in 1953, he emerged from a bitter power struggle as the party’s first secretary, and Nikolay Bulganin became premier. In 1955, on his first trip outside the Soviet Union,

Khrushchev showed his flexibility and the brash, extraverted style of diplomacy that would become his trademark. At the party’s Twentieth Congress in 1956, he delivered a secret speech denouncing Stalin for his “intolerance, his brutality, his abuse of power.” Thousands of political prisoners were released. Poland and Hungary used de-Stalinization to reform their regimes; Khrushchev allowed the Poles relative freedom, but he crushed the Hungarian Revolution by force (1956) when Imre Nagy attempted to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact. Opposition within the party crystallized in 1957, but Khrushchev secured the dismissal of his enemies

and in 1958 assumed the premiership himself. Asserting a doctrine of peaceful coexistence with capitalist nations, he toured the U.S. in 1959, but a planned Paris summit with Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1960 was canceled after the U-2 Affair. In 1962 he attempted to place Soviet mis¬ siles in Cuba; in the ensuing Cuban missile crisis, he retreated. Ideological differences and the signing of the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty (1963) led to a split with the Chinese. Agricultural failures that necessitated importation of wheat from the West, the China quarrel, and his often arbitrary admin¬ istrative methods led to his forced retirement in 1964.

Khuddaka Nikaya Vku-do-ko-'ne-ko-yoX (Pali: “Short Collection”) Collection of Buddhist texts. It constitutes the fifth and last section of the Pali-language Sutta Pitaka, one of the sacred texts of Theravada Buddhism. Written between 500 bc and the 1st century ad, its contents include ser¬ mons and doctrinal and ethical discourses attributed to the Buddha. It also contains all the major poetic works of the Pali canon (see Tripitaka).

Khulna \'kul-no\ City (pop., 2001: city, 811,490; urban agglom., 1,287,987), southwestern Bangladesh. Located east-northeast of Kolkata (Calcutta), India, it is an important river port and trade centre and is con¬ nected by river steamer, road, and rail to the major cities of the southern Ganges- (Ganga-) Brahmaputra delta. A municipality since 1884, it is the seat of a university.

Khurasan See Khorasan

Khurlya MurTya Vku-'re-ya-mu-'re-yaV Islands or Kuria Muria

\'kur-e-3-'mur-e-9\ Islands Island group, Oman. Located in the Arabian Sea off the country’s southeastern coast, it comprises five mainly uninhab¬ ited islands with a total land area of 28 sq mi (73 sq km). Al-Hallanlyah Island, the largest, is sparsely inhabited. The sultan of Oman ceded the islands to Britain in 1854, and they became part of the British colony of Aden in 1937. Britain returned the islands to Oman in 1967.

Khwarezm \'kwa-,rez- 3 m\ or Khwarizm \'kwa- I riz- 3 m\ Historic region along the Amu Darya (ancient Oxus River), in modem Turkmen¬ istan and Uzbekistan. It formed part of the empire of Achaemenian Per¬ sia in the 6th-4th centuries bc. The Arabs conquered it in the 7th century ad. In the following centuries it was ruled by many, including the Seljuqs, Khwarezm-shahs, Mongols, and Timurids, until the early 16th century, when it became the centre of the khanate of Khiva. In 1873 Russia con¬ quered the region and made it a protectorate. After the Russian Revolu¬ tion of 1917, the khanate was replaced by a Soviet republic, which was later dissolved and incorporated into the U.S.S.R.

Khwarezm-Shah Vkwa- l rez- 3 m-'sha\ dynasty (c. 1077-1231) Dynasty that ruled Central Asia and Iran, first as vassals of the Seuuq dynasty and then independently. It was founded by a slave, Anustegin GharachaT, who was appointed governor of Khwarezm. At its peak under ‘Ala 5 al-Dln Muhammad (r. 1200-20) and his son Jalal al-Dln Mingburnu (1220-31), the dynasty’s territory extended from India to Anatolia. It fell to Genghis Khan in 1231.

Khwarizmi, al- See al-Khwarizmi

Khyber Vki-b3r\ Pass Pass in the Spin Ghar (Safid Kuh) Range on the border between Afghanistan and Pakistan. About 33 mi (53 km) long, it has historically been the gateway for invasions of the Indian subcontinent from the northwest; it was traversed by Persians, Greeks, Mughals, and Afghans from the north and by the British from the south. The Pashtun Afridi people of the Khyber area long resisted foreign control, but dur¬ ing the Second Anglo-Afghan War in 1879, the Khyber tribes came under British rule. It is now controlled by Pakistan.

Kiangsi See Jiangxi Kiangsu See Jiangsu

Kiarostami, Abbas (b. June 22, 1940, Tehran, Ran) Iranian director. Kiarostami was hired in 1969 by the Institute for the Intellectual Devel¬ opment of Children and Young Adults to establish its film division. The institute produced his first film as a director, the lyrical short The Bread and Alley (1970), which featured elements that define his work— impro¬ vised performances, documentary textures, and real-life rhythms. His first feature, Mosafer (1974), is a portrait of a troubled adolescent. Where Is the Friend’s Home? (1987) gained him international acclaim, and he fol¬ lowed with several masterful films, including Close-up (1990), Through the Olive Trees (1994), The Taste of Cherry (1997), and The Wind Will Carry Us (1999). In the 1980s Kiarostami created documentaries exam-

Nikita Khrushchev, 1960.

WERNER WOLF/BLACK STAR

kibbutz ► Kiefer I 1033

ining the lives of Iranian schoolchildren, and his film ABC Africa (2001) examined the blight of orphans in AIDS-ravaged Africa.

kibbutz \ki-'buts\ Israeli communal settlement in which all wealth is held in common and profits are reinvested in the settlement. The first kib¬ butz was founded in Palestine in 1909; most have since been agricultural. Adults live in private quarters; children are generally housed and cared for as a group. Meals are prepared and eaten communally. Members have regular meetings to discuss business and to take votes on matters requir¬ ing decisions. Jobs may be assigned by rotation, by choice, or by skill. The kibbutz movement declined dramatically in the late 20th century. But kibbutzim continued to play in important role in the tourism industry in Israel, attracting students and other short-term residents, mostly Jews from overseas seeking a link with the past. See also moshav.

Kiche See Quiche

Kickapoo North American Indian people related to the Sauk and Fox and living in Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas, U.S., and northern Mexico. The name is a variant of the Algonquin word kiwegapawa, meaning “he stands about” or “he moves about.” Their language is of the Algonquian family, and they formerly inhabited what is now south-central Wisconsin, U.S. The Kickapoo were formidable warriors, whose raids took them as far as the southern and northeastern U.S. About 1765, after dispatching the Illinois Indians, they settled near Peoria, Ill., but later moved under pressure from advancing whites to Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, and Mexico. By the 19th century, central tribal authority had broken down and chiefs of the various bands had become autonomous. The Kickapoo resisted acculturation and sought to retain their old ways. Some 3,500 people claimed sole Kickapoo descent in the 2000 U.S. census; this fig¬ ure does not include those living in Mexico.

Kidd, Michael orig. Milton Gruenwald (b. Aug. 12, 1919, Brook¬ lyn, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. dancer, choreographer, and director. He studied at the School of American Ballet, dancing with that company in 1937 and later with American Ballet Theatre, for which he choreographed On Stage I (1945). He choreographed many Broadway musicals, including four that won successive Tony Awards: Guys and Dolls (1951), Can-Can (1953), Li’l Abner ( 1956), and Destry Rides Again (1959). His film credits include The Bandwagon (1953), Seven Brides for Seven Brothers (1954), and Hello, Dolly! (1969).

Kidd, William known as Captain Kidd (b. c. 1645, Greenock, Ren¬ frew, Scot.—d. May 23, 1701, London, Eng.) British privateer and pirate. He was sailing as a legitimate privateer for Britain when he was com¬ missioned in 1695 to apprehend pirates who molested the ships of the East India Company. He himself turned pirate on the voyage, took sev¬ eral ships, and mortally wounded his gunner, William Moore. He surren¬ dered in New York in 1699, having been promised a pardon. Sent to England for trial, he was found guilty of Moore’s murder and five piracy counts, and he was hanged. Some of his treasure was recovered from Gardiners Island (off Long Island), but much has apparently never been found. After his death he attained semilegendary status and was roman¬ ticized as a dashing swashbuckler.

Kidder, Alfred V(incent) (b. Oct. 29, 1885, Marquette, Mich., U.S.—d. June 11, 1963, Cambridge, Mass.) U.S. archaeologist. Kidder received his Ph.D. from Harvard University (1914) for developing the first effective pottery typology relating to the prehistory of the southwestern U.S. He later extended these interests to a classic study (1924) of the development of the Pueblo cultures and to the creation (1927) of a widely used archaeological classification system (the Pecos system) for the Southwest. In 1929 he also organized an interdisciplinary program that resulted in a far-reaching survey of cultural history in the Old and New Maya empires of Mexico and Central America. He taught at Phillips (Andover) Academy (1915-35) and at Harvard University (1939-50) and oversaw various programs at the Carnegie Institution (1927-50). He was considered the foremost archaeologist of the American Southwest and Mesoamerica of his generation.

kiddush Vki-dosh, ki-'dush\ Jewish prayer or blessing recited over a cup of wine immediately before the meal on the eve of the Sabbath or a major festival, acknowledging the sanctity of the day that is beginning. It is usu¬ ally performed by the head of the household, but it may involve all family members. After the recitation, each person sips wine from the cup. In the Ashkenazi tradition, two loaves of bread on the table signify the manna gathered by the Israelites during their years of wandering in the wilderness.

Kiderlen-Wachter Vke-dor-lon-'vek-torV, Alfred von (b. July 10, 1852, Stuttgart, Wiirttemberg—d. Dec. 30, 1912, Stuttgart) German dip¬ lomat. A career diplomat, he became foreign secretary in 1910 and pur¬ sued a belligerent foreign policy, working to establish Germany as the leading power in Europe through the Triple Alliance. In the second of the Moroccan crises (1911), he refused conciliatory offers by the French gov¬ ernment and excluded Britain from negotiations. Although German expansionists denounced the peace treaty as too lenient, Kiderlen’s brusque and forceful posturing during the crisis significantly aggravated the international tensions that led to World War I.

kidnapping Crime of seizing, confining, abducting, or carrying away a person by force or fraud, often to subject him or her to involuntary ser¬ vitude, in an attempt to demand a ransom, or in furtherance of another crime. Most countries consider it a grave offense punishable by a long prison sentence or death.

kidney One of a pair of organs that maintain water balance and expel metabolic wastes. Human kidneys are bean-shaped organs about 4 in. (10 cm) long, in the small of the back. They filter the entire 5-quart (about 4.5-liter) water content of the blood every 45 minutes. Glucose, miner¬ als, and needed water are returned to the blood by reabsorption. The remaining fluid and wastes pass into collecting ducts, flowing to the ure¬ ter and bladder as urine. Each kidney has over 1 million functional units (nephrons) involved in the process of filtration and reabsorption. The kid¬ neys also secrete renin, an enzyme involved in blood pressure regulation. Disorders include kidney failure, kidney stones, and nephritis. See also uri¬ nary system. See illustration on following page.

kidney failure or renal failure Partial or complete loss of kidney function. Acute failure causes reduced urine output and blood chemical imbalance, including uremia. Most patients recover within six weeks. Dam¬ age to various kidney structures can result from chemical exposure, major blood loss, crush injury, hypertension, severe burns, severe kidney infections, diabetes mellitus, renal artery or urinary tract blockage, and liver diseases. Complications include heart failure, pulmonary edema, and high potassium levels. Chronic failure usually results from long-term kidney diseases. The blood becomes too acidic, bones can lose calcium, and nerves can degen¬ erate. The kidneys can sustain life until they lose about 90% of their func¬ tion. If one is removed, the other increases in size and function to compensate. Failure of both usually requires dialysis or kidney transplant.

kidney stone or renal calculus Mass of minerals and organic mat¬ ter that may form in a kidney. Urine contains many salts in solution, and low fluid volume or high mineral concentration can cause these salts to precipitate and grow, forming stones. Large stones can block urine flow, be a focus for infection, or cause renal colic (painful spasms). They can obstruct the urinary system at various points. Treatment deals with any underlying problem (e.g., infection or obstruction), tries to dissolve stones with drugs or ultrasound (lithotripsy), or removes large ones surgically.

kidney transplant or renal transplant Replacement of a diseased or damaged kidney with one from a living relative or a legally dead donor. The former’s tissue type is more likely to match, reducing the chance of rejection; but removal puts the donor at risk, and a kidney from a dead donor is more likely to be available. The new kidney is implanted and its blood vessels and ureter sewn in place. A near-normal life may be resumed within two months, but the drugs that prevent rejection leave the patient vulnerable to infection. See also transplant.

Kido Takayoshi Vke-do-.ta-ka-'yo-sheV or Kido Koin \'ko-en\ (b. Aug. 11, 1833, Choshu, Nagato_ province, Japan—d. May 26, 1877, Tokyo) With Saigo Takamori and Okubo Toshimichi, one of the three giants of the Meiji Restoration of 1868. He became head of the government of the han (domain) of Choshu and in that capacity plotted with Saigo and Okubo of Satsuma to overthrow the Tokugawa shogunate. In the new government, Kido was responsible for transferring the capital from Kyoto to Edo (renamed Tokyo) and for persuading the heads of the large han to return their domains to the emperor. He visited Europe in 1871 and on returning helped block a plan to invade Korea. In the late 1870s he worked for establishing a Western-style constitution.

Kiefer Vke-foA, Anselm (b. March 8, 1945, Donaueschingen, Ger.) German painter. In 1970 he studied under the conceptual artist Joseph Beuys. In such huge paintings as Germany’s Spiritual Heroes (1973) he used visual symbols, somber colours, and naive drawing to comment with irony and sarcasm on Germany’s tragic past. In the 1980s his colossal

1034 I Kiel ► Kievan Rus

glomerulus

medulla

renal

artery

renal

ureter

Bowman's

capsules

collecting

duct

renal tubule

fibrous

capsule

renal

pelvis

— renal pyramid

cortex

Cross section of a kidney. The kidney is made up of an outermost cortex, a middle medulla, and an inner pelvis. Blood enters via the renal artery, which branches into smaller vessels, each of which terminates in a tuft of capillaries (glomerulus). Fluids from the blood are forced out of the glomerulus into the surrounding Bowman's capsule during filtration. The glomerulus, Bowman's capsule, and associated renal tubule make up the nephron. Any important substances filtered from the blood (including glucose, minerals, and much of the water) are returned to it by reabsorp¬ tion in the renal tubule. The medulla is divided into conical masses of tissue (renal pyramids) that contain the collecting ducts for the fluid (urine) not reabsorbed into the blood. Water is further removed from the urine as it passes through the collect¬ ing ducts into the funnel-shaped renal pelvis, which leads to the ureter.

paintings acquired an intense physical presence by means of perspectival devices and unusual textures. He is one of the most prominent figures in late 20th-century Neo-Expressionism.

Kiel Vkel\ City (pop., 2002 est.: 232,242), capital of Schleswig-Holstein state, northern Germany. A port at the eastern end of the Kiel Canal, it was founded in 1242. It entered the Hanseatic League in 1284; in 1773 Kiel became part of Denmark. Schleswig-Holstein passed to Prussia in 1866, and Kiel became its capital in 1917. An important naval base, it was the target of Allied bombing during World War II. It is the site of St.

Nicholas Church (c. 1240), a ducal palace (c. 1280), and the Christian- Albrechts University of Kiel (founded 1665).

Kielland, Alexander (Lange) (b. Feb. 18, 1849, Stavanger, Nor.—d. April 6, 1906, Bergen) Norwegian novelist, short-story writer, and dramatist. Kielland, who was born into an aristocratic family, took a degree in law in 1871 and was a businessman for almost a decade. After a trip to Paris, he began to write. His first book of short stories was pub¬ lished in 1879, and he soon became dedicated to social reform. His influ¬ ential novels include Garman and Worse (1880) and Skipper Worse (1882), both of which are set in and around Stavanger. He was perhaps the foremost prose stylist of his day, and, together with Henrik Ibsen, Bjorn- stjerne BJ0RNSON, and Jonas Lie, he is considered one of the “big four” of 19th-century Norwegian literature.

Kienholz \ , ken- l holts\, Edward (b. Oct. 23, 1927, Fairfield, Wash., U.S.—d. June 10, 1994, Hope, Idaho) U.S. sculptor. He pursued painting until he moved to Los Angeles and began producing large wooden reliefs for walls (1954). His controversial environmental sculptures, begun in the late 1950s, were elaborately detailed three-dimensional assemblages that harshly indicted U.S. society. His most famous walk-in scenes include Roxy’s, a replica of a 1943 Los Angeles bordello, and The Beanery, a reproduction of a decrepit bar with 17 figures, piped-in smells, jukebox music, and background conversation. Critics labeled some of his images repulsive or pornographic.

Kieran the Younger See St. Ciaran of Clonmacnoise

Kierkegaard Vkir-ko-.gardV Soren (Aabye) (b. May 5, 1813, Copenhagen, Den.—d. Nov. 11,

1855, Copenhagen) Danish religious philosopher, regarded as the founder of existentialism. He studied theology at the University of Copenhagen. He is remembered for his critique of sys¬ tematic rational philosophy, particu¬ larly Hegelianism, on the ground that actual life cannot be contained within an abstract conceptual sys¬ tem. With this stance, he intended to make possible an adequate consider¬ ation of faith and, accordingly, of religion—specifically Christianity.

His works include Either/Or (1843),

Fear and Trembling (1843), and The Sickness unto Death (1849). He insistently attacked the organized church in his later years; exhausted by the strain, he died at age 42. His work strongly influenced 20th- century Continental philosophers and theologians, including Karl Barth, Karl Jaspers, Martin Heidegger, and Martin Buber.

kieselguhr See diatomaceous earth

Kiev Vke-ef\ Ukrainian Kyyiv Vkyiv\ City (pop., 2001: 2,611,000), capital of Ukraine. Located along the Dnieper River, it was founded in the 8th century, and by the late 9th century its princes had expanded their territory to establish the state of Kievan Rus. In 1240 it was destroyed by the Tatars of the Golden Horde; after being rebuilt, it came successively under Lithuanian, Polish, and Cossack rule. It was incorporated into Rus¬ sia in 1793, and in 1934 it became the capital of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. It became Ukraine’s national capital after the country achieved its independence in 1991. An important industrial city, it is also an educational and cultural centre; it is the seat of a state university and the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine.

Kievan Rus Vke-von-'riisX First eastern Slavic state. It was founded by the Viking Oleg, ruler of Novgorod from c. 879, who seized Smolensk and Kiev (882), which became the capital of Kievan Rus. Extending his rule, Oleg united local Slavic and Finnish tribes, defeated the Khazars, and, in 911, arranged trade agreements with Constantinople. Kievan Rus peaked in the 10th and 11th centuries under Vladimir I and Yaroslav, becoming eastern Europe’s chief political and cultural centre. At Yaro-

Soren Kierkegaard, drawing by Chris¬ tian Kierkegaard, c. 1840; in a private collection.

COURTESY OF THE ROYAL DANISH MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS

Kigali ► Kilwa I 1035

Slav’s death in 1054, his sons divided the empire into warring factions. The 13th-century Mongol conquest decisively ended its power.

Kigali \ke-'ga-le\ City (pop., 1996 est.: 356,000), capital of Rwanda. Located in the middle of the country, it was a trading centre during the German colonial administration (after 1895) and a regional centre during the Belgian colonial period (1919-62). It became the capital of indepen¬ dent Rwanda in 1962. The fast-growing city was adversely affected by the country’s political turmoil in the 1990s.

Kikuyu \ki-'ku-yu\ or Gikuyu Bantu-speaking people who live in the highland area of south-central Kenya, near Mount Kenya. Numbering some six million, they are the largest ethnic group in Kenya. They tra¬ ditionally lived in separate domestic family homesteads, but during the Mau Mau rebellion the British colonial government moved them into vil¬ lages for security purposes, and this arrangement became permanent. Their traditional economy rested on intensive hoe cultivation of millet and other crops; the main modem cash crops are coffee, corn, and fruits and vegetables. Many Kikuyu serve in government posts.

Kilauea V.ke-lau-'a-oX Crater, eastern side of Mauna Loa, Hawaii Volca¬ noes National Park, U.S. The world’s largest active volcanic crater, it is about 3 mi (5 km) long, 2 mi (3.2 km) wide, and 500 ft (150 m) deep, lying at an altitude of 4,090 ft (1,250 m). In its floor is the vent known as Halemaumau Pit, legendary home of the fire goddess Pele. Its frequent eruptions are usually contained within the vent as a boiling lake of lava, but occasionally the lava escapes; since 1983 a series of emptions pro¬ duced lava that reached the sea 30 mi (48 km) away.

Kilburn, Tom (b. Aug. 11, 1921, Dewsbury, Yorkshire, Eng.—d. Jan. 17, 2001, Manchester) British computer scientist. His book A Storage System for Use with Binary Digital Computing Machines (1947) influ¬ enced several U.S. and Russian organizations to adopt his techniques. With Frederic C. Williams (1911-77) he designed and built the Manches¬ ter Mark I (1949), the first stored-program computer, which led to the first commercial computer, the Ferranti Mark I (1949). In 1964 he formed Britain’s first university computer science department and became its first professor. See also stored-program concept.

Kilby, Jack (St. Clair) (b. Nov. 8, 1923, Jefferson City, Mo., U.S.—d. June 20, 2005, Dallas, Texas) U.S. inventor. He studied at the University of Wisconsin. In 1958 he joined Texas Instruments; there he built the first integrated circuit, a device in which all of a circuit’s components are inte¬ grated on a single semiconductor surface. He also coinvented a handheld calculator with a thermal printer that is used in portable data terminals. The owner of more than 60 patents, he received the National Medal of Science (1970), the Kyoto Prize (1993), and the Nobel Prize for Physics (2000), shared with Herbert Kroemer and Zhores Alferov.

kilim \ke-'lem\ Pileless floor covering handwoven by tapestry techniques in Anatolia, the Balkans, and parts of Iran. The name is also given to a variety of brocaded, embroidered, warp-faced, and other flat-woven rugs and bags. A common characteristic is a slit that occurs wherever two colours meet along a vertical line in the pattern. The finest examples are silk 16th-17th-century pieces from Kashan, Iran. The largest kilims are produced in Turkey, as are smaller examples and prayer kilims (prayer rugs); Turkish weavers often use cotton for the white areas, and small details may be brocaded. The kilims of the southern Balkans, originally copies of Turkish types, gradually developed individual styles. Kilims become progressively less Asian in colour and pattern as the distance from Turkey increases.

Kilimanjaro V.ki-b-msn-'ja-roV Volcanic mountain, northeastern Tanzania. Situated in Kilimanjaro National Park (established 1973), it includes the peaks of three extinct volcanoes: Kibo, Mawensi, and Shira. Its highest peak is Kibo, which rises to 19,340 ft (5,895 m) and is the highest point in Africa. The first Europeans to see Kilimanjaro were German missionaries (1848). Kibo was first scaled in 1889 and Mawensi (16,896 ft [5,150 m]) in 1912.

killdeer Bird ( Charadrius vocif- erus ) that frequents grassy mudflats.

pastures, and fields. Its name is suggestive of its loud, insistent whistle. It is about 10 in. (25 cm) long and has a brown back, a white belly, and two black breast bands. Killdeers breed throughout North America and in northwestern South America. They migrate only to escape snow, return¬ ing before most songbirds. They eat beetles, grasshoppers, dragonflies, and other insects. To protect their young from predators, killdeers will feign injury and flutter awkwardly away from the nest, luring predators with the promise of an easy kill.

killer whale or orca A species ( Orcinus orca ) of toothed whale found in all seas from the Arctic to the Ant¬ arctic. Largest of the dolphins, the male may be 30 ft (9 m) long and weigh over 10,000 lbs (4,500 kg).

The killer whale is black, with white on the underparts, above each eye, and on each flank. The snout is blunt, and the strong jaws have 40-50 large, sharp, conical teeth. Killer whales live in groups of a few to about 50 individuals. They feed on fishes, cephalopods, penguins, and marine mammals; though they are fierce predators of seals and even other whales, there is no recorded instance of a killer whale attacking a human. They are often kept in cap¬ tivity and trained as performers in marine shows.

killifish Any of a few hundred species of egg-laying topminnows (see guppy) in the family Cyprinodon- tidae. They are found worldwide in brackish, salt, and fresh water, including desert hot springs. Some species grow to 6 in. (15 cm) long.

Killifish eat plant or animal material at the water’s surface. Many species (e.g., the lyretail) are attractively coloured and are kept in home aquariums. Killifish are also valuable as bait and for mosquito control.

Pupfish ( Cyprinodon ) inhabit Cali¬ fornia coasts and certain salt-lake shores in the western U.S. Some pupfish are listed as endangered; the Tecopa pupfish (C. nevadensis\ 0.6 in. [1.5 cm] long) was declared extinct in 1981.

Killy \ke-'le\, Jean-Claude (b. Aug. 30, 1943, Saint-Cloud, near Paris, France) French skier. Killy was reared in an Alpine ski resort. He became the European champion in 1965, and in 1966 he won the world combined championship (downhill, slalom, and giant slalom). In 1967 he won the first World Cup for men, repeating this triumph in 1968. In the 1968 Win¬ ter Olympics he became the second skier in history to sweep the Alpine events (after Austria’s Toni Sailer in 1956). He retired in 1968 but returned as a professional in 1972.

kiln Vkiln, 'kil\ Oven for firing, drying, baking, hardening, or burning a substance, particularly clay products but originally also grain and meal. Modem kilns are used in ceramics to fire clay and porcelain objects, in metallurgy for roasting iron ores, for burning lime and dolomite, and in making portland cement.

kilt Knee-length, skirtlike garment worn by men as part of the traditional national garb, or Highland dress, of Scotland. It is made of permanently pleated wool and wrapped around the wearer’s waist so that the pleats are in the back and the flat ends overlap in front. It is usually worn with the plaid, a rectangular length of cloth draped over the left shoulder. Both kilt and plaid are woven with a tartan pattern. The ensemble, which devel¬ oped in the 17th century, is worn for ordinary purposes as well as for special occasions. Highland dress is the uniform of Scottish regiments in the British army; kilts were worn into battle as recently as World War II.

Kilwa (Kisiwani) \'kel-wa\ Historical Islamic city-state, located on an island off the coast of what is now southern Tanzania. It became one of the most active commercial centres on the eastern coast of Africa by 1100, and gold coins were minted there. After being held briefly by the Portu-

Crater rim of Kilimanjaro at dawn.

GERALD CUBITT

Killer whale (Orcinus orca).

MIAMI SEAQUARIUM

GENE WOLFSHEIMER

1036 I Kim Dae Jung ► king

guese in the 16th century, it declined in importance and was abandoned. Extensive ruins remain, including those of mosques, a Portuguese fort, and a 13th-14th-century palace. The town of Kilwa on the Tanzanian coast was the site of a major centre for the export of slaves in the 19th century.

Kim Dae Jung Vkim-'dI-'joqN (b. Jan. 6, 1924, Hayi-do, Korea) South Korean politician and the first opposition leader to become president. He first entered politics in 1954, opposing the policies of Syngman Rhee, but did not win a seat in government until 1961. After being arrested several times in the 1970s, Kim was sentenced to death on charges of sedition and conspiracy; that sentence was commuted to 20 years in prison. In 1985, after a brief exile in the U.S., he resumed his role as a leader of the political opposition. In 1997 he was elected president of South Korea, serving from 1998 to 2003. In 2000 he received the Nobel Prize for Peace.

Kim ll-sung Vkim-'il-'surjV (b. April 15, 1912, Man’gyondae, Korea—d. July 8, 1994, P’yongyang) Communist leader of North Korea from 1948 until his death. When Korea was effectively divided between a Soviet- occupied northern half and a U.S.-supported southern half at the end of World War II, Kim Il-sung helped establish a communist provisional gov¬ ernment and became its first premier. He invaded South Korea in an attempt to reunify the country, but the subsequent Korean War ended without reunification. After the war, Kim introduced a philosophy of self- reliance ( juche ) under which North Korea tried to develop its economy with little help from foreign countries. His omnipresent personality cult enabled him to rule unchallenged for 46 years in one of the world’s most isolated and repressive societies.

Kim Jong ll Vkim-'chaq-'iH or Kim Chong II (b. Feb. 16, 1941, Sibe¬ ria, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Son of Kim Il-sung. He was designated his father’s successor in 1980 and became North Korea’s de facto leader on his father’s death in 1994. Known in North Korea as the Dear Leader, he makes few public appearances. After the onset of a severe famine (1995— 98), he began to relax his country’s extreme isolationism.

Kim Young Sam Vkim-'yoq-'samX (b. Dec. 20, 1927, Koje Island [near Pusan], Korea) South Korean moderate opposition leader who served as president (1993-98) after his party merged with the ruling party. First elected to South Korea’s National Assembly in 1954, he served there until his expulsion in 1979 by Pres. Park Chung Hee, which touched off riots and demonstrations that preceded Park’s assassination. After the military takeover by Gen. Chun Doo Hwan in 1980, Kim was put under house arrest until 1983. In 1990 he merged his party with the ruling Democratic Justice Party, a move that helped him win the presidency in 1992. He enacted reforms to end political corruption, and his term was one of ris¬ ing prosperity for Korea until 1997, when Korea became caught up in an Asian financial crisis.

Kimberley City (pop., 2005 est.: urban area, 185,000), South Africa. It is the capital of Northern Cape province. Founded in 1871 shortly after the discovery of diamonds in the area, it was the capital of Griqualand West (1873-80) before it became part of Cape Colony. It was besieged by the Boers for four months (1899-1900) during the South African War. Kimberley is home to several historical memorials and museums that honour its diamond-mining past. It is still a centre for mining and cutting diamonds. Its outskirts are marked by immense pits and heaps of earth, the aftermath of mining operations. The now-defunct Kimberley mine (now called the Big Hole) is nearby.

kimberlite or blue ground Dark, heavy, often fragmented igneous rock that may contain diamonds in the rock matrix. Kimberlite is a mica peridotite, an ultrabasic rock type with a complex and often highly altered mineral composition. It occurs in the Kimberley district of South Africa and the Kimberley and Lake Argyle regions of Australia, as well as near Ithaca, N.Y.

kimono Garment worn by Japanese men and women from the Early Nara period (645-724) to the present. The essential kimono is an ankle- length gown with long, full sleeves and a V-neck. It is lapped left over right across the chest and secured at the waist by a broad sash known as an obi. The contemporary wide obi dates only from the 18th century. Though the kimono is originally of Chinese origin, its great beauty is attributable to 17th- and 18th-century Japanese designers.

kindergarten School or class intended for children age four to six as a prominent part of preschool education. The kindergarten originated in the early 19th century as an outgrowth of the ideas and practices of Rob¬

ert Owen in Britain, Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi in Switzerland and his pupil Friedrich Froebel (who coined the term) in Germany, and Maria Montessori in Italy. Kindergartens generally stress the social and emotional growth of the child, encouraging self-understanding through play activities and creative expression.

Kindi, al- in full Yakub ibn Ishaq al-Sabah al-Kindi (died c. 870) First prominent Islamic philosopher. He worked in Iraq under the caliphs al-MAMUN and al-Mutasim. One of the first Arab students of the Greek philosophers, he translated important Greek works into Arabic and tried to combine the views of Plato and Aristotle into a new system. His short treatises considered the philosophical questions set forth by Neo¬ platonism. He also wrote over 270 scientific treatises on such subjects as astrology, Indian arithmetic, sword manufacturing, and cooking.

kinematics \ l ki-n3-'ma-tiks\ Branch of physics concerned with the geo¬ metrically possible motion of a body or system of bodies, without con¬ sideration of the forces involved. It describes the spatial position of bodies or systems, their velocities, and their acceleration. See also dynamics.

kinesiology \ki-,ne-ze-'a-l3-je\ Study of the mechanics and anatomy of human movement and their roles in promoting health and reducing dis¬ ease. Kinesiology has direct applications to fitness and health, including developing exercise programs for people with and without disabilities, preserving the independence of older people, preventing disease due to trauma and neglect, and rehabilitating people after disease or injury. Kine¬ siologists also develop more accessible furniture and environments for people with limited movement and find ways to enhance individual and team efficiency. Kinesiology research encompasses the biochemistry of muscle contraction and tissue fluids, bone mineralization, responses to exercise, how physical skills are developed, work efficiency, and the anthropology of play.

kinetic energy \ko-'net-ik\ Form of energy that an object has by rea¬ son of its motion. The kind of motion may be translation (motion along a path from one place to another), rotation about an axis, vibration, or any combination of motions. The total kinetic energy of a body or system is equal to the sum of the kinetic energies resulting from each type of motion. The kinetic energy of an object depends on its mass and velocity. For instance, the amount of kinetic energy KE of an object in translational motion is equal to one-half the product of its mass m and the square of its velocity v, or KE = Vimv 2 , provided the speed is low relative to the speed of light. At higher speeds, relativity changes the relationship.

kinetic sculpture Sculpture in which movement (as of a motor-driven part or a changing electronic image) is a basic element. Actual movement became an important aspect of sculpture in the 20th century. Pioneers such as Naum Gabo, Marcel Duchamp, Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, and Alexander Calder produced movement by such means as water, mechanical devices, and air currents (as in Calder’s mobiles). Neo-Dadaist works such as Jean Tinguely’s self-destructing Homage to New York (1960) embody the con¬ cept of a sculpture that functions as both an object and an event—a “hap¬ pening.”

kinetic theory of gases Theory based on a simple description of a gas, from which many properties of gases can be derived. Established pri¬ marily by James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann, the theory is one of the most important concepts in modern science. The simplest kinetic model is based on the assumptions that (1) a gas is composed of a large number of identical molecules moving in random directions, separated by distances that are large compared to their size; (2) the molecules undergo perfectly elastic (no energy loss) collisions with each other and with the walls of the container; and (3) the transfer of kinetic energy between mol¬ ecules is heat. This model describes a perfect gas but is a reasonable approximation to a real gas. Using the kinetic theory, scientists can relate the independent motion of molecules of gases to their pressure, volume, temperature, viscosity, and heat conductivity.

king Male sovereign over a nation or territory, of higher rank than any other ruler except an emperor. A king’s female counterpart is a queen. Some kings have been elected, as in medieval Germany, but most inherit the position. The community may concentrate all spiritual and political power in the sovereign, or power may be shared constitutionally with other government institutions. Some kings are heads of state but not heads of government. In the past, some were regarded as semidivine represen¬ tatives of God on Earth; others were viewed as gods in their own right or supernatural beings who became gods after death (see divine kingship).

King ► king crab I 1037

Since the 17th century the power held by monarchs, particularly those in western Europe, has been widely regarded as deriving from the people. See also constitutional monarchy; khan; monarchy; pharaoh; tsar.

King, B.B. orig. Riley B. King (b. Sept. 16, 1925, Itta Bena, near Indianola, Miss., U.S.) U.S. blues guitarist. Reared in the Mississippi Delta, he was influenced early by gospel music. He worked for a time as a disc jockey in Memphis, where he acquired the nickname B.B. (for Blues Boy). His first hit, “Three O’Clock Blues” (1951), was fol¬ lowed by a long succession of oth¬ ers, including “Every Day I Have the Blues” and “The Thrill Is Gone.” To his own impassioned vocal calls.

King played single-string guitar responses with a distinctive vibrato, in a style influenced by Delta blues guitarists and jazz guitarist Django Reinhardt. By the late 1960s rock gui¬ tarists were acknowledging his influ¬ ence and introducing King and his guitar, Lucille, to the white public.

He remains the most successful bluesman of all time.

King, Billie Jean orig. Billie Jean Moffitt (b. Nov. 22, 1943, Long Beach, Calif., U.S.) U.S. tennis player. She won her first Wimbledon doubles championship in 1961 as part of the youngest team to do so.

She went on to capture a record 20 Wimbledon titles (singles, women’s doubles, and mixed doubles) from the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s; in 2003 her record was tied by Martina Navratilova. She also won several U.S. singles titles (1967, 1971-72,

1974) and the Australian (1968) and French (1972) titles. She was ranked first in the U.S. seven times and first in the world five times. In 1973 she defeated the 55-year-old former men’s champion Bobby Riggs in a widely publicized “Battle of the Sexes.” She was cofounder and first president (1974) of the Women’s Tennis Association, and in 1974, with her hus¬ band, Larry King, she also founded World TeamTennis, of which she served as director. She wrote two autobiographies (with cowriters) and a history of women’s tennis, and she cofounded the magazine Womensport.

King, Larry orig. Lawrence Harvey Zeiger (b. Nov. 19, 1933, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. talk-show host. He worked in Miami, Fla., as a radio disc jockey, talk-show host, and freelance broadcaster and writer (1957-78). He hosted the popular national radio talk show The Larry King Show (1978-94) and, since 1985, the television talk show Larry King Live on CNN. Known for his easygoing interviewing style with celebrities, news makers, and world leaders, he conducted more than 30,000 inter¬ views on his two shows.

King, Martin Luther, Jr. (b. Jan. 15, 1929, Atlanta, Ga., U.S.—d. April 4, 1968, Memphis, Tenn.) U.S. civil-rights leader. The son and grandson of Baptist preachers. King became an adherent of nonviolence while in college. Ordained a Baptist minister himself in 1954, he became pastor of a church in Montgomery,

Ala.; the following year he received a doctorate from Boston University.

He was selected to head the Mont¬ gomery Improvement Association, whose boycott efforts eventually ended the city’s policies of racial seg¬ regation on public transportation. In 1957 he formed the Southern Chris¬

tian Leadership Conference and began lecturing nationwide, urging active nonviolence to achieve civil rights for African Americans. In 1960 he returned to Atlanta to become copastor with his father of Ebenezer Bap¬ tist Church. He was arrested and jailed for protesting segregation at a lunch counter; the case drew national attention, and presidential candi¬ date John F. Kennedy interceded to obtain his release. In 1963 King helped organize the March on Washington, an assembly of more than 200,000 protestors at which he made his famous “I have a dream” speech. The march influenced the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and King was awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize for Peace. In 1965 he was criticized from within the civil-rights movement for yielding to state troopers at a march in Selma, Ala., and for failing in the effort to change Chicago’s housing segregation policies. Thereafter he broadened his advocacy, addressing the plight of the poor of all races and opposing the Vietnam War. In 1968 he went to Memphis, Tenn., to support a strike by sanita¬ tion workers; there on April 4, he was assassinated by James Earl Ray. A U.S. national holiday is celebrated in King’s honour on the third Mon¬ day in January.

King, Rufus (b. March 24, 1755, Scarborough, Mass.—d. April 29, 1827, Jamaica, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. diplomat. He was a delegate to the Con¬ tinental Congress (1784-87), where he called for a new constitution. He helped frame the Constitution of the United States and effected its ratifi¬ cation by Massachusetts. In 1788 he moved to New York, where he was elected one of the state’s first U.S. senators (1789-96, 1813-25). He became a strong leader of the Federalist Party and introduced the antislav¬ ery provision of the 1787 document that formed part of the Northwest Ordinances. He served as ambassador to Britain from 1796 to 1803 and from 1825 to 1826.

King, Stephen (Edwin) (b. Sept. 21, 1947, Portland, Maine, U.S.) U.S. writer. Educated at the University of Maine, he wrote a number of enormously popular books, which made him one of the world’s best¬ selling writers. His books blend horror, the macabre, fantasy, and science fiction. Carrie (1974; film 1976), his first published novel and an imme¬ diate success, was followed by a long string of popular books, including The Shining (1977; film, 1980; television miniseries, 1997), The Dead Zone (1979; film, 1983), Pet Sematary (1983; film, 1989), and Misery (1987; film, 1990). Most of his novels have been adapted for television or film, and most have been translated into many languages.

King, W(illiam) L(yon) Mackenzie (b. Dec. 17, 1874, Berlin, Ont., Can.—d. July 22, 1950, Kingsmere, Que.) Prime minister of Canada (1921-26, 1926-30, 1935-48). The grandson of William L. Mackenzie, he was deputy minister of labour (1900-08) before being appointed Cana¬ da’s first minister of labour (1909-11). Reelected to the Canadian Parlia¬ ment (1919), he became leader of the Liberal Party. As prime minister, he favoured social reform without socialism; he led the government with support from an alliance of Liberals and Progressives. He effected a more independent relationship between the Commonwealth nations and Brit¬ ain. During and after World War II he unified a country often divided between English and French constituents.

King, William Rufus de Vane (b. April 7, 1786, Sampson county, N.C., U.S.—d. April 18, 1853, Cahaba, Ala.) U.S. politician. A member of the U.S. House of Representatives from North Carolina from 1811, he resigned from the House in 1816 to serve as secretary of legation to Wil¬ liam Pinkney, the U.S. minister plenipotentiary to Russia. Upon his return, he moved to Alabama and became one of the state’s first U.S. senators (1819-44, 1848-52). As minister to France from 1844 to 1846, he con¬ vinced the French government not to interfere with the U.S. annexation of Texas. In 1852 he was elected U.S. vice president under Franklin Pierce, but he died shortly after taking the oath of office.

King Cotton Phrase used before the American Civil War to denote the economic importance of Southern cotton production. The concept first appeared in the book Cotton Is King (1855) and was echoed by Southern politicians, who believed that cotton’s economic and political power would bring victory if secession led to war. The South expected support from Britain, a major cotton importer, but Britain instead developed alter¬ native sources of cotton within its empire. The South’s dependence on cotton contributed to its economic weakness after the Civil War.

king crab or Alaskan king crab or Japanese crab Marine decapod ( Paralithodes camtschatica), an edible crab. It is found in the shallow waters off Japan and along the Alaska coast; it also inhabits the

Billie Jean King.

COLORSPORT

1038 I King George Sound ► Kingston upon Hull

Bering Sea. One of the largest crabs, it often weighs 10 lbs (4.5 kg) or more. Its size and tasty flesh make it a valued food, and large numbers are fished commercially each year.

King George Sound Inlet of the Indian Ocean, southern coast of Western Australia. It has an area of 35 sq mi (91 sq km). Its harbours are Oyster Harbor and Princess Royal Harbor (the site of the port for the city of Albany). It was charted in 1791 by Capt. George Vancouver and was first used as a whaling base.

King George's War (1744—48) Inconclusive struggle between France and Britain for mastery of North America. Also called the American phase of the War of the Austrian Succession, the war involved disputes over boundaries of Nova Scotia and northern New England and control of the Ohio Valley. After bloody border raids by both sides, aided by their Indian allies, they signed the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), which restored conquered territory but failed to resolve colonial issues. See also French and Indian War.

King Philip's War (1675-76) Bloodiest conflict between American colonists and Indians in 17th-century New England. By 1660 colonial settlers, no longer dependent on Indians for survival, had pushed into Indian territory in Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. To pro¬ tect their lands, the Wampanoag chief King Philip (Metacom) organized a federation of tribes, which in 1675 destroyed several frontier settle¬ ments. In retaliation the colonial militia burned Indian villages and crops. After Philip’s death in 1676, Indian resistance collapsed. An estimated 600 settlers and 3,000 Indians were killed in the conflict.

king salmon See chinook salmon

king snake Any of seven species of snake (genus Lampropeltis, fam¬ ily Colubridae) found in numerous habitats from southeastern Canada to Ecuador. They kill by constriction; named for their practice of eating other snakes, they also take small mammals, amphibians, birds, and birds’ eggs. They are mainly terres¬ trial and relatively slow-moving.

Strikingly marked and smooth- scaled, they have a small head and are usually less than 4 ft (1.2 m) long, though some specimens may approach 7 ft (2 m). The common king snake, found throughout the U.S. and in northern Mexico, is usu¬ ally black or dark brown, variously blotched, ringed, or speckled with yellow or white.

King William's War (1689-97) Battle for North American territory between Britain, under King William III, and France. The war, which was the North American extension of the War of the Grand Alliance, involved French Canadians and New England colonists and their Indian allies. The British captured Port Royal, Acadia (later Nova Scotia), but failed to take Quebec. The French, under the count de Frontenac, won skirmishes at Schenectady, N.Y., and in New England but failed to take Boston. The war ended with the Treaty of Rijswijk (1697). See also French and Indian War.

kingdom of God or kingdom of heaven In Christianity, the spiri¬ tual realm over which God reigns as king, or the eventual fulfillment of God’s will on earth. Although rare in pre-Christian Jewish literature, the idea of God as king was fundamental to Judaism, and Jewish ideas on the kingdom of God most likely shaped New Testament usage. The term is often used in the New Testament, and it was a central theme in the preach¬ ing of John the Baptist and Jesus. Theologians differ as to whether Jesus implied that the kingdom had arrived in his person or whether it was expected as a future event. Christian orthodoxy now holds that the king¬ dom has been partially realized by the presence of the church in the world and that it will be fully realized after the Last Judgment.

kingfish Any of various fishes, among them certain species of mackerel and a drum. The king mackerel, or kingfish ( Scomberomorus cavalla), is a western Atlantic fish about 67 in. (170 cm) long and weighing 79 lbs (36 kg) or more. The kingfish, or whiting ( Menticirrhus saxatilis ), of the Atlantic, is notable among drums in that it lacks an air bladder.

kingfisher Any of about 90 species of birds (family Alcedinidae), many of which fish for their food. Solitary birds, kingfishers are found world¬ wide but are chiefly tropical. They have a large head, long and usually narrow bill, compact body, small feet, and usually a short or medium- length tail. Species range from 4 to 18 in. (10—45 cm) long; most have bright, boldly patterned plumage, and many are crested. They utter rat¬ tling or piping calls, and they plunge into the water for small fish and other aquatic animals. The only widespread North American species, the belted kingfisher ( Megaceryle alcyon), is bluish gray above and white below. The forest kingfishers (e.g., kookaburra) have a broader bill.

Kings, Valley of the Narrow gorge. Upper Egypt, near the ancient city of Thebes. It is the burial site of nearly all of the kings (pharaohs) of the 18th-20th dynasties (1539-1075 bc), from Thutmose I to Ramses X. The valley contains 62 tombs, virtually all of which were robbed in antiquity. Only the tomb of Tutankhamen escaped pillage; after its excavation in the 1920s, its treasures were placed in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. The longest tomb belongs to Queen Hatshepsut, whose burial chamber is nearly 700 ft (215 m) from the entrance. The largest tomb, built for the sons of Ramses II, contains scores of burial chambers. The valley is part of a UNESCO World Heritage site (designated 1979) centred on Thebes.

Kings Canyon National Park National park, Sierra Nevadas, south- central California, U.S. Occupying an area of 722 sq mi (1,870 sq km), it is administered along with the adjacent Sequoia National Park. Established in 1940, it contains giant sequoia trees. Its most spectacular feature is Kings Canyon on the Kings River, which was carved by glacial action.

Kings Mountain, Battle of (Oct. 7, 1780) Battle in the American Revolution between American revolutionaries and loyalists. About 2,000 frontiersmen were assembled to resist the British advance into North Carolina; they surrounded the 1,100 soldiers, mainly loyalists from New York and South Carolina, on Kings Mountain, S.C., near the border with North Carolina. The frontiersmen killed or captured almost all the loyal¬ ists, and the battle marked the beginning of the war’s turn against the British.

kingship, divine See divine kingship

Kingsley, Charles (b. June 12, 1819, Holne Vicarage, Devon, Eng.—d. Jan. 23, 1875, Eversley, Hampshire) English clergyman and novelist. After studies at Cambridge, he became a parish priest and later chaplain to Queen Victoria, professor of modern history at Cambridge, and canon of Westminster. An enthusiastic advocate of Christian socialism, he published several novels about social problems before writing the very successful historical novels Hypatia (1853), Westward Ho! (1855), and Hereward the Wake (1866). Fearing the Anglican church’s trend in the direction of Catholicism, he engaged in a famous controversy with John Henry Newman. His wholehearted acceptance of Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution inspired his popular children’s book The Water-Babies

(1863).

Kingston City (pop., 1999 est.: metro, area, 655,000), capital and chief port of Jamaica. Located on the southeastern coast of the island, it was founded in 1692 after Port Royal was destroyed by an earthquake. It soon became the commercial centre of Jamaica and was made the political capital in 1872. Historic buildings include a 17th-century church, a moated fortress, and the 18th-century Headquarters House. It is the seat of the University of the West Indies.

Kingston, Maxine Hong orig. Maxine Hong (b. Oct. 27, 1940, Stockton, Calif., U.S.) U.S. writer. Born to an immigrant family, she examined the myths, realities, and cultural identities of Chinese and American families and the role of women in Chinese culture in her fic¬ tion and nonfiction. Her widely admired The Woman Warrior (1976) and China Men (1980) blend fact and fantasy to tell aspects of her family’s history.

Kingston upon Hull or Hull City and unitary authority (pop., 2001: 243,595), geographic county of East Riding of Yorkshire, historic county of Yorkshire, England. It lies on the northern bank of the River Humber at its junction with the River Hull, 22 mi (35 km) from the North Sea. Hull was a medieval wool port that passed from the monks of Meaux Abbey to Edward I in 1293. For more than 400 years it was the chief shipping port for the inland waterways converging on the River Humber. Granted city status in 1897, it is a major national seaport, accommodating large oceangoing vessels. The medieval part of the city retains a number of his¬ toric buildings; its grammar school was founded in 1486.

Common king snake (Lampropeltis get- ula).

JACK DERMID

Kingstown ► Kiribati I 1039

Kingstown Capital (pop., 1999 est.: 16,175), chief port of Saint Vin¬ cent and the Grenadines, West Indies. Located on the southwestern end of Saint Vincent island, it overlooks Kingstown Harbour. Its sites of interest include the Botanic Gardens (founded 1763), the oldest of its kind in the Western Hemisphere; Capt. William Bligh made his 1787 voyage on the Bounty to obtain breadfruit trees from Tahiti for this garden.

Kinnock, Neil (Gordon) (b. March 28, 1942, Tredegar, Monmouth¬ shire, Wales) British politician. Elected to Parliament in 1970, he rose in the Labour Party ranks and was named to its national executive commit¬ tee in 1978. After the party suffered its heaviest defeat in 48 years in 1983, he was elected party leader, the youngest in its history. By 1989 he had persuaded the party to abandon its radical policies on disarmament and large-scale nationalization. Although the party increased its numbers in Parliament, it lost the 1992 general election to the Conservatives, and Kinnock resigned as party leader. He became a vice president of the European Commission of the European Union in 1999.

Kinsey Vkin-zeV Alfred (Charles) (b. June 23, 1894, Hoboken, N.J., U.S.—d. Aug. 25, 1956, Bloomington, Ind.) U.S. zoologist and expert on human sexual behaviour. After earning a Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1920, he taught zoology at Indiana University, where he became the founder-director, in 1942, of the university’s Institute for Sex Research (renamed the Kinsey Institute for Sex Research, Inc., in 1981). His inquir¬ ies into human sexuality led him to publish Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948) and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953). These reports, based on 18,500 personal interviews, received extraordinary pub¬ licity for their conclusions about contemporary sexual mores and behav¬ iour. Kinsey’s methodologies and statistical samplings, however, have been highly questioned and criticized in recent years.

Kinsha River See Jinsha River

Kinshasa \kin-sh'a-SQ\formerly Leopoldville Capital and largest city (pop., 1994 est.: 4,655,313), Democratic Republic of the Congo. Situated on the southern bank of the Congo River, it was founded as Leopoldville in 1881 by Henry Morton Stanley. It became the capital of the Belgian Congo in the 1920s. After World War II it emerged as the largest city in sub-Saharan Africa and became the capital of the independent republic in 1960. It was given its present name in 1966. A major river port and a commercial centre, it is the seat of the University of Kinshasa (1954).

kinship Socially recognized relationship between people who are or are held to be biologically related or who are given the status of relatives by marriage, adoption, or other ritual. Kinship is the broad term for all the relationships that people are born into or create later in life that are con¬ sidered binding in the eyes of society. Every person belongs to a family of orientation (e.g., mother, father, brothers, and sisters); many adults also belong to a family of procreation (which includes a spouse or spouses and children). Familial bonds of descent and marriage may be traced through a genealogy, a written or oral statement of the names of individuals and their kin relations to one another. Inheritance and succession (the trans¬ mission of power and position in society) usually follow kinship lines. See also exogamy and endogamy; incest.

kiosk \'ke-ask\ Originally, in Islamic architecture, an open circular pavil¬ ion consisting of a roof supported by pillars. The word has been applied to a Turkish summer garden pavilion and a type of early Persian mosque. Today the term refers to any small urban booth that dispenses newspa¬ pers, information, or tickets.

Kiowa Vkl-o-.woV North American Indian people living mostly in Okla¬ homa, U.S., on a reservation they share with Comanche and Apache. Their language is of Kiowa-Tanoan language stock. The name Kiowa may be a variant of their name for themselves, Kai-i-gwu, meaning “Principal People.” The Kiowa moved southward from western Montana and adopted the lifestyle of the Pains Indians. They hunted buffalo on horseback and lived in large three-poled tepees. They had warrior societies, the members of which attained rank according to their exploits in war. They believed that dreams and visions gave them supernatural power, and they participated in the sun dance ceremony. They were also noted for their pictographic por¬ trayals, or “calendar histories,” of important tribal events. They were among the last of the Plains peoples to capitulate to the U.S. Some 8,600 peoples claimed sole Kiowa descent in the 2000 U.S. census.

Kipling, (Joseph) Rudyard (b. Dec. 30, 1865, Bombay, India—d. Jan. 18, 1936, London, Eng.) Indian-born British novelist, short-story writer, and poet. The son of a museum curator, he was reared in England

but returned to India as a journalist.

He soon became famous for volumes of stories, beginning with Plain Tales from the Hills (1888; including “The Man Who Would Be King”), and later for the poetry collection Barrack-Room Ballads (1892; including “Gunga Din” and “Manda¬ lay”). His poems, often strongly rhythmic, are frequently narrative ballads. During a residence in the U.S., he published a novel, The Light That Failed (1890); the two Jungle Book s (1894, 1895), stories of the wild boy Mowgli in the Indian jungle that have become children’s classics; the adventure story Captains Coura¬ geous (1897); and Kim (1901), one of the great novels of India. He wrote six other volumes of short stories and several other verse collections. His Rudyard Kipling.

children’s books include the famous ELLIOTTANDFRY _

Just So Stories (1902) and the fairy¬ tale collection Puck of Pook’s Hill (1906). He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1907. His extraordinary popularity in his own time declined as his reputation suffered after World War I because of his wide¬ spread image as a jingoistic imperialist.

Kirchhoff \'kirk-hof\, Gustav Robert (b. March 12, 1824, Konigs- berg, Prussia—d. Oct. 17, 1887, Berlin, Ger.) German physicist. Kirch¬ hoff’s laws (1845) allow calculation of the currents, voltages, and resistances of electrical networks (he was the first to show that current flows through a conductor at the speed of light) and generalized the equa¬ tions describing current flow to three dimensions. With Robert Bunsen, he demonstrated that every element emits coloured light when heated at wave¬ lengths specific to it, a fact that is the basis of spectrum analysis. They used this new research tool to discover cesium (1860) and rubidium (1861), and began a new era in astronomy when they applied it to the spectrum of the sun.

Kirchhoff's circuit rules Vkir-,k6fs\ or Kirchhoff's laws Two

statements, developed by Gustav Kirchhoff, about complex circuits that embody the laws of conservation (see conservation aw) of electric charge and energy. They are used to determine the value of the electric current in each branch of the circuit. The first law states that the sum of the currents into a junction in the circuit equals the sum of the currents out of the junction. The second law states that around each loop in an electric cir¬ cuit, the sum of the electromotive force is equal to the sum of all the poten¬ tial drops (changes in voltage) across components in the loop. Using these rules, algebraic equations can be formulated to determine the value of currents in different loops in a circuit.

Kirchner Vkirk-norV Ernst Lud¬ wig (b. May 6, 1880, Aschaffen- berg, Bavaria—d. June 15, 1938, near Davos, Switz.) German painter, printmaker, and sculptor. He was among the founders of the Expres¬ sionist group Die Brucke. Kirchner’ s highly personal style, influenced by Albrecht Durer, Edvard Munch, and African and Polynesian art, was noted for its psychological tension and eroticism. He used simple, pow¬ erfully drawn forms and often garish colours to create intense, sometimes threatening works, such as his two versions of Street, Berlin (1907,

1913). Highly strung and often depressed, he took his own life when the Nazis declared his work “degen¬ erate.”

Kiribati X.kir-o-'ba-te, ,kir-i-'bas,

'kir-i-,bas\ officially Republic of Kiribati Island country, central

Street, Berlin, oil on canvas by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, 1913; in the Museum of Modern Art, New York City.

COURTESY OF THE MUSEUM OF MODERN ART, NEW YORK CITY

1040 I Kirin ► Kitakami Mountains

Pacific Ocean. It consists of 33 islands. The three major island groups are the Gilbert, Phoenix, and Line islands (excluding the three Line Islands that are U.S. territories); Kiribati also includes Banaba Island, the former capi¬ tal of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony. Area (land): 313 sq mi (811 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 95,300. Capital: Bairiki, on Tarawa Atoll. The indigenous people are mostly Micronesians. Languages: English (official), Gilbertese. Religions: Christianity (mostly Roman Catholic; also Protes¬ tant); also Baha’i. Currency: Australian dollar. With the exception of Banaba (which is a coral island and higher in elevation), all the islands of Kiribati are low-lying coral atolls built on a submerged volcanic chain and encircled by reefs. Only about 20 of the islands are inhabited; nearly all of the population of Kiribati live in the Gilbert Islands. The economy is based on subsistence farming and fishing. Kiribati is a republic with one legislative house; its head of state and government is the president. The islands were settled by Austronesian-speaking people before the 1st century ad. Fijians and Tongans arrived c. the 14th century. In 1765 the British commodore John Byron discovered the island of Nikunau; the first permanent European settlers arrived in 1837. In 1916 the Gilbert and Ellice Islands and Banaba became a crown colony of Britain; the Phoe¬ nix Islands joined the colony in 1937. Most of the Line Islands joined the colony in 1972, but in 1976 the Ellice Islands were separated and in 1978 formed the country of Tuvalu. The colony became self-governing in 1977, and in 1979 it became the Republic of Kiribati.

Kirin See Jilin

Kiriwina Islands See Trobriand Islands

Kirkland, (Joseph) Lane (b. March 12, 1922, Camden, S.C., U.S.—d. Aug. 14, 1999, Washington, D.C.) U.S. labour-union leader. He served as an officer in the U.S. merchant marine and joined the Ameri¬ can Federation of Labor (AFL) as a staff researcher in 1948. He was elected secretary-treasurer of the AFL-CIO in 1969 and succeeded George Meany as president in 1979. During Kirkland’s tenure (1979-95), the AFL-CIO’s membership and political influence waned due to shrinking employment in the U.S. manufacturing sector.

Kirkland, Samuel (b. Dec. 1, 1741, Norwich, Conn.—d. Feb. 28, 1808, Clinton, N.Y., U.S.) American clergyman. He was a Congregational missionary to Indian tribes of the Iroquois Confederacy and learned sev¬ eral Indian languages. In the American Revolution he served as chaplain to colonial troops and secured an alliance with the Oneida. He was rewarded with a land grant in New York state, where he founded the Hamilton Oneida Academy for Indian and white students (later Hamilton College).

Kirkwall Royal burgh and chief town (pop., 1995 est.: 7,000), Orkney Islands, Scotland. Located on Pomona Island off the northern tip of Scot¬ land, it has evidence of Norse influence persisting as late as the building of the Cathedral of St. Magnus in the 12th century. Kirkwall functions mainly as a commercial and service centre for the Orkney Islands and is also the islands’ historic county town (seat) and administrative centre. The exploitation of North Sea oil has led to development of offshore servic¬ ing and supply for the oil industry.

Kirkwood gaps Interruptions in the distribution of asteroids in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter that appear where any of these small bodies’ orbital periods would be a simple fraction of Jupiter’s. Sev¬ eral zones of low density in the asteroid belt were noticed about 1860 by Daniel Kirkwood (1814-95), who explained the gaps as resulting from perturbations by Jupiter. Any object that revolved in one of these loca¬ tions would be disturbed regularly by the planet’s gravitational pull and eventually be moved to another orbit.

Kirov Vke-r6f\, Sergey (Mironovich) orig. Sergey Mironovich Kostrikov (b. March 27, 1886, Urzhum, Vyatka province, Russia—d. Dec. 1, 1934, Leningrad, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Soviet political leader. After joining the Bolsheviks, he extended the Communist Party’s control in Trans¬ caucasia, and in 1926 Joseph Stalin appointed him head of the Leningrad party organization (1926). He modernized the city’s industries, was elected to the Politburo (1930), and acquired power that nearly rivaled Stalin’s. In 1934 he was assassinated by a young party member, Leonid Nikolayev, who was later shot, along with 13 suspected accomplices. Sta¬ lin, claiming that a widespread conspiracy of anti-Stalinist communists planned to assassinate the entire Soviet leadership, used the assassination as a pretext to institute the Purge trials. In 1956 Nikita Khrushchev sug¬ gested that Stalin had engineered Kirov’s assassination.

Kirov Theatre See Mariinsky Theatre

Kirovabad See Ganca

Kirstein Vkir-,sten\, Lincoln (Edward) (b. May 4, 1907, Rochester, N.Y., U.S.—d. Jan. 5, 1996, New York, N.Y.) U.S. dance authority, impre¬ sario, and writer. He graduated from Harvard, where he founded the lit¬ erary magazine Hound & Horn. Financially independent, he focused his artistic interests on ballet and in 1933 persuaded the choreographer George Balanchine to move to the U.S. to found a ballet school and com¬ pany. The School of American Ballet opened in 1934; Kirstein was its director from 1940 to 1989. He and Balanchine jointly established a series of ballet companies, culminating in the New York City Ballet (1948), of which he served as general director until 1989. He wrote seven books on ballet, including the classic history Dance (1935).

Kisangani \,ke-san-'ga-ne\ formerly (until 1966) Stanleyville City (pop., 1994 est.: 417,517), northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. The nation’s major inland port after Kinshasa, it is located on the Congo River, below Boyoma Falls. The city was founded in 1883 by Europeans and was known first as Falls Station and then as Stanleyville (for Henry Morton Stanley). It has been the major centre of the northern Congo since the late 1800s. It is the seat of the University of Kisangani (1963) and other institutions of higher education.

Kish Ancient Mesopotamian city-state located east of Babylon in what is now south-central Iraq. It lay on the Euphrates River before the course of the river changed. City ruins date to the 4th millennium bc and to Sum¬ erian culture; archaeological evidence of the palace of Sargon and the temple of Nebuchadrezzar II has also been found.

Kishinev See Chisinau Kishon River See Qishon River

Kissinger Vki-sffi-jorV Henry A(lfred) (b. May 27,1923, Fiirth, Ger.) German-bom U.S. political scientist and foreign-policy adviser (1969-76). He immigrated with his family to the U.S. in 1938. He taught at Harvard University, where he directed the Defense Studies Program (1959-69). He was appointed assistant for national security affairs by Pres. Richard Nixon in 1968 and served as head of the National Security Council from 1969 to 1975; he was secretary of state from 1973 to 1977. He developed the policy of detente toward the Soviet Union, which led to the Strategic Arms Limita¬ tion Talks agreements. He also initiated the first official U.S. contact with China. After helping to plan the U.S. bombing of Cambodia in 1969-70, he negotiated the cease-fire agreement that ended the Vietnam War, for which he shared the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1973 with Le Due Tho (who refused it). In 1973 he helped foment a military coup in Chile that toppled that country’s Marxist government. After leaving government service, he became an international consultant, lecturer, and writer.

Kit-Cat Club Association of early 18th-century Whig leaders that met in London. Members included the writers Richard Steele, Joseph Addison, and William Congreve and such political figures as Robert Walpole and the duke of Marlborough. They first met in the tavern of Christopher Cat, whose mutton pies were called kit-cats. Portraits of the 42 members were painted by Godfrey Kneller (1646-1723), and the specific size of the can¬ vas (36 x 28 in. [91 x 71 cm]) used for the portraits became known as a kit-cat.

Kitaj \ki-'tl\, R(onald) B(rooks) (b. Oct. 29, 1932, Chagrin Falls, Ohio, U.S.) U.S.-born British painter. He studied in New York City, Vienna, Oxford, and London. In the 1960s he was a prominent member of the Pop art movement in Britain. His works mingled the impersonal finish characteristic of Pop canvases with the loose, painterly brushwork of Abstract Expressionism but differed from the work of his Pop contem¬ poraries in their complex and allusive figurative imagery. Kitaj’s semiab¬ stract paintings featured brightly coloured and imaginatively interpreted human figures portrayed in puzzling and ambiguous relation to one another. He exhibited internationally and taught at various British art schools.

Kitakami Mountains \ke-'ta-ka-me\ Mountain range, northeastern Honshu, Japan. It parallels the Pacific coast and extends for about 155 mi (250 km) to the Ojika Peninsula. Its highest peak rises to 6,280 ft (1,914 m). Often referred to as the “Tibet of Japan,” the Kitakami Range is the most culturally isolated region of Honshu. Until the mid-20th century rel¬ ics of old agricultural practices survived, including the serf system known as Nago.

Kitakyushu ► Klamath I 1041

KitakyGshu Vke-'ta-.kyii-shiA City (pop., 2000 prelim.: 1,011,491), Kyushu, Japan. It was created in 1963 by the amalgamation of several cit¬ ies. Part of its long coastline is included in the Inland Sea National Park. It is one of Japan’s leading manufacturing centres. Undersea tunnels and a bridge link the city with Shimonoseki, Honshu.

Kitami Mountains \ke-'ta-me\ Mountain range, northeastern Hok¬ kaido, Japan. Extending 180 mi (290 km) along the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk, its elevations range generally from 2,500 to 3,100 ft (750 to 950 m), but the highest reaches 6,500 ft (1,980 m).

Kitchener City (pop., 2001: 190,399), southeastern Ontario, Canada. It is situated in the Grand River valley, southwest of Toronto. Founded by Bishop Benjamin Eby and settled by German immigrants c. 1807, it was incorporated as a city in 1912. It was known successively a Sand Hill, Eby town, and Berlin before being renamed in honour of H.H. Kitchener in 1916. The boyhood home of W.L. Mackenzie King is now preserved in Woodside National Historic Park.

Kitchener, H(oratio) H(erbert) later Earl Kitchener (of Khar¬ toum and of Broome) (b. June 24, 1850, near Listowel, Co. Kerry, Ire.—d. June 5, 1916, at sea off Orkney Islands) British field marshal and imperial administrator. Trained as a military engineer, Kitchener served in posts in the Middle East and Sudan before being appointed commander in chief of the Egyptian army in 1892. In 1898 he crushed the rebellious Mahdist movement in the Battle of Omdurman and forced concessions from France in the Fashoda Incident. He entered the South African War as chief of staff in 1899, becoming commander in chief a year later. In the last 18 months of the war, he resorted to brutal methods, burning Boer farms and herding Boer women and children into concentration camps. He was later sent to India to reorganize the army there. A clash with Lord Curzon over control of the army resulted in Curzon’s resignation in 1905. In 1911 Kitchener returned to Khartoum as proconsul of Egypt and the Sudan. As secretary of state for war during World War I, he organized armies on a scale unprecedented in British history and became a symbol of the national will to victory. He died on a mission to Russia when his ship was sunk by a German mine.

kite Light frame covered with paper or cloth, often provided with a bal¬ ancing tail, and designed to be flown in the air at the end of a long string; it is held aloft by wind. Its name comes from the kite, a member of the hawk family. Kites have been in use in Asia from time immemorial, and religious significance is still connected to some ceremonial kite-flying there. In a famous experiment in 1752, Benjamin Franklin hung a metal key from a kite line during a storm to attract electricity. Kites were used to carry weather-recording devices aloft before the advent of balloons and airplanes. Types of kite commonly in use today include the hexagonal (or three-sticker), the malay (modified diamond), and the box kite, invented in the 1890s. Newer wing-like kites, with pairs of controlling strings for superior maneuverability, are also flown.

kite Any of numerous lightly built birds of prey that have a small head, partly bare face, short beak, and long, narrow wings and tail. They are found worldwide in warm regions.

Some live on insects; others are pri¬ marily scavengers but also eat rodents and reptiles; a few eat only snails. In flight, kites slowly flap and then glide with wings angled back.

Kites belong to three subfamilies of the family Accipitridae: Milvinae (true kites and snail kites), Elaninae (including the white-tailed kite, one of the few North American raptors increasing in number), and Perninae (including the swallow-tailed kite of the New World). See also hawk.

kithara Vki-tho-roX Large lyre of Classical antiquity, the principal stringed instrument of the Greeks and later of the Romans. It had a box¬ shaped resonating body from which extended two parallel arms connected by a crossbar to which 3-12 strings were attached. It was held vertically and plucked with a plectrum; the left hand was used to stop and damp the strings. It was played by singers of the Greek epics, as well as by later professional accompanists and soloists.

kittiwake or black-legged kittiwake White oceanic gull (Rissa tridactyla ) with pearl-gray mantle, black-tipped wings, black feet, and yellow bill. Kittiwakes nest on narrow cliff ledges along the North and South Atlantic coasts. The red-legged kittiwake ( R. brevirostris ) is found in the Bering Sea region.

kiva \'ke-v9\ Underground chamber of the Pueblo Indian villages of the southwestern U.S., notable for the murals that decorate its walls. A small hole in its floor, the sipapu, serves as the symbolic place of origin of the tribe. Though the kiva’s primary purpose is for ritual ceremonies, men also use it for political meetings or casual gatherings. Women are almost always excluded from the kiva. The traditional round slope of the earli¬ est kiva, in contrast to the otherwise square or rectangular Pueblo archi¬ tecture, recalls the circular pit houses of the prehistoric basket-weaving culture from which these tribes, primarily Hopi and Zuni, descend.

Kivu \ke-vu\, Lake Lake, central East Africa. Located between Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Zaire), it occupies 1,040 sq mi (2,700 sq km), is 55 mi (90 km) long and 30 mi (48 km) wide, and has a maximum depth of 1,558 ft (475 m). Containing many islands, it was part of a larger body of water until volcanic outpourings along its northern shore created a dam that separated it from Lake Edward.

kiwi Any of three species (genus Apteryx ) of chicken-sized, grayish brown ratite birds, found in New Zealand. Their Maori name refers to the male’s shrill call. Kiwis have vestigial wings hidden within the plumage; nostrils at the tip (rather than the base) of the long flexible bill; soft, hairlike feathers; and stout, muscular legs. Each of the four toes has a large claw. Kiwis live in for¬ ests, where they sleep by day and forage for worms, insects and their larvae, and berries at night. They run swiftly and use their claws in defense when cornered.

kiwi fruit Edible fruit of the vine Actinidia chinensis (family Actinid- iaceae), native to China and Taiwan and grown commercially in New Zealand and California. It became popular in the nouvelle cuisine of the 1970s. It has a slightly acid taste and is high in vitamin C. Kiwi can be eaten raw or cooked, and the juice is sometimes used as a meat tender- izer.

Kiyomori See Taira Kiyomori

KiziI \ki-'zil\ River ancient Halys River River, central and north- central Turkey. The longest river wholly within Turkey and the largest in Anatolia, it rises in north-central Turkey and flows southwestward. It turns north and empties into the Black Sea after a total course of 734 mi (1,182 km). Unsuitable for navigation, it is a source of irrigation and hydroelec¬ tricity for the region.

KKK See Ku Klux Klan

Klaipeda Vkll-po-doX German Memel Vma-moH City (pop., 2001: 192,954) and port, Lithuania. It lies on the channel that connects the Neman River with the Baltic Sea. A fortress built on the site in the early 13th century was destroyed in 1252 by the Teutonic Order, who built a new fortress called Memelburg. It came under Prussian control in the 17th century, and the town (Memel) was settled by Germans. In 1923 Memel became part of Lithuania and was renamed Klaipeda. Seized by Germany in 1939, it passed to the Soviet Union in 1945. Klaipeda became part of the newly independent Lithuania in 1991. The modem city has major shipbuilding yards and is the base for a large deep-sea fishing fleet.

Klamath Vkla-mothX North American Plateau Indian people living mainly in Oregon, U.S. The name Klamath may be a variant of their name for the region (spelled Clemmat or Tlamath); it is the name by which they were known to the Chinook. They called themselves Maqlaq, meaning “The People,” usually with an adjective (such as Ewksikni, “of the Lake”). They were primarily fishers and hunters of waterfowl. The Klamath were divided into relatively autonomous villages, each with its own leaders and medicine man; the villages would ally for war, and members of different villages often intermarried. Families lived in earth-covered lodges in win¬ ter and domed houses of poles and matting in summer. Sweat lodges

Swallow-tailed kite (Elanoides forfica- tus).

JAMES A. KERN

Common kiwi (Apteryx australis)

PICTORIAL PARADE

1042 I Klamath River ► Kline

doubled as community centres for religious activities. The Klamath’s closely related neighbours were the Modoc. Together with the Modoc and the Yahooskin band of Snake Indians, they form an entity known as the Klamath Tribes. Some 2,700 people claimed sole Klamath descent in the 2000 U.S. census.

Klamath Vkla-mothV River River, southern Oregon and northwestern California, U.S. Rising in Upper Klamath Lake just above Klamath Falls, Ore., it flows south and southwest for 250 mi (400 km) through the Kla¬ math Mountains in California and empties into the Pacific Ocean.

Klausenburg See Cluj-Napoca

klebsiella \,kleb-ze-'e-l3\ Any of the rod-shaped bacteria that make up the genus Klebsiella. They are gram-negative (see gram stain), thrive bet¬ ter without oxygen than with it, and do not move. K. pneumoniae, also called Friedlander’s bacillus, can infect the human respiratory tract and cause pneumonia and, as well as some other species, human urinary-tract and wound infections.

Klee \'kla\, Paul (b. Dec. 18, 1879, Miinchenbuchsee, Switz.—d. June 29, 1940, Muralto) Swiss painter.

After studies in Germany and Italy, he settled in Munich, where he became associated with Der Blaue Reiter (1911). He taught at the Bau- haus (1920—31), then at the Diissel- dorf Academy. He lost his post when the Nazis came to power in 1933 and returned to Switzerland. One of the foremost artists of the 20th century, he belonged to no movement, yet he assimilated and even anticipated some of the major artistic tendencies of his time. Using both representa¬ tional and abstract approaches, he produced some 9,000 paintings, drawings, and watercolours in a great variety of styles. His works, which tend to be small in scale, are remarkable for their delicate nuances of line, colour, and tonality. In Klee’s highly sophisticated art, irony and a sense of the absurd are joined to an intense evocation of the mystery and beauty of nature. Music figures prominently in his work—in his many images of opera and musicians, and to some extent as a model for his compositions. But literature had the greater pull on him; his art is steeped in poetic and mythic allusion, and the titles he gave to his pictures tend to charge them with additional meanings. His late paintings, anticipating his approaching death, are among his most memorable.

Kleiber Vkli-borV, Erich (b. Aug. 5, 1890, Vienna, Austria—d. Jan. 27, 1956, Zurich, Switz.) Austro-Hungarian conductor. After his Prague debut in 1911, he held a series of posts that led him to the Berlin State Opera, where he was music director from 1923 to 1934. There he premiered important works such as Alban Berg’s Wozzeck (1925). When the Nazis forbade the premiere of Berg’s Lulu (1934), he managed to program the suite from the opera for his last concert. After moving to Buenos Aires, he was head of the German Opera at the Teatro Colon (1937—49). His son Carlos (b. 1930) also became an internationally celebrated conductor, especially of opera, with a reputation for perfectionism equal to his father’s.

Klein, Calvin (Richard) (b. Nov. 19, 1942, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. fashion designer. He attended the Fashion Institute of Technology. He opened his own company in 1968, when casual, hippie-style clothing was in fashion, but took a different direction by designing simple, under¬ stated, elegant clothing. Though noted at first for suits and coats, he gradu¬ ally placed more emphasis on sportswear, particularly interchangeable separates. He was the first designer to win three consecutive Coty Awards for womenswear (1973-75). Over the course of the 1980s and ’90s he became known for his clothing, cosmetics, linens, and other designer col¬ lections, as well as for his erotic advertising photographs, some of which have drawn public protest. His achievements represented the maturation of the American fashion industry.

Klein, Melanie orig. Melanie Reizes (b. March 30, 1882, Vienna, Austria—d. Sept. 22, 1960, London, Eng.) Austrian-British psychoana¬ lyst. She married at age 21 and had three children before undergoing psy¬

choanalysis with Ferenczi SAndor in Budapest, Hung. She studied the psychoanalysis of young children, joining the Berlin Psychoanalytic Insti¬ tute (1921-26) and later moving to London. In works such as The Psy¬ choanalysis of Children (1932) and Narrative of a Child Analysis (1961), she asserted that children’s play was a symbolic way of controlling anxi¬ ety and that observation of free play with toys could serve as a means of determining early psychological impulses.

Klein, Yves (b. April 28, 1928, Nice, Fr.—d. June 6, 1962, Paris) French painter, sculptor, and performance artist. With no formal artistic training, he began in the mid 1950s to exhibit nonobjective paintings in which a canvas was uniformly covered in a single colour, usually blue; he also used the technique for sculptural figures and reliefs. In 1958 he produced a near-riot with an “exhibition of emptiness,” an empty gallery painted white, titled The Void. He used a variety of unorthodox methods to pro¬ duce pictures, such as imprints of the human body on paper or canvas (i anthropometries ). His work was deliberately extreme and experimental. A member of Fluxus, he greatly influenced the development of Minimal¬ ism.

Kleist \'klist\, (Bernd) Heinrich (Wilhelm) von (b. Oct. 18, 1777, Frankfurt an der Oder, Brandenburg—d. Nov. 21, 1811, Wannsee, near Berlin) German writer. He served seven years in the Prussian army, and his work first attracted attention when he was in prison accused as a spy. The grim and intense drama Penthesilea (1808) contains some of his most powerful poetry, and The Broken Pitcher (1808) is a masterpiece of dra¬ matic comedy; they were followed by Katherine ofHeilbronn (1810), Die Hermannsschlacht (1821), and The Prince of Homburg (1821). In 1811 he published a collection of eight masterly novellas, including Michael Kohlhaas, The Earthquake in Chile, and The Marquise of O. Embittered by a lack of recognition, he ended his unhappy life in a joint suicide with a young woman at age 34. He is now considered the first of the great 19th-century German dramatists, and his disturbing and densely written fictions are widely admired by writers.

Kleitias See Cleitias

Klemperer, Otto (b. May 14, 1885, Breslau, Ger.—d. July 6, 1973, ZUrich, Switz.) German conductor. After studying composition with Hans Pfitzner (1869-1949), in 1905 he met Gustav Mahler, who recommended him for several positions, including chief conductor at the Hamburg Opera (1910). At the short-lived Kroll Opera (1927-31) he conducted the Ber¬ lin premieres of many important works by contemporary composers. In 1933 he fled Germany for the U.S., conducting in Los Angeles (1933-39) and studying with Arnold Schoenberg. A brain tumour in 1939 left him partly paralyzed. From the 1950s, though seated on the podium, he cre¬ ated a much-admired recorded legacy with London’s Philharmonia Orchestra.

Kleophrades Painter See Cleophrades Painter

klezmer music Yiddish "vessel of song" Traditional music played by professional musicians (klezmorim) in the Jewish ghettos of eastern Europe, especially for weddings and other ceremonies. The klezmer tra¬ dition has its roots in medieval Europe. By the 19th century its style was well-developed, influenced not only by the liturgical music of the syna¬ gogue (which allows only unaccompanied singing), but also that of the local non-Jewish cultures. It is primarily lively dance music. Klezmer ensembles have varied considerably; in the U.S., where a klezmer revival began in the 1980s, a typical band consists of four to six musicians play¬ ing some combination of violin, clarinet, trumpet, trombone, tuba, accor¬ dion, double bass, and percussion.

Klimt, Gustav (b. July 14, 1862, Vienna, Austria—d. Feb. 6, 1918, Vienna) Austrian painter. In 1897, after a period as an academic mural- ist, his mature style emerged. Revolting against academic art in favour of a decorative style similar to Art Nouveau, he founded the Vienna Sez- ession. His most successful works include The Kiss (1908) and a series of portraits of fashionable Vienna matrons. In these works he treated the human figure without shadow, conveying the sensuality of skin by sur¬ rounding it with areas of flat, highly ornamental areas of decoration. His later murals are characterized by precisely linear drawing and flat, deco¬ rative patterns of colour and gold leaf. He greatly influenced Oskar Koko¬ schka and Egon Schiele. See also Jugendstil.

Kline, Franz (b. 1910, Wilkes-Barre, Pa., U.S.—d. May 13, 1962, New York, N.Y.) U.S. painter. He studied art in London before settling in New York City. He became one of the leading artists of the Abstract Expres-

Munchenbuchsee, Switz.—d. June

Klee, 1939.

AUFNAHME FOTOPRESS

Klinefelter syndrome ► knot I 1043

sionist movement and was known for his use of inexpensive commercial paints and large house-painter’s brushes to build graphic networks of rough bars of black paint on white backgrounds. He achieved a sense of majesty and power in such large-scale works as Mahoning (1956). In the late 1950s he introduced colour into his paintings.

Klinefelter syndrome Chromosomal disorder that occurs in one out of 500 males. With an extra X chromosome in each cell (XXY), patients look male, with firm, small testes, but they produce no sperm and may have enlarged breasts and buttocks and very long legs. Testosterone is low and pituitary reproductive hormones high. Intelligence is usually normal, but social adjustment can be difficult. Rarer variants cause additional abnormalities, including mental retardation. In the XX male syndrome, Y chromosome material has been transferred to another chromosome, caus¬ ing changes typical of Klinefelter syndrome. All variants are treated with ANDROGENS.

Klinger, Max (b. Feb. 18, 1857, Leipzig, Ger.—d. July 5, 1920, near Naumburg) German painter, sculptor, and printmaker. He is known for his use of symbol, fantasy, and dreamlike situations, reflecting a late- 19th-century awareness of psychological depths. His vivid, frequently morbid imaginings and his interest in the gruesome and grotesque can be seen in his Goyaesque etchings. He is best known for a series of pen- and-ink drawings called Series upon the Theme of Christ and Fantasies upon the Finding of a Glove, which tells a strange parable of a hapless young man and his obsessive involvement with a woman’s elbow-length glove. He also created controversial treatments of religious themes. In his later years he worked primarily in sculpture. He had a deep influence on many artists, including Edvard Munch, Kathe Kollwitz, Max Ernst, and Giorgio de Chirico.

Klondike gold rush Canadian gold rush of the late 1890s. Gold was discovered on Aug. 17, 1896, near the confluence of the Klondike and Yukon rivers in western Yukon Territory. The news spread quickly, and by late 1898 more than 30,000 prospectors had arrived. Annual production peaked at $22 million worth of gold in 1900, and soon prospectors began moving on to Alaska. By the time mining ended in 1966, the area had yielded $250 million in gold.

Kluane \klu-'6-ne\ National Park National park, southwestern Yukon, Canada. Located on the Alaskan border and established in 1972, it encompasses some 5,440,000 acres (2,201,500 hectares). Its focal point is Mount Logan, the highest peak in Canada. Kluane also has a large gla¬ cier system and abundant wildlife.

Kmart Corp. formerly (until 1977) S.S. Kresge Co. Major U.S. retail chain, marketing general merchandise primarily through discount and variety stores. It originated with a pair of 5-and-10-cent stores estab¬ lished in 1897 by S.S. Kresge and a partner. Kresge’s at first restricted the price of its merchandise to not more than 10 cents, but eventually to not more than one dollar. In 1962 Kresge’s entered the large-scale discount retail market with construction of the first Kmart outside Detroit, Mich. With its success, the company expanded aggressively, erecting an aver¬ age of 85 discount stores per year over the next two decades. In 1977 it became the second largest U.S. retailer. After introducing Martha Stew¬ art as its spokesperson in 1987, Kmart became the exclusive retailer for the Martha Stewart Everyday brand in 1997. Kmart declared bankruptcy, however, in 2002 after years of increasingly damaging competition from the world’s largest retailer, Wal-Mart, and other discount stores. It merged with Sears, Roebuck and Co. in 2005, becoming part of Sears Holdings Corporation.

Knesset \k9-'nes-3t\ (Hebrew: “Assembly”) Unicameral national legis¬ lature of Israel. The first Knesset opened in 1949. Its name and the num¬ ber of its seats (120) are based on the Jewish assembly of biblical times; its traditions and organization are based on the Zionist Congress, the political system of the Jewish community in pre-Israel Palestine, and more loosely the British House of Commons. Its members are elected by pro¬ portional representation for four-year terms; candidates are chosen by their parties.

knight French chevalier \sh3-'val-,ya\ German Ritter In the Euro¬ pean Middle Ages, a formally professed cavalryman, generally a vassal holding land as a fief from the lord he served (see feudalism). At about 7 a boy bound for knighthood became a page, then at 12 a damoiseau (“lord- ling”), varlet, or valet, and subsequently a shieldbearer or esquire. When judged ready, he was dubbed knight by his lord in a solemn ceremony.

The Christian ideal of knightly behavior (see chivalry) required devotion to the church, loyalty to military and feudal superiors, and preservation of personal honor. By the 16th century knighthood had become honorific rather than feudal or military.

Knight, Frank H(yneman) (b. Nov. 7, 1885, White Oak township, McLean county. Ill., U.S.—d. April 15, 1972, Chicago, Ill.) U.S. econo¬ mist. He received his Ph.D. from Cornell University in 1916. He taught at the University of Chicago from 1927 to 1952; Milton Friedman was one of the many students he influenced. His book Risk, Uncertainty and Profit (1921) distinguished between insurable and uninsurable risks and asserted that profit was the reward entrepreneurs earned for bearing uninsurable risk. His monograph “Economic Organization” is a classic exposition of microeconomic theory. He is considered the founder of the Chicago school of economics.

Knight Templar See Templar

Knights of Labor First important national labour organization in the U.S. Founded in 1869 by Uriah Smith Stephens as the Noble Order of the Knights of Labor, it included both skilled and unskilled workers, and it proposed a system of workers’ cooperatives to replace capitalism. To pro¬ tect its members from employers’ reprisals, it originally maintained secrecy. Under Terence V. Powderly (1879-93) it favoured open arbitration with management and discouraged strikes. National membership reached 700,000 in 1886. Strikes by militant groups and the Haymarket Riot caused an antiunion reaction that rapidly reduced the organization’s influence. A splinter group left to form the AFL (later AFL-CIO).

Knights of Malta or Hospitallers \'has-,pi-t 3 l-3rz\ in full (since 1961) Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of St. John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and of Malta Religious order founded at Jerusalem in the 11th century to care for sick pilgrims. Recognized by the pope in 1113, the order built hostels along the routes to the Holy Land. The Hospitallers acquired wealth and lands and began to combine the task of tending the sick with waging war on Islam, eventually becoming a major military force in the Crusades. After the fall of the crusader states, they moved their headquarters to Cyprus and later to Rhodes (1309). They ruled Rhodes until it fell to the Turks in 1523; thereupon they moved to Malta, where they ruled until their defeat by Napoleon I in 1798. In 1834 they moved to their present headquarters in Rome.

knitting machine Machine for textile and garment production. Flatbed machines may be hand-operated or power-driven, and, by selection of colour, type of stitch, cam design, and Jacquard device (see Jacquard loom), almost unlimited variety is possible. Modern circular machines may have 100 feeders, allowing each needle to pick up 100 threads per revolution. Both spring (invented c. 1589) and latch (invented 1847) needles are used, with the latter more common. Small bladelike units (sinkers) are inserted between every two needles to engage and hold the completed fabric. Machines may have pattern wheels controlling needle action to produce special stitches, and also a Jacquard mechanism. See also William Lee.

Knopf Xks-'nspf, ks-'nopA, Alfred A. (b. Sept. 12, 1892, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Aug. 11, 1984, Purchase, N.Y.) U.S. publisher. He worked a short time in publishing before he and his wife, Blanche, founded their own firm, Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., in 1915. His appreciation of contempo¬ rary literature and his literary contacts helped make the firm renowned for publishing works of high literary quality. By the time of his death, authors published by the firm had won 16 Nobel and 27 Pulitzer prizes. In 1966 it became a subsidiary of Random House, Inc. Knopf also published the American Mercury (1924-34), an influential periodical he cofounded with H.L. Mencken and George Jean Nathan.

Knossos \'na-s3s\ Ancient royal city, Crete. It was King Minos’s capi¬ tal and the centre of the Minoan civilization. Settled by migrants from Asia Minor in the 7th millennium bc, it gave rise to a sophisticated Bronze Age culture. Two great palaces were built in the Middle Minoan period, the second c. 1720 bc after an earthquake leveled the city. About 1580 bc Minoan culture began to extend to mainland Greece, where it greatly influenced the Mycenaean culture. After its palace was destroyed by fire c. 1400 bc, it was reduced to town status, and Aegean political focus shifted to Mycenae. Knossos was the site of the legendary labyrinth of Daedalus.

knot In cording, the interlacement of parts of one or more ropes, cords, or other pliable materials, commonly used to bind objects together. Knots

1044 i knot theory ► Knuth

have existed from the time humans first used vines and cordlike fibers to bind stone heads to wood in primitive axes, and were also used in the making of nets and traps. Knot making became sophisticated when it began to be used in the ropes, or rigging, that controlled the sails of early sailing vessels, and thus became the province of sailors. Knots are still depended on by campers and hikers, mountaineers, fishermen, and weav¬ ers, among others.

square knot overhand knot granny knot

running bowline sheet bend figure-eight knot

sheepshank cow hitch common whipping

fisherman’s knot clove hitch bowline

Examples of common knots.

knot theory Mathematical theory of closed curves in three- dimensional space. The number of times and the manner in which a curve crosses itself distinguish different knots. The fewest possible crossings is three, for the overhand (trefoil) knot, which occurs in two mirror versions according to the directions in which the curve crosses itself. Knot theory has been used to understand both atomic and molecular structures (pro¬ tein folding).

Know-Nothing Party or American Party U.S. political party of the 1850s. The party’s precursor organization, the secret Order of the Star-Spangled Banner, was formed in New York City in 1849 from the anti-immigrant and anti-Roman Catholic movement, and lodges were soon established in other major cities. Members were instructed to reply to queries about their group with “I know nothing.” As its membership and importance grew in the 1850s, the group slowly shed its clandestine character and took the official name American Party. The party called for restrictions on immigration and on naturalized citizenship. Many local and state candidates won offices in the 1852 election, and by 1855 there were 43 Know-Nothing members of Congress. At its 1856 convention the party split over the slavery issue; proslavery advocates left to join the Demo¬ crats and antislavery adherents joined the Republicans. By 1859 the par¬ ty’s influence was limited to the border states.

Knowles VnolzV John (b. Sept. 16, 1926, Fairmont, W.Va., U.S.—d. Nov. 29, 2001, Fort Lauderdale, Fla.) U.S. author. Educated at Yale Uni¬ versity, he gained prominence for his first novel, A Separate Peace (1959), about the competitive friendship of two private-school students. Most of his novels, which include Indian Summer (1966), Spreading Fires (1974), and Peace Breaks Out (1981), are psychological examinations of charac¬ ters caught in conflict between the wild and the pragmatic sides of their personalities.

Knox, Henry (b. July 25, 1750, Boston, Mass.—d. Oct. 25, 1806, Thomaston, Maine, U.S.) American Revolutionary officer. Active in the colonial militia, he joined the Continental Army and was sent by George Washington to transport British artillery captured in the Battle of Ticon- deroga. In mid-winter, he oversaw the transport of 120,000 lbs (55,000 kg) of artillery by oxen and horses over snow and ice 300 mi (480 km)

to Boston. Promoted to general, he commanded the artillery in the battles of Monmouth and Yorktown, and in 1783 he succeeded Washington as commander of the army. He was secretary of war under the Articles of Confederation from 1785 to 1789 and served as the first U.S. secretary of war from 1789 to 1795.

Knox, John (b. c. 1514, near Haddington, East Lothian, Scot.—d. Nov. 24, 1472, Edinburgh) Scottish cler¬ gyman, leader of the Scottish Refor¬ mation and founder of Scottish Presbyterianism. Probably trained for the priesthood at the University of St. Andrews, he was ordained in 1540. He joined a group of Protes¬ tants who fortified St. Andrews Castle, but they were captured by French Catholics and carried away into slavery in 1547. Released through English intervention in 1549, he spent four years preaching in England, where he influenced developments in the Church of England. With the accession of the Catholic Mary I, he fled to the Con¬ tinent. He served as pastor at Frank¬ furt am Main and Geneva until his return to Scotland in 1559. In England, Elizabeth I made common cause with the Scottish Presbyteri¬ ans, lest the French gain control of Scotland to support its Catholic monarch, Mary, Queen of Scots. Knox survived conflicts with Mary and spent the rest of his life in setting up the Presbyterian church.

Knox, Philander Chase (b. May 6, 1853, Brownsville, Pa., U.S.—d. Oct. 12, 1921, Washington, D.C.) U.S. lawyer and politician. After admis¬ sion to the bar in 1875 he became a successful corporation lawyer in Pittsburgh. As legal counsel for the Carnegie Steel Company, he helped organize the United States Steel Corp. (1900-01). Appointed attorney gen¬ eral by Pres. Theodore Roosevelt in 1901, he initiated several suits under the Sherman Antitrust Act. He served in the U.S. Senate from 1904 to 1909. As secretary of state (1909-13) under Pres. William H. Taft, he helped develop the foreign policy of expanded U.S. investment later criti¬ cized as Dollar Diplomacy. During his second term in the Senate (1917— 21), he opposed the formation of the League of Nations.

Knoxville City (pop., 2000: 173,890), eastern Tennessee, U.S. In 1786, Gen. James White, a former officer in the American Revolutionary army, established a frontier outpost near the Tennessee River. In 1791 White’s Fort was renamed Knoxville for Henry Knox. It served as the capital of the state of Tennessee from 1796 to 1812 and from 1817 to 1818. During the American Civil War, it was occupied by the Confederates until 1863. It is the seat of the University of Tennessee and Knoxville College as well as the headquarters of the Tennessee Valley Authority.

Knudsen Vkniid-son, 'niid-sonV William Signius orig. Signius Wilhelm Poul Knudsen (b. March 25, 1879, Copenhagen, Den.—d. April 27, 1948, Detroit, Mich., U.S.) Danish-U.S. industrialist. He immi¬ grated to the U.S. in 1900. In 1914 he began supervising Ford Motor Co. assembly plants and directed the firm’s construction of submarine patrol boats and other war materiel in World War I. He joined General Motors Corp. in 1922 and became president in 1937. He was appointed director of industrial production for the National Defense Research Committee and directed production of war materiel as head of the U.S. Office of Produc¬ tion Management.

Knut See Canute the Great

Knuth \k9-'nuth\, Donald E(rvin) (b. Jan. 10, 1938, Milwaukee, Wis., U.S.) U.S. computer scientist. Knuth earned a Ph.D. in mathematics in 1963 from the California Institute of Technology. A pioneer in computer science, he took time out during the 1970s from writing his highly acclaimed multi volume The Art of Computer Programming in order to develop TeX, a document-preparation system. Because of its precise con¬ trol of special characters and mathematical formulas, TeX and its variants soon became standard for submitting typeset-ready scientific and math¬ ematical research papers for publication. He has received many awards

John Knox, engraving from leones, by T. Beza, 1580.

COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM; PHOTOGRAPH, J.R. FREEMAN & CO. LTD.

Ko Hung ► Koestler I 1045

and honours, including the Kyoto Prize (1996), the Turing Award (1974), and the National Medal of Science (1979).

Ko Hung See Ge Hong

koala Tree-dwelling marsupial ( Phascolarctos cine reus) of coastal east¬ ern Australia. About 24-33 in.

(61-85 cm) long and tailless, the koala has a stout, pale gray or yel¬ lowish body; broad face; big, round, leathery nose; small, yellow eyes; and fluffy ears. Its feet have strong claws and some opposable digits.

The koala feeds only on eucalyptus leaves. The single offspring remains in the rearward-opening pouch for up to seven months. Koala popula¬ tions have dwindled seriously, for¬ merly because they were killed for their fur and now because of loss of habitat and the spread of disease.

koan \'ko-,an\ In Zen Buddhism, a brief paradoxical statement or ques¬ tion used as a discipline in meditation.

The effort to solve a koan is designed to exhaust the analytic intellect and the will, leaving the mind open for response on an intuitive level. There are about 1,700 traditional koans, which are based on anecdotes from ancient Zen masters. They include the well-known example “When both hands are clapped a sound is produced; listen to the sound of one hand clapping.”

kobdas \'go-au-,des\ Drum used for inducing trances and for divination by Sami shamans. It consisted of a wooden frame over which a reindeer hide was stretched; the hide was covered with designs representing spir¬ its or deities. In divination, the drum was beaten with a hammer made of reindeer antler, causing a triangular piece of bone or metal called an arpa to move along its surface. From these movements the shaman divined the nature of an illness or learned the location of lost or stolen objects.

Kobe \'ko-ba\ City (pop., 2000 prelim.: 1,493,595), west-central Hon¬ shu, Japan. It is situated on Osaka Bay and occupies a narrow shelf of land between mountains and the sea. With neighbouring cities Osaka and Kyoto, it is the centre of a major industrial zone. Until the Meiji Restora¬ tion it was only a fishing village, but it grew rapidly in the late 19th cen¬ tury. It was severely bombed during World War II and was entirely rebuilt after 1945. It suffered a major earthquake in 1995. Kobe is an important Japanese port and a centre of shipbuilding and steel production; it is the seat of Kobe University.

Koblenz or Coblenz Vk6-,blents\ ancient Confluentes City (pop., 2002 est.: 107,730), western Germany. Situated at the junction of the Rhine and Moselle rivers, it was founded by the Romans in 9 bc. It was a Frank¬ ish royal seat in the 6th century ad and was chartered as a city in 1214. The French occupied the city in 1794, and it passed to Prussia in 1815. After World War I, Koblenz was the seat of the Inter-Allied Control Com¬ mission for the Rhineland (1919-29). Devastated in World War II, it has since been restored. It is a centre for the German wine trade; other indus¬ tries include tourism and the manufacture of furniture, clothing, and chemicals.

Kobo Daishi See Kukai

Kobuk \ko-'buk\ Valley National Park National park, northwest¬ ern Alaska, U.S. Located north of the Arctic Circle, it was made a national monument in 1978 and a national park in 1980. Occupying an area of 1,750,421 acres (708,370 hectares), it preserves the Kobuk River valley, including the Kobuk and Salmon rivers, forest lands, and the Great Kobuk Sand Dunes. Archaeological sites reveal more than 10,000 years of human habitation. It protects caribou migration routes; other wildlife include grizzly and black bears, foxes, moose, and wolves.

Koch \'kach\, Ed(ward Irving) (b. Dec. 12, 1924, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. politician. After serving in the army during World War II, he graduated from New York University Law School. He was elected to the U.S. Congress in 1968, and in 1978 he was elected to the first of three

terms as mayor of New York City. Koch is credited with bringing fiscal stability to the insolvent city and with instituting merit selection of city judges. His brash forthrightness made him an entertaining and popular figure, but his demeanour and his rhetoric increasingly came to be seen as unkind and divisive and eventually resulted in his defeat. He later became a columnist and talk-show host.

Koch \'kok,\ English Vkok\, (Heinrich Hermann) Robert (b. Dec. 11, 1843, Clausthal, Hannover—d. May 27, 1910, Baden-Baden, Ger.) German physician. As the first to isolate the anthrax bacillus, observe its life cycle, and develop a preventive inoculation for it, he was the first to prove a causal relationship between a bacillus and a disease. He perfected pure-culture techniques, based on Louis Pasteur’s concept. He isolated the tuberculosis organism and established its role in the disease (1882). In 1883 he discovered the causal organism for cholera and how it is transmitted and also developed a vaccination for rinderpest. Koch’s postulates remain fundamental to pathology: the organism should always be found in sick animals and never in healthy ones; it must be grown in pure culture; the cultured organism must make a healthy animal sick; and it must be reiso¬ lated from the newly sick animal and recultured and still be the same. Awarded a Nobel Prize in 1905, he is considered a founder of bacteriol¬ ogy-

Kochel \'kcek-3l,\ English Vkar-shoL, Ludwig (Alois Ferdinand)

von (b. Jan. 14, 1800, Stein, near Krems, Austria—d. June 3, 1877, Vienna) Austrian scholar and musicologist. After gaining a law degree, he tutored children of wealthy families and traveled, researching books on a number of different topics, including botany, mineralogy, and music. He is best known for his 1862 thematic catalog of Mozart’s works (which are still identified by their “K numbers”), a monument of music scholarship. He also edited Ludwig van Beethoven’s letters.

Kocher Vko-koA, Emil Theodor (b. Aug. 25, 1841, Bern, Switz.—d. July 27, 1917, Bern) Swiss surgeon. He was the first surgeon to remove the thyroid gland to treat goitre (1876). He later found that total removal could cause a state resembling cretinism, but that leaving part of the gland in place made this temporary. He introduced a surgical method for reduc¬ ing shoulder dislocations, as well as many new surgical techniques, instru¬ ments, and appliances. A type of forceps and a gallbladder surgery incision named for him are still used. He adopted Joseph Lister’s principles of com¬ plete asepsis in surgery. In 1909 he won a Nobel Prize.

Kodak Co., Eastman See Eastman Kodak Co.

Kodaly Vk6-,dl\, Zoltan (b. Dec. 16, 1882, Kecskemet, Hung.—d. March 6, 1967, Budapest) Hungarian composer, ethnomusicologist, and music educator. He played various instruments as a child and studied simultaneously at the university and the Budapest Academy of Music, earning diplomas in composition and teaching and a doctorate in Hun¬ garian folk song. With Bela Bartok, a lifelong friend, he compiled the important Hungarian Folk Songs (1906), and he continued to make field recordings until World War I made it impossible. He came to international attention with his Psalmus hungaricus (1923) and the opera Hary Janos (1926). Kodaly created an individual style that was derived from Hun¬ garian folk music, contemporary French music, and the religious music of the Italian Renaissance. He devoted much of his energy to developing a school music curriculum that would develop children’s musicality, and the “Kodaly method” remains in wide use.

Kodiak Island Island (pop., 2000: 13,913), Alaska, U.S. Lying in the Gulf of Alaska, it is 100 mi (160 km) long and 10-60 mi (16-96 km) wide and has an area of 3,588 sq mi (9,293 sq km). The Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge covers 75% of the island and is the habitat of the Kodiak bear. Discovered in 1763 by a Russian fur trader, the island, known as Kikhtak, became the site in 1784 of the first Russian colony in America. Russian control ended in 1867; the island was renamed Kodiak in 1901. In 1964 a destructive earthquake lowered the island by 5-6 ft (1.5-1.8 m).

Koehler, Ted See Harold Arlen

Koestler \'kest-br\, Arthur (b. Sept. 5, 1905, Budapest, Hung.—found dead March 3, 1983, London, Eng.) Hungarian-British novelist, journal¬ ist, and critic. He is best known for Darkness at Noon (1940); a political novel examining the moral danger in a totalitarian system that sacrifices means to an end, it reflects the events leading to his break with the Com¬ munist Party and his experience as a correspondent imprisoned by the fascists in the Spanish Civil War. He also wrote of his disillusionment with

Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus).

1046 I Koguryo ► kola nut

communism in the essay collection The God That Failed (1949). His later works, mostly concerning science and philosophy, include The Act of Creation (1964) and The Ghost in the Machine (1967). Suffering from leukemia and Parkinson’s disease and believing in voluntary euthanasia, he died with his wife in a suicide pact.

Koguryo \,k6-gur-'yo\ Largest of the three kingdoms into which ancient Korea was divided until 668. Tradition sets its founding at 37 bc, but modern historians believe the tribal state was formed in the 2nd century bc. Eventually the northern half of the Korean peninsula, the Liaodong Peninsula, and much of Manchuria were under Koguryo’s rule. Bud¬ dhism, Confucianism, and Daoism all influenced the kingdom, which fell to the allied forces of China’s Tang dynasty and the southern Korean king¬ dom of Silla in 668. Numerous surviving tomb paintings give a good pic¬ ture of the life, ideology, and character of Koguryo’s forceful, horse-riding northern people. See also Parhae.

Koh-i-noor \'ko-9-,nur\ Famous Indian diamond with a history dating perhaps as far back as the 14th century. Originally a 191-carat stone that lacked fire (flashes of colour), it was recut to 109 carats in 1852 in an attempt to enhance its fire and brilliance. The Koh-i-noor (Hindi for “mountain of light”) was acquired by the British in 1849 and became part of the crown jewels of Queen Victoria. It was incorporated into the state crown fashioned for Queen Elizabeth, consort of George VI, at her coro¬ nation in 1937.

kohen See cohen

Kohima Vko-hs-msV Town (pop. 2001 prelim.: 78,584), capital of Nagaland state, northeastern India. It lies near the northern border of Manipur state in the Naga Hills. It marked the farthest point of the Japa¬ nese advance into British India during World War II. It was held briefly by Japanese troops during the Manipur campaign in 1944 but was retaken by the British. It is the site of Nagaland University.

Kohl \'kol\, Helmut (b. April 3, 1930, Ludwigshafen am Rhein, Ger.) Chancellor of West Germany (1982-90) and of reunified Germany (1990- 98). After earning a doctorate at the University of Heidelberg, he was elected to the Rhineland-Palatinate legislature and became the state’s min¬ ister president (1969). In 1973 he was elected chair of the Christian Demo¬ cratic Union, and in 1982 he became Germany’s chancellor. Kohl’s centrist policies included modest cuts in government spending and strong support for West German commitments to NATO. After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, Kohl concluded a treaty with East Germany that uni¬ fied the two countries’ economic systems. Absorption of the moribund East German economy proved difficult, and Kohl’s government had to increase taxes and cut government spending after unification. In 1998 his coalition government with the Free Democratic Party was defeated by the Social Democrats under Gerhard Schroder. Revelations of serious finan¬ cial irregularities during Kohl’s chancellorship soon emerged, tainting his reputation and weakening his party.

Kohler, Kaufmann (b. May 10, 1843, Fiirth, Bavaria—d. Jan. 28, 1926, New York, N.Y., U.S.) German-born U.S. rabbi. He was brought up in Orthodox Judaism but soon came under the influence of Reform leader Abraham Geiger. His early writings approached biblical texts criti¬ cally and led to his exclusion from the German rabbinate. He emigrated to the U.S. in 1869 and served Reform congregations in Detroit, Chicago, and New York City. In 1885 he was the driving force in formulating the Pittsburgh Platform. He served as president of Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati 1903-21. His chief work was Jewish Theology (1918).

Kohler Vkoe-brV Wolfgang (b. Jan. 21, 1887, Tallinn, Estonia, Rus¬ sian Empire—d. June 11, 1967, Enfield, N.H., U.S.) German-U.S. psy¬ chologist. His studies of problem solving by chimpanzees ( The Mentality of Apes, 1917), in which he examined learning and perception as struc¬ tured wholes, led to a radical revision of existing theory, and Kohler became a key figure in the development of Gestalt psychology. He con¬ tinued his research during the 1920s and early ’30s at the University of Berlin, publishing Gestalt Psychology (1929, rev. 1947), but emigrated from Germany to the U.S. after the Nazi takeover and taught at Swarth- more College (1935-55). His other writings include Dynamics in Psy¬ chology (1940), The Place of Values in a World of Facts (1938), and The Task of Gestalt Psychology (1969).

kohlrabi \kol-'ra-be\ Form of cabbage ( Brassica oleracea, Gongylodes group) of the mustard family, which originated in Europe. Its most distinc¬ tive feature is the greatly enlarged, globular to slightly flattened stem that

grows just above the soil. Its flesh resembles that of a turnip but is sweeter and milder. Low in calories, kohlrabi is an excellent source of vitamin C, minerals, and dietary bulk. The young tender leaves may be eaten as greens; the thickened stem is served raw or cooked.

Though not widely grown commer¬ cially, it is popular in some regions.

koine \koi-'na\ Newly formed compromise language that usually arises from a leveling of features dis¬ tinguishing dialects of a common base language, or of features distin¬ guishing several closely related languages. The new language is hence deregionalized and does not reflect social or political dominance of any one group of speakers. The classical example of a koine (as well as the source of the term) is Hellenistic Greek, which developed from Attic Greek through replacement of the most distinctively Attic features by features of Ionic or other dialects. A koine may serve as a lingua franca and often forms the basis of a new standard language.

Koizumi Jun'ichird (b. Jan. 8, 1942, Yokosuka, Kanagawa prefecture, Japan) Third-generation Japanese politician who became prime minister in 2001. Both Koizumi’s father and grandfather served in the Diet (par¬ liament). He ran unsuccessfully for his father’s seat after the latter’s death in 1969 but was elected in 1971. He held ministerial posts in 1988-89, 1992-93, and 1996-98. After unsuccessful bids for the presidency of the Liberal-Democratic Party in 1995 and 1998, he won in April 2001 and was soon confirmed as prime minister. An unconventional advocate of reform, Koizumi appointed a cabinet that included a record five women. His eco¬ nomic policies included privatizing the country’s postal savings system, reducing government spending, and ending the practice of supporting failing businesses.

Kokand See Qo'qon

Koko Nor Chinese Qinghai Hu or Ch'ing-hai Vchiq-'hA Hu Lake, Qinghai province, China. The largest drainless mountain lake of Central Asia, it is 65 mi (105 km) long and 40 mi (64 km) wide; its surface area fluctuates seasonally between 1,600 and 2,300 sq mi (4,200 and 6,000 sq km). It is located in the Nan Mountains (Nan Shan) at an elevation of 10,515 ft (3,205 m). Formed by melting glaciers during the Late Pleis¬ tocene Epoch, the lake today receives the waters of some two dozen riv¬ ers and streams.

Kokoschka Vko-'kosh-koN, Oskar (b. March 1, 1886, Pochlam, Austria—d. Feb. 22,1980, Villeneuve, Switz.) Austrian painter and writer. He studied and taught at the Vienna School of Arts and Crafts but was dissatisfied because the school omitted study of the human figure, his pri¬ mary artistic interest. His early paintings were rendered in delicate, agi¬ tated lines and relatively naturalistic colours. After c. 1912 he became a leading exponent of Expressionism; his portraits came to be painted with increasingly broader strokes of more varied colour and heavier outlines. While recovering from a wound received in World War I, he wrote, pro¬ duced, and staged three plays; his Orpheus and Eurydice (1918) became an opera by Ernst Krenek (1926). The landscapes he produced during 10 years of teaching and travel mark the second peak of his career. Shortly before World War II he fled to London, where his paintings became increasingly political and antifascist. He continued his political art after moving to Switzerland in 1953.

Kol Nidre Vk61-'ni-dra\ Prayer sung in Jewish synagogues at the start of services on the eve of Yom Kippur. The prayer begins with an expres¬ sion of repentance for all unfulfilled vows, oaths, and promises to God during the previous year. It was in use as early as the 8 th century, per¬ haps as a means of annulling oaths forced on Jews by their Christian persecutors. The melody used by Ashkenazi Jews became famous when the composer Max Bruch used it in his Kol Nidrei (1880).

kola nut or cola nut Caffeine- containing nut of two evergreen trees

Kohlrabi (Brassica oleracea)

W.H. HODGE

Kola nut (Cola nitida)

W.H. HODGE

Kola Peninsula ► Komodo I 1047

(Cola acuminata and C. nitida ) of the cocoa family (Sterculiaceae), native to tropical Africa and cultivated extensively in the New World tropics. The trees grow to 60 ft (18.3 m) in height and have oblong leathery leaves, yellow flowers, and star-shaped fruit. The nut has been used in medicines and in soft drinks, though American “colas” today instead use synthetic flavorings that mimic its taste. Kola nuts are also used where grown as a medium of exchange or are chewed to diminish sensations of hunger and fatigue, to aid digestion, and to combat intoxication, hangover, and diar¬ rhea.

Kola Peninsula Promontory, northern Russia. It separates the White and Barents seas; it occupies 40,000 sq mi (100,000 sq km) and extends across the Arctic Circle. It consists of rock more than 570 million years old. The winter climate is severe; the largest town is the ice-free port of Murmansk on the northern coast. It has the world’s largest deposits of apatite, used for fertilizer production.

Kolbe Vkol-boX, Saint Maksymilian Maria orig. Rajmund Kolbe (b. Jan. 8, 1894, Zdunska Wola, near Lodz, Russian Empire—d. Aug. 14, 1941, Auschwitz; canonized Oct. 10, 1982; feast day August 14) Polish Franciscan priest martyred by the Nazis. Ordained in 1918, he founded the City of Mary Immaculate religious centre (1927) and became its superior, as well as director of Poland’s chief Roman Catholic pub¬ lishing complex. He was arrested by the Gestapo in 1939 and again in 1941 on charges of aiding Jews and the Polish underground. He was imprisoned at Warsaw, then shipped to Auschwitz, where he volunteered his life in place of that of a condemned inmate.

Kolchak \k6l-'chak\, Aleksandr (Vasilyevich) (b. Nov. 16, 1874, St. Petersburg, Russia—d. Feb. 7, 1920, Irkutsk, Siberia, Soviet Russia) Russian naval officer and political leader. He was forced to resign as com¬ mander of the fleet in the Black Sea after the Russian Revolution of 1917 began. After a coup d’etat in Omsk in 1918, he gained power among the counterrevolutionary White Russians, and in 1919 he was recognized by them as supreme ruler of Russia. After initial successes against the Red Army, his armies were routed in 1919; the next year he was captured and executed by the Bolsheviks.

Kolkat a formerly Calcutta City (pop., 2001: city, 4,580,546; metro, area, 13,205,697), northeastern India. Capital of West Bengal state, former capital (1772-1912) of British India, and India’s second largest metro¬ politan area, it is located on the Hugli (Hooghly) River, about 90 mi (145 km) from the river’s mouth. The British established a trading centre at the site in 1690, which grew and became the seat of the Bengal presidency in 1707. It was captured by the nawab of Bengal, who in 1756 impris¬ oned the British there (in a prison that was later known as the Black Hole); the city was retaken by the British under Robert Clive. It was an extremely busy 19th-century commercial centre, but it began to decline with the removal of the colonial capital to Delhi in 1912. The decline continued when Bengal was partitioned between India and Pakistan in 1947 and when Bangladesh was created in 1971. The flood of refugees from those political upheavals boosted the city’s population but also significantly added to its widespread poverty. Despite its problems, Kolkata remains the dominant urban area of eastern India and a major educational and cul¬ tural centre.

Kollontay \,ka-l3n-'tl\, Aleksandra (Mikhaylovna) orig. Ale- ksandra Mikhaylovna Domontovich (b. March 31, 1872, St. Petersburg, Russia—d. March 9, 1952, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Rus¬ sian administrator and diplomat. As the first commissar for public wel¬ fare in the Bolshevik government (1917), she advocated simplifying marriage and divorce procedures and improving the status of women. She became the first woman to serve as an accredited minister to a foreign country when she was named minister to Norway (1923-25, 1927-30); she later served as minister to Mexico (1926-27) and Sweden (1930-45). In 1944 she conducted the negotiations that ended Soviet-Finnish hostili¬ ties in World War II.

Kollwitz \'kol-,vits,\ English Vkol-.witsV Kathe orig. Kathe Schmidt (b. July 8, 1867, Konigsberg, East Prussia—d. April 22, 1945, near Dresden, Ger.) German graphic artist and sculptor. She studied paint¬ ing in Berlin and Munich but devoted herself primarily to etchings, draw¬ ings, lithographs, and woodcuts. She gained firsthand knowledge of the miserable conditions of the urban poor when her physician husband opened a clinic in Berlin. She became the last great practitioner of Ger¬ man Expressionism and an outstanding artist of social protest. Two early series of prints, Weavers’ Revolt (1895-98) and Peasants’ War (1902-

08), portray the plight of the oppressed with the powerfully sim¬ plified, boldly accentuated forms that became her trademark. After her son died in World War I, she created a cycle of prints dedicated to the theme of a mother’s love. She was the first woman elected to the Prussian Acad¬ emy of Arts, where she was head of the Master Studio for Graphic Arts (1928-33). The Nazis banned her works from exhibition. The bombing of her home and studio in World War II destroyed much of her work.

Koln See Cologne

Kolreuter Vkcel- I r6i-t9r\ / Josef Gottlieb (b. April 27, 1733, Sulz,

Wiirttemberg—d. Nov. 12, 1806,

Karlsruhe, Baden) German botanist.

A pioneer in the study of plant hybrids, he was the first to develop a scientific application of the discovery (made in 1694 by Rudolph Camer- arius) of sex in plants. Cultivating plants in order to study their fertiliza¬ tion and development, he performed experiments, particularly with the tobacco plant, that included artificial fertilization and the production of fertile hybrids between plants of different species. His results foreshad¬ owed the work of Gregor Mendel. Kolreuter recognized the importance of insects and wind as agents of pollen transfer. He applied Carolus Lin¬ naeus’s sexual system of classification to lower plant forms. His work was not recognized until long after his death.

Kolyma V.ka-li-'maV River River, northeastern Siberia, eastern Russia. Rising in the Kolyma Mountains and emptying in the East Siberian Sea, it is 1,323 mi (2,129 km) long. It is navigable upstream to Verkhne- Kolymsk but is ice-free only from June to September. Under Joseph Sta¬ lin the goldfields of the upper Kolyma River valley held labour camps where more than one million prisoners died (1932-54).

Komarov \k9-m3-'r6f\, Vladimir (Mikhaylovich) (b. March 16, 1927, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.—d. April 24, 1967, Kazakstan) Soviet cosmonaut. He joined the Soviet air force at age 15, became a pilot in 1949, and piloted Voskhod 1, the first craft to carry more than one human into space, in 1964. On his 1967 flight in Soyuz 1 he became the first Russian to have made two spaceflights. During the 18th orbit he attempted a landing; he died when the spacecraft reportedly became entangled in its main parachute at an altitude of several miles and fell back to Earth.

Komodo \k3-'mo-do\ dragon Largest living lizard ( Varanus komo- doensis ), a member of the monitor lizard family Varanidae. They live on Komodo Island and a few neighbouring islands in Indonesia. Driven almost to extinction, they are now protected. Komodos grow to 10 ft (3 m) long, weigh up to 300 lb (135 kg), and may live up to 100 years. They

Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis).

JAMES A. KERN

Self-Portrait with Hand on Forehead, etching by Kathe Kollwitz, 1910; in the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.

B-7792 "SELF-PORTRAIT WITH HAND ON FOREHEAD," KATHE KOLLWITZ, NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART, WASHINGTON, D.C., ROSENWALD COLLECTION

1048 I Komsomol ► KoraVs

dig a burrow as deep as 30 ft (9 m). Carrion is their main diet, but adults may eat smaller Komodos. They can run swiftly and occasionally attack and kill humans.

Komsomol Vkam-so-.maL Organization in the former Soviet Union for young people aged 14-28 years. Primarily a political organ for spreading Communist teachings and preparing future members of the Communist Party, it was organized in 1918. Members participated in health, sports, education, and publishing activities and various industrial projects. They were frequently favoured over nonmembers for employment, scholar¬ ships, and the like. Its membership reached its height, about 40 million, in the 1970s and early 1980s. It disbanded with the collapse of Soviet communism in the early 1990s.

Konbaung dynasty See Alaungpaya dynasty

Kondratev Vkon-'drat-yoA, Nikolay (Dmitriyevich) also spelled Kondratieff (b. March 4, 1892—d. 1938?) Russian economist and stat¬ istician. In the 1920s he helped develop the first Soviet Five-Year Plan, for which he analyzed factors that would stimulate Soviet economic growth. After criticizing Joseph Stalin’s plan for the total collectivization of agri¬ culture, he was dismissed from his post as director of the Institute for the Study of Business Activity in 1928. He was arrested in 1930 and sen¬ tenced to prison; his sentence was reviewed in 1938, and he received the death penalty, which was likely carried out the same year. He is noted for his theory of 50-year business cycles known as Kondratev’s waves. See also Gosplan.

Konev Vko-nyoA, Ivan (Stepanovich) (b. Dec. 28, 1897, Lodeino, near Veliky Ustyug, Russia—d. May 21, 1973, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Soviet general in World War II. When the Germans invaded the Soviet Union in 1941, Konev led the first counterattack of the war. He defeated Heinz Guderian’s advance on Moscow and halted large German forces in 1942 and 1943. In 1944 his army was the first to march onto German soil; with the forces of Georgy K. Zhukov, it captured Berlin. After the war he served as commander in chief of Soviet ground forces (1946-50) and later of Warsaw Pact forces (1955-60).

Kong River River, Laos and Cambodia. Rising in central Vietnam southwest of Hue, it flows southwest for 300 mi (480 km), passing through southern Laos. It enters Cambodia east of the Mekong River and contin¬ ues southwest across the northern Cambodian plateau to later join the Mekong.

Kongo or Bakongo Bantu-speaking peoples living along the Atlan¬ tic coast in Congo (Kinshasa), Congo (Brazzaville), and Angola. They engage in subsistence agriculture and raise cash crops (including coffee, cacao, and bananas); many live and work in towns. Descent is matrilin- eal, and most villages are independent of their neighbours. A Kongo king¬ dom existed from the 14th century; its wealth came from trade in ivory, hides, slaves, and a shell currency. It broke up into warring chiefdoms in

Koniggratz Vkce-nik-.gretsV Battle of or Battle of Sadowa

Ysa-do-,va\ (July 3, 1866) Decisive battle in the Seven Weeks' War between Prussia and Austria, fought at Sadowa, near Koniggratz, Bohe¬ mia (now Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic). The Austrians, equipped with muzzle-loading rifles and relying heavily on the bayonet charge, were led by Ludwig von Benedek (1804-1881). The Prussians, led by Helmuth von Moltke, were armed with breech-loading needle guns; they used railroad transport to move their troops, a first in European warfare. The Prussian victory led to Austria’s exclusion from a Prussian-dominated Germany.

Konigsberg See Kaliningrad

Konkoure V.koq-kii-'raX River River, west-central Guinea, West Africa. Flowing west for 188 mi (303 km) to empty into the Atlantic Ocean, it is a source of hydroelectric power. Once a major hindrance to transporta¬ tion between Conakry and the towns of Boffa and Boke, it is now bridged at Ouassou.

Konoe Fumimaro Xko-'no-a-.fu-me-'ma-roV (b. Oct. 12, 1891, Tokyo, Japan—d. Dec. 16, 1945, Tokyo) Political leader and prime minister of Japan (1937-39, 1940^-1), who tried unsuccessfully to restrict the power of the military and to keep Japan’s war with China from widening into a world conflict. In 1941 he signed a nonaggression pact with the Soviet Union and participated in U.S.-mediated negotiations to try to resolve the conflict with China. Later that year he resigned over differences with Tojo Hideki. During the war he was forced to leave the centre of politics; after¬

ward he was a deputy minister in the Higashikuni cabinet. He committed suicide after being served an arrest warrant on suspicion of being a war criminal.

Konya \'kon-ya\ ancient Iconium City (pop., 1997: 623,333), central Turkey. First settled in the 3rd millennium bc, it is one of the oldest urban centres in the world. Influenced by Greek culture from the 3rd century bc, Iconium came under Roman rule by 25 bc. It was taken by the Seljuq dynasty c. 1072. Renamed Konya, it was a major cultural centre in the 13th century and was home to the Sufi brotherhood known as “whirling DERViSHes.” Later ruled by the Mongols, it was annexed to the Ottoman Empire c. 1467. It declined during Ottoman rule but revived after the Istanbul-Baghdad railway opened in 1896. An important industrial cen¬ tre, it is also a trade centre for the agricultural area surrounding it.

kookaburra or laughing jackass Eastern Australian species (Dacelo gigas) of forest kingfisher (subfamily Daceloninae). Its call, which sounds like fiendish laughter, can be heard very early in the morn¬ ing and just after sunset. A gray- brown, woodland-dwelling bird, it reaches a length of 17 in. (43 cm), with a 3.2-4-in. (8-10-cm) beak. In its native habitat it eats invertebrates and small vertebrates, including ven¬ omous snakes. In western Australia and New Zealand, where it has been introduced, it has been known to attack chickens and ducklings.

Koolhaas \'k6l-,has\, Rem (b.

Nov. 17, 1944, Rotterdam, Neth.)

Dutch architect. After studying architecture in London and working in New York City, in 1975 he opened his own firm in Rotterdam and Lon¬ don. He first achieved recognition with his book Delirious New York (1978), which profiled Manhattan’s architectural development, suggest¬ ing that it was an organic process created through a variety of cultural forces. His best-known projects are large-scale structures, including the Kunsthal in Rotterdam, the Grand Palais exhibition hall in Lille, Fr., and a master plan for the MCA/Universal Studios site in Los Angeles. His book S, M, L, XL (1996) addressed the theme of size. In 1998 he won the design competition for a new campus centre at the Illinois Institute of Technology. He was awarded the Pritzker Architecture Prize in 2000.

Kooning, Willem de See Willem de Kooning

Kootenay National Park National park, southeastern British Columbia, Canada. Centred around the Kootenay River, the park occupies the western slopes of the Rocky Mountains, adjacent to Banff and Yoho national parks. Established as a national park in 1920, it covers 543 sq mi (1,406 sq km). From prehistoric times, the area was a major north- south travel route. Pictographs indicate that humans settled near the hot springs 11,000-12,000 years ago. The park’s scenery is characterized by snowcapped peaks, glaciers, cascades, canyons, and verdant valleys. Wildlife includes wapiti (elk), moose, deer, bighorn sheep, and mountain goats.

Kootenay \ l kii-t 3 n-,a\ River River, western North America. Rising in the Rocky Mountains in Alberta, Can., it flows south through British Columbia. It continues into Montana and then turns north into Idaho, U.S., and back into British Columbia, where it joins the Columbia River, having traveled a course of 485 mi (780 km).

Koprulu Vkoe-priE-'liEN, Fazil Ahmed Pasha (b. 1635, Vezirkoprli, Anatolia, Ottoman Empire—d. Nov. 3, 1676, near £orlu, Thrace) Grand vizier (1661-76) under the Ottoman sultan Mehmed IV. He started his career as a scholar but entered the civil service when his father became grand vizier. Having made the army more efficient, he campaigned suc¬ cessfully against Austria (1663), the Venetian republic in Crete (1669), and Poland (1672-76). He died during his last campaign.

KoraVs \k6-'ra-esV Adamantios (b. April 27, 1748, Smyrna, Anatolia—d. April 6,1833, Paris, France) Greek scholar. He studied medi¬ cine in France but moved to Paris to pursue a literary career. He hoped to awaken the national aspirations of his countrymen and to increase aware¬ ness of the Greek heritage. His advocacy of a revived classicism had a great

Kookaburra (Dacelo gigas)

BUCKY REEVES FROM THE NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCIETY COLLECTION/PHOTO RESEARCHERS

Koran ► Korea I 1049

influence on Greek language and culture. His anthologies include the Library of Greek Literature, 17 vol. (1805-26), and the Parerga, 9 vol. (1809-27). Largely through his Atakta (composed 1828-35), the first Mod¬ ern Greek dictionary, he created a new Greek literary language by com¬ bining elements of vernacular (Demotic) with Classical Greek.

Koran See Qur’an

Korbut, Olga (Valentinovna) (b. May 16, 1955, Grodno, Belorus- sia, U.S.S.R.) Soviet gymnast. Korbut first competed in the U.S.S.R. championships in 1969. Appealingly diminutive, with a captivating smile, she was the first person ever to do a backward aerial somersault on the balance beam and the first to perform a backward release move on the uneven parallel bars. In the 1972 Olympic Games she won three gold medals (balance beam, floor exercises, and as a member of the winning U.S.S.R. team) and a silver medal (uneven parallel bars). In the 1976 Olympics she won a team gold medal and a silver for the balance beam.

Korda, Sir Alexander orig. Sandor Laszlo Kellner (b. Sept. 16, 1893, Pusztaturpaszto, Hung.—d. Jan. 23, 1956, London, Eng.) Hungarian-born British film director and producer. He worked as a jour¬ nalist in Budapest, where he founded a film magazine and, in 1917, became manager of the Corvin movie studio. He left Hungary in 1919 to make several films in Berlin, then went to Hollywood, where he directed movies such as The Private Life of Helen of Troy (1927). After moving to England in 1931, he founded London Film Productions. He helped develop Britain’s film industry, directing and producing successful films such as The Private Life of Henry VIII { 1933), Catherine the Great ( 1934), The Scarlet Pimpernel (1935), and Rembrandt (1936), and producing The Third Man (1949), Summertime (1955), and Richard III (1955). In 1942 he received the first British knighthood conferred on someone in the film industry.

Kordofan \,k6r-d9-'fan\ or Kurdufan \,kur-du- , fan\ Region, central Sudan. Lying west of the White Nile River, it was originally inhabited by Nubian-speaking peoples. Controlled by the Christian Tungur dynasty (900-1200 ad), it was later taken by Arabs, and in the 17th century a sul¬ tanate was established. Egyptian rule began in the 1820s. The slave trade played an important part in the region’s economy until its eradication in 1878 by Charles George Gordon. Egyptian rule was ended by a revolt in 1882 led by al-MAHDi. Kordofan became a province of The Sudan in 1899.

Kordofanian languages Branch of the Niger-Congo language fam¬ ily. It is geographically separated from the rest of the Niger-Congo lan¬ guages and is believed to represent the oldest layer of languages in the region. The Kordofanian branch consists of some 20 languages spoken by 250,000 to 500,000 people, mainly in the Nuba Hills of central Sudan.

kore \'ko-ra\ Type of freestanding statue of a maiden (the female coun¬ terpart of the kouros) that appeared with the beginning of Greek monu¬ mental sculpture (c. 700 bc) and remained to the end of the Archaic period (c. 500 bc). Carved from marble and originally painted, the kore is a draped female figure standing erect with feet together or one foot slightly advanced. One arm is often extended, holding an offering; the other is lowered, usually clasping a fold of drapery. As in all Greek art, the kore evolved from a highly stylized form to a more naturalistic one. Its pro¬ totypes are found in Egyptian and Mesopotamian art.

Korea Korean Chosdn \'cho-son\ or Taehan Former kingdom, a peninsula (Korean peninsula) on the eastern coast of Asia. In 1948 it was partitioned into two republics, North Korea and South Korea. According to tradition, the ancient kingdom of Choson was established in the north¬ ern part of the peninsula probably by peoples from northern China in the 3rd millennium bc. Conquered by China in 108 bc, it later developed into the Three Kingdoms of Silla, Koguryo, and Paekche. Silla conquered the other two in the 7th century ad and ruled until 936, when the Paekche dynasty became prominent. Invaded by the Mongols in 1231, the king¬ dom of Choson, with its capital at Seoul, was ruled by the Choson (Yi) dynasty (see Yi Song-gye) from 1392 to 1910. From c. 1636 it shut out foreign contacts but was forced after 1873 to open ports to Japan. Rivalry over Korea brought on the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05), after which Korea became a Japanese protectorate. Formally annexed to Japan in 1910, it was freed from Japanese control in 1945 at the end of World War II. After the war it was divided into two zones of occupation, Soviet in the north and U.S. in the south; the two republics were established in 1948. For Korea’s later history, see North Korea and South Korea; see also Korean War.

Korea, North officially Democratic People's Republic of Korea Country, East Asia, occupying the northern half of the Korean peninsula. Area: 47,399 sq mi (122,762 sq km). Population (2005 est.):

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-yf^r^mht/Onjir^ Mount KQmgang

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5,373 ft.

Demilitarized Zone is 1.2 miles (2 kilometers) wide on either side of the military demarcation line.

3 2002 Encyclopaedia Britannica, I

22,488,000. Capital: Pyongyang. Ethni¬ cally, the population is almost completely Korean. Language: Korean (official). Reli¬ gions: Ch'ondogyo, traditional beliefs,

Christianity, Buddhism. Foreign missionaries were expelled during World War II. Currency: won. North Korea’s land area largely consists of moun¬ tain ranges and uplands; its highest peak is the volcanic Mount Paektu (9,022 ft [2,750 m]). North Korea has a centrally planned economy based on heavy industry (iron and steel, machinery, chemicals, and textiles) and agriculture. Cooperative farms raise crops such as rice, corn, barley, and vegetables. The country is rich in mineral resources, including coal, iron ore, and magnesite. It is a republic with one legislature; the head of state and government is the chairman of the National Defense Commission. For early history, see Korea. After the Japanese were defeated in World War II, the Soviet Union occupied Korea north of latitude 38° N; there the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea was established as a com¬ munist state in 1948. Seeking to unify the peninsula by force, it launched an invasion of South Korea in 1950, initiating the Korean War. UN troops intervened on the side of South Korea, and Chinese soldiers reinforced the North Korean army in the war, which ended with an armistice in 1953. Led by Kim Il-sung, North Korea became one of the most harshly regi¬ mented societies in the world, with a state-owned economy that failed to produce adequate supplies of food and consumer goods for its citizens. Under his son and successor, Kim Jong II, the country endured periods of severe food shortages from the late 1990s that caused widespread fam¬ ine. Hopes that North Korea was seeking to end its long isolation— notably through meetings between Kim and the leaders of South Korea (2000) and Japan (2002)—have been tempered by concerns over its nuclear weapons program.

Korea, South officially Republic of Korea Country, East Asia, occupying the southern half of the Korean peninsula. It is west of Japan and includes Cheju Island, located about 60 mi (97 km) south of the pen¬ insula. Area: 38,572 sq mi (99,900 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 48,294,000. Capital: Seoul. The population is almost entirely ethnically Korean. Language: Korean (official). Religions: Christianity (Protestant, other Christians, Roman Catholic), traditional beliefs. Buddhism, new religions, Confucianism. Currency: won. Most of South Korea’s land area consists of mountains and uplands; the densely populated lowlands are heavily cultivated for wet rice. The Naktong and Han are the principal rivers. The economy is based largely on services and manufacturing (including petrochemicals, electronic goods, and steel). South Korea is a

1050 I Korea Strait ► Korsakoff syndrome

'126° "

NORTH KOREA

TAECH'ONG

ISLAND

YELLOW

SEA

P'anmunjom,

sj:

Demilitarized Zone is iles (2 kilometers) wide on either side of the military demarcation line.

"fi MOUNT SORAK NATIONAL PARK —'\ *5,602 ft.

, MOUNT ODAE NATIONAL PARK ..... Cn uncn on Ac tyc r t