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of state is the president, and the head of government is the prime minister. From the 12th century bc the Phoenicians had a series of trading posts on the North African coast. By the 6th century bc the Carthagin¬ ian kingdom encompassed most of present-day Tunisia. The Romans ruled from 146 bc. It was part of the Byzantine Empire until the Muslim Arab invasions in the mid-7th century ad. The area was fought over, won, and lost by many, including the ‘Abbasid dynasty, the Almohad dynasty, Spain, and the Ottoman Empire, which conquered it in 1574 and held it until the late 19th century. For a time it maintained autonomy as the French, Brit¬ ish, and Italians contended for the region. In 1881 it became a French protectorate. During World War II (1939-45) U.S. and British forces cap¬ tured it (1943), putting an end to a brief German occupation. France granted it full independence in 1956; Habib Bourguiba assumed power and remained in power until he was forced from office in 1987. His succes¬ sor, Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali, continued his authoritarian-style rule.

tunnel Horizontal or nearly horizontal underground or underwater pas¬ sageway. Tunnels are used for mining, as passageways for trains and motor vehicles, for diverting rivers around damsites, for housing under¬ ground installations such as power plants, and for conducting water. Ancient civilizations used tunnels to carry water for irrigation and drink¬ ing, and in the 22nd century bc the Babylonians built a tunnel for pedes¬ trian traffic under the Euphrates River. The Romans built aqueduct tunnels through mountains by heating the rock face with fire and rapidly cooling it with water, causing the rock to crack. The introduction of gunpowder blasting in the 17th century marked a great advance in solid-rock exca¬ vation. For softer soils, excavation is accomplished using devices such as the tunneling mole, with its rotating wheel that continuously excavates material and loads it onto a conveyor belt. Railroad transportation in the 19th-20th century led to a tremendous expansion in the number and length of tunnels. Brick and stone were used for support in early tunnels, but in modern tunneling steel is generally used until a concrete lining can be installed. A common method of lining involves spraying shotcrete onto the tunnel crown immediately after excavation.

tunneling or barrier penetration In physics, the passage of a par¬ ticle through a seemingly impassable energy barrier. Though a particle’s energy may be too low to surmount a barrier in classical physics, the par¬ ticle may still cross the barrier as a consequence of its quantum- mechanical wave properties. An important application of this phenomenon is in the operation of the scanning tunneling microscope.

Tunney, Gene orig. James Joseph Tunney (b. May 25, 1898, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Nov. 7, 1978, Greenwich, Conn.) U.S. boxer. Tunney boxed in the Marine Corps, earning the nickname “the Fighting

Tupac Amaru ► turbot I 1949

Marine.” He defeated Jack Dempsey in 1926 to become the world heavy¬ weight champion. In a controversial rematch in Chicago in 1927, Demp¬ sey knocked Tunney to the canvas in the seventh round but failed to retire immediately to a neutral corner, thus delaying the count; the “long count” allowed Tunney to rise and win the 10-round fight. He retired the next year with a record of 65 wins in 77 bouts.

Tupac Amaru Uii-'pak-a-'mar-iA Peruvian revolutionary group. Founded in 1983, the group is best known for holding 490 people hos¬ tage in the Japanese embassy in Lima (1996) in an effort to gain the release of jailed comrades. After a standoff of several weeks, Peruvian troops stormed the embassy and killed all the guerrillas. Defections have appar¬ ently since decreased its membership. The group takes its name from the Indian revolutionary Tupac Amaru II (orig. Jose Gabriel Condorcanqui, 17427-81), who in 1780 led Peruvian Indian peasants in the last wide¬ spread rebellion against Spain before independence. The Indians identi¬ fied him with his ancestor Tupac Amaru, the last leader of the Inca, who was executed by the Spaniards in 1572.

Tupamaro V.tii-po-'ma-roN Member of the National Liberation Move¬ ment, a Uruguayan leftist urban guerrilla organization founded c. 1963 and named for Tupac Amaru II, an 18th-century Peruvian revolutionary. The earliest Tupamaro efforts involved robbing banks and businesses and distributing the goods to the poor, but in the late 1960s they mounted a wave of violence aimed at the authorities. The military government that seized power in 1973 launched an offensive against them, killing some 300 and imprisoning 3,000 others. When democratic rule returned in 1985, the Tupamaros were reorganized as a political party.

tupelo \'tu-p3-,lo\ Any of about seven species of trees that make up the genus Nyssa in the sour gum family (Nyssaceae). Five are found in moist or swampy areas of eastern North America, one in eastern Asia, and one in western Malaysia. They all have horizontal or hanging branches, broad leaves, and male and female flowers on different plants. North American species bear greenish-white flowers and small bluish-black or purple ber¬ ries. The most widespread North American species is the black gum. Tupelo wood, most of which comes from the water tupelo ( N. aquatica), is pale yellow to light brown, fine-textured, and strong. It is used for crates and boxes, flooring, wooden utensils, and veneers.

Tupian \tii-'pe-3n\ languages Family of South American Indian lan¬ guages with at least seven subgroups, spoken or formerly spoken in scat¬ tered areas from the Andes Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean and (with two exceptions) south of the Amazon River to southernmost Brazil and Paraguay. About one half of the 50 attested Tupian languages are extinct. The largest subgroup, Tupi-Guaram, includes the extinct language Tupi- namba, the source for borrowings of many New World flora and fauna terms into Portuguese and hence other European languages. Another lan¬ guage of the subgroup, Guarani, is spoken as a first or second language by more than 90% of Paraguayans, who consider it a token of Paraguayan identity.

Tupolev officially ANTK imeni A.N. Tupoleva formerly OKB- 156 Russian aerospace design bureau that is a major producer of pas¬ senger airliners and military bombers. It originated in 1922 as a group within the U.S.S.R.’s Central Aerohydrodynamics Institute to develop military aircraft. Under Andrei Tupolev, it created the TB-1 (ANT-4) all- metal, cantilever-wing bomber (first flights 1925-26). After several years’ confinement for political reasons, Tupolev was freed, and in 1943 he reestablished his team as the design bureau OKB-156. At the end of World War II, the bureau built the Tu-4 strategic bomber, a copy of the U.S. B-29. In the 1950s it produced the turboprop Tu-95 heavy bomber (NATO, “Bear”), which became a Soviet mainstay, and the first Soviet jetliner, the Tu-104 (first flown 1955). Between the late 1950s and early ’80s, it intro¬ duced new supersonic bombers, including the variable-wing Tu-22M (“Backfire”) and Tu-160 (“Blackjack”), and airliners such as the Tu-114 turboprop, Tu-154 trijet, and Tu-144 supersonic transport. In 1989, in honor of Tupolev (died 1972), the bureau was renamed ANTK imeni A.N. Tupoleva. After the dissolution of the U.S.S.R. in 1991, it became a joint stock company with the Russian government holding a limited financial interest. In the 1990s its projects involved jetliners such as the Tu-204 (in service 1996) and Tu-324.

Tupolev Vtii-pol-yifX, Andrei (Nikolayevich) (b. Nov. 10, 1888, Pustomazovo, Russia—d. Dec. 23, 1972, Moscow) Russian aircraft designer. In 1918 he cofounded the U.S.S.R.’s Central Aerohydrodynam¬ ics Institute, and in 1922 he became head of its design bureau (see Tupolev),

producing airplanes of all-metal construction. Arrested in 1937 on charges of activities against the state, he was assigned to work on the design of military aircraft. Under confinement, he led a team that produced the Tu-2 twin-engine tactical bomber, which was widely used in World War II. Freed during the war, Tupolev and his reestablished design bureau rep¬ licated the U.S. B-29; the resulting Tu-4 became the Soviet Union’s prin¬ cipal strategic bomber until the mid-1950s. After adapting jet propulsion to several piston-engine airframes, Tupolev introduced the swept-wing Tu-16 (NATO, “Badger”) jet bomber (first flown 1952) and its civilian derivative Tu-104 (1955), one of the first jet transports to provide regular passenger service. Tupolev and his son Alexei headed the effort that pro¬ duced the Tu-144 supersonic transport, the first passenger jet to exceed Mach 1 (1969).

Turn \'tu-ra\, Cosimo or Cosme Tura (b. c. 1430, Ferrara—d. 1495, Ferrara) Italian painter. Court painter to the Este family at Ferrara, his early Renaissance style was influenced by Andrea Mantegna and Piero della Francesca. A master of allegory and decorative painting, he was the founder and first significant figure of the school of Ferrara. His work is characterized by a mannered, nervous, and wiry line, carefully rendered detail, and brilliant colour.

TurabI \tu-'ra-be\, Hasan al- (b. 1932, The Sudan) Sudanese Muslim religious scholar and lawyer. After receiving a traditional Muslim educa¬ tion, he studied at the University of London and the Sorbonne in Paris. In the early 1950s he joined the Sudanese branch of the Muslim Brother¬ hood. While teaching law at the University of Khartoum (1957-65), he participated in the 1958 revolution that ended military rule. He later served in the national legislature (1965-67). He supported the 1985 over¬ throw of Gaafar Mohamed el-NiMEiRi. That same year he formed the National Islamic Front (NIF), an incarnation of the Muslim Brotherhood. In 1989 the NIF supported a coup that brought ‘Umar Hasan al-Bashlr to power. He later served as speaker of the National Assembly (1996-98) and was arrested in 2001 during a power struggle with al-Bashlr.

turbidity current Underwater current of abrasive sediments. Such cur¬ rents appear to be relatively short-lived, transient phenomena that occur at great depths. They are thought to be caused by the slumping of sedi¬ ment that has piled up at the top of the continental slope, particularly at the heads of submarine canyons. Slumping of large masses of sediment creates a dense slurry, which then flows down the canyon to spread out over the ocean floor and deposit a layer of sand in deep water. Repeated deposition forms submarine fans, analogous to the alluvial fans found at the mouths of river canyons.

turbine Vtor-bon, 'tor-.blnV Any of various devices that convert the energy in a stream of fluid into mechanical energy by passing the stream through a system of fixed and moving fanlike blades and causing the lat¬ ter to rotate. A turbine looks like a large wheel with many small radiat¬ ing blades around its rim. There are four broad classes of turbine: water (hydraulic), steam, wind, and gas. The most important application of the first three is the generation of electricity; gas turbines are most often used in aircraft.

turbojet Jet engine in which a TURBiNE-driven compressor draws in and compresses air, forcing it into a combustion chamber into which fuel is injected. Ignition causes the gases to expand and to rush first through the turbine and then through a nozzle at the rear. Forward thrust is generated as a reaction to the rearward momentum of the exhaust gases. The tur¬ bofan or fanjet, a modification of the turbojet, came into common use in the 1960s. In the turbofan, some of the incoming air is bypassed around the combustion chamber and is accelerated to the rear by a turbine- operated fan. It moves a much greater mass of air than the simple turbo¬ jet, providing advantages in power and economy. See also ramjet.

turboprop Hybrid engine that provides jet thrust and also drives a pro¬ peller. It is similar to the turbojet except that an added turbine, behind the combustion chamber, works through a shaft and speed-reducing gears to turn a propeller at the front of the engine. Because of improvements in turbojet design, the turboprop, which is less efficient at high speeds, lost much of its importance in the 1960s, though it is still used for relatively short-range aircraft.

turbot Vtor-botN Species (Scophthalmus maximus, family Scophthalmi- dae or Bothidae) of broad-bodied European flatfish, a highly valued food fish. It lives along sand and gravel shores. It is left-sided (with eyes nor¬ mally on the left side of the head) and scaleless; the head and body are

1950 I turbulence ► Turing machine

studded with numerous bony knobs. Turbots grow to, at most, 40 in. (1 m) long and weigh about 55 lb (25 kg). Colour varies with the surround¬ ings but is usually gray-brown or light brown with darker markings. A related species is the Black Sea turbot (S. maeoticus). Certain right-sided Pacific flatfish (genus Pleuronichthys, family Pleuronectidae) are also called turbot.

turbulence In fluid mechanics, a flow condition (see turbulent flow) in which local speed and pressure change unpredictably as an average flow is maintained. Common examples are wind and water swirling around obstructions, or fast flow (Reynolds number greater than 2,100) of any sort. Eddies, vortices, and a reduction in drag are characteristics of turbulence. Lowered drag enables golf balls to travel farther than they would do oth¬ erwise, and the dimpled surface of golf balls is meant to encourage tur¬ bulence in the boundary layer. If swimsuits with rough surfaces help swimmers to move faster, as has been claimed, the same explanation may apply.

Turcoman See Turkmen

Turenne \tu-'ren\, Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, viscount de orig. Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne (b. Sept. 11, 1611,

Sedan, France—d. July 27, 1675,

Sasbach, Baden-Baden) French mili¬ tary leader. He earned his reputation as a military leader in the Thirty Years' War, especially with the cap¬ ture of Turin (1640). Made a marshal of France (1643), he commanded the French army in Germany and joined the Swedish army in conquering Bavaria (1648). In France he joined the aristocrats in the Fronde (1649), but later he skillfully commanded the royal army to defeat the forces led by the prince de Conde, who had allied himself with Spain, and to bring about the Peace of the Pyrenees (1659), which ended France’s war with Spain. Appointed marshal- general (1660), Turenne marched alongside Louis XIV in joint com¬ mand of the French armies in the War of Devolution (1667-68). His bold strategies won numerous victories against the imperial army in Germany (1672-75), but he was killed in action at Sasbach. He was buried with the kings of France at Saint-Denis and later moved to the Invalides by Napo¬ leon, who esteemed Turenne as the greatest military leader in history.

turf In horticulture, the surface layer of soil with its matted, dense veg¬ etation, usually grasses grown for ornamental or recreational use. Such turf grasses include Kentucky bluegrass, creeping bent grass, fine or red fescue, and perennial ryegrass among the popular cool-season types, and Bermuda grass, zoysia grass, and St. Augustine grass among the warm- season types. Turf grasses are often grown on turf, or sod, farms. Plugs, blocks, squares, or strips are cut and transplanted to areas where they quickly establish and grow. Lawns are fine-textured turfs that are mowed regularly and closely to develop into dense, uniformly green coverings that beautify open spaces and provide sports playing surfaces (e.g., tennis lawns, golf and bowling greens, and racing turfs).

Turgenev \tur-'g y a-n y if\, Ivan (Sergeyevich) (b. Nov. 9, 1818,

Oryol, Russia—d. Sept. 3, 1883,

Bougival, near Paris, France) Rus¬ sian novelist, poet, and playwright.

His years at the University of Berlin convinced him of the West’s superi¬ ority and the need for Russia to Westernize. He lived in Europe after c. 1862. He is known for realistic, affectionate portrayals of the Russian

peasantry and for penetrating studies of the Russian intelligentsia who were attempting to move the country into a new age. His most famous early work is “The Diary of a Superfluous Man” (1850), which supplied the epithet “superfluous man” for the weak-willed intellectual protagonist common in 19th-century Russian literature. He gained fame with the short-story cycle A Sportman’s Sketches (1852), which criticizes serfdom. His dramatic masterpiece, A Month in the Country (1855), and the novel Rudin (1856) followed. His interest in change and intergenerational dif¬ ferences is reflected in the controversial Fathers and Sons (1862), his greatest novel. Turgenev’s work is distinguished from that of his contem¬ poraries by its sophisticated lack of hyperbole, its balance, and its con¬ cern for artistic values. His greatest work was always topical, committed literature, having universal appeal in the elegance of the love story and the psychological acuity of the portraiture.

turgor Vtor-gorV Pressure exerted by fluid in a cell that presses the cell membrane against the cell wall. Turgor is what makes living plant tissue rigid. Loss of turgor, resulting from the loss of water from plant cells, causes flowers and leaves to wilt. Turgor plays a key role in the opening and closing of stomata (see stoma) in leaves.

Turgot \tur-'go\, Anne-Robert-Jacques, baron de I'Aulne (b.

May 10, 1727, Paris, France—d. March 18, 1781, Paris) French adminis¬ trator and economist. He entered the royal administrative branch of the magistracy in 1753, then became intendant (governor) of Limoges (1761— 74), where he instituted economic and administrative reforms. A physiocrat, in 1766 he wrote his best-known work, Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth. In 1774 he was appointed comptroller general by Louis XVI and introduced his Six Edicts to expand economic reforms. His effort to abolish the corvee (unpaid forced labour by peasants) was opposed by the privileged classes, and he was dismissed in 1776.

Turin Italian Torino City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 857,433), Piedmont region, northwestern Italy. Located on the Po River, it was founded by the Taurini. It was partly destroyed by Hannibal in 218 bc. It was made a Roman military colony under Emperor Augustus. A part of the Lombard duchy in the 6th century ad, it became the seat of government under Charlemagne (742-814). It passed to the house of Savoy in 1046. The capital of the kingdom of Sardinia in 1720, Turin was occupied by the French during the Napoleonic Wars. The political and intellectual centre of the Risorgimento movement, it served as the first capital of united Italy (1861-65). During World War II Turin sustained heavy damage from Allied air raids but was rebuilt. It is the focus of Italy’s automotive indus¬ try and an international fashion centre. The Shroud of Turin has been housed in the 15th-century cathedral there since the 16th century.

Turin, Shroud of Linen fragment said to be the burial garment of Jesus. It has been preserved since 1578 in the royal chapel of the Cathedral of San Giovanni Battista in Turin, Italy. Measuring 14.5 by 3.7 ft (4.42 by 1.13 m), it appears to portray images of the back and front of a gaunt, sunken-eyed man. The images contain markings that correspond to the stigmata and stains presumed to be blood. The cloth emerged historically in 1354 and went on exhibition in 1389, first as a representation of the shroud and eventually as the shroud itself. In 1988 independent tests using radiocarbon dating techniques indicated that the cloth had been made c. 1260-1390. Subsequent chemical analyses and other tests, however, sug¬ gested a much older date, possibly even the 1st century.

Turing Vtur-iqV Alan (Mathison) (b. June 23, 1912, London, Eng.—d. June 7, 1954, Wilmslow, Cheshire) English mathematician and logician. He studied at the University of Cambridge and at Princeton’s Institute for Advanced Study. In his seminal 1936 paper “On Computable Numbers,” he proved that there cannot exist any universal algorithmic method of determining truth in mathematics and that mathematics will always contain undecidable (as opposed to unknown) propositions. That paper also introduced the Turing machine. He believed that computers even¬ tually would be capable of thought indistinguishable from that of a human and proposed a simple test (see Turing test) to assess this capability. He did valuable work in cryptography during World War II, playing an impor¬ tant role in breaking the Enigma code used by Germany for radio com¬ munications. After the war he taught at the University of Manchester and began work on what is now known as artificial intelligence.

Turing machine Hypothetical computing device proposed by Alan M. Turing (1936). Not actually a machine, it is an idealized mathematical model that reduces the logical structure of any computing device to its essentials. It consists of an infinitely extensible tape, a tape head that is

Turenne, detail of a portrait by Charles Le Brun; in the Musee National de Ver¬ sailles et des Trianons.

CUCHE DES MUSEES NATIONAUX, PARIS

Turing test ► Turkic peoples I 1951

capable of performing various operations on the tape, and a modifiable control mechanism in the head that can store instructions. As envisaged by Turing, it performs its functions in a sequence of discrete steps. His extrapolation of the essential features of information processing was instru¬ mental in the development of modern digital computers, which share his basic scheme of an input/output device (tape and tape reader), central processing unit (CPU, or control mechanism), and stored memory.

Turing test Test proposed by Alan M. Turing to determine whether a computer can be said to “think.” Turing suggested the “imitation game,” wherein a remote human interrogator, within a fixed time frame, must distinguish between a computer and a human subject based on their replies to questions posed by the interrogator. A series of such tests would mea¬ sure the computer’s success at “thinking” by the probability of its being misidentified as the human subject. The test is performed today in com¬ petitions that test the success of artificial intelligence.

Turkana, Lake See Lake Rudolf Turkana remains See Lake Turkana remains

Turkey officially Republic of Turkey Country, western Asia and southeastern Europe. Area: 299,158 sq mi (774,815 sq km), nearly all of which lies in Asia. Population (2005 est.): 72,083,000. Capital: Ankara.

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Ethnic groups include the Turks and Kurds.

Languages: Turkish (official), Kurdish,

Arabic. Religion: Islam (mostly Sunni).

Currency: Turkish lira. Turkey is a moun¬ tainous country with an extensive plateau covering central Anatolia. The highest peak is Mount Ararat (16,853 ft [5,137 m]). The Taurus Mountains lie in the south. Rivers include the Tigris, Euphrates, Kizil, and Menderes. Turkey is a major producer and exporter of chromite and also mines iron ore, coal, lignite, bauxite, and copper. It is the Middle East’s leading steel producer. Chief agricultural products include wheat, barley, olives, and tobacco. Tourism also is important. Turkey is a republic with one legislative house; its chief of state is the president, and the head of government is the prime minister. Turkey’s early history corresponds to that of Anatolia, the Byzantine Empire, and the Ottoman Empire. Byzantine rule emerged when Constantine the Great made Constantinople (modern Istanbul) his capital. The Ottoman Empire, begun in the 12th century, dominated for more than 600 years; it ended in 1918 after the Young Turk revolt (1908) precipitated its demise. Under the lead¬ ership of Mustafa Kemal AtatOrk, a republic was proclaimed in 1923. Tur¬ key remained neutral throughout most of World War II (1939-45), siding with the Allied powers in 1945. Since the war it has alternated between civil and military governments and has had several conflicts with Greece over Cyprus. The country has developed a strong, diversified economy,

but it has also experienced periods of political and civic turmoil between Islamists and secularists and ongoing ethnic tension with Kurdish sepa¬ ratists.

turkey Either of two species of birds in the family Meleagrididae. The North American common turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) has been domesticated since pre-Columbian times. The adult male has a feather¬ less, bright-red head, a fleshy red ornament (snood) growing over the bill, and a similar wattle on the throat. The male (gobbler or tom) may be 50 in. (1.3 m) long and may weigh over 20 lb (10 kg). Wild tur¬ keys inhabit woodlands near water, eating seeds, insects, and an occa¬ sional frog or lizard. Males assemble a harem, and each hen lays 8-15 eggs in a hollow in the ground. An excellent source of meat and easily shot, the wild turkey was practically exterminated by European settlers; conservation efforts have reestab¬ lished it in much of its former range.

The ocellated turkey {Agriocharis, or Meleagris, ocellata) of Central America has never been domesticated.

turkey vulture or turkey buzzard Species ( Cathartes aura) of long-winged, long-tailed vulture (family Cathartidae), about 30 in. (75 cm) long, with dark plumage, whitish beak and legs, bare red head covered with whitish bumps, and a 6-ft (1.8-m) wingspread. It uses its keen sense of smell to find carrion. It occurs throughout the Americas except in northern Canada; the northerly and southernmost populations are migratory.

Turkic languages Family of more than 20 Altaic languages spoken by some 135 million people from the Balkans to central Siberia. The tra¬ ditional division of Turkic is into four groups. The southeastern or Uighur group comprises Uighur, spoken mainly in Xinjiang, China; and Uzbek, spoken mainly in Uzbekistan, other Central Asian republics, and north¬ ern Afghanistan. The southwestern, or Oguz, group includes Turkish; Azer¬ baijani (Azeri), spoken in Azerbaijan and northwestern Iran; Crimean Tatar, spoken mostly in Ukraine and Uzbekistan; and Turkmen, used in Turkmenistan, northern Iran, and northern Afghanistan. The northwest¬ ern, or Kipchak, group includes Kazakh, spoken in Kazakhstan, other Central Asian republics, and western China and Mongolia; Kyrgyz, spo¬ ken in Kyrgyzstan, other Central Asian republics, and western China; Tatar; Baskhir, spoken in Bashkortostan and adjacent areas in Russia; Karachay-Balkar and Kumyk, spoken in the Russian Caucasus; and Karaim, with a few speakers in Lithuania and parts of southwestern Ukraine. The northeastern, or Altai, group comprises languages and dia¬ lects spoken in Siberia northeast of the Irtysh River and in adjacent parts of Mongolia, including Altai, Khakas, Shor, and Tuvan; and Sakha, spo¬ ken in Sakha (Yakutia) republic of Russia and adjacent areas. Distinct from all the other languages is Chuvash, spoken in Russia’s Chuvash republic and adjacent areas. The earliest attestations of Turkic are a group of 8th-century funerary inscriptions of northern Mongolia, in a distinctive writing system called runic script, or Turkic runes. With the Islamization of nearly all Turkic peoples southwest of the Irtysh beginning c. 900, Turkic languages began to adopt the Arabic alphabet. Today the Latin alpha¬ bet and Cyrillic alphabet are more extensively used.

Turkic peoples Any of various peoples who speak one of the Turkic languages. They are connected with the Tuque (T’u-chiieh), nomadic people who in the 6th century ad founded an empire stretching from Mongolia to the Black Sea (see Turkistan). In the 11th century the SeuOqs created an extensive empire after defeating the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert (1071), an event that opened Anatolia to settlement by Turkic-speaking peoples (and eventually led to the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in the 20th century). Though overrun by the Mongols in the 13th century, the Turks succeeded in absorbing them after Genghis Khan’s death (1227). In the 14th century Timur, who was of mixed Mon¬ golian and Turkic ancestry, held most of Central Asia and some of South Asia. In the 15th century Russian expansion drove the Turkic peoples eastward into what is now Kazakhstan. Today Turkic peoples live mostly in Turkey, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan.

1952 I Turkish Angora cat ► turmeric

Turkish Angora cat Breed of longhaired domestic cat that probably arose from a domesticated cat of Tatars who migrated to Turkey, where it is now regarded as a national treasure. It has a long body, fine bones, a pointed face, and a silky, medium-length coat. White is the most popu¬ lar colour, but it may be any of several solid colours or any pattern of two or more colours.

Turkish bath Bath originating in the Middle East, combining exposure to warm air, steam immersion, massage, and a cold bath or shower. The Turkish bath ( hammam ) reflects the fusion of the massage and cosmetic aspects of the Eastern bath tradition and the plumbing and heating tech¬ niques of the Romans. Turkish baths were smaller than the Roman ther¬ mae and more sparsely lit. The baths at Constantinople were domed, and rooms were richly decorated with marble or mosaics. Used for socializ¬ ing and relaxation as well as bathing, the hammam was popular through¬ out the Islamic world; some baths are still in use. In the 19th century, the Turkish bath was adapted and exported to Europe and the U.S.

Turkish language Turkic language of Turkey, spoken by about 90% of its population. Turkish has about 59 million speakers, with many enclaves in the Balkans and Cyprus (dating from Ottoman times) and in western Europe. Turkish was introduced into Anatolia with the invasion of Turkmen tribes in the 13th—14th centuries. Anatolian Turkish, written in the Arabic alphabet, is first attested in the 13th century. Ottoman Turk¬ ish was so heavily influenced by Persian and Arabic that it lost some of its Turkic characteristics and was incomprehensible to lower social strata. Efforts to re-Turkicize the language began in the 18th century but did not make serious gains until the 20th century and the founding of the Turk¬ ish republic. Much Perso-Arabic vocabulary was removed, and the Latin alphabet was adopted with the addition of diacritics to symbolize sounds peculiar to Turkish.

Turkish van cat Breed of semi-longhaired domestic cat distinguished mainly by its unusual colour pattern: white, with coloured markings only on the head and tail. “Van” is a common term in the breed’s native region, Central and South Asia, used also to describe other cats with similar markings. The breed was brought to Europe by returning Crusaders. A unique feature is its cashmere-like, waterproof coat; it loves water, and in its native region it has been called the swimming cat. It is large, active, and intelligent.

Turkistan or Turkestan Historical region, Central Asia. This some¬ what broad geographic region—situated between Siberia to the north and Tibet, India, Afghanistan, and Iran to the south—derived its name from its inhabitants, who were predominantly of Turkic ancestry. The total area of more than 1,000,000 sq mi (2,600,000 sq km) was bisected by the Pamir and Tien Shan ranges, forming West and East Turkistan. West Turkistan, which included what is now Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyr¬ gyzstan and southern Kazakhstan, came under Russian rule in the 19th century. East Turkistan was annexed by China in the 8th century; it included what is now the Uygur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang.

Turkmen Member of a Central Asian people belonging to the south¬ western branch of the Turkic linguistic group. At the beginning of the 21st century, they numbered more than six million, and most lived in Turk¬ menistan and adjacent parts of Central Asia. A significant number also live in Iran and parts of Turkey and Afghanistan, and there are pockets of Turkmen in northern Iraq and Syria. Initially a nomadic pastoral people living in tent villages, many took up agriculture while under Soviet rule. Most are Muslim, and they have traditionally divided themselves by eco¬ nomic function. They are patrilineal, and each family or tribal group is headed by a khan.

Turkmenistan Country, Central Asia. Area: 188,500 sq mi (488,100 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 4,833,000. Capital: Ashgabat. Turkmen make up three-fourths of the population, with small groups of Uzbeks, Russians, Kazakhs, and Tatars. Language: Turkmen (official). Religions: Islam (pre¬ dominantly Sunni); also Eastern Orthodox. Currency: manat. There are some hills and low mountains. About nine-tenths of Turkmenistan is desert, chiefly the Karakum. The main rivers are the Amu Darya and Morghab. Many irrigation canals and reservoirs have been built, includ¬ ing the Karakum Canal, which runs 870 mi (1,400 km) between the Amu Darya and the Caspian Sea. The country’s chief products are petroleum and natural gas, cotton, silk, carpets, fish, and fruit. It is a republic with one legislative house; its head of state and government is the president, assisted by the People’s Council. The earliest traces of human settlement in Central Asia, dating to Paleolithic times, have been found in Turkmen¬

istan. The nomadic, tribal Turkmen prob¬ ably entered the area in the 11th century ad. They were conquered by the Russians in the early 1880s, and the region became part of Russian Turkistan. It was organized as the Turkmen S.S.R. in 1924 and became a constituent republic of the U.S.S.R. in 1925. The country gained full independence from the Soviet Union in 1991 under the name Turkmenistan. It experienced years of eco¬ nomic difficulty until oil and gas production was more fully developed and was subject to the highly authoritarian rule of Saparmurad Niyazov.

Turks and Caicos \'ka-,kos, 'ka-kosX Islands British dependency (pop., 2002 est.: 18,738), West Indies. It comprises two small island groups at the southeastern end of The Bahamas. The Turks group includes Grand Turk, Salt Cay, and lesser cays. The Caicos group includes South Caicos, East Caicos, Middle (or Grand) Caicos, North Caicos, Providenciales, West Caicos, and several smaller cays. The seat of government is at Cock- bum Town on Grand Turk Island. When Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de Leon visited in 1512, the islands were inhabited by Indians. British colo¬ nists from Bermuda arrived in 1678. The islands were at first placed under the government of The Bahamas, but in 1874 they were annexed to the colony of Jamaica. The Turks and Caicos Islands became a crown colony in 1962 and shared a governor with The Bahamas from 1965 to 1973. A new constitution was adopted in 1988. The chief industries are tour¬ ism and offshore financial services.

turmeric Vtar-ms-rikX Perennial herbaceous plant (Curcuma longa; family Zingiberaceae), native to southern India and Indonesia. Its tuberous rhizomes have been used from antiquity as a condiment, as a textile dye, and medically as an aro¬ matic stimulant. The rhizome has a pepperlike aroma and a somewhat bitter, warm taste. It colours and fla¬ vours prepared mustard and is used in curry powder, relishes, pickles, spiced butters, and numerous culi¬ nary dishes. Paper tinged with tur¬ meric turns from yellow to reddish brown when an alkali is added to it, thus providing a test for alkalinity.

Turmeric (Curcuma longa).

W.H. HODGE

Turner ► Tuskegee Airmen I 1953

Turner, Frederick Jackson (b. Nov. 14, 1861, Portage, Wis., U.S.—d. March 14, 1932, San Marino, Calif.) U.S. historian. He taught at the University of Wisconsin and at Harvard University. Deeply influ¬ enced by his Wisconsin childhood, Turner rejected the doctrine that U.S. institutions could be traced mainly to European origins, and he demon¬ strated his theories in a series of essays. In “The Significance of the Fron¬ tier in American History” (1893) he asserted that the American character had been shaped by frontier life and the end of the frontier era. Later he focused on sectionalism as a force in U.S. development. His essays were collected in The Frontier in American History (1920) and Significance of Sections in American History (1932, Pulitzer Prize).

Turner, J(oseph) M(allord) W(illiam) (b. April 23, 1775, London, Eng.—d. Dec. 19, 1851, London)

British landscape painter. The son of a barber, he entered the Royal Acad¬ emy school in 1789. In 1802 he became a full academician and in 1807 was appointed professor of per¬ spective. His early work was con¬ cerned with accurate depictions of places, but he soon learned from Richard Wilson to take a more poetic and imaginative approach. The Ship¬ wreck (1805) shows his new empha¬ sis on luminosity, atmosphere, and Romantic, dramatic subjects. After a trip to Italy in 1819, his colour became purer and more prismatic, with a general heightening of key. In later paintings, such as Sunrise, with a Boat Between Headlands (1845), architectural and natural details are sacrificed to effects of colour and light, with only the barest indication of mass. His compositions became more fluid, suggesting movement and space. In breaking down conventional formulas of representation, he anticipated French Impressionism. His immense reputation in the 19th cen¬ tury was due largely to John Ruskin’s enthusiasm for his early works; 20th-century critics celebrated the abstract qualities of his late colour compositions.

Turner, Nat (b. Oct. 2, 1800, Southampton county, Va., U.S.—d. Nov. 11, 1831, Jerusalem, Va.) U.S. insurrectionist. Born into slavery, he became convinced of his mission to lead American slaves out of bond¬ age and developed a scheme to capture the armoury at Jerusalem, Va. He took an eclipse of the sun as a sign to act (1831) and began his insurrec¬ tion by killing his master’s family. He led 75 slaves as they killed about 60 whites on a two-day march to Jerusalem. About 3,000 state militia and local whites defeated the insurrectionists, who were captured or killed. Turner eluded arrest for six weeks but was found, tried, and hanged. Alarmed by the uprising. Southern states passed legislation forbidding the education, movement, or assembly of slaves.

Turner, Ted orig. Robert Edward Turner, III (b. Nov. 19, 1938, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.) U.S. broadcasting entrepreneur. He took over his father’s Atlanta-based advertising firm after the latter’s 1963 suicide and restored it to profitability. In 1970 he bought the Atlanta television sta¬ tion WJRJ (later WTBS), which in 1975 became the superstation of the Turner Broadcasting System, broadcasting via satellite to cable systems nationwide. An avid sportsman, he purchased professional baseball and basketball franchises in Atlanta, and in 1977 he piloted his yacht. Cou¬ rageous, to victory in the America's Cup race. He expanded his broadcast¬ ing empire with the 1980 launch of the Cable News Network (CNN) and the 1986 purchase of MGM/UA Entertainment (MGM) and its library of more than 4,000 movies. He married Jane Fonda in 1991 (divorced 2001). In 1996 he merged his broadcasting system with Time Warner and became its vice-chairman (see AOL Time Warner). In 2003 he resigned as vice- chairman of AOL Time Warner.

Turner syndrome Chromosomal disorder (from the presence of only one sex chromosome, X, in all or some of the body’s cells) that causes abnormal sexual development in females. The syndrome may include absent or undeveloped ovaries, underdeveloped secondary sex character¬ istics, low hairline, webbed neck, shield-shaped chest with wide-spaced nipples, and kidney and heart malformations with coarctation (narrow¬

ing) of the aorta. It may not be recognized until a girl fails to undergo puberty at a normal age. Estrogen treatment results in puberty, adult appearance, and normal sex drive but not fertility. Surgery can correct malformations.

turnip Hardy biennial plant in the mustard family, cultivated for its fleshy roots and tender leaves. There are two species, the turnip proper (Bras- sica rapa) and the Swedish turnip, or RUTABAGA. The true turnip probably originated in middle and eastern Asia and spread by cultivation through¬ out the temperate zone. Both species are cool-season crops. Turnips develop rapidly enough to have an early-spring or late-summer seeding produce a crop before, respectively, extremes of summer or late-fall weather occur.

turpentine Any resinous exudate or extract from conifers, especially pines; now also commonly a term for its volatile fraction, oil (or spirits) of turpentine. Semifluid mixtures of organic compounds consisting of res¬ ins dissolved in a volatile oil, turpentines can be distilled (see distillation) into the volatile oil of turpentine and the nonvolatile rosin. The oil, a mix¬ ture of monoterpenes (see isoprenoid), chiefly pinene, is a colourless, odor¬ ous, flammable liquid that does not mix with water but is a good solvent for many substances. Oil of turpentine is favoured over petroleum solvents as an oil-paint thinner, varnish solvent, and brush cleaner. Its chief use is now as a raw material for resins, insecticides, oil additives, and synthetic pine oil and camphor and as a solvent.

turquoise Hydrated copper and aluminum phosphate mineral, CuA 1 6 (P0 4 ) 4 (OH) 8 4H 2 0, that is used extensively as a gemstone. The colour of turquoise ranges from blue through various shades of green to greenish and yellowish gray. A delicate sky-blue, which provides an attractive contrast with precious metals, is most valued for gem purposes. Numerous deposits of turquoise in the southwestern U.S. have been worked for centuries by American Indians. The mineral also occurs in Iran, northern Africa, Australia, and Siberia.

turtle Any of more than 250 species (order Chelonia) of reptiles having a bony shell overlaid with horny shields; found in most parts of the world. Turtles have existed for 200 million years, making them the oldest of all surviving reptiles. Most species are aquatic or semiaquatic; some are ter¬ restrial. Turtles eat plants, animals, or both. They are toothless, have a horny beak, and range from less than 4 in. (10 cm) to more than 7 ft (2 m) long. They have sturdy, sprawling limbs with short feet or paddlelike flippers (marine turtles). Some species bend the neck sideways, but most pull the head and neck backward into the shell. Almost half the known turtle species are rare, threatened, or endangered. See also box turtle, PAINTED TURTLE, SNAPPING TURTLE, SOFTSHELL TURTLE, TERRAPIN, TORTOISE.

turtledove Species ( Streptopelia turtur, family Columbidae) of migra¬ tory European pigeon that winters in northern Africa. It is about 11 in. (28 cm) long and has a reddish brown body, blue-gray head, and white-tipped tail. A ground feeder, it eats prodigious amounts of small seeds. The name is applied to other temperate and tropical Old World Streptopelia species of slim, fast-flying game birds. The ringed turtledove, or ringdove, has feral populations in California and Florida, U.S.; the laughing and spot¬ ted doves have also been introduced outside their native habitats.

Tuscany Italian Toscana Region (pop., 2001 prelim.: 3,460,835), west-central Italy. It covers 8,877 sq mi (22,992 sq km), and its capital is Florence. Originally settled by Etruscans c. 1000 bc, Tuscany came under Roman rule in the 3rd century bc. It was a Lombard duchy in the 6th century ad. It comprised several independent city-states in the 12th— 1 3th centuries, which were subsequently united under the Medici family of Flo¬ rence. Tuscany passed to the house of Lorraine in 1737 and to Sardinia and the Kingdom of Italy in the 1860s. The region suffered severe dam¬ age in World War II and extensive floods in 1966. Its mineral resources include the world-famous Carrara marble. Its agricultural products include olives, olive oil, wines, and livestock. Tourism is important at its histori¬ cal centres, including Florence and Pisa.

Tusculum Vtos-kyo-bmV Ancient town, Latium, Italy. Located near Rome, it was a Latin settlement as early as the 1st millennium bc and probably was under the influence of the Etruscans. It was a favourite resort of wealthy Romans (1st century Bc^lth century ad), and it was the home of orator Marcus Tullius Cicero. Tourist attractions include a Roman forum, a 2nd-century amphitheatre, and a medieval castle.

Tuskegee Airmen \t3-‘ske-ge\ Black servicemen of the U.S. Army Air Forces (USAAF) who trained at Alabama’s Tuskegee Army Air Field in

Detail of a self-portrait by J.M.W. Turner, oil on canvas, 1798; in the Tate Gallery, London.

COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE TATE GALLERY, LONDON

1954 I Tuskegee University ► Tuzla

World War II. They constituted the first African American flying unit in the U.S. military. The first class trained at Tuskegee in 1941 became the 99th Pursuit Squadron, commanded by Lt. Col. Benjamin O. Davis, Jr.. They flew their first mission in the Mediterranean in 1943. Later that year the army activated three more squadrons; joined with the 99th in 1944, they constituted the 332nd Fighter Group. The latter was the USAAF’s only escort group that did not lose a bomber to enemy planes. A second black flying group, the 477th Bombardment Group, was established near the end of the war. In all, the Tuskegee Airmen flew 1,578 missions, destroyed 261 enemy aircraft, and won over 850 medals.

Tuskegee University Private university in Tuskegee, Alabama, U.S. Booker T. Washington founded the school in 1881 as a teachers’ college for blacks, and it still has a predominantly African American student body. George Washington Carver conducted most of his research (1896-1943) at Tuskegee, and Frederick D. Patterson, founder of the United Negro College Fund (1944), served as the school’s president (1935-53). The infamous Tuskegee syphilis study, a U.S. Public Health Service project examining the course of untreated syphilis in black men, was based there from the 1930s. Today the university comprises schools of arts and sci¬ ences, agriculture, business, education, engineering and architecture, nurs¬ ing, and veterinary medicine.

Tussaud \tu-'so\, Marie orig. Marie Grosholtz (b. Dec. 1, 1761, Strasbourg, France—d. April 16, 1850, London, Eng.) French British founder of Madame Tussaud’s museum of wax figures in London. From 1780 until the French Revolution, she served as art tutor to Louis XVI’s sister. During the Reign of Terror she made death masks from heads— frequently those of her friends—freshly severed by the guillotine. In 1802 she moved to Britain with her collection of wax models. Her museum contains a variety of historical figures, including the original models she made of her great contemporaries, including Voltaire and Benjamin Fran¬ klin. By the turn of the 21st century, branches of her museum were located throughout the world.

tussock moth Typical member of the small European and New World lepidopteran family Liparidae (formerly Lymantriidae). The large, hairy larvae of most species have hair tufts, or tussocks; many have stinging hairs. Several species, including the gypsy moth, browntail moth, satin moth, and nun moth, damage trees. The larvae feed on foliage, sometimes foraging from a silken tent or a colonial nest of webbed leaves. Larvae pupate in a cocoon attached to a tree branch or trunk. Adult females range from white to brown; some, such as the white-marked tussock moth, are wingless. See also moth.

Tutankhamen X.tu-.taq-'ka-monV orig. Tutankhaten (fl. 14th cen¬ tury bc) Egyptian pharaoh (r.

1333-23 bc) of the 18th dynasty.

When he took the throne at about age eight, he was advised to move back to Memphis from Akhetaton, the city of his father-in-law and predecessor,

Akhenaton. During his reign the tra¬ ditional religion was restored after the changes made by Akhenaton.

Shortly before he died, while still in his teens, he sent troops to Syria to aid an ally against a group connected with the Hittites. Because his name was among those stricken from the royal lists during the 19th dynasty, his tomb’s location was forgotten and his burial chamber was not opened until 1922, when it was discovered by Howard Carter (1873-1939). Its trea¬ sures made Tutankhamen perhaps the best-known of the pharaohs despite his early death and limited accom¬ plishments.

Tutsi \'tiit-se\ People of Rwanda and Burundi who are traditionally con¬ sidered Nilotic. They speak Rundi or Rwanda (mutually intelligible lan¬ guages of the Niger-Congo family) and number some 1.5 million. The Tutsi represent a traditional aristocratic minority, which has dominated the more populous Hutu. Originally warrior-herders, the Tutsi entered the

area in the 14th or 15th century and later, assisted by German and Bel¬ gian colonial regimes, cultivated a lord-vassal relationship with the Hutu. At the head of the pyramidal political structure was the mwami (“king”), considered to be of divine origin. Today Hutu and Tutsi cultures have largely become integrated. In addition to sharing languages, they both adhere to similar traditional and/or Christian religious beliefs. The Tutsi retained their dominant position over the Hutu in Rwanda until 1961, when the monarch was overthrown. An unsuccessful Hutu revolt in Burundi in 1972 led to 100,000 deaths, mostly Hutu. In 1993 in Burundi and in 1994 in Rwanda, further clashes occurred, the latter including a genocidal campaign by Hutu militia and civilians in which more than a million Tutsi and their Hutu allies were killed and one to two million Hutu fled to refugee camps in Congo (Kinshasa; then Zaire) and Tanzania.

Tutu, Sir Desmond (Mpilo) (b. Oct. 7, 1931, Klerksdorp, S.Af.) South African Anglican cleric. He studied theology at the University of South Africa and King’s College, London. He became an Anglican priest in 1961 and bishop of Lesotho in 1976. In 1978 he became general secretary of the South African Council of Churches and an eloquent and outspoken advocate for the rights of black South Africans. He emphasized nonviolent protest and encouraged other countries to apply economic pressure to South Africa. In 1984 he received the Nobel Prize for Peace for his role in opposing apartheid. In 1986 he was elected the first black archbishop of Cape Town and titular head of South Africa’s 1.6-million-member Angli¬ can Church. He retired from the primacy in 1996 and became chairman of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, charged with hearing evidence of human-rights violations under white rule. Since 1988 he has been chan¬ cellor of the University of the Western Cape in Bellville, S.Af.

Tutuola V.tii-tu-'wo-laV Amos (b. 1920, Abeokuta, Nigeria—d. June 8, 1997, Ibadan) Nigerian writer. He had only six years of formal schooling and wrote in English and outside the mainstream of Nigerian literature. His stories incorporated Yoruba myths and legends into loosely con¬ structed prose epics that improvised on traditional themes. His best- known work is The Palm-Wine Drinkard (1952), a classic quest tale that was the first Nigerian book to achieve international fame. His later works include the tale The Witch-Herbalist of the Remote Town (1981), Yoruba Folktales (1986), and Village Witch Doctor (1990).

Tuvalu \tu-'va-lu\ Island country, west-central South Pacific Ocean. Area: 9.9 sq mi (25.6 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 9,700. Capital: Vaiaku, Fon- gafale islet (of Funafuti atoll). The majority of the people are Polynesian. Languages: Tuvaluan; English is widely used. Religion: Christianity (pre¬ dominantly Protestant). Currency: Tuvalu dollar (equivalent to the Austra¬ lian dollar). Tuvalu is an island group comprising five atolls and four coral islands, all of them low-lying, with maximum elevations below 20 ft (6 m), and covered mainly with coconut palms, breadfruit trees, and grasses. The economy is based on subsistence agriculture and livestock raising. Tuvalu is a constitutional monarchy with one legislative house; its chief of state is the British monarch represented by the governor-general, and the head of government is the prime minister. The original Polynesian settlers probably came mainly from Samoa or Tonga. The islands were sighted by the Span¬ ish in the 16th century. Europeans settled there in the 19th century and intermarried with Tuvaluans. During this period Peruvian slave traders known as “blackbirders” decimated the population. In 1856 the U.S. claimed the four southern islands for guano mining. Missionaries from Europe arrived in 1865 and rapidly converted the islanders to Christianity. In 1892 Tuvalu, then known as the Ellice Islands, joined the British Gilbert Islands, a protectorate that became the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony in 1916. Tuvaluans voted in 1974 for separation from the Gilberts (now Kir¬ ibati), whose people are MlCRONESlAn. Tuvalu gained independence in 1978, and in 1979 the U.S. relinquished its claims. Elections were held in 1981, and a revised constitution was adopted in 1986. The government subse¬ quently has tried to improve Tuvalu’s economy, including finding overseas job opportunities for its citizens.

Tuxtla \'tiist-la\ in full Tuxtla Gutierrez City (pop., 2000: 424,579), capital of Chiapas state, southeastern Mexico. The Spanish who arrived there in the 16th century were frequently beset by Indians, and the town grew slowly. In 1892 it was made the state capital. It is now the major commercial and manufacturing centre in the state and an agricultural dis¬ tributing point. There are archaeological remains of pre-Columbian cul¬ ture in the region.

Tuzla Vtiiz-la\ Town (pop., 1991: 83,770), northeastern Bosnia and Herzegovina. Deposits of rock salt are located nearby; in the 10th cen-

Tutankhamen, gold funerary mask found in the king's tomb, 14th century bc; in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo.

TVA » Tyler I 1955

tury the town was called Soli (meaning “salts”), and its present name is from the Turkish tuz, “salt.” It was a Turkish garrison town from 1510 until it passed to the Austro-Hungarian Empire in the 19th century. It was incorporated into Yugoslavia in 1918. It is the centre for a mining region and an agricultural district. It was a target during the war in Bosnia in the 1990s (see Bosnian conflict).

TVA See Tennessee Valley Authority

TWA See Trans World Airlines, Inc.

Twain, Mark orig. Samuel Langhorne Clemens (b. Nov. 30, 1835, Florida, Mo., U.S.—d. April 21, 1910, Redding, Conn.) U.S. humorist, writer, and lecturer. He grew up in Hannibal, Mo., on the Mis¬ sissippi River. At age 13 he was apprenticed to a local printer. In 1856 he signed on as an apprentice to a steamboat pilot. He plied the Missis¬ sippi for almost four years before going to Nevada and California. In 1863 he took his pseudonym, the riverman’s term for water “two fathoms deep.” In a California mining camp he heard the story that he would make famous as “The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County” (1865). He traveled widely, using his travels as subject matter for lectures and books, including the humorous narratives The Innocents Abroad (1869) and Roughing It (1872). He won a worldwide audience for his stories of youthful adventures, especially Tom Sawyer (1876), The Prince and the Pauper (1881), Life on the Mississippi (1883), and Huckleberry Finn (1884), one of the masterpieces of American fiction. The satirical A Con¬ necticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court (1889) and increasingly grim works including Pudd’nhead Wilson (1894) and The Man Who Corrupted Hadleyburg (1900) followed. In the 1890s financial speculations bank¬ rupted him, and his eldest daughter died. After his wife’s death (1904), he expressed his pessimism about human character in such late works as the posthumously published Letters from the Earth (1962).

tweed Medium- to heavy-weight fabric, rough in surface texture, pro¬ duced in a great variety of colour and weave effects (see weaving). Most tweeds are made entirely of wool, but an increasing number are blends of wool with cotton, rayon, or other synthetic fibres. Most are woven from dyed yarns, but some are dyed after being woven. Technical advances in dyeing raw stock, yams, and fabrics, together with new techniques in fin¬ ishing, have resulted in a wide variety of durable cloths.

Tweed, River River, southeastern Scotland and northeastern England. It rises in the Borders region of southeastern Scotland and flows east, forming a section of the border between Scotland and England. It then crosses into England and empties into the North Sea at Berwick. It is 97 mi (156 km) long.

Tweed, William Marcy known as Boss Tweed (b. April 3, 1823, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. April 12,

1878, New York City) U.S. politi¬ cian. He worked as a bookkeeper and volunteer firefighter. As city aider- man (1851-56), he gained influence in Tammany Hall and obtained impor¬ tant positions in city government. He appointed political cronies to key city posts and built a group later called the Tweed ring. As head of Tammany’s general committee (from 1860), he controlled the Democratic Party’s nominations to all city positions. He opened a law office to receive payments for “legal services” from city contractors and corporations. Elected to the state senate (1868), he also became Tam¬ many’s grand sachem (leader) and controlled city and state political patronage. He gained control of the city treasury and plundered sums esti¬ mated at between $30 million and $200 million. Reformers and exposure by the press, including Thomas Nast’s cartoons in Harper’s Weekly, brought prosecution, led by Samuel Tilden, that resulted in Tweed’s con¬ viction and imprisonment (1873-75, 1876-78).

Boss Tweed

COURTESY OF THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON,

Twelve Tables, Law of the Earliest codification of ancient Roman law, traditionally dated to 451-450 bc. They were purportedly written at the demand of the plebeians, who felt that their legal rights were ham¬

pered by the fact that court judgments were rendered according to unwrit¬ ten custom preserved only within a small group of learned patricians. The Twelve Tables were not a reform or a liberalizing of old custom; they recognized the prerogatives of the patrician class and of the patriarchal family, the validity of enslavement for unpaid debt, and the interference of religious custom in civil cases. Because only random quotations from the Twelve Tables are extant, knowledge about their contents is largely derived from references in later juridical writings. Venerated by the Romans as a prime legal source, the Twelve Tables were superseded by later changes in Roman law but were never formally abolished.

Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corp. U.S. movie studio. It was formed in 1935 by the merger of Twentieth Century Pictures (founded in 1933 by Joseph Schenck and Darryl F. Zanuck) and the Fox Film Corp. (founded in 1915 by William Fox). The new studio produced mainly westerns and musicals into the 1940s, as well as notable films such as The Grapes of Wrath (1940) and The Snake Pit (1948). In 1953 it introduced CinemaScope with The Robe, and later in the decade it made hits such as The King and I (1956) and South Pacific (1958). After the expensive failure of Cleopatra (1963), the studio recouped with The Sound of Music (1965), Patton (1970), MAS*/7 (1970), and Star Wars (1977), the film industry’s most profitable movie to that time. In 1981 the company was bought by the oil magnate Marvin Davis, who resold it in 1985 to Rupert Murdoch. Murdoch consolidated his American film and television com¬ panies under a holding company, Fox, Inc.

Twentieth Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Feb. 14-25, 1956) Meeting at which Nikita Khrushchev repudi¬ ated Joseph Stalin and Stalinism. Khrushchev’s secret speech denouncing the former Soviet leader was accompanied by his Report of the Central Committee to the Congress, which announced a new line in Soviet for¬ eign policy. He based his new policy on “the Leninist principle of coex¬ istence of states with different social systems.” Khrushchev also used the Congress to promote his loyal supporters to high party office and to take control of the party from the Stalinist old guard.

twenty-one See blackjack

twill One of the three basic textile weaves (see weaving), distinguished by diagonal lines. In the simplest twill, the weft crosses over two warp yarns, then under one, the sequence being repeated in each succeeding shot (row), but stepped over, one warp either to the left or right. In regu¬ lar twill, the diagonal line is repeated regularly, usually running upward from left to right at 45°. The weave can be varied in many ways—for example, by changing the direction of the twill line (as in herringbone twill) or its angle. Twill is much used for men’s wear and many other clothing applications because it has stretch on both diagonals, which makes clothes comfortable even if closely fitted. Denim and many tweeds are of twill weave.

Twining, Nathan F(arragut) (b. Oct. 11, 1897, Monroe, Wis., U.S.—d. March 29, 1982, Lackland Air Force Base, near San Antonio, Texas) U.S. air force officer. He graduated from West Point and served as an army pilot from 1924. In World War II he commanded the air force in the South Pacific and directed the air war against Japan in the Solomon Islands and New Guinea (1943) and Japan (1945). In 1944-45 he led the strategic bombing campaign against Germany and the Balkans. He later became chief of staff of the U.S. Air Force (1953—57) and chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (1957-60).

Two Sicilies See Two Sicilies

Two Sicilies, Kingdom of the Former kingdom, Italy. It united the southern part of the Italian peninsula with the island of Sicily. The region was conquered by the Normans in the 11th century; the two areas were divided in 1282 between the Angevin (French) dynasty on the mainland and the Aragonese (Spanish) dynasty on the island, both of which claimed the title of King of Sicily. In 1442 Alfonso V of Aragon reunited the two areas and took the title of King of the Two Sicilies. This title was sometimes used during the Spanish and Bourbon rule of the region in the 16th-19th centuries; it became official in 1816, when the administration of both areas was combined and Sicily lost its autonomy. Conquered by Giuseppe de Garibaldi in 1860, the Two Sicilies became part of the Kingdom of Italy.

Tycho Brahe See Tycho Brahe

Tyler, Anne (b. Oct. 25, 1941, Minneapolis, Minn., U.S.) U.S. writer. Tyler worked as a bibliographer and librarian before settling in Baltimore

1956 I Tyler ► typhus

in 1967 and beginning to write full-time. Her novels, comedies of man¬ ner marked by compassionate wit and precise details of domestic life, include Dinner at the Homesick Restaurant (1982), The Accidental Tour¬ ist (1985; film, 1988), Breathing Lessons (1988, Pulitzer Prize), and A Patchwork Planet (1998). Several focus on eccentric middle-class people living in chaotic, disunited families in Baltimore.

Tyler, John (b. March 29, 1790, Charles City county, Va., U.S.—d. Jan. 18, 1862, Richmond, Va.) 10th president of the U.S. (1841—45). He prac¬ ticed law before serving in the Virginia legislature (1811-16, 1823-25, 1839) and as governor of Virginia (1825-27). In the U.S. House of Rep¬ resentatives (1817-21) and Senate (1827-36), he was a supporter of states' rights. Though a slaveholder, he sought to prohibit the slave trade in the District of Columbia, provided Maryland and Virginia concurred. He resigned from the Senate rather than acquiesce to state instructions to change his vote on a censure of Pres. Andrew Jackson. After breaking with the Democratic Party, he was nominated by the Whig Party for vice presi¬ dent under William H. Harrison. They won the 1840 election, carefully avoiding the issues and stressing party loyalty and the slogan “Tippecanoe and Tyler too!” Harrison died a month after taking office, and Tyler became the first to attain the presidency “by accident.” He vetoed a national bank bill supported by the Whigs, and all but one member of the cabinet resigned, leaving him without party support. Nonetheless, he reorganized the navy, settled the second of the Seminole Wars in Florida, and oversaw the annexation of Texas. He was nominated for reelection but withdrew in favour of James K. Polk and retired to his Virginia plantation. Committed to states’ rights but opposed to secession, he organized the Washington Peace Conference (1861) to resolve sectional differences. When the Senate rejected a proposed compromise, Tyler urged Virginia to secede.

Tyler, Wat See Peasants' Revolt

Tylor, Sir Edward Burnett (b. Oct. 2, 1832, London, Eng.—d. Jan. 2, 1917, Wellington, Somerset) British anthropologist, often called the founder of cultural anthropology. He taught at Oxford University (1884—

1909), where he became the first pro¬ fessor of anthropology. His Primitive Culture, 2 vol. (1871), influenced by Charles Darwin, developed the theory of an evolutionary relationship between what he called primitive and modern cultures, stressing the cul¬ tural achievements that marked the progression of all humanity from a “savage” to a “civilized” state. At a time when there was still controversy over whether all human races belonged to a single species, Tylor was a powerful advocate of the unity of all humankind. He was instrumen¬ tal in establishing anthropology as an academic discipline. See also ani¬ mism; SOCIOCULTURAL EVOLUTION.

Tyne, River River, Northumber- _

LAND, northern England. Formed by

the confluence of the North Tyne and the South Tyne, it flows east into the North Sea. The Tyne is 62 mi (100 km) long. It has shipped coal for at least six centuries. Its estuary is now lined with industry and large urban communities.

Tylor, detail of a chalk drawing by G. Bonavia; in the National Portrait Gal¬ lery, London

Tyne and Wear \ , tln... , wir\ Metropolitan county (pop., 2001: 1,075,979), northeastern England. It was named for its two main rivers, the Tyne and the Wear. Settled since prehistoric times, the area was occu¬ pied by the Romans, who built Hadrian's Wall. Saxon, then Norman settle¬ ment followed. From the 13th century to recent times, the economy was based on local coal reserves and on such coal-dependent industries as glass, pottery, and chemicals. The main industries now include shipbuild¬ ing and heavy electrical engineering.

typeface See font

types, theory of In logic, a theory introduced by Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead in their Principia Mathematica (1910-13) to deal with logical paradoxes arising from the unrestricted use of propositional

functions as variables. The type of a propositional function is determined by the number and type of its arguments (the distinct variables it con¬ tains). By not allowing propositional functions to be applied to arguments of equal or higher type, contradictions within the system are avoided.

typesetting Setting of type for use in any of various printing processes. Type for printing, using woodblocks, was invented in China in the 11th century, and movable type using metal molds had appeared in Korea by the 13th century. It was reinvented in Europe in the 1450s by Johannes Gutenberg. For much of its history, typesetting and printing were often performed by the same person, who arranged movable type, one charac¬ ter at a time, in rows corresponding to the individual lines in the publi¬ cation and operated the hand press to imprint the image on paper. Typesetting was revolutionized in the 1880s with the invention of the “hot-metal” processes: Linotype (1884), in which the lines of type were assembled by use of a typewriter-like keyboard and each line was cast as a single slug of molten metal, and Monotype (1887), which also used a keyboard but cast each character separately. Photocomposition—the com¬ position of text directly on film or photosensitive paper using a rotating drum or disk with cutout type characters through which light could be directed onto the receiving surface—appeared in the early 20th century. By the late 20th century, computers and publishing software generated characters and handled most hyphenation, layout, and other page-makeup decisions, with the resulting electronic file, including any graphics, passed to a laser printer for paper or film reproduction.

typewriter Machine for writing characters similar to those made by printers’ types, especially a machine in which the characters are produced by steel types striking the paper through an inked ribbon, the types being activated by corresponding keys on a keyboard and the paper being held by a roller (the platen) that is automatically moved along with a carriage when a key is struck. The first practical typewriter was patented in 1868 by Christopher L. Sholes; commercial production began at the Remington firearms company in 1874. By the end of the century the typewriter had come to dominate the American office. The first electric typewriter for office use was introduced in 1920. From the 1970s typewriters began to be replaced by personal computers and their associated printers.

typhoid or typhoid fever Acute infectious disease resembling typhus (and distinguished from it only in the 19th century). Salmonella typhi, usually ingested in food or water, multiplies in the intestinal wall and then enters the bloodstream, causing septicemia. Symptoms begin with head¬ ache, aching, and restlessness. High fever gradually develops, with delirium. A rash appears on the trunk. The sites where the bacilli multi¬ plied become inflamed and may ulcerate, leading to intestinal bleeding or peritonitis. Patients become exhausted and emaciated; up to 25% die if not treated. Antibiotic treatment is effective. Patients can carry typhoid for weeks to months or years. Carriers can contaminate the food they handle. Prevention depends mainly on water and sewage treatment and exclud¬ ing carriers from food-handling jobs.

Typhoid Mary byname o/ Mary Mallon (b. 1870?—d. Nov. 11, 1938, North Brother Island, N.Y., N.Y., U.S.) U.S. carrier of typhoid. A 1904 typhoid epidemic on Long Island was traced to households where she had been a cook. She fled, but authorities finally caught up with her and isolated her on an island off the Bronx. In 1910 she was released after agreeing not to take a food-handling job, but she did, causing more typhoid outbreaks. She was returned to the island for the rest of her life. Three deaths and 51 original cases were directly attributed to her.

Typhon In Greek mythology, the youngest son of Gaea and Tartarus. A grisly monster with a hundred dragons’ heads, he was conquered and cast into the underworld by Zeus but continued to be the source of destructive winds. In other accounts, he was confined in the land of the Arimi in Cil¬ icia or under Mount Etna, where he caused eruptions and was thus the personification of volcanic forces. Among his children were Cerberus, Chi¬ mera, and the multiheaded Hydra. Later writers identified him with the Egyptian god Seth.

typhoon See tropical cyclone

typhus Any of a group of related diseases caused by various species of Rickettsia that release toxins into the blood. Headache, chills, fever, and general pains begin suddenly and a rash soon after. The bacteria are trans¬ mitted by lice, fleas, mites, and ticks. Epidemic typhus, spread by the body louse, is the most severe. It is one of the great scourges of history, asso¬ ciated with crowded, filthy conditions. Improved hygiene has nearly

typographic printing ► Tzotzil I 1957

eliminated it from the Western world, but it persists in many countries, despite modem vaccines and pesticides. Endemic typhus, spread by fleas on rats and other rodents, is milder (mortality under 5%). Scrub typhus, carried by mites, is usually classed as a separate disease. See also Rocky Mountain spotted fever; Hans Zinsser.

typographic printing See letterpress printing

typography Design or selection of letter forms to be organized into words and sentences and printed or displayed electronically. Typography originated after the invention of printing from movable type in the mid 15th century. The three major type families in the history of Western printing are roman, italic, and black letter (Gothic). All had their origin in the scripts of the calligraphers whose work was ultimately replaced by printing. In the succeeding centuries typographers have created some 10,000 typefaces (a complete set of letter forms of a particular design). Depending on the style of their letters, typefaces are categorized as old style, transitional, and modem. Commonly used typefaces include Caslon, Baskerville, Bodoni, Garamond, and Times New Roman. See also John Baskerville; Giambattista Bodoni; Stanley Morison. The selection of a type¬ face is an important part of the aesthetic process in graphic design.

tyrannosaur Any of a group of related carnivorous dinosaurs similar to the allosaurs. Tyrannosaurus rex is the largest and best known, found as fossils in Late Cretaceous (99-65 million years ago) deposits of North America and eastern Asia. Some adults were more than 40 ft (12 m) long and 16-18 ft (over 5 m) tall and weighed 6 tons (5.4 metric tons) or more. Tyrannosaurs walked with a stooped posture, carrying the body forward and the long tail off the ground. They had a short, thick neck, a very large skull, and pointed teeth, up to 6 in. (15 cm) long, with serrated edges. Each small forelimb had two claws, perhaps for holding struggling prey. A nearly complete skeleton of T. rex called “Sue” is on display at the Field Museum in Chicago. Other tyrannosaurs include Albertosaurus, Alectrosaurus, and Nanotyrannus.

tyrant In ancient Greece, a cruel and oppressive absolute ruler. The Greek tyrannos was a ruler who seized power unconstitutionally or inherited such power. Though tyrants often replaced aristocratic regimes that were them¬ selves unpopular, the Greeks resented their illegal autocracy, and those who killed tyrants received high honours. Cypselus and Periander of Corinth and Dionysius I of Syracuse were among the most famous tyrants.

Tyre \'tlr\ Arabic SOr \'sur\ City (pop., 2003 est.: 117,100), southern Lebanon. It was a major Phoenician port from c. 2000 bc through Roman times and later was noted for its silken garments and Tyrian purple dye. Probably founded as a colony of Sidon, it was first mentioned in the 14th century bc; it is frequently mentioned in the Bible. Tyre successfully resisted a 6th-century-Bc siege of 13 years by the Babylonian king Neb¬ uchadrezzar II, but it fell to Alexander the Great in 332 bc. Ruled later by the Seleucid dynasty and then by the Romans, it passed to the Muslims in the 7th century ad. After its capture by the Crusaders in 1124, it became a chief city of the kingdom of Jerusalem (see Crusades). It fell again to the Muslims in 1291 and was destroyed. The modern city was included in Lebanon in 1920 and was occupied by Israeli forces (1982-85). Its main economic activity is fishing. Tyre’s ruins were designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1984.

Tyrol See Tirol

Tyrone \t!-'ron\ Former county, western central Northern Ireland. In the 1973 administrative reorganization of Northern Ireland, the county was divided into several smaller districts. The O’Nialls (or O’Neills) ruled the territory from the 5th to the 16th century ad. Subsequently the vast estates passed to the English crown and were divided and granted by the king under the scheme for the Plantation of Ulster. Royalist forces established fortifications, and the area was colonized.

Tyrone Vtl-ronV, Hugh O'Neill, 2nd earl of (b. c. 1540—d. July 20, 1616, Rome, Papal States) Irish rebel. Born into the powerful O’Neill family of Ulster, he grew up in London, then returned to Ireland (1568) to assume his grandfather’s title of earl of Tyrone. As chieftain of the O’Neills from 1593, he led skirmishes against the English and won the Battle of the Yellow Ford on the River Blackwater, Ulster, which sparked a countrywide revolt (1598). He received aid and troops from Spain (1601) but was defeated by the English at Kinsale and forced to surren¬ der (1603). In 1607 he fled with about 100 chieftains and lived in Rome the rest of his life. The so-called “flight of the earls” brought an end to Gaelic Ulster, and the province was rapidly Anglicized.

tyrosine Vtl-ro-.senV One of the amino acids, not essential for humans unless they have the hereditary disorder phenylketonuria. It is the bio¬ chemical precursor of many important catecholamines. It is found in small amounts in most proteins, especially insulin and papain (found in papaya). It is used in biochemical research and as a dietary supplement.

Tyrrhenian Sea \t3-'re-ne-on\ Italian Mare Tirreno

Vma-ra-te-'re-noV Arm of the Mediterranean Sea. It is located between the western coast of Italy and the islands of Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily. It is connected with the Ligurian Sea on the northwest through the Tuscan Archipelago and with the Ionian Sea on the southeast through the Strait of Messina. Chief inlets include the Bay of Naples.

Tyson, Mike in full Michael Gerald Tyson (b. June 30, 1966, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. boxer. A member of street gangs in his youth, Tyson was sent to reform school, where his boxing talent was discovered. He turned professional in 1985 and won the heavyweight title in 1986 by defeating Trevor Berbick, becoming, at age 20, the youngest heavyweight champion in history. He defended the title against Larry Holmes, Michael Spinks, and eight others before losing in an upset to James (“Buster”) Douglas in 1990. In 1992 he was convicted of rape and sentenced to six years in prison; he was released on parole in 1995. In 1996 he challenged but lost to Evander Holyfield; in a 1997 rematch he was disqualified for biting off a piece of Holyfield’s ear, and his license was revoked. In 1999 Tyson regained his boxing license and returned to the ring. In his bout against British heavyweight champion Lennox Lewis in 2002, Lewis twice knocked Tyson to the canvas before knocking him out in the eighth round.

tzaddiq Vtsa-dik, tsa-'dek\ or zaddik One who embodies the religious ideals of Judaism. The term is used repeatedly in the Old Testament and in the Talmud, which asserts that the continued existence of the world is due to the merits of 36 righteous men. In Hasidism it came to refer to a religious leader who was viewed as a mediator between humankind and God. Initially the zaddikim traveled widely and engaged in social activi¬ ties to strengthen the community’s spiritual life. Toward the end of the 18th century, they ceased this practice and became available at home for those seeking advice.

Tzeltal \tsel-'tal\ Mayan Indian group of central Chiapas state in south¬ ern Mexico. Traditionally an agricultural people, they cultivate com (maize), beans, chiles, squash, manioc, and peanuts with digging sticks and hoes. Their major crafts are pottery, weaving, and basketry. They pro¬ fess Roman Catholicism, though pre-Columbian rituals are also practiced.

Tzotzil \tsot-'sel\ Mayan Indian group of central Chiapas state in south¬ ern Mexico. They live at high elevations where the climate is cool and precipitation is heavy during the rainy season. They raise sheep, prima¬ rily for wool, which they weave into ponchos for men and shawls for women. They practice shifting cultivation and grow peaches and other crops for the market. Some make pottery, leather, and fibre products or practice carpentry or stonework. Christian and native beliefs are inter¬ twined in all Tzotzil areas.

1958 I U-2 Affair ► Uganda

U-2 Affair (1960) Confrontation between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. On May 1, 1960, the Soviet Union shot down a U.S. U-2 recon¬ naissance plane and called the flight an “aggressive act.” The U.S. denied Soviet claims that the pilot, F. Gary Powers, had stated that his mission was to collect Soviet intelligence data. Nikita Khrushchev declared that the Soviet Union would not take part in a scheduled summit conference with the U.S., Britain, and France unless the U.S. immediately stopped flights over Soviet territory, apologized, and punished those responsible. Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower agreed only to the first stipulation, and the confer¬ ence was adjourned. Powers was tried in the Soviet Union and sentenced to 10 years in prison; in 1962 he was exchanged for the Soviet spy Rudolf Abel.

U-boat German Unterseeboot ("undersea boat") German submarine. The first German sub¬ marine, the U-l, was built in 1905. During World War I Germany became the first country to employ subma¬ rines in war, and during World War II its U-boats domi¬ nated the Battle of the Atlantic until the Allies developed new antisubmarine tactics. The principal German U-boat was the type VII; the VIIC variant was 220.25 ft (66 m) long, displaced 769 tons on the surface, carried one 90-mm deck gun and five torpedo tubes, and was manned by a crew of 44. Modem German U-boats are built for the German navy and navies of allied countries; their sophisticated structures, electonics, and propulsion systems allow them to be used for intelligence gathering and special operations in addition to defending sea lanes and threatening enemy forces.

Uaxactun \,wa-shak-'tun\ Ancient Maya ruins, north-central Guatemala. One of the oldest known centres of Maya civilization, it was occupied in the 1st millennium bc; by c. 300 bc-c. ad 100 a num¬ ber of ceremonial buildings had been erected, including a temple remi¬ niscent of the more ancient Olmec civilization. Major remains predate the Classic period (ad 100-900). In the 9th century it declined, as did other southern lowland Maya centres, and was abandoned in the 10th century.

Ubangi \ii-'bai]-ge\ River River, central Africa. Formed by the Bomu River and the Uele River on the northern border of the Democratic Repub¬ lic of the Congo, it flows west and south, forming part of the boundary with the Central African Republic and with the Republic of the Congo. It then empties into the Congo River. It is 700 mi (1,126 km) long; with its longest headstream, it is double that length.

Ubasti See Bastet

UC See University of California

Ucayali \,u-ka-'ya-le\ River River, central and northern Peru. The chief headstream of the Amazon River, it is formed by the junction of the Apuri- mac and Urubamba rivers. It then meanders north to unite with the Maranon River and form the Amazon. It is navigable for about two-thirds of its 1,000-mi (1,610-km) length.

Uccello \u-'che-lo\, Paolo orig. Paolo di Dono (b. 1397, Pratovec- chio, near Florence—d. Dec. 10, 1475, Florence) Italian painter. Though apprenticed to the sculptor Lorenzo Ghiberti, he is not known to have worked in sculpture, and at 18 he was admitted to the painters’ guild in Florence. The Deluge , one of his frescoes in the Chiostro Verde of Santa Maria Novella, demonstrates his intense study of perspective. He became so firmly identified with perspective that John Ruskin thought he had invented it. His three panels depicting the Battle of San Romano, like all the extant works of his mature years, combine the decorative late Gothic style with the new heroic style of the early Renaissance.

UCLA See University of California

‘Gd \iid\ Stringed instrument prominent in medieval and modem Islamic music, forerunner of the European lute. Dating from the 7th century, it has a pear-shaped body, a fretless fingerboard, a short neck, and a bent-back pegbox with the tuning pegs set in the sides. The gut strings, of which there are often four pairs, are plucked with a plectrum.

Udall Vyii-dol, 'yu-.doP, Nicholas (b. December 1505?, Southampton, Hampshire, Eng.—d. December 1556, Westminster) English playwright, translator, and schoolmaster. The headmaster of Eton College from 1534 and of Westminster from 1555, Udall was well known as a translator. He is credited with writing many plays, of which only one is extant, Ralph

Roister Doister (performed c. 1553), the first known English comedy. About a braggart soldier-hero who is finally shown to be an arrant cow¬ ard, it marks the emergence of comedy from the medieval morality plays, interludes, and farces.

Ufa \ii-'fa\ City (pop., 2001 est.: 1,088,800), western Russia. Lying at the confluence of the Belaya and Ufa rivers, it was founded as a fortress in 1574 to protect the trade route across the Ural Mountains from Kazan to Tyumen. It became a town in 1586. It developed as an industrial centre from the late 19th century and especially after World War II. Chief indus¬ tries include electrical equipment, lumber and veneer, and oil refining.

Uffizi \ii-'fet-se\ Gallery Art museum in Florence, housing the world’s

_ finest collection of Italian Renaissance painting.

The core collection derives from the Medici family of Tuscany. In 1559 Cosimo I hired Giorgio Vasari to design the Uffizi Palace (1560-80), originally for use as government offices (uffizi). In 1565 Vasari built the corridor over the Ponte Vecchio connecting the Uffizi with the Pitti Palace. In 1737 Maria Ludovica, last of the Medici, bequeathed the family collections to Tus¬ cany; the collection was given museum status and opened to the public in 1769. The building was restored and enlarged after bomb damage in World War II and flooding in 1966. In addition to Florentine paintings, the Uffizi houses outstanding works of other Italian and non-Italian schools, antique sculpture, a gallery of self- portraits, and 100,000 prints and drawings.

UFO See UNIDENTIFIED FLYING OBJECT

Uganda Xyii-'gan-do, yii-'gan-doV officially Republic of Uganda Country, eastern Africa. Area: 93,065 sq mi (241,038 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 27,269,000. Capital: Kampala. Uganda is home to dozens of African ethnic groups, as well as a small Asian community. Languages: English (official), Swahili. Religions: Christianity (mostly Roman Catholic; also Protestant); also Islam, traditional beliefs. Currency: Uganda shilling. A landlocked country on the Equator, Uganda is largely situated on a plateau, with volcanic mountains edging its eastern and west¬

ern borders; Margherita Peak, at 16,795 ft (5,119 m), is the highest mountain. Part of Lake Victoria occupies virtually all of south¬ eastern Uganda; other major lakes are Lakes Albert, Kyoga, Edward, George, and Bisina.

The Nile River traverses the country. Huge tracts of land are devoted to national parks and game reserves. The economy is based largely on agri¬ culture and food processing. Livestock raising and fishing are also impor-

Ugarit ► Ukrainian I 1959

tant, and there is some manufacturing and mining. Uganda is a republic with one legislative house; its head of state and government is the presi¬ dent. By the 19th century the region was divided into several separate local kingdoms inhabited by various Bantu- and Nilotic-speaking peoples. Arab traders reached the area in the 1840s. The kingdom of Buganda was visited by the first European explorers in 1862. Protestant and Catholic mission¬ aries arrived in the 1870s, and the development of religious factions led to persecution and civil strife. In 1894 Buganda was formally proclaimed a British protectorate. As Uganda, it gained independence in 1962, and in 1967 it adopted a republican constitution. The civilian government was overthrown in 1971 and replaced by a military regime under Idi Amin. His invasion of Tanzania in 1978 resulted in the collapse of his regime. The civilian government was again deposed by the military in 1985, but the military government was in turn overthrown in 1986. A constituent assem¬ bly enacted a new constitution in 1995.

Ugarit \yu-'gar-it, 'yu-g3-rit\ modern Ra’s Shamrah Ancient city. Middle East. It was located on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea in modern Syria. The earliest settlement was a small fortified town in the 7th millennium bc. It flourished in the 15th-12th centuries bc, when great royal palaces, temples, shrines, and libraries were built there. It was destroyed c. 1200 bc. Remains at the site include ancient records in cunei¬ form WRITING.

Ui Neill \ii-'nel\ Major dynasty of medieval Ireland, which long domi¬ nated Ulster. It was founded by a shadowy figure known as Niall of the Nine Hostages (r. 379-405). Divided into northern and southern branches, the Ui Neill ruled as high kings, to whom all other Irish kings owed def¬ erence. In the early 11th century the king of Munster, Brian Boru, chal¬ lenged the high kings of the Ui Neill dynasty and ended their dominance.

Uighur or Uygur \'we-,gur\ A Turkic-speaking people of Central Asia who live largely in northwestern China. About 8,000,000 Uighurs live in China today, and some 300,000 in Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyr¬ gyzstan. They are among the oldest Turkic-speaking peoples of Central Asia, first mentioned in Chinese records from the 3rd century ad. In the 8th century they established a kingdom, which was overrun in 840. A Uighur confederacy (745-1209), established around the Tien Shan, was overthrown by the Mongols. This confederacy came to the aid of China’s Tang dynasty during the An Lushan Rebellion. The Uighurs of that time pro¬ fessed a Manichaean faith.

Uinta \yu-'in-ta\ Mountains Mountain range, south-central Rocky Mountains, U.S. They extend east more than 100 mi (160 km) from the Wasatch Mountains across northeastern Utah and slightly into southwest¬ ern Wyoming. Many of the range’s summits exceed 13,000 ft (4,000 m), including Kings Peak (13,528 ft [4,123 m]), the highest point in Utah.

Ujung Pan dang Vu-juq-'pan-.daqV/orraer/y Macassar \m3-'ka-s3r\ City (pop., 1995 est.: 1,060,257), Celebes (Sulawesi), Indonesia. Already a thriving port when the Portuguese arrived in the 16th century, it came under control of the Dutch, who built a trading station there in 1607 and finally deposed the sultan in 1667. It was made a free port in 1848 and the capital of the Dutch-sponsored state of Indonesia Timur (East Indo¬ nesia) in 1946. In 1949 it became part of the Republic of Indonesia. It is the home of Hasanuddin University (founded 1956).

ukiyo-e \u-,ke-6-'a\ Japanese "pictures of the floating world"

Dominant art movement of the Edo culture in Japan. Screen paintings were the first works to be done in the style, which depicted aspects of the enter¬ tainment quarters (“floating world”) of Edo (modem Tokyo) and other cities. Ukiyo-e artists switched their focus to wood-block prints, which were mass-produced for an eager public. Favourite ukiyo-e subjects included famous courtesans and prostitutes, kabuki actors in famous roles, and erotica; they were executed in flat, decorative colours and expressive patterns. Hishikawa Moronobu is generally accredited as the first master of ukiyo-e. The transition from single- to two-colour prints was made by Okumura Masanobu; in 1765 polychrome prints using numerous blocks were introduced by Suzuki Harunobu. The essence of the ukiyo-e style was embodied in the works of Utamaro, Hokusai, and Hiroshige. The prints attracted much attention in Europe in the 19th century and had a great influence on avant-garde French artists such as the Impressionists and Post- Impressionists.

Ukraine \yu-'kran\ Country, eastern Europe. Area: 233,062 sq mi (603,628 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 47,075,000. Capital: Kiev. Ukrai¬ nians make up more than three-fourths of the population; there is a sig¬

nificant minority of Russians. Languages: Ukrainian (official), Russian, Romanian, Polish, Hungarian. Religions: Christianity (mostly Eastern Orthodox; also other Christians, Roman Catholic, Protestant), Islam. Currency: hryvnya. Ukraine consists of level plains and the Car¬ pathian Mountains, which extend through the western region for more than 150 mi (240 km). The Bug (Western Bug), Dnieper (Dnipro), Donets, and Dniester (Dnistro) are the major rivers. The Donets Basin in the east-central region is one of the major heavy-industrial and mining-metallurgical com¬ plexes of Europe. There iron ore and coal are mined, and natural gas, petroleum, iron, and steel are produced. Ukraine is a major producer of winter wheat and sugar beets. It is a republic with one legislative body; its head of state is the president, and the head of government is the prime minister. Different parts of the area were invaded and occupied in the 1st millennium bc by the Cimmerians, Scythians, and Sarmatians and in the 1st millennium ad by the Goths, Huns, Bulgars, Avars, Khazars, and Magyars. Slavic tribes settled there after the 4th century. Kiev was the chief town. The Mongol conquest in the mid-13th century decisively ended Kievan power. Ruled by Lithuania in the 14th century and Poland in the 16th, the area fell to Russian rule in the 18th century. After the Russian Revolution of February 1917, Ukrainian and Bolshevik forces struggled for control of Ukraine until 1921, when the Bolsheviks pre¬ vailed. In 1924 the Ukrainian S.S.R. became a republic of the Soviet Union. The northwestern region of present-day Ukraine, however, was held by Poland (1919-39). Ukraine suffered a severe famine in 1932-33 under Soviet leader Joseph Stalin; more than five million Ukrainians died of starvation in an unprecedented peacetime catastrophe. Overrun by Axis armies in 1941 during World War II, it was further devastated before being retaken by the Soviets in 1944. In 1986 it was the site of the Chernobyl accident at a Soviet-built nuclear power plant. Ukraine declared indepen¬ dence in 1991. The turmoil it experienced in the 1990s as it attempted to implement economic and political reforms culminated in the disputed presidential election of 2004; invalidated by the Supreme Court after mass protests, it ultimately led to a new runoff election that brought opposition leader Viktor Yushchenko into office.

Ukrainian \yii-'kra-ne-3n\ language formerly Ruthenian \ru-'the-ne-9n\ language Slavic language spoken by about 41 million people in Ukraine, Poland, Slovakia, Russia, and in enclaves around the world. Only about three-quarters of Ukrainians are first-language speak¬ ers of Ukrainian, but there are millions of first-language speakers in Rus¬ sia, Belarus, and the Central Asian republics. Ukraine’s premodem literary language was Church Slavonic (see Old Church Slavonic lan¬ guage). Ukrainian was one component in the chancery language of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which also mixed Church Slavonic, Belaru-

1960 I ukulele ► Ultra

sian, and Polish. With the fall of the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks in the 18th century, Ukrainian speakers were stateless and the status of the language, thought of as peasant speech by the nobility, was low. The language and orthography (using a form of the Cyrillic alphabet) were gradually stan¬ dardized in the 19th century.

ukulele \,yu-k3-'la-le\ Small Hawaiian four-stringed guitar. It developed out of a similar Portuguese instrument introduced to Hawaii by sailors in the 1870s. It became highly popular in the U.S. after World War I, when it was used in jazz and bluegrass ensembles and more widely as an ama¬ teur solo instrument.

UI a an baa tar or Ulan Bator \ 1 u- 1 lan- , ba- 1 tor\ City (pop., 2002 est.: mun., 812,500), capital of Mongolia. Situated on a windswept plateau, it was founded in the mid-17th century as the residence of the bodgo-gegen, the high priest of Tibetan Buddhism. It subsequently became a trading centre on caravan routes between Russia and China; it remains the prin¬ cipal junction of Mongolian transportation routes. The Outer Mongolian revolt for independence was centred there in 1911. Ulaanbaatar became the capital when the Mongolian People’s Republic was established in 1924 and remained the capital when the country’s name was changed to Mongolia in 1992. It is the country’s main industrial centre.

Ulaid cycle See Ulster cycle

Ulam Vu-lomV, Stanislaw M(arcin) (b. April 13, 1909, Lemberg, Pol., Austria-Hungary —d. May 13, 1984, Santa Fe, N.M., U.S.) Polish- born U.S. mathematician and atomic physicist. He received his doctoral degree in 1933 and was invited by John von Neumann to Princeton Uni¬ versity’s Institute for Advanced Study in 1936. In 1943 he moved to Los Alamos, N.M., where his early work included development (with von Neumann) of the Monte Carlo method of finding approximate solutions to problems. Later, while working on a fusion bomb, he and Edward Teller developed a two-stage radiation implosion design (the “Teller-Ulam con¬ figuration”) that could generate an explosion capable of initiating nuclear fusion, a design that led to the creation of the hydrogen bomb.

Ulan Bator See Ulaanbaatar

Ulanova Vu-Ta-no-voV Galina (Sergeyevna) (b. Jan. 8, 1910, St. Petersburg, Russia—d. March 21, 1998, Moscow) Russian ballet dancer, the first prima ballerina assoluta of the Soviet Union. She trained with Agrippina Vaganova in Leningrad and in 1928 joined the Kirov Theatre (formerly Mariinsky Theatre) company, where she began to dance leading roles and to develop the unique lyrical, dramatic style that won her wide acclaim. In 1944 she moved to the Bolshoi Ballet, and during the 1950s she toured to great acclaim with the company in Europe and the U.S. She retired from dancing in 1962 but continued as ballet mistress and coach at the Bolshoi.

Ulbricht \'ul-,brikt,\ English \'ul-,brikt\, Walter (b. June 30, 1893, Leipzig, Ger.—d. Aug. 1, 1973, East Berlin, E.Ger.) German communist leader and head of East Germany (1960-73). He joined the German Com¬ munist Party after World War I and was elected to its central committee in 1923. He led the party in Berlin (1929-33), then fled abroad after the Nazi takeover. As an agent for the Comintern, he persecuted Trotskyites and other deviationists. In 1945 he returned to the Soviet-occupied zone of Germany, helped form the Socialist Unity Party (SED) in East Ger¬ many, and served as its general secretary (1950-71). He served as deputy premier of East Germany (1949-60) and as chairman of its council of state (1960-73). A constant foe of West Germany, he built the Berlin Wall in 1961. He exercised rigid control over East Germany while developing its industrial strength. He was forced to retire as first secretary of the SED in 1971 when the Soviet Union opened new relations with West Germany, but he retained his position as head of state until his death.

ulcer Concave sore on the skin or lining of an organ, with well-defined, sometimes raised edges. Erosion of surface tissue may extend to deeper layers. The main symptom is pain. The term most often refers to peptic ulcer but also includes skin ulcer, common on legs with varicose veins and the feet of people with diabetes mellitus (when nerve damage has reduced sensation), and decubitus ulcer (bedsore or pressure sore). Other causes include infec¬ tion, trauma (e.g., burn, frostbite), improper nutrition (e.g., thiamine defi¬ ciency), and cancer (likely in ulcers hard to the touch). Skin ulcers over a month old should be checked for cancer, especially after middle age.

ulcerative colitis \ko-'H-t3s\ Inflammation of the colon, especially of its mucous membranes. The inflamed membranes develop patches of tiny

ulcers, and the diarrhea contains blood and mucus. It often becomes chronic, with sustained fever and weight loss; complications and death may result. Specific causes, such as amoebic or bacillary dysentery, are rarer than unknown or multiple causes. If treatment with sulfasalazine, corticosteroids, immunosuppressive drugs, or antibiotics does not control it, part or all of the colon may have to be removed.

Ullmann, Liv (b. Dec. 16, 1939, Tokyo, Japan) Norwegian film actress. Raised mainly in Canada and the U.S., she returned to Norway and made her stage debut in Oslo. She became internationally famous in the films of Swedish director Ingmar Bergman, including Persona (1966), The Pas¬ sion of Anna (1969), Cries and Whispers (1972), Scenes from a Marriage (1973), and Autumn Sonata (1978). Noted for her expressive face, natu¬ ral beauty, and intelligent performances, she also starred in other Swed¬ ish and international films, including The Emigrants (1971) and The New Land (1973), and appeared on stage in the U.S. and Europe. She directed and cowrote Sofie (1993) and directed Private Confessions (1999) from Bergman’s screenplay.

Ulm, Battle of (Sept. 25-Oct. 20, 1805) Major victory by France over Austria at Ulm, Bavaria. In August 1805 Austria joined the Anglo-Russian alliance against Napoleon and on September 11 sent 72,000 troops under Baron Karl Mack (1752-1828) into Bavaria, an ally of France. Napoleon, hoping to crush the Austrians before Russian troops could join them, sent his Grand Army of 210,000 French troops across the Rhine River, march¬ ing 18 mi (29 km) a day to reach the Danube River on September 25. After several battles, he encircled the Austrians and forced them into the city of Ulm, where they faced French artillery attacks. Seeing little chance that his troops could hold out until Russian reinforcements arrived, Baron Mack surrendered on October 20 with about 50,000 men.

Ulmanis Vul-ma-nisV, Karlis (b. Sept. 4, 1877, Berze, Latvia, Russian Empire—d. 1942) Latvian independence leader and premier of Latvia (1918, 1919-21, 1925-26,1931-32,1934-40). An agronomist, he worked to improve farming in Latvia while becoming active in the Latvian inde¬ pendence movement. In 1905 he was forced into exile to the U.S., where he taught agriculture at the University of Nebraska until 1913. Returning to Latvia, he founded the Latvian Farmers’ Union (1917) to press for independence from Russia. In 1918 he became premier of the newly inde¬ pendent republic. In his various terms of office he worked to resist inter¬ nal dissension—instituting authoritarian rule in 1934—and military threats from Russia. Soviet occupation forced his resignation in 1940, and he was arrested and deported to Russia, where he died.

Ulster Historical province, northern Ireland. It now forms Northern Ire¬ land and Ulster province of Ireland. The ancient province was home to the Roman Catholic O’Neills (earls of Tyrone), who rebelled against English rule c. 1600. After they fled, most of the land was confiscated by British King James I and settled with Protestant Scots, Welsh, and English. It was further colonized after Cromwellian settlement in the mid-17th century. In the early 20th century its opposition to Irish Home Rule led to the formation of Northern Ireland.

Ulster cycle or Ulaid Vu-l3th y , 'u-log y \ cycle In early Irish literature, a group of legends and tales dealing with the heroic age of the Ulaid, a people of northeast Ireland from whom the modern name Ulster derives. The stories, set in the 1st century bc, were recorded from oral tradition between the 8th and 11th century and are preserved in the 12th-century manuscripts The Book of the Dun Cow and The Book of Leinster and later compilations. Reflecting the customs of a free pre-Christian aristocracy, they combine mythological and legendary elements. Among the stories are “Bricriu’s Feast,” containing a beheading game that appeared in medi¬ eval narratives, and “The Tragic Death of the Sons of Usnech,” drama¬ tized in the 20th century by William Butler Yeats and John Millington Synge.

ultra Member of the extreme right (ultraroyalist) wing of the royalist movement in the French Bourbon Restoration (1815-30). The ultras included large landowners, clericalists, and the former emigre nobility. Opposed to the French Revolution’s secular and egalitarian principles, they called for restrictions on the press and greater power for the Catholic church. They controlled the Chamber of Deputies and the cabinet for most of the 1820s, especially during the reign of their leader Charles X. Their policies proved unpopular, and they lost power after 1827; with the July Revolution (1830), the faction ceased to exist.

Ultra Allied intelligence project that, in tapping the very highest-level communications among the armed forces of Germany and Japan, contrib-

ultrasonics ► Unamuno I 1961

uted to the Allied victory in World War II. In the early 1930s Polish cryp¬ tographers first broke the code of Germany’s cipher machine Enigma. In 1939 they turned their information over to the Allies, and Britain estab¬ lished the Ultra project at Bletchley Park to intercept and decipher Enigma messages. The Japanese also had a modified version of the Enigma, known as “Purple” by the Americans, who were able to duplicate it well before Pearl Harbor. The intercept of signals helped Allied forces win the Battle of Britain and the battles of the Coral Sea and Midway and led to the destruction of a large part of the German forces following the Allied landing in Normandy.

ultrasonics Vibrational or stress waves in elastic media that have a fre¬ quency above 20 kilohertz, the highest frequency of sound waves that can be detected by the human ear. They can be generated or detected by piezoelectric transducers (see piezoelectricity). High-power ultrasonics pro¬ duce distortion in a medium; applications include ultrasonic welding, drilling, irradiation of fluid suspensions (as in wine clarification), clean¬ ing of surfaces (such as jewelry), and disruption of biological structures. Low-power ultrasonic waves do not cause distortions; uses include sonar, structure testing, and medical imaging and diagnosis. Some animals, including bats, employ ultrasonic echolocation for navigation.

ultrasound or ultrasonography Use of ultrasonic waves to pro¬ duce images of body structures. The waves travel through tissues and are reflected back where density differs (e.g., the border between a hollow organ’s wall and its inside). The reflected echoes are received by an elec¬ tronic apparatus that measures their intensity level and the position of the tissue reflecting them. The results can be displayed as still images or as a moving picture of the inside of the body. Unlike X-rays or other ionizing radiation, ultrasound carries minimal, if any, risk. Most often used during pregnancy to examine the fetus, ultrasound imaging is also used on internal organs and on the eye, breast, and major blood vessels. It can often show whether a growth is benign or malignant. See also diagnostic imaging.

ultraviolet astronomy Study of astronomical objects and phenom¬ ena by observing the ultraviolet radiation (UV radiation) they emit. It has yielded much information about chemical abundances and processes in interstellar matter, the Sun, and other stellar objects, such as hot young stars and white dwarf stars. Ultraviolet astronomy became feasible once rockets could carry instruments above Earth’s atmosphere, which absorbs most electromagnetic radiation of UV wavelengths. Since the early 1960s, a number of unmanned space observatories carrying UV telescopes, including the Hubble Space Telescope, have collected UV data on objects such as comets, quasars, NEBUiAe, and distant star clusters. The Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer, launched in 1992, was the first orbiting observatory to map the sky in the shortest UV wavelengths, at the boundary with the X-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum.

ultraviolet radiation Portion of the electromagnetic spectrum extend¬ ing from the violet end of visible light to the X-ray region. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation lies between wavelengths of about 400 nanometres and 10 nanometres, corresponding to frequencies of 7.5 x 10 14 Hz to 3 x 10 16 Hz. Most UV rays from the Sun are absorbed by the Earth’s ozone layer. UV has low penetrating power, so its effects on humans are limited to the skin. These effects include stimulation of production of vitamin D, sun¬ burn, suntan, aging signs, and carcinogenic changes. UV radiation is also used to treat jaundice in newborns, to sterilize equipment, and to produce artificial light.

Ulysses See Odysseus

( Umar ibn al-Khattab Vu-mar- 1 ib-nul-kat- , tab\ (b. c. ad 586, Mecca, Arabian Peninsula—d. Nov. 3, 644, Medina) Second Muslim caliph (634- 644). He initially opposed the Prophet Muhammad but became a Muslim c. 615. His daughter Hafsah married Muhammad in 625. He was nomi¬ nated by Abu Bakr as his successor. As caliph he spread Islam to Egypt, Syria, and Persia. His innovations affected taxation, social welfare, and the empire’s entire financial and administrative fabric, and he was noted for his justice, social ideals, and candour.

( Umar Tal \,u-mar-'tal\ in full al-Hajj ‘Umar ibn SaTd Tal (b. c.

1797, Halvar, Fouta-Toro [Senegal]—d. Feb. 12, 1864, near Hamdalahi, Tukulor empire [Mali]) West African founder of the Tukulor empire. Bom in the Senegal River valley, he became a mystic and set out to Mecca on a pilgrimage at age 23. Through political and religious connections he made during and after his journey, he was appointed caliph for black Africa by the head of the TijanI brotherhood. He returned to Africa in

1833, and in 1854, in the area of upper Guinea, eastern Senegal, and western and central Mali, he ordered a jihad to sweep away the pagans and bring back lapsed Muslims. He defeated the Bambara pagans of Mali, but they soon rebelled. Attacked by the Tuaregs, Moors, and Fulani in 1863, 'Umar’s army was destroyed, and he was pursued and killed in an explosion. His empire lasted under his son Ahmadu Seku until 1897, when it was annexed by the French.

Umayyad \u-'ma-yod\ dynasty (661-750) First great Muslim dynasty. It was founded by Mu'awiyah I, who triumphed over the Prophet Muhammad’s son-in-law, c AlT, to become the fifth caliph. He moved the capital from Medina to Damascus and used the Syrian army to extend the Arab empire. The Umayyads’ greatest period was under Abd al-Malik (r. 685-705), when their empire extended from Spain to Central Asia and India. Their decline began with a defeat by the Byzantine Empire in 717; intertribal feuding, discontent among non-Arab Muslim converts, and the failure of financial reforms eventually led to their unseating by the ‘Abbasid dynasty. See also c Abd al-Rahman III; AbG Muslim; al-HusAYN ibn ‘All

Umberto I (b. March 14, 1844, Turin, Piedmont, Kingdom of Sardinia—d. July 29, 1900, Monza, Italy) King of Italy (1878-1900) and duke of Savoy. The son of Victor Emmanuel II, he fought in the wars against Austria (1866). After ascending the throne in 1878, he led his country out of its isolation and into the Triple Alliance (1882). However, a tariff war with France led to economic difficulties (1888), and Umberto’s colonial policy in Africa was ended by Italy’s defeat by Ethiopia (1896). Facing increasing social unrest, he supported the imposition of martial law (1898) and created a period of turmoil that culminated in his assassination by an anarchist.

Umberto II (b. Sept. 15, 1904, Racconigi, Italy—d. March 18, 1983, Geneva, Switz.) Prince of Savoy and briefly king of Italy (1946). Son of Victor Emmanuel III, he commanded an Italian army division in World War II. In May 1946 his father abdicated in his favour, but Umberto was him¬ self forced to abdicate in June after the Italian people voted for a repub¬ lic. He and his male heirs were permanently banished from Italy (though the ban was lifted in 2002), and he settled in Portugal.

Umbria Region (pop., 2001 prelim.: 815,588), central Italy. It is located on 3,265 sq mi (8,456 sq km) in the Apennines; its capital is Perugia. Originally inhabited by the ancient Italic Umbrian tribe, it came under Rome c. 300 bc and was made one of its administrative regions in the 1st century ad. During the Christian era it became part of the Papal States. It was the seat of the 15th-16th-century Umbrian school of painting, which included Perugino and Pinturicchio, and was the home of St. Francis of Assisi. Agriculture is an economic mainstay, while its industries produce steel, chemicals, and textiles.

Umbrian Any member of an ancient pre-Etruscan people pushed into central Italy (Umbria) by the Etruscans and Gauls. They never fought an important war with the Romans. In the Social War they were among the first to make peace with Rome. They are described by ancient authors as being similar to their Etruscan enemies in culture. The Umbrian alphabet is undoubtedly of Etruscan origin. Their dialect was Indo-European.

Umbrian Vsm-bre-onV language Ancient Italic language spoken in central Italy in the last few centuries bc. Umbrian was related closely to Oscan and Volscian and more distantly to Latin. It was displaced by Latin at an unknown date. Modern knowledge of the language is derived almost entirely from the Iguvine Tables (c. 300-90 bc).

UN See United Nations

Un-American Activities Committee, House See House Un-American Activities Committee

Unabomber See Theodore Kaczynski

Unamuno V.ii-na-'mu-noX (y Jugo), Miguel de (b. Sept. 29, 1864, Bilbao, Spain—d. Dec. 31, 1936, Salamanca) Spanish philosopher and writer. He served twice as rector of the University of Salamanca (1901— 14; 1931-36); he was dismissed first for espousing the Allied cause in World War I and later for denouncing Francisco Franco’s Falangists. Though he also wrote poetry and plays, he was most influential as an essayist and novelist. In The Tragic Sense of Life in Men and Peoples (1913), he stressed the role spiritual anxiety plays in driving one to live the fullest possible life. His most famous novel is Abel Sanchez (1917), a modem re-creation of the biblical story of Cain and Abel. The Christ of Velazquez (1920), a study in poetic form of the great Spanish painter, is a superb example of modem Spanish verse.

1962 I uncertainty principle ► ungulate

uncertainty principle or Heisenberg uncertainty principle or indeterminacy principle Principle that states that the position and velocity of an object cannot both be measured exactly at the same time, and that the concepts of exact position and exact velocity together have no meaning in nature. Articulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1927, it applies only at the small scales of atoms and subatomic particles and is not notice¬ able for macroscopic objects, such as moving vehicles. Any attempt to measure the velocity of a subatomic particle precisely will displace the particle in an unpredictable way, thus invalidating any simultaneous mea¬ surement of its position. This displacement is a result of the wave nature of particles (see wave-particle duality). The principle also applies to other related pairs of variables, such as energy and time.

Uncle Sam Popular U.S. symbol, usually associated with a cartoon fig¬ ure having long white hair and chin whiskers and dressed in a swallow¬ tailed coat, vest, tall hat, and striped trousers. The name probably origi¬ nated with “Uncle Sam” Wilson, a businessman who provided beef to the army during the War of 1812.

The “U.S.” stamp on his barrels, meant to indicate government prop¬ erty, came to be associated with his nickname, which in time came to symbolize the U.S. government. The Uncle Sam figure evolved in the hands of British and U.S. cartoon¬ ists; its most familiar treatment appeared on recruiting posters dur¬ ing World Wars I and II with the cap¬ tion “I want you.”

unconscious or subconscious

In psychoanalysis, the part of the psy¬ chic apparatus that does not ordi¬ narily enter the individual’s awareness but may be manifested by slips of the tongue, dreams, or neurotic symptoms (see neurosis). The existence of unconscious mental activities was first elaborated by Sigmund Freud and is now a well-established principle of psychiatry. The origin of many neurotic symptoms is said to depend on conflicts that have been removed from consciousness by repression and maintained in the uncon¬ scious through various defense mechanisms. Recent biopsychological explo¬ rations have shed light on the relationship between brain physiology and the levels of consciousness at which people retain memories.

underground See subway Underground See Resistance

Underground Railroad Secret system in northern U.S. states to help escaping slaves. Its name derived from the need for secrecy and the railway terms used in the conduct of the system. Various routes in 14 states, called lines, provided safe stopping places (stations) for the leaders (conductors) and their charges (packages) while fleeing north, sometimes to Canada. The system developed in defiance of the Fugitive Slave Acts and was active mainly from 1830 to 1860. An estimated 40,000 to 100,000 slaves used the network. Assistance was provided mainly by free blacks, including Harriet Tubman, and philanthropists, church leaders, and abolitionists. Its existence aroused support for the antislavery cause and convinced Southerners that the North would never allow slavery to remain unchallenged.

Undset Yiin-setV Sigrid (b. May 20, 1882, Kalundborg, Den.—d. June 10, 1949, Lillehammer, Nor.) Norwegian novelist. Her father was an archaeologist, and her home life was steeped in legend, folklore, and Nor¬ wegian history. Her early novels deal with the position of women in the contemporary lower middle class. She then turned to the distant past and created her masterpiece, the trilogy Kristin Lavransdatter (1920-22), which is set in medieval Norway and depicts the spiritual growth of a strong woman. Undset converted to Roman Catholicism in 1924. Her later works, including the historical novel The Master of Hestviken (1925-27) and novels on contemporary themes, reflect her interest in religion. She received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1928.

unemployment Condition of a person who is able to work, is actively seeking work, but is unable to find any. Statistics on unemployment are

collected and analyzed by government labour offices in most countries and are considered an important indicator of economic health. Since World War II full employment has been a stated goal of many govern¬ ments. Full employment is not necessarily synonymous with a zero unem¬ ployment rate, since at any given time the unemployment rate will include some people who are between jobs and not unemployed in any long-term sense. Underemployment is the term used to describe the situation of those who are able to find employment only for shorter than normal periods— for example, part-time workers and seasonal workers—and may also describe the condition of workers whose education or training makes them overqualified for their jobs.

unemployment insurance Form of social insurance designed to compensate workers for short-term, involuntary unemployment. It was created primarily to provide financial assistance to laid-off workers dur¬ ing a period deemed long enough to allow them to find another job or to be rehired at their original job. In most countries, workers who are per¬ manently disabled or who have been unemployed for a long period of time are covered under other plans. In countries such as Canada and Brit¬ ain, workers in any occupation may qualify for unemployment insurance; the U.S. denies coverage to certain workers, such as government employ¬ ees and the self-employed. In most countries, benefits are related to earn¬ ings and are paid for a limited period of time. Funding may come out of general government revenues or from specific taxes placed on employers or employees.

UNESCO in full United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Specialized agency of the UN, created in 1946 to aid peace by promoting international cooperation in education, science, and culture. It supports member states’ efforts to eliminate illit¬ eracy, encouraging the extension of free education, and acts as a clear¬ inghouse for the exchange of ideas and knowledge. In 1972 it sponsored an international agreement to establish a World Heritage list of cultural sites and natural areas that would enjoy government protection (see World Heritage site). In 1984 the U.S. withdrew from UNESCO to protest what it considered the agency’s anti-Western approach to cultural issues; the United Kingdom and Singapore withdrew a year later. The United King¬ dom rejoined in 1997, and the U.S. followed suit in 2003.

uneven parallel bars Event in women’s gymnastics in which a pair of wooden bars supported horizontally above the floor at different heights is used to perform acrobatic feats. The apparatus allows a great variety of movements, but hanging and swinging exercises predominate. It became an Olympic event in 1936. See also parallel bars.

Ungaretti \,uq-ga-'rat-te\, Giuseppe (b. Feb. 10, 1888, Alexandria, Egypt—d. June 1, 1970, Milan, Italy) Egyptian-Italian poet. He lived in Alexandria until he was 24, and the desert regions of Egypt provide recurring images in his work. While studying in Paris, he was strongly influenced by the poets of the Symbolist movement. He was the founder of Hermeticism, which began with his II porto sepolto (1916; “The Buried Port”) and brought about a reorientation in modem Italian poetry. Though experimental, his poetry developed in a coherent direction in Allegria di naufragi (1919; “Gay Shipwrecks”) and later collections. After World War II his works became more structured and acquired a more straightforward tone.

Ungava \on-'ga-v9-\ Bay Inlet, southern Hudson Strait, northeastern Quebec, Canada. It is about 200 mi (320 km) long and 160 mi (260 km) wide at its mouth, with a maximum depth of 978 ft (298 m). Fed by sev¬ eral large rivers, including the Koksoak, Leaf, and Payne, it is ice-free only four months a year. At its mouth, Akpatok Island (551 sq mi [1,427 sq km]) rises to 930 ft (283 m).

Ungava Peninsula Northern part of New Quebec district, northern Quebec, Canada. It is bounded by the Hudson Strait, Ungava Bay, Labra¬ dor, the Eastmain River, and Hudson Bay. Physiographically, it is part of the Canadian Shield.

ungulate Voq-gyo-loA Any hoofed, herbivorous, quadruped, placental mammal in three or four orders: Artiodactyla, the even-toed ungulates (including pigs, camels, deer, and bovines); Perissodactyla, the odd-toed ungulates (including horses, tapirs, and rhinoceroses); Proboscidea (elephants); and, by some authorities, Hyracoidea (see hyrax). There are ten orders of extinct ungulates. The hoof is dermal tissue, comparable to the human fingernail, that extends over the end of a broadened terminal digit. See also ruminant.

FOR U.S.ARMY

NEAREST RECRUITING STATION

Army recruiting poster featuring "Uncle Sam," designed by James Montgomery Flagg, 1917.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

UNICEF ► Union I 1963

UNICEF in full United Nations Children's Fund formerly (1946- 53) United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund Special United Nations program for aiding national efforts to improve the health, nutrition, education, and general welfare of children. Its original purpose was to provide relief to children in countries devas¬ tated by World War II. After 1950 it turned to general programs for the improvement of children’s welfare. It was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1965. UNICEF has focused its efforts on areas in which rela¬ tively small expenditures can have a significant impact on the lives of the most disadvantaged children, such as the prevention and treatment of dis¬ ease. UNICEF also provides funding for health services, educational facilities, and other welfare services. It is headquartered in New York City.

Unicode International character-encoding system designed to support the electronic interchange, processing, and display of the written texts of the diverse languages of the modern and classical world. The Unicode Worldwide Character Standard includes letters, digits, diacritics, punctua¬ tion marks, and technical symbols for all the world’s principal written languages, using a uniform encoding scheme. The first version of Uni¬ code was introduced in 1991; the most recent version contains almost 50,000 characters. Numerous encoding systems (including ASCII) predate Unicode. With Unicode (unlike earlier systems), the unique number pro¬ vided for each character remains the same on any system that supports Unicode.

unicorn Mythological animal resembling a white horse with a single horn on its forehead. The unicorn was depicted in Mesopotamian art and was referred to in the ancient myths of India and China. Its earli¬ est description in Greek literature dates from c. 400 bc and probably refers to the Indian rhinoceros. The unicorn was believed to be fierce and difficult to capture, but if a virgin were brought before it, it would lay its head in the virgin’s lap. Its horn was thought to offer protection against poison. Medieval writers associated the unicorn with Jesus, and the hunt for the unicorn was often represented in medieval art.

unidentified flying object (UFO) Aerial object or optical phe¬ nomenon not readily explainable to the observer. Interest in UFOs increased with developments in aeronautics and astronautics after World War II. A U.S. government panel investigating sightings in the 1950s reported that 90% coincided with astronomical or meteorological phenomena or sightings of aircraft, birds, or hot gases, sometimes under unusual weather conditions. Some remained unexplained, however, and in the mid 1960s a few scientists concluded that a small percentage indi¬ cated the presence of extraterrestrial visitors. This sensational hypothesis, promoted in the press, met with prompt resistance from other scientists. A U.S. Air Force UFO study begun in 1968 firmly rejected the extrater¬ restrial hypothesis, but a large fraction of the public, and a few scientists, continued to support it. UFO reports vary widely in reliability. The unaided eye is easily fooled; radar sightings of UFOs, more reliable in some ways, may fail to distinguish physical objects from meteor trails, rain, or thermal discontinuities and are subject to radio interference. See also SETI.

Unification Church officially Holy Spirit Association for the Unification of World Christianity Religious movement founded (1954) in South Korea by Sun Myung Moon. Influenced by yin-yang prin¬ ciples and Korean shamanism, it seeks to establish divine rule on earth through the restoration of the family, based on the union of the Lord and Lady of the Second Advent (believed to be Moon and his wife, Hak Ja Han). It strives to fulfill what it asserts to be the uncompleted mission of Jesus —procreative marriage. The church has been criticized for its recruit¬ ment policies (said to include brainwashing) and business practices. Its

mass marriage ceremonies have gained press attention. Its worldwide membership is about 200,000 in more than 100 countries.

unified field theory Attempt to describe all fundamental interactions between elementary particles in terms of a single theoretical framework (a “theory of everything”) based on quantum field theory. So far, the weak force and the electromagnetic force have been successfully united in elec- troweak theory, and the strong force is described by a similar quantum field theory called quantum chromodynamics. However, attempts to unite the strong and electroweak theories in a grand unified theory have failed, as have attempts at a self-consistent quantum field theory of gravitation.

unified science or unity-of-science view In the philosophy of logical positivism, the doctrine holding that all sciences share the same lan¬ guage, laws, and method. The unity of language has been taken to mean either that all scientific statements could be restated as a set of protocol sentences describing sense-data or that all scientific terms could be defined using physics terms. The unity of law means that the laws of the various sciences must be deduced from some set of fundamental laws (e.g., those of physics). The unity of method means that the procedures for support¬ ing statements in the various sciences are basically the same. The unity- of-science movement that arose in the Vienna Circle held to those three unities, and Rudolf Carnap’s “physicalism” supported the notion that all the terms and statements of empirical science could be reduced to terms and statements in the language of physics.

uniform circular motion Motion of a particle moving at a constant speed on a circle. Though the magnitude of the velocity of such an object may be constant, the object is constantly accelerating because its direc¬ tion is constantly changing. At any given instant its direction is perpen¬ dicular to a radius of the circle drawn to the point of location of the object on the circle. The acceleration is strictly a change in direction and is a result of a force directed toward the centre of the circle. This centripetal force causes centripetal acceleration.

Uniform Resource Locator See URL

uniformitarianism Doctrine in geology that physical, chemical, and biologic processes now at work on and within the Earth have operated with general uniformity (in the same manner and with essentially the same intensity) through immensely long periods of time and are sufficient to account for all geologic change. In other words, the present is the key to the past. Although the term is no longer much used, the principle, origi¬ nated by James Hutton, is fundamental to geologic thinking and underlies the whole development of the science of geology. See also Charles Lyell.

Unilever Vyii-no-.le-vorX Either of two linked companies, Unilever PLC (based in London) and Unilever NV (based in Rotterdam). They are the holding companies for more than 500 firms worldwide that manufacture and sell soaps, foods, and other products. The modern Unilever was estab¬ lished in 1929 as an association between the British manufacturer Lever Bros, and several other European soap and margarine manufacturers. Today most Unilever sales are in household products, including soaps and detergents, margarines, cooking fats, dairy products, toiletries, and pack¬ aged and processed foods. The group also produces paper and plastic products, industrial chemicals, and animal feeds.

union See labor union

Union, Act of (May 1, 1707) Treaty that effected the union of England (and Wales) and Scotland under the name of Great Britain. The union benefited England’s need for political safeguards against a possible Jaco¬ bite restoration through Scotland, and it gave Scotland economic security by freedom of trade with England. Under the treaty, initiated by Queen Anne, the two kingdoms adopted the Protestant succession, preserved Scots law and the law courts, and agreed to uniform taxation.

Union, Act of (Jan. 1, 1801) Legislative agreement uniting Great Brit¬ ain and Ireland under the name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. After the unsuccessful Irish revolt of 1798, the British prime minister, William Pitt the Younger, decided that the best solution to the Irish problem was a union to strengthen the connection between the two countries. The Irish parliament resisted the proposal, which called for its abolition, but votes bought by cash or honours ensured passage of the agreement in 1800. The union remained until the recognition of the Irish Free State (excluding six of the counties of the northern province of Ulster) by the Anglo-Irish treaty concluded on Dec. 6, 1921; the union officially ended on Jan. 15, 1922.

Unicorn, detail from "The Lady and the Unicorn" tapestry, late 15th century; in the Musee de Cluny, Paris

GIRAUDON/ART RESOURCE

1964 I Union Islands ► United Arab Emirates

Union Islands See Tokelau

Union League Association formed to inspire loyalty to the Union cause in the American Civil War. Ohio Republicans formed the first Union League of America (1862) to counteract the antiwar Copperheads. Leagues formed in other states to support the war effort and to revitalize the Repub¬ lican Party. They also acted as social organizations, and some remain as clubs in cities such as New York and Washington. After the Civil War, leagues formed in the South to promote the Republican cause among free blacks.

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.) or Soviet Union Former republic, eastern Europe and northern and central Asia. It consisted, in its final years, of 15 soviet socialist republics that gained independence at its dissolution: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belorussia (now Belarus), Estonia, Georgia (now Republic of Georgia), Kazakhstan, Kir¬ gizia (now Kyrgyzstan), Latvia, Lithuania, Moldavia (now Moldova), Rus¬ sia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan. It also contained 20 autonomous soviet socialist republics: 16 within Russia, 2 within Geor¬ gia, 1 within Azerbaijan, and 1 within Uzbekistan. Capital: Moscow. Stretching from the Baltic and Black seas to the Pacific Ocean and encom¬ passing some 8,650,000 sq mi (22,400,000 sq km), the Soviet Union con¬ stituted the largest country on Earth, having a maximum east-west extent of about 6,800 mi (10,900 km) and a maximum north-south extent of about 2,800 mi (4,500 km). It encompassed 11 time zones and had com¬ mon boundaries with 6 European countries and 6 Asian countries. Its regions contained fertile lands, deserts, tundra, high mountains, some of the world’s longest rivers, and large inland waters, including most of the Caspian Sea. The coastline on the Arctic Ocean extended 3,000 mi (4,800 km), while that on the Pacific was 1,000 mi (1,600 km) long. The U.S.S.R. was an agricultural, mining, and industrial power. Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, four socialist republics were established on the ter¬ ritory of the former Russian Empire: the Russian Soviet Federated Social¬ ist Republic, the Transcaucasian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, and the Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. These four constituent republics established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922, to which other republics subsequently were added. A power struggle begun in 1924 with the death of communist leader Vladimir Lenin ended in 1927 when Joseph Stalin gained victory. Implementation of the first of the Five-Year Plans in 1928 centralized indus¬ try and collectivized agriculture. A purge in the late 1930s resulted in the imprisonment or execution of millions of persons considered dangerous to the state (see purge trials). After World War II, with their respective allies, the U.S.S.R. and the U.S. engaged in the Cold War. In the late 1940s the U.S.S.R. helped to establish communist regimes throughout most of eastern Europe. The U.S.S.R. exploded its first atomic bomb in 1949 and its first hydrogen bomb in 1953. Following Stalin’s death, it experienced limited political and cultural liberalization under Nikita Khrushchev. It launched the first manned orbital spaceflight in 1961. Under Leonid Brezhnev liberalization was partially reversed, but in the mid-1980s Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev instituted the liberal policies called glas- nost and perestroika. By the end of 1990 the communist government had toppled, and a program to create a market economy had been imple¬ mented. The U.S.S.R. was officially dissolved on Dec. 25, 1991.

Union Pacific Corp. Company that extended the U.S. railway system to the Pacific Coast. Incorporated by an act of Congress in 1862, it was built westward 1,006 mi (1,620 km) from Omaha, Neb., to meet the Cen¬ tral Pacific Railroad, which was being built eastward from Sacramento, Calif. The two railroads were joined at Promontory, Utah, in 1869. The Union Pacific was largely financed by federal loans and land grants, but its involvement in the Credit Mobilier scandal left it badly in debt, and the company went into receivership in 1893. It was reorganized in 1897 by Edward H. Harriman, under whose leadership the railroad took part in the economic development of the West. In 1982 it merged with the Missouri Pacific Railroad Co. and the Western Pacific Railroad Co. Its acquisition of the Southern Pacific Rail Corp. in 1996 made it the largest railroad in the U.S., with control of almost all rail-based shipping in the western two-thirds of the country.

union shop Arrangement under which workers are required to join a particular union within a specified period of time after beginning employ¬ ment. Such an arrangement differs from the closed shop in that the employ¬ er’s choice of new employees is not restricted to union members. Advocates of the union shop argue that it prevents workers from enjoy¬ ing the benefits of unionism without bearing their share of the costs. Union

shops are uncommon in most countries, but they are both legal and com¬ mon in the U.S. and Japan. In the U.S., workers in an enterprise usually choose, by majority vote, a single union to represent them, though in some states right-to-work laws prohibit requiring union membership as a con¬ dition of employment, thus forbidding both the union shop and the closed shop.

unit trust See mutual fund

Unitarianism Religious movement that stresses free use of reason in religion, holds that God exists in only one person, and denies the divin¬ ity of Jesus and the doctrine of the Holy Trinity. Its modem roots are traced to several liberal, radical, and rationalist thinkers of the Protestant Refor¬ mation, who were in turn inspired by Arius. The mainstream of British and American Unitarianism grew out of Calvinist Puritanism. The scien¬ tist Joseph Priestley was a founder of the English Unitarians, who became a force in Parliament and were noted advocates of social reform. In the U.S., Unitarianism developed out of New England Congregationalism that rejected the 18th-century revival movement. Transcendentalism injected Unitarianism with a new interest that attracted many more followers. See also Calvinism, Universalism.

Unitas \yu-'nl-t3s\, Johnny in full John Constantine Unitas (b.

May 7, 1933, Pittsburgh, Pa., U.S.—d. Sept. 11, 2002, Timonium, Md.) U.S. football quarterback. After playing for the University of Louisville, he was selected in the NFL draft, though he played semiprofessionally before signing with the Baltimore Colts. From 1956 to 1972, he led the Colts to five league championship games (1958, 1959, 1964, 1968, 1970) and two Super Bowl games (1969, 1971); the Colts won titles in 1958, 1959, and 1971. After one season with the San Diego Chargers (1973), Unitas retired with 22 NFL records to his name. Considered by many to be the league’s greatest quarterback, he was inducted into the Pro Foot¬ ball Hall of Fame in 1979.

Unite d'Habitation \iB-ne- , ta-da-be-ta- , sy6 n \ Residential block (18 stories high) in Marseille, France, that expressed Le Corbusier’s ideal of urban family lodging. Completed in 1952, it is a vertical mixed-use com¬ munity, with a shopping floor halfway up and other communal facilities on the roof. Two-story living rooms make for efficient use of volumes and permit the use of a “skip-stop” system in which elevators stop on every other floor. Each unit has front and rear balconies with sun protection provided by Le Corbusier’s brise-soleil. The concrete screen pierced with differently sized openings evokes tracery.

United Airlines a division o/UAL Corp. U.S. international airline. It began as United Aircraft and Transport Corp., which first operated transcontinental passenger flights in 1929. It was the first airline to intro¬ duce stewardesses, in 1930. United Airlines, Inc., was established in Chi¬ cago in 1931 as a holding company for the corporation’s four constituent airlines. United expanded rapidly after World War II and became the larg¬ est air carrier in the Western world when it merged with Capital Airlines in 1961. United acquired Pan American World Airways' transpacific routes in 1986 and its Latin American and Caribbean routes in 1991. The parent company took the name UAL Corp. in 1988. When United employees held a controlling share of the airline company (1994-2003), UAL was the largest employee-owned company in the U.S.

United Arab Emirates (UAE ) formerly Trucial Vtru-shoL States Country, Middle East, southwestern Asia. It is a federation of seven states on the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula. They are the emirates of AbG ZabT (Abu Dhabi), Dubayy (Dubai), ‘Ajman, Al-Shariqah (Sharjah), Umm al-Qaywayn, Ra’s al-Khaymah, and Al-Fujayrah. Area: 32,280 sq mi (83,600 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 4,690,000. Capital: Abu Dhabi. The indigenous inhabitants are Arabs, but there are a large number of South Asian and Iranian migrant workers. Languages: Arabic (official), English, Persian, Urdu, Hindi. Religions: Islam (official; predominantly Sunni); also Christianity, Hinduism. Currency: UAE dirham. The UAE’s low- lying desert plain is broken by the Hajar Mountains along the Musandam Peninsula. Three natural deepwater harbours are located along the Gulf of Oman. The UAE (mainly Abu ZabI) has roughly one-tenth of the world’s petroleum reserves and significant natural gas deposits, the production of which are the federation’s principal industries. Other important economic activities include fishing, livestock herding, and date production. The fed¬ eration has one appointive advisory board; its chief of state is the presi¬ dent, and the head of government is the prime minister. In 1820 the British signed a peace treaty with the region’s coastal rulers. The area, formerly called the Pirate Coast, became known as the Trucial Coast. In 1892 the

United Arab Republic ► United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland I 1965

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D 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, I

rulers agreed to entrust foreign relations to Britain, but the British never assumed sov¬ ereignty; each state maintained full inter¬ nal control. The states formed the Trucial States Council in 1960 and in 1971 termi¬ nated defense treaties with Britain and established the six-member fed¬ eration. Ra’s al-Khaymah joined it in 1972. The UAE aided coalition forces against Iraq in the First Persian Gulf War (1991).

United Arab Republic See Egypt

United Artists Corp. U.S. film company. It was founded in 1919 by Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks, and D.W. Griffith so that they could produce and distribute their own movies and distribute other independently produced movies. The first major production company con¬ trolled by its artists, it prospered with the films of its founders, including The Gold Rush (1925), and those of producers such as Samuel Goldwyn, Howard R. Hughes, and Alexander Korda. After 1951 it became mainly a distributor, releasing successful movies such as High Noon (1952), Some Like It Hot (1959), and West Side Story (1961). It was sold to TransAmer- ica Corp. in 1967 and resold to MGM in 1981. By the late 20th century United Artists was a specialty films division of MGM, producing movies such as Leaving Las Vegas (1995), The Birdcage (1996), and Tea with Mussolini (1999).

United Automobile Workers (UAW) in full International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America U.S.-based industrial union rep¬ resenting automotive and other vehicular workers in the U.S., Canada, and Puerto Rico. The UAW was founded in Detroit, Mich., in 1935, when the Committee for Industrial Organization (see AFL-CIO) began to orga¬ nize automotive workers. The union successfully countered automakers’ initial resistance with sit-down strikes and a 1937 Supreme Court deci¬ sion upholding the right to organize as declared in the Wagner Act. Gen¬ eral Motors Corp. was the first to recognize the UAW, and most other automakers followed suit, though Ford Motor Co. continued to resist until 1941. Under Walter Reuther, the union won contracts providing for cost- of-living adjustments, health plans, and paid vacations. Reuther’s friction with George Meany led the UAW to withdraw from the AFL-CIO in 1968. A short-lived alliance with the Teamsters was dissolved in 1972, and the UAW rejoined the AFL-CIO in 1981. Toward the end of the 20th century, the union’s bargaining strength was eroded by an increasingly global labour market, effectively reducing the wages and benefits manufacturers were willing to pay American workers.

United Fruit Co, Historic U.S.-based produce company that became Chiquita Brands International, Inc., in 1990. It was founded in 1899 when

the Boston Fruit Co. merged with other companies selling bananas grown in Central America, Colombia, and the Caribbean. Minor C. Keith, its principal founder, gained extensive land rights in Costa Rica in return for constructing railroads. United Fruit became the largest employer in Cen¬ tral America, developing vast tracts of jungle lands and building one of the largest private merchant navies in the world. Its exploitation of cor¬ rupt Central American politicians dependent on income from the banana business led to the term banana republic. Attacked in the Latin Ameri¬ can press as el pulpo (“the octopus”), the company was widely accused of exploiting workers and influencing governments during the era of “dol¬ lar diplomacy” in the early to mid-20th century. United Fruit later trans¬ ferred portions of its landholdings to individual growers. “Miss Chiquita,” its well-known trademark, was introduced in 1944. The familiar blue Chiquita stickers were first applied to the company’s bananas in 1963. In 1970 United Fruit merged with AMK Corp. to form United Brands Co., which took the Chiquita name in 1990. In the early 21st century the com¬ pany concentrated its efforts on produce, notably bananas and packaged salads.

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland or United Kingdom or Great Britain Island country, western Europe, North Atlantic Ocean. It comprises Great Britain (England, Scotland, and

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Wales) and Northern Ireland. Area: 93,788 sq mi (242,910 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 60,020,000. Capital: London. The population is composed of English (major ethnic group), Scots, Irish, and Welsh and

immigrants and their descendants from India, the West Indies, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Africa. Languages: English (official); also Welsh, Scot-

1966 I United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland ► United Mine Workers of America

tish Gaelic. Religions: Christianity (Protestant [Church of England— established; Church of Scotland—national], Roman Catholic, other Christians); also Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism, Judaism. Currency: pound sterling. The country has hill, lowland, upland, highland, and mountain regions. Tin and iron ore deposits, once central to the economy, have become exhausted or uneconomical, and the coal industry, long a staple of the economy, began a steady decline in the 1950s that worsened with pit closures in the 1980s. Offshore petroleum and natural gas reserves are significant. Chief crops are barley, wheat, sugar beets, and potatoes. Major manufactures include motor vehicles, aerospace equipment, electronic data-processing and telecommunication equipment, and petrochemicals. Fishing and publishing also are important economic activities. The U.K. is a constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses; its chief of state is the sovereign, and the head of government is the prime minister.

The early pre-Roman inhabitants of Britain (see Stonehenge) were Celtic-speaking peoples, including the Brythonic people of Wales, the Piets of Scotland, and the Britons of Britain. Celts also settled in Ireland c. 500 bc. Julius Caesar invaded and took control of the area in 55-54 bc. The Roman province of Britannia endured until the 5th century ad and included present-day England and Wales. Germanic tribes, including Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, invaded Britain in the 5th century. The inva¬ sions had little effect on the Celtic peoples of Wales and Scotland. Chris¬ tianity began to flourish in the 6th century. During the 8th and 9th centuries, Vikings, particularly Danes, raided the coasts of Britain. In the late 9th century Alfred the Great repelled a Danish invasion, which helped bring about the unification of England under Athelstan. The Scots attained dominance in Scotland, which was finally unified under Malcolm II (1005- 34). William of Normandy (see William I) took England in 1066. The Nor¬ man kings established a strong central government and feudal state. The French language of the Norman rulers eventually merged with the Anglo- Saxon of the common people to form the English language. From the 11th century, Scotland came under the influence of the English throne. Henry II conquered Ireland in the late 12th century. His sons Richard I and John had conflicts with the clergy and nobles, and eventually John was forced to grant the nobles concessions in the Magna Carta (1215). The concept of community of the realm developed during the 13 th century, providing the foundation for parliamentary government. During the reign of Edward I (1272-1307), statute law developed to supplement English common law, and the first Parliament was convened. In 1314 Robert the Bruce (see Rob¬ ert I) won independence for Scotland. The house of Tudor became the rul¬ ing family of England following the Wars of the Roses (1455-85). Henry VIII (1509—47) established the Church of England and incorporated Wales as part of England.

The reign of Elizabeth I (1558-1603) began a period of colonial expan¬ sion; in 1588 British forces defeated the “invincible” Spanish Armada. In 1603 James VI of Scotland ascended the English throne, becoming James I, and established a personal union of the two kingdoms. The English Civil Wars erupted in 1642 between Royalists and Parliamentarians, ending in the execution of Charles I (1649). After 11 years of Puritan rule under Oliver Cromwell and his son (1649-60), the monarchy was restored with Charles II. In 1689, following the Glorious Revolution, Parliament pro¬ claimed the joint sovereigns William III and Mary II. who accepted the British Bill of Rights. In 1707 England and Scotland assented to the Act of Union, forming the kingdom of Great Britain. The Hanoverians ascended the English throne in 1714, when George Louis, elector of Hanover, became George I of Great Britain. During the reign of George III, Great Britain’s North American colonies won independence (1783). This was followed by a period of war (1789-1815) with Revolutionary France and later with the empire of Napoleon. In 1801 legislation united Great Britain with Ireland to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Britain was the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century, and it remained the world’s foremost economic power until the late 19th century. During the reign of Queen Victoria (1837— 1901), Britain’s colonial expansion reached its zenith, though the older dominions, including Canada and Australia, were granted independence (1867 and 1901, respectively).

The U.K. entered World War I allied with France and Russia in 1914. Following the war, revolutionary disorder erupted in Ireland, and in 1921 the Irish Free State (see Ireland) was granted dominion status. Six coun¬ ties of Ulster, however, remained in the U.K. as Northern Ireland. The U.K. entered World War II in 1939. Following the war, the Irish Free State became the Irish republic and left the Commonwealth. India also gained independence from the U.K. Throughout the postwar period and into the 1970s, the U.K. continued to grant independence to its overseas colonies

British Sovereigns

Kings of Wessex

Richard II (P)

1377-99

Egbert (S)

802-39

Henry IV (P:L)

1399-1413

Aethelwulf (S)

839-56/58

Henry V (P:L)

1413-22

Aethelbald (S) 855/56-60

Henry VI (P:L)

1422-61

Aethelberht (S)

860-65/66

Edward IV (P:Y)

1461-70

Aethelred 1 (S) 865/66-71

Henry VI 2

1470-71

Alfred the Great (S)

871-99

Edward IV 2

1471-83

Edward the Elder (S)

899-924

Edward V (P:Y)

1483

Sovereigns of England

Richard III (P:Y)

1483-85

Athelstan 1 (S)

925-39

Henry VII (T)

1483-1509

Edmund 1 (S)

939-46

Henry VIII (T)

1509-1547

Eadred (S)

946-55

Edward VI (T)

1547-53

Eadwig (S)

955-59

Mary 1 (T)

1553-58

Edgar(S)

959-75

Elizabeth 1 (T)

1558-1603

Edward the Martyr (S)

975-78

Sovereigns of Great

Ethel red II the

Britain and the

Unready (S)

978-1013

United Kingdom

Sweyn Forkbeard (D)

1013-14

James 1 (VI of

Ethel red II the

Scotland) (St)

1603-25

Unready 2 (S)

1014-16

Charles 1 (St)

1625-49

Edmund II Ironside (S)

1016

Commonwealth

Canute (D)

1016-35

Oliver Cromwell

1653-58

Harold 1 Harefoot (D)

1035-40

Richard Cromwell

1658-59

Hardecanute (D)

1040-42

Charles II (St)

1660-85

Edward the

James II (St)

1685-88

Confessor (S)

1042-66

William III &

Harold II (S)

1066

Mary II (O/St)

1689-1702 3

William 1 the

Anne (St)

1702-14

Conqueror (N)

1066-87

George 1(H)

1714-27

William II (N)

1087-1100

George II (H)

1727-60

Henry 1 (N)

1100-35

George III (H)

1760-1820

Stephen (B)

1135-54

George IV (H)

1820-30

Henry II (P)

1154-89

William IV (H)

1830-37

Richard 1 (P)

1189-99

Victoria (H)

1837-1901

John (P)

1199-1216

Edward VII (SCG)

1901-10

Henry III (P)

1216-72

George V (W)

1910-36

Edward 1 (P)

1272-1307

Edward VIII (W)

1936 4

Edward II (P)

1307-27

George VI (W)

1936-52

Edward III (P)

1327-77

Elizabeth II (W)

1952-

Dynasty or house: S=Saxon, D=Danish, N=Norman, B=Blois,

P=Plantagenet, L=Lancaster, Y=York, T=Tudor, St=Stuart, 0=0range,

H=Hanover, SCG=Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, W=Windsor 'Athelstan was king of Wessex and the first king of all England.

Restored

3 William and Mary, as husband and wife, reigned jointly until Mary's death in 1694.

4 Edward VIII succeeded on the death of his father on January 20, 1936, but abdicated on December 11 before his coronation.

and dependencies. With UN forces, it participated in the Korean War (1950-53). In 1956 it intervened militarily in Egypt during the Suez Cri¬ sis. It joined the European Economic Community, a forerunner of the Euro¬ pean Union, in 1973. In 1982 it defeated Argentina in the Falkland Islands War. As a result of continuing social strife in Northern Ireland, it joined with Ireland in several peace initiatives, which eventually resulted in an agreement to establish an assembly in Northern Ireland. In 1997 refer¬ enda approved in Scotland and Wales devolved power to both countries, though both remained part of the U.K. In 1991 the U.K. joined an inter¬ national coalition to reverse Iraq’s conquest of Kuwait (see First Persian Gulf War). In 2003 the U.K. and the U.S. attacked Iraq and overthrew the government of Saddam Hussein (see Second Persian Gulf War). Ter¬ rorist bombings in London in July 2005 killed more than 50 people.

United Mine Workers of America (UMWA) U.S. labour union. Founded in 1890, the UMWA grew rapidly under the leadership of John Mitchell (president 1898-1908) despite determined opposition from coal¬ mine operators. By 1920, when John L. Lewis took over, the union had half a million members. Lewis capitalized on the pro-labour climate of the New Deal and led numerous strikes to win fair pay, safe working condi¬ tions, and benefits. The UMWA was a mainstay of the Congress of Indus¬ trial Organizations (see AFL-CIO) in its early years, but Lewis withdrew the union from the CIO in 1942. Unaffiliated for decades, the UMWA finally joined the AFL-CIO in 1989. The UMWA’s importance declined

United Nations ► United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs I 1967

in the later 20th century with the waning of the labour movement and the rise of alternative sources of fuel, and by the 1990s it had fewer than 200,000 members.

United Nations (UN) International organization founded (1945) at the end of World War II to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations on equal terms, and encourage interna¬ tional cooperation in solving intractable human problems. A number of its agencies have been awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace, and the UN was the corecipient, with Kofi Annan, of the prize in 2001. The term originally referred to the countries that opposed the Axis powers. An

U.N. Member States

1945 Argentina, Belarus, Brazil, Chile, China, Cuba, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Egypt, El Salvador, France, Haiti, Iran, Lebanon, Luxembourg, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Philippines, Poland, Russian Federation 3 , Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, Ukraine, United Kingdom, United States of America, Yugoslavia, Greece, India, Peru, Australia, Costa Rica, Liberia, Colombia, Mexico, S. Africa, Canada, Ethiopia, Panama, Bolivia, Venezuela, Guatemala, Norway, Netherlands, Honduras, Uruguay, Ecuador, Iraq, Belgium

1946 Afghanistan, Iceland, Sweden, Thailand

1947 Pakistan, Yemen 6

1948 Burma (Myanmar)

1949 Israel

1950 Indonesia

1955 Albania, Austria, Bulgaria, Cambodia, Finland, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Jordan, Laos, Libya, Nepal, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sri Lanka

1956 Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia, Japan

1957 Ghana, Malaysia

1958 Guinea

1960 Benin, Upper Volta (Burkina Faso), Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ivory Coast, Cyprus, Gabon, Madagascar, Niger, Somalia, Togo, Mali, Senegal, Nigeria

1961 Sierra Leone, Mauritania, Mongolia, Tanzania 5

1962 Burundi, Jamaica, Rwanda, Trinidad and Tobago, Algeria, Uganda

1963 Kuwait, Kenya

1964 Malawi, Malta, Zambia

1965 Gambia, Maldives, Singapore

1966 Guyana, Botswana, Lesotho, Barbados 1968 Mauritius, Swaziland, Equatorial Guinea

1970 Fiji

1971 Bahrain, Bhutan, Qatar, Oman, United Arab Emirates

1973 Bahamas, Germany 2

1974 Bangladesh, Grenada, Guinea-Bissau

1975 Cape Verde, Mozambique, Sao Tome and Principe, Papua New Guinea, Comoros, Suriname

1976 Seychelles, Angola, Samoa

1977 Djibouti, Vietnam

1978 Solomon Islands, Dominica

1979 Saint Lucia

1980 Zimbabwe, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

1981 Vanuatu, Belize, Antigua and Barbuda

1983 Saint Kitts and Nevis

1984 Brunei Darussalam

1990 Namibia, Liechtenstein

1991 Estonia, N. Korea, S. Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Marshall Islands, Micronesia

1992 Armenia, Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, San Marino, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Slovenia, Georgia

1993 Czech Republic 1 , Slovakia 1 , Macedonia 4 , Eritrea, Monaco, Andorra

1994 Palau

1999 Kiribati, Nauru, Tonga

2000 Tuvalu

2002 East Timor (Timor-Leste), Switzerland

’Czechoslovakia was an original member from 1945. The Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic obtained separate memberships in 1992.

2 E. Germany and W. Germany were admitted as separate members in 1973; the two countries reunified in 1990.

3 The seat held by the Soviet Union, a member from 1945, was assumed by Russia in 1991.

4 Macedonia is referred to in the U.N. as 'The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia" pending settlement of a dispute over its name.

Tanganyika, a member from 1961, merged in 1964 with Zanzibar, a member from 1963, to form the new country of Tanzania.

6 N. Yemen, a member from 1947, merged in 1990 with S. Yemen, a mem¬ ber from 1967.

international organization was discussed at the Yalta Conference in Feb¬ ruary 1945, and the UN charter was drawn up two months later at the UN Conference on International Organization. The UN has six principal organs: the Economic and Social Council, the United Nations General Assembly, the International Court of Justice, the Secretariat, the United Nations Security Council, and the United Nations Trusteeship Council. It also has 14 specialized agencies—some inherited from its predecessor, the League of Nations (e.g., the International Labour Organization) —and a number of special offices (e.g., the Office of the United Nations High Com¬ missioner for Refugees), programs, and funds (e.g., UNICEF). The UN is involved in economic, cultural, and humanitarian activities and the coor¬ dination or regulation of international postal services, civil aviation, meteorological research, telecommunications, international shipping, and intellectual property. Its peacekeeping troops have been deployed in sev¬ eral areas of the world, sometimes for lengthy periods (e.g., they have been in Cyprus since 1964). The UN’s world headquarters are in New York City; its European headquarters are in Geneva. In 2005 the UN had 191 member countries. The principal administrative officer of the UN is the secretary-general, who is elected to a five-year renewable term by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council. The secretaries-general of the UN have been Trygve Lie (1946-53), Dag Ham- marskjold (1953-61), U Thant (1961-71), Kurt Waldheim (1972-81), Jav¬ ier Perez de Cueliar (1982-91), Boutros Boutros-Ghali (1992-96), and Kofi Annan (from 1997).

United Nations Children's Fund See UNICEF

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) Organ of the United Nations General Assembly, created in 1964 to promote international trade. Its highest policy-making body, the Conference, meets every four years; when the Conference is not in ses¬ sion, the organization is run by its executive body, the Trade and Devel¬ opment Board. UNCTAD’s principal functions include the promotion of trade between countries in different stages of development and with dif¬ ferent economic systems, initiation of negotiations for trade agreements, and the formulation of international trade policies. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, UNCTAD’s efforts were directed toward the prob¬ lems created in developing countries by economic globalization, and spe¬ cial attention was given to measures to help the poorest and least- developed countries become integrated into the world economy.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) UN orga¬ nization formed in 1965 to promote environmentally sustainable human development in low-income countries. Based in New York City, the UNDP is headed by an administrator who oversees a 36-member Execu¬ tive Board representing both developing and developed countries. Recent programs have focused on reducing poverty, developing strategies to treat and combat the spread of HIV/AIDS, promoting environmentally sound energy and economic policies, and expanding communications and tech¬ nology infrastructure. UNDP resident representatives in more than 125 developing countries help to coordinate the local activities of other UN agencies and programs, as well as those of nongovernmental organiza¬ tions.

United Nations General Assembly One of six principal compo¬ nents of the United Nations and the only one in which all UN members are represented. It meets annually or in special sessions. It acts primarily as a deliberative body; it may discuss and make recommendations about any issue within the scope of the UN charter. Its president is elected annually on a rotating basis from five geographic groups of members.

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Office of the (UNHCR) Office established in 1951 to give legal, social, economic, and political aid to refugees. The UNHCR is the successor of the Inter¬ national Refugee Organization. Its first efforts focused on Europeans dis¬ placed by World War II; it has since assisted refugees in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Yugoslavia. It is based in Geneva and is financed by vol¬ untary government contributions. The office won the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1954 and 1981.

United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitar¬ ian Affairs (OCHA) formerly (1972-92) Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator, (1992-98) United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs Agency of the United Nations Secretariat, established in 1972 to coordinate international relief to countries struck by natural or other disaster. Responding to requests from stricken states for disaster assistance, the OCHA directs UN

1968 I United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration ► United States

assistance and mobilizes aid from nongovernmental organizations such as the International Red Cross. Since the 1980s it has emphasized disaster preparedness and prevention, and it has assisted in executing projects of the United Nations Development Programme.

United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration

Administrative body (1943^47) for an extensive social-welfare program for war-ravaged nations. It distributed relief supplies and services, includ¬ ing shelter, food, and medicine, and helped with agricultural and economic rehabilitation. Its functions were later taken over by the International Refugee Organization, the World Health Organization, and UNICEF.

United Nations Resolution 242 Resolution of the United Nations Security Council that ended the 1967 Six-Day War. The Israelis supported the resolution because it called on the Arab states to accept Israel’s right “to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries free from threats or acts of force.” All Arab states eventually accepted it (Egypt and Jordan accepted the resolution from the outset) because of its clause call¬ ing for Israel to withdraw from the territories conquered in 1967. The Pal¬ estine Liberation Organization rejected it until 1988 because it lacked explicit references to Palestinians. Though never fully implemented, it was the basis of diplomatic efforts to end Arab-Israeli conflicts until the Camp David Accords and remains an important touchstone in any negoti¬ ated resolution to the Arab-Israeli conflict.

United Nations Secretariat Administrative body that coordinates United Nations activities. Its staff, recruited on the basis of merit, is com¬ posed of several thousand permanent professional experts from member states, including translators, clerks, technicians, administrators, project directors, and negotiators, who carry out the UN’s day-to-day operations and administer the policies and programs set by the other divisions. They are required to swear an oath of loyalty to the UN and must not take instructions from their home governments.

United Nations Security Council Division of the United Nations whose primary purpose is to maintain international peace and security. The Security Council originally consisted of five permanent members— Taiwan (succeeded in 1971 by China), France, the United Kingdom, the U.S., and the Soviet Union (succeeded in 1991 by Russia)—and six rotat¬ ing members elected by the United Nations General Assembly for two-year terms. In 1965 the number of nonpermanent members was increased to 10. UN members agree to abide by the Security Council’s resolutions when they join. The Security Council investigates disputes that threaten international peace and advises on how to resolve them. To prevent or halt aggression, it may impose diplomatic or economic sanctions or autho¬ rize the use of military force. Each of the permanent members holds veto power in decisions on substantive matters, such as the application of sanctions. Decisions on both substantive and procedural matters require nine affirmative votes, including the affirmative vote of all five permanent members (though in practice a permanent member may abstain without impairing the validity of a decision).

United Nations Trusteeship Council One of the main organs of the UN, composed of the five permanent members of the Security Coun¬ cil. It supervised the administration of trust (non-self-governing) territo¬ ries, including former colonies in Africa and the Pacific. The council’s job was to send inspection missions to the territories, examine petitions, review reports, and make recommendations. It suspended operations after the last trust territory, Palau, gained its sovereignty in 1994.

United Netherlands, Republic of the See Dutch Republic United Provinces See Uttar Pradesh

United States officially United States of America Country, North America. It comprises 48 conterminous states occupying the mid¬ continent, Alaska at the northwestern extreme of North America, and the island state of Hawaii in the mid-Pacific Ocean. Area, including the U.S. share of the Great Lakes: 3,676,487 sq mi (9,522,058 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 296,748,000. Capital: Washington, D.C. The population includes people of European and Middle Eastern ancestry, African Ameri¬ cans, Hispanics, Asians, Pacific Islanders, American Indians (Native Americans), and Alaska Natives. Languages: English (predominant), Spanish. Religions: Christianity (Protestant, Roman Catholic, other Chris¬ tians, Eastern Orthodox); also Judaism, Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism. Cur¬ rency: U.S. dollar. The country encompasses mountains, plains, lowlands, and deserts. Mountain ranges include the Appalachians, Ozarks, Rockies, Cascades, and Sierra Nevada. The lowest point is Death Valley, Calif. The

U.S. Presidents and Vice Presidents

President

Term

Vice president

Term

George Washington

1789-97

John Adams

1789-97

John Adams

1797-1801

Thomas Jefferson

1797-1801

Thomas Jefferson

1801-9

Aaron Burr

1801-5

George Clinton

1805-9

James Madison

1809-17

George Clinton

1809-12*

Elbridge Gerry

1813-14*

James Monroe

1817-25

Daniel D. Tompkins

1817-25

John Quincy Adams

1825-29

John C. Calhoun

1825-29

Andrew Jackson

1829-37

John C. Calhoun

1829-32**

Martin Van Buren

1833-37

Martin Van Buren

1837-41

Richard M. Johnson

1837-41

William Henry Harrison

1841*

John Tyler

1841

John Tyler

1841-45

James K. Polk

1845-49

George Mifflin Dallas

1845-49

Zachary Taylor

1849-50*

Millard Fillmore

1849-50

Millard Fillmore

1850-53

Franklin Pierce

1853-57

William Rufus de Vane King

1853*

James Buchanan

1857-61

John C. Breckinridge

1857-61

Abraham Lincoln

1861-65*

Hannibal Hamlin

1861-65

Andrew Johnson

1865

Andrew Johnson

1865-69

Ulysses S. Grant

1869-77

Schuyler Colfax

1869-73

Henry Wilson

1873-75*

Rutherford B. Hayes

1877-81

William A. Wheeler

1877-81

James A. Garfield

1881*

Chester A. Arthur

1881

Chester A. Arthur

1881-85

Grover Cleveland

1885-89

Thomas A. Hendricks

1885*

Benjamin Harrison

1889-93

Levi Parsons Morton

1889-93

Grover Cleveland

1893-97

Adlai E. Stevenson

1893-97

William McKinley

1897-1901*

Garret A. Hobart

1897-99*

Theodore Roosevelt

1901

Theodore Roosevelt

1901-9

Charles Warren Fairbanks

1905-9

William Howard Taft

1909-13

James Schoolcraft Sherman

1909-12*

Woodrow Wilson

1913-21

Thomas R. Marshall

1913-21

Warren G. Harding

1921-23*

Calvin Coolidge

1921-23

Calvin Coolidge

1923-29

Charles G. Dawes

1925-29

Herbert Hoover

1929-33

Charles Curtis

1929-33

Franklin D. Roosevelt

1933-45*

John Nance Garner

1933-41

Henry A. Wallace

1941-45

Harry S. Truman

1945

Harry S. Truman

1945-53

Alben W. Barkley

1949-53

Dwight D. Eisenhower

1953-61

Richard M. Nixon

1953-61

John F. Kennedy

1961-63*

Lyndon B. Johnson

1961-63

Lyndon B. Johnson

1963-69

Hubert H. Humphrey

1965-69

Richard M. Nixon

1969-74**

Spiro T. Agnew

1969-73**

Gerald R. Ford

1973-74

Gerald R. Ford

1974-77

Nelson A. Rockefeller

1974-77

Jimmy Carter

1977-81

Walter F. Mondale

1977-81

Ronald Reagan

1981-89

George Bush

1981-89

George Bush

1989-93

Dan Quayle

1989-93

William J. Clinton

1993-2001

Albert Gore

1993-2001

George W. Bush

2001-

Richard B. Cheney

2001-

*Died in office. ‘‘Resigned from office.

highest point is Alaska’s Mount McKinley; within the conterminous states it is Mount Whitney, Calif. Chief rivers are the Mississippi system, the Colorado, the Columbia, and the Rio Grande. The Great Lakes, the Great Salt Lake, Iliamna Lake, and Lake Okeechobee are the largest lakes. The U.S. is among the world’s leading producers of several minerals, includ¬ ing copper, silver, zinc, gold, coal, petroleum, and natural gas; it is the chief exporter of food. Its manufactures include iron and steel, chemicals, electronic equipment, and textiles. Other important industries are tourism, dairying, livestock raising, fishing, and lumbering. The U.S. is a federal republic with two legislative houses; its head of state and government is the president.

The territory was originally inhabited for several thousand years by numerous American Indian peoples who had probably emigrated from Asia. European exploration and settlement from the 16th century began displacement of the Indians. The first permanent European settlement, by the Spanish, was at Saint Augustine, Fla., in 1565. The English settled

United States ► United States Marine Corps I 1969

Jamestown, Va. (1607); Plymouth, Mass. (1620); Maryland (1634); and Pennsylvania (1681). The English took New York, New Jersey, and Dela¬ ware from the Dutch in 1664, a year after English noblemen had begun to colonize the Carolinas. The British defeat of the French in 1763 (see French and Indian War) assured Britain political control over its 13 colo¬ nies. Political unrest caused by British colonial policy culminated in the American Revolution (1775-83) and the Declaration of Independence (1776). The U.S. was first organized under the Articles of Confederation (1781), then finally under the Constitution (1787) as a federal republic. Boundaries extended west to the Mississippi River, excluding Spanish Florida. Land acquired from France by the Louisiana Purchase (1803) nearly doubled the country’s territory. The U.S. fought the War of 1812 against the British and acquired Florida from Spain in 1819. In 1830 it legalized the removal of American Indians to lands west of the Missis¬ sippi River. Settlement expanded into the Far West in the mid-19th cen¬ tury, especially after the discovery of gold in California in 1848 (see gold rush). Victory in the Mexican War (1846^48) brought the territory of seven more future states (including California and Texas) into U.S. hands. The northwestern boundary was established by treaty with Britain in 1846. The U.S. acquired southern Arizona by the Gadsden Purchase (1853). It suffered disunity during the conflict between the slavery-based plantation economy in the South and the industrial and agricultural economy in the North, culminating in the American Civil War and the abolition of slavery under the 13th Amendment. After Reconstruction (1865-77) the U.S. experienced rapid growth, urbanization, industrial development, and European immigration. In 1887 it authorized allotment of American Indian reservation land to individual tribesmen, resulting in widespread loss of land to whites. Victory in the Spanish-American War brought the U.S. the overseas territories of the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico. By the end of the 19th century, it had further developed foreign trade and acquired other outlying territories, including Alaska, Midway Island, the Hawaiian Islands, Wake Island, American Samoa, and the Panama Canal Zone.

The U.S. participated in World War I in 1917-18. It granted suffrage to women in 1920 and citizenship to American Indians in 1924. The stock market crash of 1929 led to the Great Depression, which New Deal leg¬ islation combated by increasing the federal government’s role in the economy. The U.S. entered World War II after the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor (Dec. 7, 1941). The explosion by the U.S. of an atomic bomb on Hiroshima (Aug. 6, 1945) and another on Nagasaki (Aug. 9, 1945), Japan, brought about Japan’s surrender. Thereafter the U.S. was the mili¬ tary and economic leader of the Western world. In the first decade after the war, it aided the reconstruction of Europe and Japan and became embroiled in a rivalry with the Soviet Union known as the Cold War. It participated in the Korean War from 1950 to 1953. In 1952 it granted autonomous commonwealth status to Puerto Rico. Racial segregation in schools was declared unconstitutional in 1954. Alaska and Hawaii were made states in 1959. In 1964 Congress passed the Civil Rights Act and authorized U.S. entry into the Vietnam War. The mid- to late 1960s were marked by widespread civil disorder, including race riots and antiwar demonstrations. The U.S. accomplished the first manned lunar landing in 1969. All U.S. troops were withdrawn from Vietnam in 1973. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the U.S. assumed the status of sole world superpower. The U.S. led a coalition of forces against Iraq in the First Persian Gulf War (1991). Administration of the Panama Canal was turned over to Panama in 1999. After the September 11 attacks on the U.S. in 2001 destroyed the World Trade Center and part of the Pentagon, the U.S. attacked Afghanistan’s Taliban government for harbouring and refusing to extradite the mastermind of the terrorism, Osama bin Laden. In 2003 the U.S. attacked Iraq, with British support, and overthrew the gov¬ ernment of Saddam Hussein (see Second Persian Gulf War). See map on following pages.

United States, Bank of the See Bank of the U.S.

United States Air Force (USAF) Major component of the U.S. mili¬ tary organization, with primary responsibility for air warfare, air defense, and military space research. It also provides air services in coordination with the other military branches. U.S. military activities in the air began with army use of balloons for reconnaissance during the Civil War and the Spanish-American War; in 1907 the Aeronautical Division of the Sig¬ nal Corps was created. In 1920 the Army Reorganization Act created the Air Service (after 1926, Air Corps) as a unit of the Army; in 1941 it became the Army Air Forces. In 1947 the independent U.S. Air Force was created and became part of the newly created Department of Defense in

The Department of the Air Force is headquartered at the Pentagon. Separate operating agencies of the Air Force include the Air Force Reserve, the Air Force Intelligence Service, and the U.S. Air Force Acad¬ emy. In 2000 there were over 350,000 Air Force personnel on active duty.

United States Air Force Academy Institution for the training of commissioned officers for the U.S. Air Force, located in Colorado Springs, Colorado. Created by an act of Congress in 1954, it opened in 1955. Gradu¬ ates receive a bachelor’s degree and a second lieutenant’s commission. Most physically qualified graduates go on to Air Force pilot-training schools. Candidates may come from the ranks of the U.S. Army or Air Force, may be children of deceased veterans of the armed forces, or may be nominated by U.S. senators or representatives or by the president or vice president. All applicants must take a competitive entrance examination.

United States Army Major branch of the U.S. military forces, charged with preserving peace and security and defending the nation. The first regular U.S. fighting force, the Continental Army, was organized by the Continental Congress on June 14, 1775, to supplement local militias in the American Revolution. It was placed under the control of a five-member civilian board, and U.S. military forces have remained in civilian control ever since. The U.S. Constitution named the president as commander in chief, and in 1789 the civilian Department of War was established to administer the armed forces. The Continental Army was officially dis¬ banded in 1783, and a small regular army was established. Thereafter, the army’s size increased during times of crisis, swelled by conscription, and decreased during peacetime. The Department of the Army is organized as a military section of the Department of Defense and is headed by the Sec¬ retary of the Army. The Army Staff gives advice and assistance to the secretary and administers civil functions, including the civil-works pro¬ gram of the Corps of Engineers. The army also administers the U.S. Mili¬ tary Academy at West Point. In 2000 there were about 400,000 soldiers on active duty.

United States Coast Guard U.S. military service that enforces mari¬ time laws. It is under the jurisdiction of the Department of Homeland Security; in wartime it functions as part of the U.S. Navy. The Coast Guard enforces federal laws on the high seas and waters within U.S. territorial jurisdiction, develops and operates aids to navigation, and maintains a network of lifeboat and search-and-rescue stations using surface vessels and aircraft. It assists in the interdiction of illegal narcotics bound for the U.S. on or over coastal waters. It operates the International Ice Patrol (which maintains surveillance of icebergs in the North Atlantic shipping lanes), gathers data for the National Weather Service, and assists dis¬ tressed ships and planes. Its wartime duties include ship escort, port secu¬ rity, and transport duty. In 2000 there were some 35,000 Coast Guard personnel on active duty. Cadets are trained at the Coast Guard Academy in New London, Conn.

United States Courts of Appeals In the U.S., the intermediate appellate courts included in the federal judicial system and created by act of Congress. There are 13 courts of appeal, including 12 courts whose jurisdictions are geographically apportioned, and the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, whose jurisdiction is subject-oriented and nationwide. The Federal Circuit court, located in Washington, D.C., was created by an act of Congress in 1982 and hears appeals from U.S. dis¬ trict and territorial courts primarily in patent and trademark cases, though it also hears appeals in cases in which the United States or its agencies is a defendant, as in alleged breaches of contract or in tax disputes. The courts are empowered to review the decisions of federal district courts (see United States District Court), as well as the decisions of the divisions of the U.S. Tax Court within their jurisdictions and those of the U.S. Bankruptcy Courts. All decisions of the courts are subject to review by the Supreme Court of the United States.

United States District Court In the U.S., any of the 94 trial courts of general jurisdiction in the federal judicial system. Each state, as well as the District of Columbia and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, has at least one federal district court. Each court has at least one district judge and can have more than a score of them, as well as a clerk, a U.S. attor¬ ney, a U.S. marshal, one or more U.S. magistrates, bankruptcy judges, probation officers, and other staff. Decisions of the district courts are nor¬ mally subject to appeal, typically to the United States Court of Appeals for the region in which the district court is located.

United States Marine Corps (USMC) Separate military service within the U.S. Department of the Navy (see U.S. Navy), charged with

1970

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