Britannica Concise 2005

Buraydah

AI-JubayL ..

U AH-nammam Manama a M Dammam. ^ BAHRA|N

ry Al-Mubarraz QATAR

myadli^ \ 4l ?Hu f QH yDoha

OMAN

Abu

® 0ha ?

Area: 830,000 sq mi (2,149,690 sq km).

Population (2005 est.): 23,230,000. Capi¬ tal: Riyadh. The people are predominantly Arab. Language: Arabic (official). Reli¬ gion: Islam (official; predominantly Sunni).

Currency: Saudi rial. The country is a plateau region, with bands of impos¬ ing highlands rising from the narrow Red Sea coast. More than nine-tenths is desert, including the world’s largest continuous sand area, the Rub' al-Khali (“Empty Quarter”). The largest petroleum producer of the Orga¬ nization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and one of the leading oil exporters in the world, Saudi Arabia has reserves that represent one- fourth of the world total. Its other products include natural gas, gypsum, dates, wheat, and desalinated water. It is a monarchy; its head of state and government is the king, assisted by the crown prince. Saudi Arabia is the historical home of Islam. During premodern times, local and foreign rul¬ ers fought for control of the region; in 1517 the Ottoman Empire attained nominal control of most of the peninsula. In the 18th—19th century an Islamic reform group known as the Wahhabi joined with the Sa'Gd dynasty to take control of most of central Arabia; they suffered political setbacks but regained most of their territory by 1904. The British held Saudi lands as a protectorate (1915-27), after which they acknowledged the sover¬ eignty of the Kingdom of the Hejaz and Nejd. The two kingdoms were

unified as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932. Since World War II (1939-45), the kingdom’s rulers have supported the Palestinian cause in the Middle East and maintained close ties with the U.S. In 2000 Saudi Arabia and Yemen settled a long-standing border dispute.

sauger Vso-gorV Species ( Stizostedion canadense ) of pikeperch (family Percidae), carnivorous food and game fishes found in lakes and silty riv¬ ers of eastern North America. Saugers are slender and darkly mottled. They have two dorsal fins and rarely exceed a length of 12 in. (30 cm) or a weight of about 2 lbs (1 kg).

Saugus Iron Works First successful ironworks in colonial America. It was established in 1646 in Saugus, Mass., just north of Boston, by Rob¬ ert Bridges and Joseph Jenks, after large quantities of bog iron were dis¬ covered there. It principally cast utensils and rolled and slit nail rods for the settlers. It closed c. 1688. Parts have been restored as a national his¬ toric site.

Sauk Vsok\ or Sac ALGONQUiAN-speaking North American Indian people closely related to the Fox and Kickapoo who traditionally inhabited the region of what is now Green Bay, Wis., U.S. In summer the Sauk lived in bark-house villages near fields where women raised com and other crops. In winter the village separated into patrilineal family groups that erected pole-and-thatch houses. In spring they gathered on the Iowa prai¬ rie to hunt bison. By c. 1800 the Sauk had settled along the Mississippi River in central Illinois, but they were forced to cede these lands to the U.S. In 1832 a group of Sauk and Fox led by Black Hawk made a tragi¬ cally unsuccessful attempt to return to their Illinois lands. Today some 6,600 people claim Sauk and Fox ancestry.

Saul Hebrew Shaul (11. 11th century bc, Israel) First king of Israel (r. 1021-1000 bc). All that is known of Saul comes from the biblical books of Samuel I and II. He was anointed king by the prophet Samuel, as a concession to popular pressure, after delivering the town of Jabesh-Gilead from Ammonite oppression. Samuel’s rejection of Saul and Saul’s jeal¬ ousy of David led to Saul’s decline. He died battling the Philistines at Mount Gilboa; David delivered the Israelites and paid tribute to the fallen Saul.

Saule Vsau-le\ In Baltic mythology, the sun goddess who determines the well-being and regeneration of all life on earth. She is said to ride each day through the sky on a chariot with copper wheels, drawn by horses that never tire or sweat. Toward evening, she washes the horses in the sea before retreating into her castle at the end of the sea. The major event in her honour was the midsummer Ligo feast, during which great fires were lit on hills to ward off evil spirits.

Sault Sainte Marie N.su-.sant-mo-'reV City (pop., 2000: 16,542), east¬ ern Upper Peninsula, Michigan, U.S. Located on the rapids of the St. Marys River between Lakes Superior and Huron, it is linked to its Cana¬ dian twin city, Sault Sainte Marie, Ont. (pop., 2001: 74,566), by road and rail bridges. The U.S. and Canada each operate a part of the Sault Sainte Marie Canals, or Soo Canals, a hub of the Saint Lawrence Seaway. The first U.S. canal went into operation in 1855; it has since been replaced and is now divided into the northern canal (completed 1919) and the southern canal (completed 1896). The Canadian canal, which has one lock, was completed in 1895.

sauna Bath in steam from water thrown on heated stones. Known in ancient times in various places, saunas are most closely identified with the Finnish people, who made saunas a national tradition. Typically, a wooden hut containing rows of flat stones is built near the edge of a lake. Wood is burned to heat the stones, and, when the stones are hot, cold water is thrown on them to create steam. The unclothed bathers sit on wooden benches in the steam-filled hut, then beat themselves with branches until their skin is red and tingling, and dive into the cold water or (in winter) roll in the snow. These extreme temperature changes are thought to have a beneficial effect on the circulation. In an adapted form, saunas are popular today in gymnasiums and health clubs.

Saura \'sau-ra\ (Atares), Carlos (b. Jan. 4, 1932, Huesca, Spain) Spanish film director. He won notice as a director with The Hunt (1965), the first of his allegorical films criticizing Spanish society under Fran¬ cisco Franco. He wrote or cowrote the screenplays for and directed The Garden of Delights (1970), which was delayed then mutilated by Span¬ ish censors; Anna and the Wolves (1972); and Cousin Angelica (1973), which was the first Spanish film to present the Spanish Civil War from the viewpoint of the losing Republican cause. He collaborated with the

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saurischian ► savings and loan association I 1691

choreographer-dancer Antonio Gades on the flamenco dramas Blood Wed¬ ding (1981), Carmen (1983), and Love the Magician (1986). His later films include Flamenco (1997) and Tango (1998).

saurischian \so-'ris-ke-3n\ Any “lizard-hipped” dinosaur species (order Saurischia), with hip bones arranged like those of modern reptiles, the pubis bone pointed forward and down. The order includes all carnivorous and some giant herbivorous dinosaurs. Saurischians evolved from small bipedal dinosaurs called thecodonts; they first appeared in the Late Trias- sic epoch (227-206 million years ago). The order consists of three sub¬ orders: theropods, sauropods, and staurikosaurs (suborder Staurikosauria). Staurikosaurs, known only from the incomplete remains of a few species, seem to have been medium-sized flesh-eaters similar to the theropods. See also ORNITHISCHIAN.

sauropod \'s6r-3-,pad\ Any species of four-legged, herbivorous, sau¬ rischian dinosaur in the suborder Sauropoda. The sauropods include the largest of all dinosaurs and the largest land animals that ever lived. They existed from the Late Triassic Epoch into the Cretaceous Period (227-65 million years ago). All species had a small head, extremely long neck, massive body, thick, pillarlike legs, and a very long, tapering, whiplike tail. With their weak, sparse teeth, they cropped vegetation from even the tallest trees, apparently depending on swallowed stones or bacteria in the gut to digest plant matter. Species ranged from 50 ft (15 m) long to the 98-ft (30-m) Brachiosaurus, which weighed 80 metric tons. See also Brontosaurus; Diplodocus; theropod.

sausage Highly seasoned minced meat, usually pork or beef, tradition¬ ally stuffed in casings of prepared animal intestine. Sausage has been known since ancient times. Some varieties came to be known by their city of origin: the frankfurter from Frankfurt am Main, bologna from Bologna, the wiener from Vienna (Wien). Sausage meat may be eaten fresh, smoked, dried, or pickled. It may be mixed with other meats and additives such as cereals, vegetable starch, soy flour, preservatives, arti¬ ficial colourings, salt, and various herbs and spices. Casings may be intes¬ tine, paraffin-treated fabric bags, or synthetic sleeves of plastic or reconstituted collagen. All but dry (cured) sausages require refrigerated storage. Cooked and dry sausages are ready to eat; fresh (and frozen) sau¬ sages must be cooked.

Saussure \so-'si£r\, Ferdinand de (b. Nov. 26, 1857, Geneva, Switz.—d. Feb. 22, 1913, Geneva) Swiss linguist. Though his only written work appeared while he was still a university student, Saussure became very influential as a teacher, principally at the University of Geneva (1901- 13). Two of his students reconstructed lecture notes and other materials as Course in General Linguistics (1916), often considered the starting point of 20th-century linguistics. He saw language as a structured system that may be approached both as it exists at a particular time and as it changes over time, and he formalized principles and methods of study for each approach. His concepts may be regarded as the beginning of structuralism.

Sauveur \so-VcerV Albert (b. June 21, 1863, Louvain, Belg.—d. Jan. 26, 1939, Boston, Mass., U.S.) Belgian-born U.S. metallurgist. He immi¬ grated to the U.S. in 1887 and taught at Harvard University (1899-1939). His microscopic and photomicroscopic studies of metal structures make him one of the founders of physical metallurgy. His work in heat-treating of metals is regarded as a scientific landmark. He wrote the influential treatise Metallography and Heat Treatment of Iron and Steel (1912).

Sava River \'sa-va\ River, western Balkans, southern Europe. It flows for 584 mi (940 km), and its basin covers much of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, and northern Serbia. It rises in the Julian Alps as two rivers, which join at Radovlijica. It then flows through Slovenia and Croatia, forming the border between Croatia and Bosnia before entering Serbia and join¬ ing the Danube River at Belgrade.

Savannah City (pop., 2000: 131,510), southeastern Georgia, U.S. Located at the mouth of the Savannah River, it is the oldest city in Geor¬ gia and its principal seaport. It was established in 1733 by James Ogletho¬ rpe and was the birthplace of the Georgia colony, the seat of the colonial government, and capital of the state until 1786. A major Confederate sup¬ ply port during the American Civil War, the city was the objective of Union Gen. William T. Sherman’s march to the sea in 1864. Noted for its beau¬ tiful historic buildings built around a system of small parks, it is a lead¬ ing tourist centre. It is the site of several institutions of higher learning.

Savannah River River, eastern Georgia, U.S. Formed by the conflu¬ ence of the Tugaloo and Seneca rivers at Hartwell Dam, it flows south¬

east to form the boundary between Georgia and South Carolina. It empties into the Atlantic Ocean at Savannah after a course of 314 mi (505 km). It is navigable for ocean vessels to 5 mi (8 km) above Savannah and for barge traffic to Augusta.

savant syndrome Rare condition wherein a person of subnormal intelligence or severely limited emotional range has prodigious intellec¬ tual gifts in a specific area. Mathematical, musical, artistic, and mechani¬ cal abilities have been among the talents demonstrated by savants. Examples include performing rapid mental calculations of huge sums, playing lengthy compositions from memory after a single hearing, and repairing complex mechanisms without training. About 10% of autistic people are savants; mentally retarded people may also be savants, though the incidence is much lower. See also autism.

Save \'sa-ve\ River or Sabi Vsa-be\ River River, southeastern Africa. It rises in Zimbabwe and flows east-southeast across the border into Mozambique, continuing east into the Mozambique Channel. It is about 400 mi (645 km) long and is navigable by light craft for 100 mi (160 km) above its mouth.

Savigny Vza-vin-ye\, Friedrich Karl von (b. Feb. 21, 1779, Frank¬ furt am Main—d. Oct. 25, 1861, Berlin, Prussia) German jurist and legal historian. He was nobly born, and his privileged position enabled him to devote his life to scholarship. Teaching at the University of Berlin (1810— 42), he helped found the influential “historical school” of jurisprudence. His six-volume History of Roman Law in the Middle Ages (1815-31) laid the foundation of the modem study of medieval law. He founded a sys¬ tem for establishing a modem German civil law with his eight-volume System of Modern Roman Law (1840-49), which also contained his sys¬ tem of international private law. A product of Romanticism, he regarded law as a reflection of a people’s customs and spirit that could not be imposed artificially by means of rational, formal legislation.

Savimbi Xso-'vim-beV Jonas (Malheiro) (b. Aug. 3, 1934, Portu¬ guese Angola—d. Feb. 22, 2002, near Lucusse, Angola) Angolan guer¬ rilla leader and politician. After obtaining a doctorate abroad, Savimbi returned to found the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) in 1966. With aid from China, South Africa, and the U.S., UNITA developed a large guerrilla army and embarked on an extended war against the Soviet-backed Angolan government. In 1991 Savimbi agreed to participate in free multiparty elections, but after los¬ ing he resumed his military campaign. A peace accord (1994) and later agreements (1996) permitted UNITA to join a coalition government; many of the agreements’ measures were carried out under UN auspices, but Savimbi declined to become vice president, and violence continued until his death. UNITA signed a peace agreement in April 2002.

saving Process of setting aside a portion of current income for future use, or the resources accumulated in this way over a given period of time. Savings may take the form of bank deposits and cash holdings or secu¬ rities. How much individuals save is affected by their preferences for future over present consumption and their expectations of future income. If individuals consume more than the value of their income, then their saving is negative and they are said to be dissaving. Individual saving may be measured by estimating disposable income and subtracting cur¬ rent consumption expenditures. A measure of business saving is the increase in net worth shown on a balance sheet. Total national saving is measured as the excess of national income over consumption and taxes. Saving is important to economic progress because of its relation to invest¬ ment: an increase in productive wealth requires that some individuals abstain from consuming their entire income and make their savings avail¬ able for investment.

savings and loan association Financial institution that accepts savings from depositors and uses those funds primarily to make loans to home buyers. Savings and loan associations (S&Ls) originated with 18th- century British building societies, in which workmen banded together to finance the building of their homes. The first U.S. savings and loan was established in Philadelphia in 1831. S&Ls were initially cooperative insti¬ tutions in which savers were shareholders in the association and received dividends in proportion to profits, but today are mutual organizations that offer a variety of savings plans. They are not obliged to rely on individual deposits for funds but are permitted to borrow from other financial insti¬ tutions and to market mortgage-backed securities, money-market certifi¬ cates, and stock. Because high inflation and rising interest rates in the 1970s made fixed-rate mortgages unprofitable, regulations were altered to

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1692 I savings bank ► sawfiy

permit S&Ls to renegotiate mortgages. In the late 1980s, a growing num¬ ber of S&Ls failed because inadequate regulation had allowed risky investments and fraud to flourish. The government was obliged to cover vast losses in excess of $200 billion, and the Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corp. (FSLIC) became insolvent in 1989. Its insurance func¬ tions were taken over by a new organization supervised by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corp., and the Resolution Trust Corp. was established to handle the bailout of the failed S&Ls.

savings bank Financial institution that gathers savings and pays interest or dividends to savers. It channels the savings of individuals who wish to consume less than their incomes to borrowers who wish to spend more. This function is performed by mutual savings banks, savings and loan asso¬ ciations, credit unions, postal savings systems, and municipal savings banks. Unlike a commercial bank, a savings bank does not accept demand deposits. Many savings banks originated as part of a philanthropic effort to encourage saving among people of modest means. The earliest municipal savings banks developed from the municipal pawnshops of Italy (see pawn¬ broking). Other early savings banks were founded in Germany in 1778 and The Netherlands in 1817. The first U.S. savings banks were nonprofit insti¬ tutions established in the early 1800s for charitable purposes.

Savonarola V.sa-vo-no-'ro-loA Italian X.sa-vo-na-'ro-laV Girolamo (b. Sept. 21, 1452, Ferrara, duchy of Ferrara—d. May 23, 1498, Florence)

Italian preacher, religious reformer, and martyr. Fie joined the Dominican order in 1475 and was sent to Flo¬ rence to lecture at the convent of San Marco, where he became known for his learning and asceticism. His apocalyptic preaching maintained that the church needed reforming, that it would be scourged and then renewed. After the overthrow of the Medici family (1494), Savonarola became leader of Florence, setting up a democratic but severely puri¬ tanical government, notable for its “bonfire of the vanities,” in which frivolous materials were burned. He also sought to establish a Christian republic as a base for reforming Italy and the church. He was opposed by the Arrabiati, supporters of the Medici, and by Pope Alexander VI, who attempted to restrain his unusual interpretations of scripture and his claim of prophecy. Savonarola was tried, convicted of heresy (1498), and hanged and burned. Despite popular veneration, attempts to bring about his canonization have been unsuccessful.

savory Aromatic annual herb ( Satureja hortensis) of the mint family, native to southern Europe. The dried leaves and flowering tops are used as a flavouring and in herb bouquets. Winter, or dwarf, savory ( S. mon- tana) is smaller and flowers in winter. It is used for culinary purposes almost interchangeably with the summer species.

Savoy French Savoie \sa-'vwa\ Italian Savoia \sa-'vo-ya\ Histori¬ cal region, southeastern France and northwestern Italy. From the 11th century the counts of Savoy ruled it as part of the kingdom of Arles under the suzerainty of what would become the Holy Roman Empire. It became virtually independent and expanded across the Alps to include the plain of Piedmont in Italy. In the 18th century Piedmont and Savoy were incor¬ porated into the kingdom of Sardinia, and the dukes of Savoy became kings of Sardinia. Savoy and Piedmont were ceded to France in 1792, but Savoy was restored to its traditional rulers in 1815, with the addition of Genoa. In 1860 Sardinia, Genoa, and Piedmont joined other Italian states to form the Kingdom of Italy. The house of Savoy was the ruling house of Italy until 1946, when the Italian Republic was established.

Savoy, house of Historic dynasty of Europe and the ruling house of Italy (1861-1946). Its founder was Umberto I the Whitehanded (d. 1048?), who held the county of Savoy and areas east of the Rhone River and south of Lake Geneva. His medieval successors, including Amadeus VI, added territory in the western Alps where France, Italy, and Switzer¬ land converge. In 1416 the house was raised to ducal status in the Holy Roman Empire, after which it declined until the late 16th century.

Although under French domination in the 17th century, the house under Victor Amadeus II acquired territory in northeastern Italy and attained the royal title, first of the kingdom of Sicily (1713), which he exchanged for Sardinia (1720). The house was powerful in the Risorgimento, and under the kings Victor Emmanuel I, Victor Emmanuel II, and Charles Albert it con¬ tributed to the 19th-century unification of Italy. It then lost its prominence, and the monarchs Umberto I and Victor Emmanuel III served mainly as fig¬ ureheads until the vote for a republic in 1946 ended Savoy rule.

saw Tool for cutting solid materials to prescribed lengths or shapes. Most saws take the form of a thin metal strip with teeth on one edge or a thin metal disk with teeth on the edge. The teeth are usually set to alternate sides so that the kerf (groove) cut by the saw is wider than the thickness of the saw; the saw blade can thus move freely in the groove without binding. Thin-strip saws are used in various ways in both hand and machine operations; circular, or disk, saws are always machine powered (see SAWING MACHINE, MACHINE TOOL).

saw palmetto Any of several shrubby palms chiefly of the southern U.S. and West Indies that have spiny-toothed petioles (leafstalks), espe¬ cially a common palm ( Serenoa repens ) of the southeastern U.S., with a usually creeping stem. Saw palmettos make up part of the vegetation found in the Florida Everglades. When undisturbed, they grow into great masses of foliage. The saw palmetto has recently drawn attention as the source of a possible treatment for prostate cancer.

Sawatch \so-'wach\ Range Range of the Rocky Mountains, central Colorado, U.S. It is 100 mi (160 km) long and is bounded by the Arkan¬ sas River and the Elk Mountains. Its middle portion, with Mounts Yale, Harvard, and Princeton, is usually called the Collegiate Range. Many summits exceed 14,000 ft (4,300 m), including Mount Elbert (14,433 ft [4,399 m]), the highest point in the Rockies. The discovery of gold in 1860 attracted settlers to the region. Ranching, dairying, and tourism are the main industries today.

Sawchuk Vsow-chokV Terry in full Terrence Gordon Saw- chuck (b. Dec. 28, 1929, Winnipeg, Man., Can.—d. May 31, 1970, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Canadian-U.S. hockey goalie. He played two seasons in other leagues before going to the National Hockey League (1949), in which he played for the Detroit Red Wings (1949-54, 1957-64), Boston Bruins (1955-56), Toronto Maple Leafs (1964-67), and other teams. His career record of 103 shutouts still stands; he is second in career wins (447).

sawfish Any of about six species (genus Pristis, family Pristidae) of sharklike ray. Sawfishes have a long head, long body, and a long, toothed, bladelike snout. The largest attain lengths of 23 ft (7 m) or more. These bottom-dwellers inhabit shallow waters of subtropical and tropical bays and estuaries and sometimes swim up rivers. Some live in the freshwaters of Lake Nicaragua. They are not generally dangerous. Their saws are used either to dig out bottom animals or, when lashed about, to kill or maim schooling fishes. Sawfishes are good to eat when small; they are fished in some areas for food, oil, skins, and other products.

sawfiy Any of numerous, widely distributed insect species in five families (superfamily Tenthredi- noidea, order Hymenoptera). Typical sawflies (family Tenthredinidae) are often brightly coloured and are com¬ monly found on flowers; the North American pear slug eats pear, cherry, and plum leaves. The larvae of many species in the other four families also damage trees. Argid sawflies (family Argidae) feed on rose bushes and wil¬ low, oak, and birch trees. The North American elm sawfiy (family Cim- bicidae) feeds on elm and willow.

The North American conifer sawflies

Savonarola, painting by Fra Barto¬ lomeo; in the Museo di S. Marco, Flo¬ rence

AUNARI—ART RESOURCE/EB INC.

Sawfish (Pristis).

KARL H. MASLOWSKI

Sawfiy (Cimbex)

WILLIAM E. FERGUSON

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

sawing machine ► Sayles I 1693

(family Diprionidae) are common, sometimes serious pests of coniferous trees. The pergid sawflies (family Pergidae) consist of a single genus in South America and Australia.

sawing machine Machine tool for cutting up bars of material or for cutting out shapes in plates of raw material. The cutting tools (saws) may be thin metallic disks with teeth on their edges, thin metal blades or flex¬ ible bands with teeth on one edge, or thin grinding wheels. The tools may use any of three actions: true cutting, grinding, or friction-created melt¬ ing.

sawmill Machine or plant with power-driven machines for sawing logs into rough-squared sections or into planks and boards. A sawmill may be equipped with planing, molding, tenoning, and other machines for fin¬ ishing processes. Cutting is performed on various large machines; recip¬ rocating saws, band saws, or circular saws cut the log into various thicknesses as it moves past the saw on a feeder table. The biggest mills are usually located where timber can be brought by river or rail, and mill design is affected by the mode of transportation.

Sax, Adolphe orig. Antoine-Joseph Sax (b. Nov. 6, 1814, Dinant, Belg.—d. Feb. 7, 1894, Paris, France) Belgian instrument maker. Son of an accomplished instrument maker, he worked for his father until 1842, making improvements on the clarinet and bass clarinet. He then set up shop in Paris, supported by musicians such as Hector Berlioz and Fro- mental Halevy (1799-1862) but opposed by French instrument makers; he invented several new families of instruments, including the saxhorns, the saxtrombas, and most successfully, the saxophones. A fine woodwind player, he taught saxophone at the Paris Conservatoire (1857-71).

Saxe, (Hermann-) Maurice, count de (b. Oct. 28, 1696, Goslar, Saxony—d. Nov. 30, 1750, Chambord, France) German-born French gen¬ eral. The illegitimate son of Frederick Augustus I of Saxony, he served under Eugene of Savoy in Flanders and was made count of Saxony (Saxe) in 1711. He commanded a German regiment in the French service (1719) and made innovations in military training, especially in musketry. He served with distinction in the French army against his half brother Augus¬ tus III in the War of the Polish Succession and was made a general (1734). He successfully led French forces in the War of the Austrian Succession, capturing Prague (1741) and invading the Austrian Netherlands. There he won the Battle of Fontenoy (1745) and captured Brussels and Antwerp (1746). Appointed marshal general of France by Louis XV, Saxe led the successful invasion of Holland in 1747.

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, House of See House of Windsor

saxifrage Vsak-s3-frij\ Any of about 300 species of the genus Saxi- fraga, of the family Saxifragaceae, which is composed of 36 genera of mostly perennial herbaceous plants. Members of the saxifrage family are known for their ability to grow and thrive on exposed rocky crags and in fissures of rocks. They are adapted to the full range of moisture condi¬ tions, but most grow in moist, shaded woodlands in northern cold and temperate regions. Leaves characteristically alternate along the stem and sometimes are deeply lobed or form rosettes. Flowers generally are borne in branched clusters and range in colour from greenish to white or yel¬ low and from pink or red to purple. The fruit is a capsule. Saxifraga spe¬ cies are planted in rock gardens or as border ornamentals, prized for their small, bright flowers, fine-textured foliage, and early spring flowering. Other well-known genera in the saxifrage family are Astilbe, Heuchera, and Mitella.

Saxo Grammaticus Ysak-so-gr3- , ma-ti-k9s\ (fl. 12th century-early 13th century) Danish historian. Little is known of Saxo’s life except that he was from Sjaelland, bom to a family of warriors, and probably served as clerk to the archbishop of Lund. His 16-volume Gesta Danorum (“Story of the Danes”) is the first important work on the history of Den¬ mark and the first Danish contribution to world literature. A panorama of his country’s antiquity and traditions, it inspired many 19th-century Dan¬ ish Romantic poets and was the original source of the story of William Shakespeare’s Hamlet. Saxo’s brilliant, ornate Latin earned him the name “Grammaticus” in the 14th century.

Saxon Any member of a Germanic people who lived along the Baltic coast in ancient times and later migrated west as far as the British Isles. The Saxons became pirates in the North Sea during the decline of the Roman empire, and in the early 5th century they spread through northern Germany and along the coasts of Gaul and Britain. They fought Charle¬

magne (772-804) before being incorporated into the Frankish kingdom, and they settled Britain along with other Germanic invaders, including the Angles and the Jutes.

Saxony German Sachsen \'zak-son\ Historical region, former state, and recreated state, Germany. Before 1180 the name was applied to the territory conquered c. ad 200-700 by the Germanic Saxon tribe. They were conquered and Christianized by Charlemagne in the late 8th century. In the mid-9th century Saxony became part of the German kingdom of the Franks. The territory was broken up in 1180 and divided into two smaller and widely separated areas, Saxe-Lauenburg on the lower Elbe River and Saxe-Wittenberg on the middle Elbe. From 1422 the name Sax¬ ony was applied to a large region, including the country from Thuringia to Lusatia, bordering Bohemia. It was part of the German Empire (1871- 1918) and a free state in the Weimar Republic (1919-33). The state was abolished in 1952 and divided among East German districts. Upon Ger¬ man reunification in 1990, a new state of Saxony was recreated. The cur¬ rent territory of Saxony Land (pop., 2001 est.: 4,384,192) occupies the southeastern portion of what was formerly East Germany and covers an area of 7,080 sq mi (18,337 sq km). The capital is Dresden.

saxophone Single-reed wind instrument with a conical metal tube and finger keys. Though made of brass, it is classified as a woodwind instru¬ ment. Its mouthpiece resembles that of the clarinet. The saxophone fam¬ ily includes instruments with at least eight different ranges, the tenor and alto instruments being the most common. The smallest (highest-range) saxophones are straight; the rest have curved necks and their bells are bent up and out. Transposing instruments (producing a higher or lower pitch than indicated in music written for it) in B-flat and E-flat, all have the same written 3V6-octave range. The saxophone was patented in 1846 by Adolphe Sax, who created two separate instrument families, for mili¬ tary and orchestral use respectively. Though few composers included saxophones in their orchestral scores, they became centrally important in military, dance, and jazz bands.

Say \'se,\ English Ysa\, J(ean)-B(aptiste) (b. Jan. 5, 1767, Lyon, France—d. Nov. 15, 1832, Paris) French economist. He edited a maga¬ zine and started a spinning mill before joining the faculty of the Conser¬ vatory of Arts and Crafts (1817-30) and the College de France (1830— 32). In his major work, A Treatise on Political Economy (1803), he advanced his law of markets, which claims that supply creates its own demand. He attributed economic depression not to a general deficiency in demand but rather to temporary overproduction for some markets and underproduction for others, an imbalance that must automatically adjust itself as overproducers redirect their production to conform with consum¬ ers’ preferences. Say’s law remained a central tenet of orthodox econom¬ ics until the Great Depression.

Sayan \s3-'yan\ Mountains Large upland region on the frontiers of east-central Russia and Mongolia. The mountains form a rough arc stretching from the Altai Mountains to Lake Baikal and connecting with the Khamar-Daban mountain system of the Transbaikalia. The western and eastern ranges, each with a different geologic history, meet in a cen¬ tral knot where elevations exceed 10,000 ft (3,000 m). The range’s high¬ est peak is Munku-Sardyk, in Mongolia, which reaches an elevation of 11,453 ft (3,491 m).

Sayers, Dorothy L(eigh) (b. June 13, 1893, Oxford, Oxfordshire, Eng.—d. Dec. 17, 1957, Witham, Essex) English scholar and writer. In 1915 Sayers became one of the first women to graduate from Oxford Uni¬ versity. Her first major work was Whose Body? (1923), in which she cre¬ ated the detective Lord Peter Wimsey, a witty, dashing young gentleman- scholar who would be featured in such later short-story collections and novels as Strong Poison (1930), The Nine Tailors (1934), and Busman’s Honeymoon (1937). After the 1930s she concentrated on theological dra¬ mas and books, radio plays, and scholarly translations, notably of Dante’s Divine Comedy.

Sayles, John (b. Sept. 28, 1950, Schenectady, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. film director. He graduated from Williams College and wrote short stories and novels, including Union Dues (1977), before becoming a screenwriter for Roger Corman. He made his directorial debut with the acclaimed Return of the Secaucus Seven (1980). He explored social and political issues in other thoughtful films such as Lianna (1982), Matewan (1987), Eight Men Out (1988), City of Hope (1991), Lone Star (1996), and Sunshine State (2002), and he usually wrote his own screenplays. He also directed the

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1694 I Sayyid Qutb ► Scandinavia

children’s movie The Secret of Roan Inish (1994). Sayles was one of America’s most successful independent filmmakers.

Sayyid Qutb See Sayyid Qutb

Sazonov Xso-'zo-nofX, Sergey (Dmitriyevich) (b. Aug. 10, 1860, Ryazan province, Russia—d. Dec. 25, 1927, Nice, Fr.) Russian diplomat. After he became minister of foreign affairs in 1910, Sazonov promoted close relations with Britain and France and supported the Balkan League against Turkey. He contributed to the precipitating events of World War I by affirming Russia’s support for Serbia against Austria and insisting that Nicholas II order the mobilization of the Russian army (July 30, 1914); two days later, Germany declared war on Russia. He set Russia’s war aim as the annexation of Constantinople and the Turkish straits but was dis¬ missed when he urged the tsar to grant Poland autonomy. After the Rus¬ sian Revolution of 1917, Sazonov moved to France.

scabious \'ska-be-os\ Any of about 100 species of annual and peren¬ nial herbaceous plants that make up the genus Scabiosa (family Dip- saceae), native to temperate Eurasia, the Mediterranean, and mountains of eastern Africa. Some are important garden plants, including the southern European annual pincushion flower (S. atropurpurea), also called sweet scabious, mourning bride, or garden scabious. All species have leaf rosettes at the base of the plant, and leafy stems. Flower heads have an outer ring of female flowers and a circle of leaflike bracts below. Dev¬ il’s bit scabious belongs to the genus Succisa (see bluebonnet).

Scaevola Vse-vo-loV Quintus Mucius or Pontifex (d. 82 bc)

Roman lawgiver. He served successively as consul, as governor of the province of Asia, and from c. 89 as pontifex maximus. About 95 he obtained the passage of the lex Licinia Mucia, removing certain groups from the citizen rolls, which led to the Social War of 90-88. His major work was an 80-volume systematic treatise on civil law, which was fre¬ quently quoted and followed by subsequent writers. His handbook Horoi consisted of short rules of law and explanations of legal terms; it was the oldest work excerpted in Justinian I’s Digest.

scaffold Temporary platform used to elevate and support workers and materials during work on a structure or machine. It consists of one or more wooden planks and is supported by either a timber or a tubular steel or alu¬ minum frame; bamboo is used in parts of Asia. Scaffolding may be raised and lowered by means of cables controlled by a ratchet or electric motor.

scalawag U.S. Southerner who supported Reconstruction. Opponents also applied the pejorative term to those who joined with carpetbaggers and freedmen to support Republican Party policies. The term, of unknown origin, was used from the 1840s to denote a worthless farm animal and later a worthless person. Scalawags included former Whigs and hill- country farmers with Unionist sympathies and constituted nearly 20% of the white electorate after the American Civil War. Many held government positions in the South and advocated moderate reforms.

scale In music, primary pitches of a key or mode arranged within an octave. Scales are distinguished by the pattern of the intervals between

chromatic scale

§ sm J J » J J » J J ” J r r l r r t J J JiJ

C major scale

!iJJj JJ rr

C natural minor scale

Examples of the chromatic, major, and minor scales.

© MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

adjacent notes. A scale can be seen as an abstraction from melody —that is, the pitches of a melody arranged in stepwise order.

scale insect Any member of several families of sap-sucking insects (order Homoptera) whose bodies are covered by a waxy shell (the scale). The eggs are protected by the female’s body or scale or a waxy filamen¬ tous mass. Scale insects may attack any part of a plant, but each species is host-specific. Many species are serious plant pests; others have com¬ mercial value. The lac insect is used in a red dye and in shellac. Cochineal, a red dyestuff, consists of the dried, pulverized bodies of females of the species Dactylopius coccus. See also cottony-cushion scale, San Jose scale.

Scalia Xsks-'le-sV Antonin (b. March 11, 1936, Trenton, N.J., U.S.) U.S. jurist. He studied at Georgetown University and Harvard Law School, where he edited its law review. Successively, he worked for a Cleveland law firm (1961-67), taught at the University of Virginia (1967- 74), served as an assistant U.S. attorney general (1974-77), and taught at the University of Chicago (1977-82). He was appointed by Pres. Ronald Reagan to the U.S. Court of Appeals (1982) and then to the Supreme Court of the United States (1986). Among the court’s most outspoken justices, he quickly earned a reputation for aggressive oral argument and scath¬ ingly critical written opinions, especially when expressing dissenting views. An opponent of “judicial activism,” he favoured a restrained judi¬ ciary, deference to the original intent of the framers in constitutional interpretation, and a limited role for the federal government.

Scaliger Vska-b-jor\, Julius Caesar, and Scaliger, Joseph Jus¬ tus (respectively b. April 23, 1484, Riva, Republic of Venice—d. Oct. 21, 1558, Agen, France; b. Aug. 5, 1540, Agen, France—d. Jan. 21, 1609, Leiden, Holland) Classical scholars. Julius worked in botany, zoology, and grammar but was chiefly interested in developing an understanding and critical evaluation of the ancients. His most widely read book was his Poetics (1561), in which Greco-Roman rhetoric and poetics are used as a foundation for literary criticism. His son Joseph, a precocious student of language, studied in France, Germany, and Italy and taught in France before he was called to the University of Leiden, where he became known as the most erudite scholar of his time. His major works are the Study on the Improvement of Time (1583) and Thesaurus of Time (1609), which brought order to ancient chronology.

scallop Any of more than 400 species (family Pectinidae) of marine bivalves found worldwide, from the intertidal zone to deep waters. The two halves of the shell (valves) are usually fan-shaped, except for a winglike projection at either side of the straight hinge. The shells are 1-6 in. (2.5—15 cm) long. They may be smooth or ribbed and red, purple, orange, yellow, or white. Cilia filter microscopic plants and animals from the water and move them toward the mouth. Scallops swim by clapping the valves, propelling themselves forward. The muscle that closes the valves is a popular food item.

scalping Removal of all or part of the scalp, with hair attached, from an enemy’s head. It is best known as a practice of North American Indian warfare. At first confined to eastern tribes, it spread as a result of boun¬ ties offered by the French, English, Dutch, and Spanish for the scalps of enemy Indians and sometimes of enemy whites. Many American fron¬ tiersmen and soldiers adopted the custom. Among Plains Indians, scalps were taken for war honours, usually from dead enemies, although some warriors preferred a live victim. The operation was not necessarily fatal, and some victims were released alive.

scaly anteater See pangolin Scamander River See Menderes River

scampi or Dublin Bay prawn or Norway lobster Edible lob¬ ster ( Nephrops norvegicus), widespread in the Mediterranean and north¬ eastern Atlantic. It is sold as a delicacy over much of its range. Scampi live in burrows on soft sea bottoms at depths of 33 to 820 ft (10-250 m). They grow to about 8 in. (200 mm) long and weigh about 7 oz (200 g). The slender claws may be almost as long as the body. Most scampi are trawled, but some are caught in baited lobster pots.

Scandinavia Region of northern Europe, usually defined as compris¬ ing Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. It is sometimes used more broadly to include Finland and Iceland. Norway and Sweden occupy the Scandi¬ navian Peninsula, though Denmark is part of the North European Plain. The Scandinavian peoples are linked by cultural similarities, and they speak a closely related group of Germanic languages.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Scandinavian Peninsula ► Scarron I 1695

Scandinavian Peninsula Large promontory, northern Europe. Occupied by Norway and Sweden, it is about 1,150 mi (1,850 km) long, with an area of 290,000 sq mi (750,000 sq km), and it extends south from the Barents Sea. It is largely mountainous; its eastern side slopes gently to the Baltic Sea, while the western side has mountains reaching the coast and is deeply dissected by fjords.

scanner, optical Computer input device that uses a light beam to scan codes, text, or graphic images directly into a computer or computer sys¬ tem. Bar-code scanners are used widely at point-of-sale terminals in retail stores. A handheld scanner or bar-code pen is moved across the code, or the code itself is moved by hand across a scanner built into a checkout counter or other surface, and the computer stores or immediately pro¬ cesses the data in the bar code. After identifying the product through its bar code, the computer determines its price and feeds that information into the cash register. Optical scanners are also used in fax machines and to input graphic material directly into personal computers. See also OCR.

Scapa Flow Sea basin, Orkney Islands, Scotland. Located off of Scot¬ land’s northern tip, the basin is about 15 mi (24 km) long and 8 mi (13 km) wide. Its extensive sheltered waters served as a major British naval base during World Wars I and II. The Germans scuttled their fleet there after World War I. The base was fortified in World War II following Ger¬ man attacks and the sinking of the battleship Royal Oak in 1939. The base closed in 1956.

scapegoat In the Old Testament, a goat that was symbolically burdened with the sins of the people and then killed on Yom Kippur to rid Jerusalem of its iniquities. Similar rituals were held elsewhere in the ancient world to transfer guilt or blame. In ancient Greece, human scapegoats were beaten and driven out of cities to mitigate calamities. In early Roman law, an innocent person was allowed to assume the penalty of another; Chris¬ tianity reflects this notion in its belief that Jesus died to atone for the sins of mankind.

scar Mark left on the skin after a wound heals. Cells called fibroblasts produce collagen fibres, which form bundles that make up the bulk of scar tissue. Scars have a blood supply but no oil glands or elastic tissue, so they can be slightly painful or itchy. Hypertrophic scars grow overly thick and fibrous but remain within the original wound site. Scars can also develop into tumourlike growths called keloids, which extend beyond the wound’s limits. Both can inhibit movement when they result from serious bums over large areas, especially around a joint. Scars, especially those from unaided healing of third-degree bums, can become malignant. Treatment of serious scars is one of the most important problems in plas¬ tic SURGERY.

scarab \'skar-ob\ In Egyptian religion, a symbol of immortality much used in funerary art. It was inspired by the life cycle of the scarab beetle; the dung balls that the beetles con¬ sume, lay their eggs in, and use to feed their young represented a cycle of rebirth and were associated with immortality and with the passage of the sun across the heavens. Many scarabs were made of precious met¬ als and were worn as amulets or used as seals. First appearing c. 2575-c.

2130 bc, they were fashioned in great numbers during the Middle King¬ dom and New Kingdom.

scarab beetle Any of about 30,000 beetle species (family Scara- baeidae), found worldwide, that are compact, heavy-bodied, and oval. Each antenna terminates in three flattened plates that fit together to form a club. The outer edges of the front legs may be toothed or scalloped. Species range from about 0.2 to 4.8 in. (5 to 120 mm) long and include one of the heaviest known insects. One species of dung beetle, Scarabaeus sacer , was sacred to the ancient Egyptians. Many species are agricultural pests (e.g., chafer, Japanese beetle, June beetle); many are popular with insect collectors because they are large and have beautifully coloured, hard, highly polished fore wings.

Scarborough Town and borough (pop., 2001: 106,233), North York¬ shire, England. Located on the North Sea coast, Scarborough originated

as a 10th-century Viking fishing settlement at the site of a 4th-century Roman signal station. In the 12th century a Norman castle was built on the headland. After 1626, spa development made it a fashionable resort. It remains the most popular seaside resort in northeastern England. The borough of Scarborough extends far beyond old Scarborough town.

Scarborough Former city (pop., 2001: 593,297), southeastern Ontario, Canada. In 1998 it joined the cities of Etobicoke, York, North York, and Toronto and the borough of East York to become the City of Toronto. First called Glasgow, Scarborough was renamed in 1793 because its coastal bluffs reminded settlers of Scarborough, Eng. Originally a farming com¬ munity, it later became an industrial and residential urban area.

Scarborough Town (pop., 1990: 4,000) and deepwater harbour of Tobago island, Trinidad and Tobago. First named Port Louis, Scarborough is laid out on the steep slopes of a hill overlooking the harbour. It suc¬ ceeded Georgetown as Tobago’s capital in 1796. It is located in a coconut¬ growing area.

Scarlatti, (Pietro) Alessandro (Gaspare) (b. May 2, 1660, Pal¬ ermo, Sicily, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies—d. Oct. 24, 1725, Naples) Italian composer. He may have studied with Giacomo Carissimi in Rome. His first known opera (1679) was a success, and by 1680 he was chapel master in Rome for Queen Christina of Sweden. He left this secure posi¬ tion to become chapel master of the viceroy of Naples (1684-1702). Most of the operas produced in the city during this period were his own, and they were increasingly heard in other cities as well, including Leipzig and London. Most of his instrumental music comes from his late period, as do his comic operas. He wrote at least 70 and perhaps more than 100 operas, as well as some 600 secular cantatas; his opera overtures ( sinfo - nie) were important forerunners of the symphony. Domenico Scarlatti was his son.

Scarlatti \skar-'lat-e\, (Giuseppe) Domenico (b. Oct. 26, 1685, Naples—d. July 23, 1757, Madrid,

Spain) Italian composer and key¬ board player. Son of the composer Alessandro Scarlatti, he worked as his father’s assistant in Naples. By 1705 he was living in Rome. His father subsequently sent him to Ven¬ ice, where he stayed until about 1708. There he probably met George Frideric Handel and Antonio Vivaldi; he is said to have had a contest with Handel in which the German won at organ playing but Scarlatti won at the harpsichord. By 1723 he was tutor to the Spanish infanta (later crown princess) Maria Barbara, in whose service he remained for much of his life. Though he wrote operas, oratorios, cantatas, and other works, his reputation rests on the 555 bril¬ liant one-movement keyboard sona¬ tas he wrote for the princess, one of the greatest bodies of work by any Baroque composer.

scarlet fever or scarlatina Acute infectious disease caused by some types of streptococcus bacteria. Fever, sore throat, headache, and, in chil¬ dren, vomiting are followed in two to three days by a rash. The skin peels in about one-third of cases. After a coating disappears, the tongue is swol¬ len, red, and bumpy (strawberry tongue). Glands are usually swollen. Complications frequently involve the sinuses, ears (sometimes with mas¬ toiditis), and neck. Abscesscs are common. Nephritis, arthritis, or rheumatic fever may occur later. Treatment involves penicillin, bed rest, and adequate fluid intake. Scarlet fever has become uncommon and much milder since the mid-20th century, independent of the use of antibiotics.

Scarron \ska-'ro n \, Paul (baptized July 4, 1610, Paris, France—d. Oct. 7, 1660, Paris) French writer. With his first works, Scarron helped make the burlesque a characteristic literary form of his time. Virgile travesty, 1 vol. (1648-53) was a very successful parody of Virgil’s Aeneid. Scarron’s plays, often based on Spanish originals, were important in the theatrical life of Paris. He is now remembered for a single novel, Le Roman comique, 3 vol. (1651-57; “The Comic Novel”), which recounts the comi¬ cal adventures of a company of strolling players; its realism makes it an

Scarab commemorating the marriage of Amenhotep III and Queen Tiy, 18th dynasty; in the Oriental Institute, Chi¬ cago

COURTESY OF THE ORIENTAL INSTITUTE, THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

Domenico Scarlatti, engraving.

COURTESY OF THE BIBLIOTHEQUE NATIONALE, PARIS; PHOTOGRAPH, J.P. ZIOLO

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1696 I scattering ► Schenker

invaluable source of information about conditions in the French provinces in the 17th century. His widow, Madame de Maintenon, was later mar¬ ried to Louis XIV.

scattering In physics, the change in direction of motion of a particle because of a collision with another particle. The collision can occur between two charged particles; it need not involve direct physical con¬ tact. Experiments show that the trajectory of the scattered particle is a hyperbola and that, as the bombarding particle is aimed more closely toward the scattering centre, the angle of deflection decreases. The term scattering is also used for the diffusion of electromagnetic waves by the atmosphere, resulting, for example, in long-range radio reception on the ground. See also Rayleigh scattering.

scaup Any of three species (genus Aythya, family Anatidae) of diving ducks. The greater scaup, or big bluebill (A. marila), breeds across Eur¬ asia and most of the Nearctic region. The lesser scaup, or little bluebill (A. affinis ), breeds in northwestern North America. Both are popular game birds, 15-20 in. (38-51 cm) long, that winter along the U.S. coasts. Males have a dark breast and grayish back but differ in head colour and wing markings; females are brown with white patches around the blue bill. Scaups eat mainly clams. The third species is the New Zealand scaup (A. novaeseelandiae).

Schacht \'shakt\, (Horace Greeley) Hjalmar (b. Jan. 22, 1877, Tinglev, Ger.—d. June 4, 1970, Munich, W.Ger.) German financier. He served as vice director of the Dresdner Bank and director of the German National Bank before becoming a commissioner in the finance ministry (1923), where he developed a rigorous monetary program that halted German inflation and stabilized the mark. He became president of the Reichsbank (1923-30, 1933-39) and minister of economics (1934-37), but he was dismissed when he opposed Adolf Hitler’s rearmament expen¬ diture. Imprisoned after the July Plot against Hitler’s life (1944), he was later captured by the Allies and acquitted at the Nurnberg trials. He later founded a bank in Dusseldorf and served as an international financial consultant.

Schally Vsha-le\, Andrew V(ictor) (b. Nov. 20, 1926, Wilno, Pol.) Polish-born U.S. endocrinologist. His family fled Poland in 1939, and he received his Ph.D. in biochemistry from McGill University in 1957. He shared a 1977 Nobel Prize for his work with Roger C.L. Guillemin and Rosalyn Yalow in isolating and synthesizing hormones produced by the HYPOTHALAMUS.

Scharnhorst Vsham- I h6rst\, Gerhard Johann David von (b.

Nov. 12, 1755, Bordenau, Hanover—d. June 28, 1813, Prague, Bohemia) Prussian general. He joined the Hanoverian army in 1778 and served with distinction in Belgium against the French in the 1790s. An officer in the Prussian army from 1801, he taught at the war academy and became chief of staff in the war against Napoleon (1806). As head of the army reform commission (from 1807), he developed the modern general staff system and reorganized the Prussian army; with August von Gneisenau he devised the system of rapid military training and use of army reserves. After a forced retirement, he became chief of staff to Gebhard von BlOcher (1813) and died of a wound received in the Battle of Liitzen.

Schaumburg-Lippe Vshaum-.burk-'li-poX Former German state. Schaumburg was the ancestral seat of a line of counts recorded from the early 12th century. The line died out in 1640 and the lands were parti¬ tioned. It joined the German Confederation in 1815 and the German empire in 1871. It joined the Weimar Republic in 1918 as a free state; in 1946 it was merged into the state of Lower Saxony.

Schechter \'shek-tor\ Poultry Corporation v. United States

(1935) Decision of the Supreme Court of the United States that abolished the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA; see National Recovery Administration), a cornerstone of the New Deal. By unanimous vote, the court held that Congress had exceeded its authority by delegating too much legislative power to the president and industrial groups. It also found that NIRA’s “codes of fair practice” went beyond the regulation of interstate commerce in attempting to control intrastate activity. NIRA’s successor, the National Labor Relations Act (1935), proved acceptable to the court.

Scheherazade or Sheherazade Vsho-.her-o-'zadV Fictional sultan’s wife who narrated The Thousand and One Nights. According to the story that serves as the collection’s framework, the Sultan Shahryar found his first wife unfaithful, and, after deciding that he hated all women, he mar¬

ried and killed a new wife each day. Scheherazade, daughter of his vizier, in an effort to avoid his previous wives’ fate, related to him a fascinating story every night, promising to finish it on the following night. The sul¬ tan enjoyed the stories so much that he put off her execution indefinitely and finally abandoned the idea altogether.

Scheldt \'shlt\, Samuel (b. 1587, Halle, Saxony—d. March 30, 1654, Halle) German composer. After study in Amsterdam with Jan Pieterszoon Sweeunck, he returned to his native Halle and spent his entire life there in various musical offices, including court organist and later kapellmeister to the Margrave of Brandenburg. He wrote much sacred vocal music in both German and Latin, including Geistliche Concerte (1631-40). His chief work for keyboard (mostly organ) was Tabulatura nova (1624), written in open score rather than traditional organ tablature. The collec¬ tion contains fantasias, toccatas, “echo pieces,” organ responses for litur¬ gical use, and, most important, variations on chorale melodies.

Schein Vshln\, Johann Hermann (b. Jan. 20, 1586, Griinhain, Saxony—d. Nov. 19, 1630, Leipzig) German composer. After singing as a boy in the chapel of the elector of Saxony, he studied music at the Uni¬ versity of Leipzig. In 1616 he became cantor of St. Thomas Church in Leipzig, the post later held by Johann Sebastian Bach. In this capacity, he was an important teacher, became friends with Samuel Scheidt and Hein¬ rich SchOtz, and wrote sacred works that combined the vocal lyricism of Italian music with the Northern contrapuntal style. His Banchetto musi- cale (1617) is a collection of dances, perhaps the first in which dances are gathered into unified suites, with common thematic motifs. His sacred vocal works include Opella nova (1618-26) and the hymn collection Cantional (1627).

Schelde Vskel-do\ River or Scheldt Vskelt\ River French Escaut \es-'ko\ River, western Europe. The Schelde rises in northern France, flows through western Belgium to the city of Antwerp, turns northwest, and empties into the North Sea in Dutch territory after a course of 270 mi (435 km). Along with the lower Rhine and the Meuse rivers, it drains one of the world’s most densely populated areas. A channel in the west¬ ern Schelde allows oceangoing vessels to reach Antwerp at full tide.

Scheler \'sha-lor. Max (b. Aug. 22, 1874, Munich, Ger.—d. May 19, 1928, Frankfurt am Main) German philosopher. He is remembered pri¬ marily for his contributions to phenomenology. His Formalism in Ethics and Non-Formal Ethics of Values (1913-16) contains a detailed critique of the ethics of Immanuel Kant. In Man’s Place in the Universe (1928), he advanced a rather grandiose metaphysical doctrine with affinities to American pragmatism: humanity, God, and world are one cosmic process, with two “poles,” spirit and “life-urge”; the ideas of spirit become real through human life and history.

Schelling Vshel-iqV Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von (b. Jan. 27, 1775, Leonberg, Wurttemberg—d. Aug. 20, 1854, Bad Ragaz, Switz.) German philosopher and educator. Inspired by Immanuel Kant, in his Sys¬ tem of Transcendental Idealism (1800) he attempted to unite his concept of nature with the philosophy of Johann Gottlieb Fichte. He held that art mediates between the natural and physical spheres when the natural (or unconscious) and spiritual (or conscious) productions are united in artis¬ tic creation. His view that the Absolute expresses itself in all beings as the unity of the subjective and the objective was criticized by G.W.F. Hegel. In Of Human Freedom (1809), he declared that mankind’s freedom is real only if it is freedom for both good and evil, a position that forms the basis of his later philosophy. A major figure of post-Kantian idealism, Schelling had an important influence on Romanticism. See also Immanuel Kant; Kantianism.

Schenker Vsheq-korX, Heinrich (b. June 19, 1868, Wisniowczyk, Galicia, Russia—d. Jan. 14, 1935, Vienna, Austria) Austrian music theo¬ rist. Schenker studied law and composition in Vienna before settling there as a private teacher and occasional performer. He proposed that Jean- Philippe Rameau’s harmonic theory had erred in making harmony funda¬ mental at the expense of counterpoint. His own study of C.P.E. Bach led him to posit counterpoint as equally fundamental and to recognize the subtle integration of the two. Schenker’s most influential perception was that tonal music consists of layers of ornamentation of simpler musical statements. His controversial theories and graphic notation—presented in texts such as Harmony (1906), Counterpoint (1910-22), and Free Com¬ position (1935)—were widely disseminated in the 1970s and by the end of the 20th century had become the basis of the most widely employed analytical techniques for tonal music.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

scherzo ► schistosomiasis I 1697

scherzo \'skert-,so\ Italian "joke" Musical movement in rapid triple time; it replaced the minuet in genres such as the symphony, sonata, and string quartet in the 19th century. The name was first used for light vocal and instrumental pieces of the Baroque era. It formally often resembles the minuet, being in rounded binary form and having a contrasting trio section between two statements of the scherzo proper, but its tempo is often much faster and its style may range from playful to vehement or grotesque.

Schiaparelli V.skya-pa-'rel-leV Elsa (b. Sept. 10, 1890, Rome, Italy—d. Nov. 13, 1973, Paris, Fr.) Italian-born French fashion designer. After working in the U.S. as a film scriptwriter and translator, she settled in Paris and opened her first shop in the 1920s. By 1935 she was a leader in haute couture and was expanding into perfume, cosmetics, lingerie, jewelry, and swimsuits. Her designs combined eccentricity with simplic¬ ity and a trim neatness with flamboyant colour. She introduced the pad¬ ded shoulder in 1932; designed fur bed jackets and rhinestone-trimmed lingerie in the 1940s; and in the 1950s popularized “shortie” coats in vivid reds, golds, and chartreuses. Her use of “shocking pink,” the sensation of the 1947 season, is still regularly revived. With Christian Dior, she was instrumental in the worldwide commercialization of Parisian fashion.

Schickard Vshi- I kard\ / Wilhelm (b. April 22, 1592, Herrenberg, Wiirttemberg—d. Oct. 24, 1635, Tubingen) German astronomer, math¬ ematician, and cartographer. In 1623 he invented one of the first calcu¬ lating machines. He proposed to Johannes Kepler the development of a mechanical means of calculating ephemerides (predicted positions of celestial bodies at regular intervals of time), and he contributed to the improvement of accuracy in mapmaking.

Schiele Vshe-loV Egon (b. June 12, 1890, Tulin, Austria—d. Oct. 31, 1918, Vienna) Austrian painter, draftsman, and printmaker. He was strongly influenced by the Jugendstil movement, and the linearity and subtlety of his work owe much to Gustav Klimt’s decorative elegance. Still, he always emphasized expression over decoration, heightening the emo¬ tive power of line with a feverish intensity. His candid, agitated, erotic images—often portraits of women— caused a sensation, and in 1912 he was briefly imprisoned for indecency. His landscapes exhibit the same febrile quality of colour and line. A special room was reserved for his work at a Viennese exhibition in 1918, just before he died in the influ¬ enza epidemic of that year. He has since been recognized as one of the great artists of Expressionism.

Schiff VshifX, Dorothy (b. March 11, 1903, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Aug. 30, 1989, New York City) U.S. newspaper publisher. Schiff was a wealthy socialite who in 1939 used family money to buy majority con¬ trol of the New York Post. In 1943 she took the title of owner and presi¬ dent, and in 1962 she became editor in chief. Under her direction the Post became a crusading liberal paper, staunchly supporting unions and social- welfare legislation. She converted it to a tabloid format and included popular features and columnists, with the result that in the 1960s it became the city’s only surviving afternoon daily. In 1976 she sold the Post to Rupert Murdoch.

Schiff, Jacob H(enry) (b. Jan. 10, 1847, Frankfurt am Main—d. Sept. 25, 1920, New York, N.Y., U.S.) German-born U.S. financier and philan¬ thropist. He immigrated to the U.S. in 1865 and in 1875 joined the investment-banking firm of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. He succeeded his father- in-law as head of the firm in 1885 and became one of the leading rail¬ road bankers in the U.S. He played a pivotal role in the reorganization of several transcontinental lines, notably the Union Pacific Railroad and the Northern Pacific Railway. During the Russo-Japanese War he sold Japa¬ nese bonds in the U.S., for which he was decorated by the emperor of Japan. His extensive philanthropies included large contributions to Bar¬ nard College and the Jewish Theological Seminary.

Schiller \'shil-3r\, (Johann Christoph) Friedrich (von) (b. Nov. 10, 1759, Marbach, Wiirttemberg—d. May 9, 1805, Weimar, Saxe- Weimar) German dramatist, poet, and literary theorist, one of the great¬ est figures in German literature. Schiller was educated at the direction of a domineering duke, whose tyranny he eventually fled to write. With his successful first play. The Robbers (1781), he took up the exploration of freedom, a central theme throughout his works. Don Carlos (1787), his first major poetic drama, helped establish blank verse as the recognized medium of German poetic drama. His jubilant “Ode to Joy” was later used in Ludwig van Beethoven’s Symphony No. 9. Appointed professor of his¬ tory at the University of Jena in 1789, he developed his epic masterpiece,

the historical drama Wallenstein (1800). During a period spent formulat¬ ing his views on aesthetic activity, he produced philosophical essays, exquisite reflective poems, and some of his most popular ballads. He spent his last years in ill health in Weimar, near his friend Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. His mature plays, including Maria Stuart (performed 1800) and Wilhelm Tell (1804), examine the inward freedom of the soul that enables the individual to rise above physical frailties and the pressure of material conditions.

Schinkel Vshiq-kolV Karl Friedrich (b. March 13, 1781, near Bran¬ denburg, Brandenburg—d. Oct. 9, 1841, Berlin) German architect and painter. As state architect of Prussia (from 1815), he executed many com¬ missions for Frederick William III and other royal family members. He based his work on the revival of various historical styles. His mausoleum for Queen Louise (1810) and the brick and terra-cotta Werdersche Kirche, Berlin (1821-30), are among the earliest Gothic Revival designs in Europe. Other works include the Greek Revival Schauspielhaus (1818) and Altes Museum (1822-30), both in Berlin. In 1830 Schinkel became director of the Prussian Office of Public Works; his work as a city planner resulted in new boulevards and squares in Berlin. His Romantic-Classical cre¬ ations in architecture, landscape painting, and other related arts such as stage sets and ironwork made him the leading arbiter of national aesthetic taste in his lifetime.

schipperke Vski-por-ke, 'shi-por-keX Dog breed that originated in Flanders and was used as a guard on barges. The schipperke (“little cap¬ tain”) is descended from the Leauvenaar, which also gave rise to the Bel¬ gian sheepdog. A short, thickset, tailless dog with a dense black coat and a foxlike head, it stands 12-13 in. (31-33 cm) and weighs up to 18 lbs (8 kg). It has a lively, inquisitive expression and is generally hardy and energetic, an able vermin hunter, and a good watchdog.

Schism \'si-z3m\, Photian Controversy between Eastern and Western Christianity in the 9th century, triggered by the opposition of the Roman pope to the appointment of Photius as patriarch of Constantinople. Eccle¬ siastical rights of jurisdiction in the Bulgarian church and a doctrinal dis¬ pute over the insertion of the Filioque (“and from the Son”) clause in the Nicene Creed were also at issue. Photius withdrew from communion with Rome in 867; he himself was finally exiled in 886.

Schism, Western or Great Schism (1378-1417) In Roman Catho¬ lic history, a period when there were two, and later three, rival popes, each with his own College of Cardinals. The schism began soon after the papal residence was returned to Rome from Avignon (see Avignon papacy). Urban VI was elected amid local demands for an Italian pope, but a group of cardinals with French sympathies elected an antipope, Clement VII, who took up residence at Avignon. Cardinals from both sides met at Pisa in 1409 and elected a third pope in an effort to end the schism. The rift was not healed until the Council of Constance vacated all three seats and elected Martin V as pope in 1417.

Schism of 1054 or East-West Schism Event that separated the Byzantine and Roman churches. The Eastern and Western churches had long been estranged over doctrinal issues such as the relationship of the Holy Spirit to the Father and the Son. The Eastern church resented the Roman enforcement of clerical celibacy and the limitation of the right of confirmation to the bishop. There were also jurisdictional disputes between Rome and Constantinople, including Rome’s assertion of papal primacy. In 1054 Pope Leo IX, through his representative Humbert of Silva Candida, and the patriarch of Constantinople, Michael Cerularius, excom¬ municated each other, an event that marked the final break between the two churches. The rift widened in subsequent centuries, and the churches have remained separate, though the excommunications were lifted by the papacy and the patriarch in the 20th century. See also Eastern Orthodoxy; Roman Catholicism.

schist \'shist\ Crystalline metamorphic rock that has a highly developed tendency to split into layers. Most schists are composed largely of platy minerals such as muscovite, chlorite, talc, biotite, and graphite. The green colour of many schists and their formation under a certain range of tem¬ perature and pressure conditions have led to distinction of the greenschist facies in the mineral facies classification of metamorphic rocks. Schists are usually classified on the basis of their mineralogy, with varietal names that indicate the characteristic mineral present.

schistosomiasis V.shis-to-ss-'mI-o-sosV or bilharziasis \,bil-,har- 'zi-3-s3s\ Group of chronic disorders caused by parasitic flatworms of the

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1698 I schizophrenia ► Schlesinger

genus Schistosoma (blood flukes). Depending on the infecting species, thousands of eggs released by the females reach either the intestine or the bladder, are excreted in feces or urine, and hatch on contact with fresh water. The larvae invade snails, develop to the next stage, emerge into the water, and invade mammals to feed and breed in the bloodstream. An ini¬ tial allergic reaction (inflammation, cough, late-afternoon fever, hives, liver tenderness) and blood in the stools and urine give way to a chronic stage, in which eggs impacted in the walls of organs cause fibrous thick¬ ening (fibrosis). This condition can lead to serious liver damage in the intestinal types and to bladder stones, fibrosis of other pelvic organs, and urinary-tract bacterial infection. In most cases, early diagnosis and per¬ sistent treatment to kill the adult worms ensure recovery.

schizophrenia \,skit-s3-'fre-ne-3\ Any of a group of severe mental disorders that have in common symptoms such as hallucinations, delu¬ sions, blunted emotions, disorganized thinking, and withdrawal from real¬ ity. Five main types are recognized: the paranoid, characterized by delusions of persecution or grandeur combined with unrealistic, illogical thinking and frequent auditory hallucinations; the disorganized (hebephre¬ nic), characterized by disordered speech and behaviour and shallow or inappropriate emotional responses; the catatonic, characterized by motor inflexibility or stupor along with mutism, echolalia, or other speech abnor¬ malities; the simple or undifferentiated type, which conforms to basic definitions of schizophrenia but does not exhibit particular behaviours in the aforementioned types; and the residual type, which is a chronic stage indicating advancement toward later-stage schizophrenia. Schizophrenia seems to occur in 0.5-1% of the general population, and more than half of those so diagnosed will eventually recover. There is strong evidence that genetic inheritance plays a role, but no single cause of schizophrenia has been identified. Stressful life experiences may help trigger its onset. Treatment consists of drug therapy and counseling.

Schlegel Vshla-golX, August Wilhelm von (b. Sept. 8, 1767, Han¬ nover, Hanover—d. May 12, 1845, Bonn) German scholar and critic. He worked as a tutor and wrote for Friedrich Schiller’s short-lived periodical Die Horen before cofounding with his brother Friedrich von Schlegel the periodical Athenaum (1798-1800), which became the organ of German Romanticism. While a professor at the University of Jena, he undertook translations of the works of William Shakespeare (1797-1810) that became standard editions and are among the finest of all German literary trans¬ lations. His Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature (1809-11) was widely translated and helped spread fundamental Romantic ideas through¬ out Europe. From 1818 until his death he taught at the University of Bonn.

Schlegel, Friedrich von (b. March 10, 1772, Hannover, Hanover—d. Jan. 12, 1829, Dresden, Saxony) German writer and critic. He contributed many of his projects and theories to journals such as Athenaum (1798— 1800), the quarterly he and his brother August Wilhelm von Schlegel founded at Jena. His study of Sanskrit led him to publish Concerning the Language and Wisdom of India (1808), a pioneering attempt at compara¬ tive Indo-European linguistics and the starting point of the study of Indo- Aryan languages and comparative philology. His conception of a universal, historical, and comparative literary scholarship has been pro¬ foundly influential, and he is regarded as the originator of many of the philosophical ideas that inspired early German Romanticism.

Schleicher Vshll-korV August (b. Feb. 19, 1821, Meiningen, Saxe- Meiningen—d. Dec. 6, 1868, Jena, Prussia) German linguist. He began his career studying classical and Slavic languages. Influenced by G.W.F. Hegel and Charles Darwin, he formed the theory that a language is an organism, with periods of development, maturity, and decline. He invented a system of language classification that resembled a botanical taxonomy, tracing groups of related languages and arranging them in a genealogical tree. His model, the Stammbaumtheorie (“family-tree theory”), was a major development in the study of Indo-European lan¬ guages. His great work was A Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European, Sanskrit, Greek and Latin Languages (1874-77), in which he attempted to reconstruct Proto-Indo-European.

Schleicher, Kurt von (b. April 7, 1882, Brandenburg, Ger.—d. June 30, 1934, Berlin) German army officer and last chancellor of the Weimar Republic. A career army officer, he rose to major general by 1929 and became a key figure in the Weimar Republic. His political intrigues helped secure for him the posts of defense minister (1932) and chancellor (1932— 33). Seeking to keep the Nazis under the army’s control, he offered to participate in a government with Adolf Hitler, but Hitler refused him and

thereafter regarded Schleicher as his chief enemy. Dismissed by Paul von Hindenburg in favour of Hitler,

Schleicher was murdered during the Night of the Long Knives.

Schleiden Vshll-donV Mathias Jacob (b. April 5, 1804, Hamburg,

Ger.—d. June 23, 1881, Frankfurt am Main) German botanist. Trained as a lawyer, he soon left the profes¬ sion to study natural science. He and Theodor Schwann developed the cell theory, which states that organisms are composed of cells or substances made by cells; they were thus the first to formulate what was then an informal belief as a principle of biol¬ ogy equal in importance to the atomic theory of chemistry. He also recognized the importance of the cell nucleus and sensed its connection with cell division. He was one of the first German biologists to accept Charles Darwin’s theory of evolu¬ tion.

Schleiermacher Vshli-or-.mak- or\, Friedrich (Ernst Daniel) (b.

Nov. 21, 1768, Breslau, Silesia,

Prussia—d. Feb. 12, 1834, Berlin)

German theologian, preacher, and classical philologist. A member of the clergy from 1796, he taught at the University of Berlin from 1810 to his death. In On Religion (1799), he con¬ tended that the Romantics were not as far from religion as they thought.

In 1817 he helped unite Prussia’s Lutheran and Reformed churches.

His major work, The Christian Faith (1821-22), is a systematic interpre¬ tation of Christian dogmatics. His work influenced theology through the 19th and early 20th centuries; he is generally recognized as the founder of modern Protestant theology.

Schlesinger Vshla-ziq-or, 'shle-sin-jorV, Arthur M(eier), and Schlesinger, Arthur M(eier), Jr. (respectively b. Feb. 27, 1888, Xenia, Ohio, U.S.—d. Oct. 30, 1965, Boston, Mass.; b. Oct. 15, 1917, Columbus, Ohio) U.S. historians. The elder Schlesinger taught at Harvard University for three decades beginning in 1924. He helped to broaden the study of U.S. history by emphasizing social and urban developments. His books include The Colonial Merchants and the American Revolution, 1763-1776 (1917) and Rise of the City, 1878-1898 (1933), and he coed¬ ited (with Dixon Ryan Fox) the series A History of American Life (1928— 43). His son taught at Harvard (1946-61) and the City University of New York (1966-95). Long active in liberal politics, he was an adviser to Adlai Stevenson and John F. Kennedy during their presidential campaigns and served as Kennedy’s special assistant. His books include The Age of Jack- son (1946, Pulitzer Prize), The Age of Roosevelt, 3 vol. (1957-60), A Thousand Days (1965, National Book Award, Pulitzer Prize), The Impe¬ rial Presidency (1973), and The Cycles of American History (1986).

Schlesinger, John (Richard) (b. Feb. 16, 1926, London, Eng.—d. July 25, 2003, Palm Springs, Calif., U.S.) British film and theatre direc¬ tor. He worked as an actor before becoming a documentary director for BBC television, where he won praise for his Terminus (1960). His fea¬ ture films A Kind of Loving (1962) and Billy Liar (1963) were caustic depictions of English urban life. The successful Darling (1965) mocked the shallowness of the jet set, and he followed it with Far from the Mad¬ ding Crowd (1967). His first American film, Midnight Cowboy (1969), won him an Academy Award. His later films include Sunday Bloody Sun¬ day (1971), Marathon Man (1976), Madame Sousatzka (1988), Cold Comfort Farm (1995), and The Next Best Thing (2000).

Kurt von Schleicher, 1932

ARCHIV FUR KUNST UND GESCHICHTE, BERLIN

AT

Schleiden

BY COURTESY BILDARCHIV PREUSSISCHER KULTURBESITZ BPK, WEST BERUN

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Schleswig-Holstein ► Schnabel I 1699

Schleswig-Holstein Vshlas-.vik-'hol-.shtlnN Historical area and state (pop., 2002 est.: 2,804,249), northwestern Germany. With an area of 6,073 sq mi (15,729 sq km), the state occupies the southern half of the Jutland Peninsula and includes Fehmam Island in the Baltic Sea and various islands in the Frisian Islands group. Its capital is Kiel. From the 15th cen¬ tury the former duchies of Schleswig and Holstein were subject to the claims and counterclaims of Denmark, Sweden, the Holy Roman Empire, Prussia, and Austria. The Danes ceded them to Prussia and Austria in 1864, and in 1866 both areas became part of Prussia (see Schleswig- Holstein Question). The northern part of Schleswig was awarded to Den¬ mark in 1920. The German part of Schleswig-Holstein was organized as a state of West Germany after World War II. Industries include shipbuild¬ ing, electrical engineering, paper, textiles, clothing, and tourism.

Schleswig-Holstein Question Vshles-.wig-'hol-.stlnX Conflict between Denmark and Prussia over Schleswig-Holstein. In the 1840s the Danish-speaking population of northern Schleswig, supported by the Dan¬ ish government, wanted to detach Schleswig from Holstein and incorpo¬ rate it with Denmark, whereas the German-speaking majority of the two duchies wanted to combine them as a state within the German Confed¬ eration. An 1848 uprising by Germans in the region was aided by the Prussian army in a war that ousted Denmark’s troops (1848-51). The agreements of 1851-52 restored the region’s status quo. In 1863 a renewed attempt by Denmark to annex Schleswig caused Prussia and Austria to declare war in 1864. After the Danish defeat at Dybbpl and the occupation of Jutland, Denmark was forced to surrender all of Schleswig- Holstein to Prussia and Austria.

Schlieffen Plan Vshle-f3n\ Plan of attack used by the German armies at the outbreak of World War I. It was named after its developer, Count Alfred von Schlieffen (1833-1913), former chief of the German general staff. To meet the possibility of Germany’s facing a war against France in the west and Russia in the east, Schlieffen proposed that, instead of aiming the first strike against Russia, Germany should aim a rapid, deci¬ sive blow with a large force at France’s flank through Belgium, then sweep around and crush the French armies against a smaller German force in the south. The plan used at the beginning of World War I had been modified by Helmuth von Moltke, who reduced the size of the attacking army and was blamed for Germany’s failure to win a quick victory.

Schliemann Vshle-manV Heinrich (b. Jan. 6, 1822, Neubukow, Mecklenburg-Schwerin—d. Dec. 26,

1890, Naples, Italy) German archae¬ ologist and excavator of Troy, Myce¬ nae, and Tiryns. As a boy he loved the Homeric poems, and he eventually learned ancient and modem Greek and many other languages. As a mili¬ tary contractor in the Crimean War he made a sufficient fortune to retire at 36 and devote himself to archae¬ ology. In 1873, at Hisarlik, Tur., he discovered the remains of ancient Troy (verifying the historical event of the Trojan War) and a treasure of gold jewelry (“Priam’s Treasure”), which he smuggled out of the coun¬ try. Because the Ottoman govern¬ ment prevented his return, he began excavating Mycenae in Greece, where he found more invaluable remains and treasures. He and Wil¬ helm Dorpfeld (1853-1940) resumed work at Hisarlik in 1878, exposing the stratigraphy more clearly and advancing archaeological technique. In 1884 they excavated the great fortified site at Tiryns. Schliemann’s excavations helped to lengthen considerably the perspective of history and to popularize archae¬ ology. His contributions were genuine, though his written accounts con¬ tain many self-serving fabrications.

Schlondorff Vshloen-.dorfN, Volker (b. March 31, 1939, Wiesbaden, Ger.) German-U.S. film director. He studied filmmaking in Paris and worked for Louis Malle and Alain Resnais. He returned to Germany to make his first feature film, Young Torless (1968). He displayed a cool directo¬ rial style that distinguished him from others in the New German cinema

movement. Forming his own production company, he made movies such as The Lost Honor of Katharina Blum (1975) and Coup de Grace (1976). The Tin Drum (1979) won the Golden Palm at the Cannes Film Festival and an Academy Award for best foreign language film. His later films include Swann in Love (1984), Voyager (1991), and The Ogre (1998).

Schmalkaldic Articles \shmal-'kal-dik\ One of the confessions of faith of Lutheranism, written by Martin Luther in 1536 and considered by heads of state of the Schmalkaldic League in 1537. A response to a bull issued by Pope Paul III calling for a general council of the Roman Catho¬ lic church to deal with the Reformation, the articles were prepared in order to determine which issues could be negotiated with Roman Catholicism and which could not be compromised. The first section discusses the unity of God, the Holy Trinity, the Incarnation, and Jesus; on these subjects there was no disagreement with the Catholics. The second discusses justifica¬ tion by faith, the chief point of contention. The third deals with such mat¬ ters as sin, repentance, the sacraments, and confession.

Schmalkaldic League \'shmal-,kal-dik\ Defensive alliance by Prot¬ estant states of the Holy Roman Empire. It was established in 1531 at Schmalkalden, Germany, to defend the newly formed Lutheran churches from attack by the Catholic emperor Charles V. Fearing that the league would ally itself with his enemy, Francis I of France, Charles gave it de facto recognition until 1544, when he made peace with Francis. Charles then moved against the league militarily and by 1547 had effectively destroyed it. See also Schmalkaldic Articles.

Schmidt VshmitA, Helmut (b. Dec. 23, 1918, Hamburg, Ger.) German politician, chancellor of West Germany (1974-82). A member of the Social Democratic Party, he served in the Bundestag (1953-61, 1965-87). He was minister of defense (1969-72) and minister of finance (1972-74) before succeeding Willy Brandt as chancellor in 1974. A popular and capable chancellor, he continued the policy of Ostpolitik while maintain¬ ing West Germany’s key position in NATO and the European Commu¬ nity. His refusal to cut West Germany’s social welfare programs prompted the centrist Free Democrats to defect from his governing coalition. Los¬ ing his majority in the Bundestag, Schmidt resigned the chancellorship after a vote of no confidence in the Bundestag in October 1982. He was succeeded as chancellor by Helmut Kohl. Schmidt has written numerous books on German politics and international relations.

Schmidt-Rottluff Vshmit-'rot-lufV Karl orig. Karl Schmidt (b.

Dec. 1, 1884, Rottluff, Ger.—d. Aug.

9, 1976, West Berlin, W.Ger.) Ger¬ man painter and printmaker. As an architecture student in Dresden, he helped form Die Briicke in 1905. He soon realized the expressive poten¬ tial of flat, patterned design; his mature style, seen in Self-Portrait with Monocle (1910), is character¬ ized by boldly dissonant colours and jagged forms. After 1911, when he moved to Berlin, his paintings and woodcuts showed an interest in Cub¬ ism and African sculpture. Though his works had become more conven¬ tional by the 1930s, the Nazis offi¬ cially declared them “degenerate.”

After World War II he taught art and resumed painting, but his work never regained its former power.

Schnabel Vshna-bolV, Artur (b.

April 17,1882, Lipnik, Austria—d.Aug. 15,1951, Axenstein, Switz.) Aus¬ trian pianist and composer. When he was seven years old, his family moved to Vienna. There he studied with Theodor Leschetizky and also met Johannes Brahms and others. He made his debut in 1890. Based in Berlin from 1900 to 1933, he composed, taught, and gave legendary performances of the complete sonatas of Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Schubert for centenary celebrations. In the 1930s he became the first to record the complete Beethoven cycle. During the Nazi period, he moved to London, then to the U.S. Though he mostly played works of the past, his own compositions were ultramodern. Today he is uniquely revered by serious pianists.

Schnabel Yshna-bdlV, Julian (b. Oct. 26, 1951, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. painter. He studied at the University of Houston and the Whitney

Schliemann, detail of an engraving by A. Weger, after a photograph.

COURTESY OF THE DEUTSCHE STAATSBIBLIOTHEK, EAST BERLIN

Self-Portrait with Monocle, oil on can¬ vas by Karl Schmidt-Rottluff, 1910; in the National Gallery, Berlin.

COURTESY OF THE NATIONALGALERIE, STAATLICHE MUSEEN PREUSSISCHER KULTURBESITZ, BERUN

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1700 I schnauzer ► schooner

Museum of American Art. In the 1980s he was a leading exponent of Neo-Expressionism. His works exhibit an ambivalent emotional tone, jar¬ ring colour harmonies, and a rough-hewn style; his best-known works incorporate shards of broken plates. Though he has enjoyed considerable success, there has been controversy regarding both the quality of his art and his aggressive self-promotion. Starting in the 1990s, Schnabel began to pursue film. He received widespread critical acclaim for his direction of Before Night Falls (2000), a film about Cuban poet Reinaldo Arenas.

schnauzer Vshnaut-ssr, 'shnau-zarX Any of three German dog breeds having a wiry black, salt-and-pepper, or black-and-tan coat. The standard, 17-20 in. (43-51 cm) high and weighing 26-37 lbs (12-17 kg), dates to the 15th century; it has a blunt, heavily whiskered muzzle and a squared body. The miniature, 12-14 in. (30-36 cm) high and weighing 13-15 lbs (6-7 kg), was developed in the 19th century from standard schnauzers and affenpinschers. The giant schnauzer, a cross between the standard and various working dogs, stands 21-26 in. (53-66 cm) and weighs 66-77 lbs (30-35 kg).

Schnittke X'shnit-koX, Alfred (Garriyevich) (b. Nov. 24, 1934, Engels, Volga German Autonomous S.S.R.—d. Aug. 3, 1998, Hamburg, Ger.) Russian composer. He began musical training in Vienna and con¬ tinued in Moscow, then taught at the Moscow Conservatory (1962-72). He scored more than 60 films and was one of the first Soviet composers to experiment with seriausm. After the death of Dmitry Shostakovich, Schnittke became the Soviet Union’s leading composer and gained a major international reputation as he evolved a highly eclectic style (“poly¬ stylistics”). He suffered the first of several serious strokes in 1985 but continued to compose. He wrote nine symphonies, six concerti grossi, many concertos, four string quartets, and the operas Life with an Idiot (1992), Gesualdo (1995), and Historia von D. Johann Fausten (1995).

Schnitzler X'shnits-brX, Arthur (b. May 15, 1862, Vienna, Austria—d. Oct. 21, 1931, Vienna) Austrian playwright and novelist. Schnitzler prac¬ ticed medicine in Vienna most of his life, and he also studied psychiatry. He became known for his psychological dramas and for his fearlessness in depicting the erotic lives of his characters, beginning with the early play Anatol (1893). His best-known play, Reigen ( Merry-Go-Round , 1897), was a cycle of 10 dramatic dialogues that traced the links con¬ necting the partners in a series of sexual encounters; considered scandal¬ ous when first performed in 1920, it was filmed as La Ronde by Max OphQls in 1950. His drama Playing with Love (1896) and his most suc¬ cessful novel. None but the Brave (1901), revealed the hollowness of the Austrian military code of honour.

Schoenberg Vshoen-.berkA English X'sharn-.bargX, Arnold (Franz Walter) (b. Sept. 13, 1874, Vienna,

Austro-Hungarian Empire—d. July 13, 1951, Los Angeles, Calif., U.S.)

Austrian-born U.S. composer. He was raised as a Catholic by his Jewish-bom parents. He began studying violin at age eight and later taught himself cello. While working as a bank clerk, he studied composi¬ tion with Alexander Zemlinsky (1871-1942); Schoenberg soon wrote his first string quartet (1897), which was acclaimed. With Richard Strauss’s help he obtained a teaching post in Berlin, but he soon returned to Vienna, having composed his gigantic cantata Gurrelieder (1901, orchestrated 1913). In 1904 Alban Berg and Anton Webern began their studies with him, which would pro¬ foundly shape their later artistic careers. About 1906 Schoenberg came to believe that tonality had to be abandoned. During his subsequent period of “free atonauty” (1907-16) he created remarkable works such as the monodrama Erwartung (1909), Five Orchestral Pieces (1909), and Pierrot lunaire (1912). From 1916 to 1923 he issued almost nothing, being occupied with teaching and conducting but also seeking a way to orga¬ nize atonality. He eventually developed the 12-tone method (see serial- ism), in which each composition is formed from a special row or series of 12 different tones. In 1930 he began work on a three-act opera based on

a single tone row; Moses undAron remained unfinished at his death. The rise of Nazism moved him to reassert his Jewish faith and forced him to flee to the U.S., where he remained, teaching at the University of Cali¬ fornia at Los Angeles (1936-44). Though never embraced by a broad public, he may have exercised a greater influence on 20th-century music than any other composer.

Scholasticism Theological and philosophical movement, beginning in the 11th century, that sought to integrate the secular understanding of the ancient world, as exemplified by Aristotle, with the dogma implicit in the revelations of Christianity. Its aim was a synthesis of learning in which theology surmounted the hierarchy of knowledge. Principal figures in early Scholasticism were Peter Abelard, St. Anselm of Canterbury, St. Alber- tus Magnus, and Roger Bacon. The movement flourished in the 13th cen¬ tury, drawing on the writings and doctrines of St. Thomas Aquinas. By the 14th century Scholasticism was in decline, but it had laid the foundations for many revivals and revisitations in later centuries, particularly under Pope Leo XIII (1879), who sought to modernize the insights of the medi¬ eval scholastics. Modem philosophers influenced by Scholasticism include Jacques Maritain and Etienne Gilson (1884-1978).

Schonerer X'shoe-no-rarX, Georg, knight von (b. July 17, 1842, Vienna, Austria—d. Aug. 14, 1921, Rosenau bei Zwettl) Austrian politi¬ cal extremist. In 1873 he was elected to the federal parliament as a left- wing liberal. He became an ardent German nationalist and outspoken anti-Semite and in 1885 founded the Pan-German Party. Reelected to the parliament in 1897, he opposed the pro-Czech language ordinances and was credited with driving the prime minister from office. He helped 21 Pan-German candidates win election to the parliament in 1901. His vio¬ lent temperament so disrupted the party that by 1907 it had virtually dis¬ appeared from Austrian politics, but his ideological influence continued undiminished.

Schongauer X'shon-.gau-orX, Martin (b. 1445/50, Colmar, Alsace—d. Feb. 2, 1491, Breisach, Baden) German painter and printmaker. Though a prolific painter whose panels were sought in many countries, it was as an engraver that he was unrivaled in northern Europe. His engravings, consisting of about 115 plates, represent a highly refined manifestation of the late Gothic spirit. He brought engraving to maturity by expanding its range of contrasts and textures, bringing an artist’s sensibility to an art hitherto the domain of goldsmiths. The grace of his work became pro¬ verbial in his lifetime, giving rise to such nicknames as Hiibsch (“Charm¬ ing”) Martin and Schon (“Beautiful”) Martin.

school psychology Branch of applied psychology that deals largely with educational assessment, psychological testing, and student consulta¬ tion in elementary and secondary schools. School psychologists train in educational and developmental psychology as well as in general psychol¬ ogy, counseling, and other fields. The school psychologist usually must be certified to practice in a particular school district.

Schoolcraft, Henry Rowe (b. March 28, 1793, Albany county, N.Y., U.S.—d. Dec. 10, 1864, Washington, D.C.) U.S. explorer and ethnolo¬ gist. He served as topographer on an expedition to the Lake Superior region (1820), then married a woman who was part Ojibwa and became an Indian agent. In 1832 he discovered the source of the Mississippi River at Lake Itaska, Minn. A treaty he concluded with the Ojibwa in 1836 ceded much of their land in northern Michigan to the U.S. Schoolcraft’s six- volume Indian Tribes of the United States (1851-57) was a pioneering, though flawed, work.

schooling behaviour Activity characteristic of clupeiform fish (her¬ rings, anchovies, and allies) in which many fish swim together, appearing to act as a single organism. A school of herring may contain many mil¬ lions of individuals of roughly similar size. Fishes above or below the size limit break away and form schools among themselves. The primary advantage to the fish seems to be safety for the individual. When threat¬ ened, a school of thousands of anchovies, spread over several hundred metres, will contract to a writhing sphere only a few metres across, thereby thwarting the attempt of a natural predator to catch a single indi¬ vidual.

schooner X'skti-norX Sailing ship rigged with fore-and-aft sails on its two or more masts. Though apparently developed from a 17th-century Dutch design, the first genuine schooner was built in the American colo¬ nies, probably at Gloucester, Mass., in 1713, by Andrew Robinson. Com¬ pared to square-rigged ships, they were ideal for coastal sailing; they

Arnold Schoenberg.

PICTORIAL PARADE

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Schopenhauer ► Schulz I 1701

handled better in the varying coastal winds, had shallower drafts for shal¬ low waters, and required a smaller crew in proportion to their size. By the end of the century, they were the most important North American ship, used for the coastal trade and for fishing. After 1800 they became popu¬ lar in Europe and around the world. Cupper ships married the schooner design to that of the old three-masted merchantman.

Schopenhauer Vsho-pon-.hau-orV Arthur (b. Feb. 22, 1788, Danzig, Prussia—d. Sept. 21, 1860, Frank¬ furt am Main) German philosopher.

His father was a banker and his mother a novelist. He studied in sev¬ eral fields before earning his doctor¬ ate in philosophy. He regarded the Upanishads, together with the works of Plato and Immanuel Kant, as the foundation of his philosophical sys¬ tem, a metaphysical doctrine of the will developed in reaction to the ide¬ alism of G.W.F. Hegel. His magnum opus, The World as Will and Repre¬ sentation (1819), consists of two comprehensive series of reflections on the theory of knowledge and the philosophy of nature, aesthetics, and ethics. By turning away from spirit and reason to the powers of intuition, creativity, and the irrational, he influ¬ enced (partly via Friedrich Nietzsche) the ideas and methods of vitalism, life philosophy, existentialism, and anthropology. His other works include On the Will in Nature (1836), The Two Main Problems of Ethics (1841), and Parerga and Paralipomena (1851). An unhappy and solitary man, his works earned him the sobriquet “the philosopher of pessimism.”

Schouten \'skau-t 3 n\ Islands Archipelago, across the entrance to Cen- derawasih Bay of the Pacific Ocean, off the northern coast of Papua (Irian Jaya), Indonesia. The islands cover an area of 1,231 sq mi (3,188 sq km). The chief islands, Biak, Supiori, and Numfoor, are among the most densely populated areas of Papua. Another island group of the same name is located off the northeastern coast of New Guinea island; it is part of Papua New Guinea.

Schreiner Vshri-norV Olive (Emilie Albertina) (b. March 24,1855, Wittebergen, Cape Colony—d. Dec. 11, 1920, Cape Town, S.Af.) South African writer. She had no formal education but read widely, developing a powerful intellect and militantly feminist and liberal views. After work¬ ing as a governess she published (as Ralph Iron) the semiautobiograph- ical The Story of an African Farm (1883). The first great South African novel, it concerns a girl living on an isolated farm in the veld who struggles to attain independence in the face of rigid Boer social conven¬ tions. Her later works include Trooper Peter Halkett of Mashonaland (1897), attacking Cecil Rhodes, and Woman and Labour (1911), an acclaimed bible of the women’s movement.

Schroder Vshrce-dorN, Gerhard (b. April 7, 1944, Mossenberg, near Detmold, Ger.) Chancellor of Germany (1998-2005). In his youth he joined the Social Democratic Party (SPD) and the Young Socialists, and, as a law student at Gottingen, he participated in the student protests of 1968. A member of the SPD, he served in the Bundestag (1980-86) and in 1990 succeeded to the premiership of the state of Lower Saxony. His election as federal chancellor in 1998 ended 16 years of conservative rule under Helmut Kohl. Despite continuing high unemployment in Germany, Schroder led his Social Democratic-Green coalition to victory in 2002, and he was reelected chancellor. As the country’s economy worsened, he introduced in 2003 a major reform program that proved highly unpopu¬ lar, and the following year he stepped down as SDP leader. In 2005 the SDP lost the general election, and Schroder was succeeded by Angela Merkel of the Christian Democratic Union.

Schroder-Devrient Vshrce-dor-dov-re-'a", -dev-'rent\, Wilhelmine (b. Dec. 6, 1804, Hamburg—d. Jan. 26, 1860, Coburg, Saxe-Coburg- Gotha) German soprano. Daughter of a baritone, she achieved interna¬ tional renown with her 1822 performance as Ludwig van Beethoven’s Leonora. Though her voice showed signs of wear by her 30s, she was

known for her dramatic prowess—she genuinely cried onstage and was called the “Queen of Tears”—and she created three early Wagnerian (see Richard Wagner) roles: Adriano ( Rienzi , 1842), Senta ( The Flying Dutch¬ man, 1843), and Venus ( Tannhauser , 1845).

Schrodinger Vshrce-dig-orV, Erwin (b. Aug. 12, 1887, Vienna, Austria—d. Jan. 4, 1961, Vienna) Austrian physicist. He taught physics in Zurich (1921-27) and Berlin (1927-33), then left Germany, objecting to the persecution of Jews. He settled in Ireland, where he joined the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies (1940-56). He made fundamental contributions to quantum mechanics, and he shared a 1933 Nobel Prize with P.A.M. Dirac for his development in 1926 of the wave equation now called the Schrodinger equation. In addition to his scientific research, he made contributions to philosophy and the history of science; his books include What Is Life? (1944), Nature and the Greeks (1954), and My View of the World (1961).

Schrodinger \'shroe-diq-3r\ equation Fundamental equation devel¬ oped in 1926 by Erwin Schrodinger that established the mathematics of quantum mechanics. The equation determines the behaviour of the wave function that describes the wavelike properties of a subatomic system. It relates kinetic energy and potential energy to the total energy, and it is solved to find the different energy levels of the system. Schrodinger applied the equation to the hydrogen atom and predicted many of its properties with remarkable accuracy. The equation is used extensively in atomic, nuclear, and solid-state physics. See also wave-particle duality.

Schubert \'shu-,bert\, Franz (Peter) (b. Jan. 31, 1797, Himmelpfort- grund, near Vienna—d. Nov. 19, 1828, Vienna) Austrian composer. He learned violin from his schoolteacher father and piano from his brother. He joined the precursor of the Vienna Boys Choir (1808), making such quick progress that Antonio Salieri undertook to guide his training (1810— 16). At his family’s insistence, he was trained as a schoolteacher. In 1815 he wrote 2 symphonies, more than 100 songs, and 4 stage works. In 1818, seeking independence, he quit teaching at his father’s school to tutor Johann Esterhazy’s daughters. In 1819-20 he wrote the celebrated Trout Quintet and a mass. In 1821, 20 of his most popular songs were published with great success, and he wrote the three-act opera Alfonso und Estrella. Despite his first awareness of the disease (possibly syphilis) that would kill him, his amazing production continued in 1822, with the Unfinished Symphony and the Wanderer Fantasy. He was often ill during his last five years but continued his production of music, including the song cycles The Miller’s Beautiful Daughter and Winter Journey, the last three piano sonatas, and the Great Symphony. His last years were made miserable by illness, not poverty; in fact, his greatness was widely recognized. He died at 31, having produced more masterpieces by that age than almost any other composer in history. His 600 songs made the lied a serious genre and sparked its great development in subsequent decades.

Schuller Vshul-orV Gunther (Alexander) (b. Nov. 22, 1925, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. composer, conductor, and educator. Son of a vio¬ linist, he trained at the Manhattan School of Music. He played French horn with the Cincinnati Orchestra from age 18 and with the Metropoli¬ tan Opera orchestra (1945-59), as well as with jazz musicians such as Miles Davis and the Modern Jazz Quartet. His “third stream” music (com¬ bining classical and jazz styles) includes compositions such as Seven Studies on Themes of Paul Klee (1959). He was president of the New England Conservatory of Music (1967-77) and directed the Berkshire Music Center (1974-84). A preeminent authority on jazz, he wrote the acclaimed Early Jazz (1968) and The Swing Era (1988).

Schultz \'shults\, Dutch orig. Arthur Flegenheimer (b. Aug. 6, 1902, Bronx, N.Y., U.S.—d. Oct. 23, 1935, Newark, N.J.) U.S. gangster. Schultz advanced from burglaries to bootlegging, ownership of brewer¬ ies and speakeasies, and policy rackets in the Bronx and Manhattan. His gang engaged in a number of bloody wars with rival gangs. When the murderous “Dutchman” made plans to assassinate Thomas Dewey, who had made him the target of an investigation, he himself was murdered by New York’s crime bosses, who feared his plan would result in a crackdown on their operations.

Schulz VshultsV, Charles (b. Nov. 26, 1922, Minneapolis, Minn., U.S.—d. Feb. 12, 2000, Santa Rosa, Calif.) U.S. cartoonist. Son of a Minneapolis barber, he took a correspondence course in cartooning and worked as a freelance cartoonist before creating Peanuts (originally Li 7 Folks, 1950), which would become the most widely syndicated comic strip of all time. The strip, whose characters are boys and girls ranging

Arthur Schopenhauer, 1855.

ARCHIV FUR KUNST UND GESCHICHTE, WEST BERUN

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1702 I Schumacher ► Schutz

in age from three to five and a beagle with a grandiose imagination, deals with the frustrations of everyday life and the cruelty that exists among children, often with philosophical and psychological overtones. Just before his death, after 50 years of continuous production, Schulz announced the end of his strip.

Schumacher Vshu- l mak-3r,\ English \ , shu-,mak-9r\ / E(rnst) F(riedrich) (b. Aug. 16, 1911, Bonn, Ger.—d. Sept. 4, 1977, Romont, Switz.) German-born British economist. After studying in England and the U.S., he settled in England in 1937. During World War II he worked on theories for full-employment policies and, under William H. Beveridge, plans for Britain’s postwar welfare state. Between 1950 and 1970 he was an adviser to Britain’s nationalized coal industry. After a visit to Burma in 1955, he came to believe that poor countries needed an “intermediate technology” adapted to the unique needs of each in order to develop. In the influential Small Is Beautiful (1973) he argued that capitalism brought higher living standards at the cost of deteriorating culture and that bigness—especially large industries and large cities—was unaffordable.

Schuman Vshu-.manX, Robert (b. June 29, 1886, Luxembourg—d. Sept. 4, 1963, Metz, France) French statesman. He was a member of the French National Assembly from 1919. After working in the French Resis¬ tance in World War II, he helped found the Popular Republican Movement. He served as finance minister (1946), premier (1947—48), foreign minis¬ ter (1948-52), and minister of justice (1955-56). In 1950 he proposed the Schuman Plan to promote European economic and military unity, which led to the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community (EEC). He served as president of the EEC’s consultative assembly (1958-60).

Schuman Vshii-msnV William (Howard) (b. Aug. 4, 1910, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Feb. 15, 1992, New York City) U.S. composer and administrator. He wrote songs in high school with his friend Frank Loesser. In 1930 he began studying composition with Roy Harris. He achieved suc¬ cess with his American Festival Overture (1939), and his Secular Can¬ tata No. 2: A Free Song won the first Pulitzer Prize for music (1943). His other works include ballets for Martha Graham, the popular New England Triptych (1956), and 10 symphonies. As president of the Juilliard School (1945-62), he modernized its curriculum. As the first president of Lin¬ coln Center (1962-68), he brought together several music organizations and established its Chamber Music Society and Mostly Mozart program.

Schumann Vshu-.manX, Clara orig. Clara Josephine Wieck (b.

Sept. 13, 1819, Leipzig, Saxony—d.

May 20, 1896, Frankfurt am Main,

Ger.) German pianist. Trained by her father, the noted piano teacher Friedrich Wieck (1785-1873), she debuted as a prodigy with Leipzig’s Gewandhaus Orchestra in 1830, and then she toured for two years. By 1835 she had fallen in love with Rob¬ ert Schumann, the Wiecks’ boarder since 1830. When Clara turned 21 years old, they eloped against her father’s wishes. Her artistic stature had already been established by her tours, but the birth of eight children limited her career, and she stopped writing music in 1853 after showing considerable promise as a composer.

Robert’s mental deterioration led to her resuming touring full-time; she retired from performing and teaching in the 1890s because of ill health.

From 1853 she had a close lifelong relationship with Johannes Brahms.

Schumann, Robert (Alexander) (b. June 8, 1810, Zwickau, Saxony—d. July 29, 1856, Endenich, near Bonn, Prussia) German com¬ poser. Son of a bookseller, he considered becoming a novelist. Under family pressure he reluctantly entered law school, but he devoted his time to song composition and piano lessons. An injury to one of his fingers put an end to his hopes of a career as a virtuoso and confined him to com¬ position. He embarked upon a prolific period, writing piano pieces and founding, in 1834, the New Journal for Music. His works from this fer¬ tile period include Papillons, Carnaval (both 1833-35), and Davidsbiin-

dlertanze (1837). He married the pianist Clara Wieck in 1840. That year he returned to the field of the solo song; in the span of 11 months he composed nearly all the songs on which much of his reputation rests, such as the song cycles Dichterliebe and Frauenliebe und Leben. The next year he widened his scope to orchestral music, producing Symphony No. 1, Symphony No. 4 , and his piano concerto; in 1842 he concentrated on chamber music. In his last productive years, he turned to dramatic or semidramatic works. His mental deterioration (probably associated with both syphilis and a family history of mental illness) accelerated; in 1854 he was placed in a sanatorium, where he died two years later.

Schumpeter Vshum-.pa-torV Joseph A(lois) (b. Feb. 8, 1883, Tri- esch, Moravia—d. Jan. 8, 1950, Taconic, Conn., U.S.) Moravian-U.S. economist and sociologist. Educated in Austria, he taught at several Euro¬ pean universities before joining the faculty of Harvard University (1932— 50). He became known for his theories of capitalist development and the business cycle. His popular book Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy (1942) argued that capitalism would eventually perish of its own success. His posthumous History of Economic Analysis (1954) is an exhaustive study of the development of analytic methods in economics.

Schurz Vshurts, 'shorts \, Carl (b. March 2, 1829, Liblar, near Cologne, Prussia—d. May 14, 1906, New York, N.Y., U.S.) German-U.S. poli¬ tician and journalist. After participat¬ ing in the abortive German revolution of 1848, he fled to the U.S. in 1852. He settled in Wiscon¬ sin, where he became active in the antislavery movement and the Republican Party. In the American Civil War he was appointed brigadier general of volunteers and saw action in several battles. After the war he became a newspaper editor in St.

Louis (1867-69), where he won election to the U.S. Senate (1869—

75). As U.S. secretary of the interior (1877—81), he promoted civil- service reform and an improved Indian policy. He later edited the New York Evening Post and the Nation (1881-83) and wrote editori¬ als for Harper’s Weekly (1892-98). x x^x^xxxx m^xv, w , .. v

joined the Mugwumps (1884) and headed the National Civil Service Reform League (1892-1901).

Schuschnigg Vshush-nikV, Kurt von (b. Dec. 14, 1897, Riva del Garda, Trento, Austria-Hungary—d. Nov. 18, 1977, Mutters, near Inns¬ bruck, Austria) Austrian politician and chancellor (1934-38). Elected to the Austrian parliament in 1927, he served in the government of Engelbert Dollfuss as minister of justice (1932) and education (1933-34). After Doll- fuss was assassinated, Schuschnigg was named chancellor. He disbanded the paramilitary Heimwehr in 1936 and tried to prevent the German take¬ over of Austria. After making concessions to Adolf Hitler in February 1938, he sought to reassert national independence through a plebiscite to be held on March 13. However, on March 11 Germany invaded Austria and carried out the Anschluss, and Schuschnigg was imprisoned until the war ended. He later lived and taught in the U.S. (1948-67).

Schutz \'shuts\, Alfred (b. April 13, 1899, Vienna, Austria—d. May 20, 1959, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Austrian-bom U.S. sociologist and phi¬ losopher who developed a social science based on phenomenology. He emigrated to the U.S. in 1939, teaching at the New School for Social Research in New York (1943-59). He drew attention to the social pre¬ suppositions underlying everyday life and to the creation of social reality through symbols and human action. His work laid the basis for the field of ethnomethodology, the study of people’s commonsense understandings of the structure of social interaction. His principal work is The Phenom¬ enology of the Social World (1932). See also interactionism.

Schutz VshfiitsV Heinrich (b. Oct. 8, 1585, Kostritz, Saxony—d. Nov. 6, 1672, Dresden) German composer. An innkeeper’s son, he was heard singing by a nobleman staying at the inn, who underwrote his education; in 1608 he entered the University of Marburg to study law, but in 1609 he began to study music with Giovanni Gabrieli in Venice. The elector of

Robert and Clara Schumann, litho¬ graph by J. Hofelich

THE BETTMANN ARCHIVE

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Schuyler ► Schweitzer I 1703

Saxony in Dresden “borrowed” Schiitz for a “few months” in 1614, then refused to let him return. As kapellmeister in Dresden from 1619, he pub¬ lished his first collection of sacred music, Psalms of David (1619). In 1628 he traveled to Italy, where Claudio Monteverdi acquainted him with new musical developments, and he adopted aspects of the Italian style in his great Symphoniae sacrae (1629) for chorus and instruments; he later pub¬ lished a second and third collection of Symphoniae sacrae (1647, 1650). He spent much time in Denmark and elsewhere over the next 15 years. Economic conditions deteriorated, and in the early 1650s he was no longer even being paid; he was released by the elector’s death in 1656.

Schuyler \'skl-br\, Philip John (b. Nov. 11, 1733, Albany, N.Y.—d. Nov. 18, 1804, Albany, N.Y., U.S.) American Revolutionary officer. He served in the French and Indian War and helped settle colonial war claims with Britain (1761-63). He served in the New York legislature (1768-75) and in the Continental Congress (1775-77, 1778-80). In the American Revolution he was commissioned one of four major generals in the Con¬ tinental Army. As commander of the northern department, he was unable, because of illness, to undertake his planned invasion of Canada. His later defeat at the Battle of Ticonderoga led to his replacement by Horatio Gates. He subsequently served as one of New York’s first U.S. senators

(1789-91, 1797-98).

Schwab, Charles M(ichael) (b. Feb. 18, 1862, Williamsburg, Pa., U.S.—d. Sept. 18, 1939, New York, N.Y.) U.S. entrepreneur and steel- industry pioneer. He joined Andrew Carnegie’s steelworks at Braddock, Pa., as a labourer and rose swiftly in the Carnegie empire. In 1892 Car¬ negie delegated to Schwab the task of returning the plant in Homestead, Pa., to normal production after the bloody Homestead Strike. His success in improving labour relations and increasing production led to his appoint¬ ment as president of Carnegie Steel Co. in 1897 at the age of 35. Schwab proposed the merger of the competing steel companies that would create the U.S. Steel Corp., and he became its first president in 1901. He resigned in 1903 to devote himself to the Bethlehem Steel Corp., which he built into one of the nation’s largest steel producers of its time.

Schwann \'shvan\, Theodor (b. Dec. 7, 1810, Neuss, Prussia—d. Jan. 11, 1882, Cologne, Ger.) German physiologist. He founded modern his¬ tology by recognizing the cell as the basic unit of animal structure. A year after Mathias Jacob Schleiden, a colleague Schwann knew well, advanced the cell theory for plants, Schwann extended it to animals. While inves¬ tigating digestive processes, he isolated a substance responsible for diges¬ tion in the stomach, the first enzyme prepared from animal tissue, and named it pepsin. He studied muscle contraction and nerve structure, dis¬ covering the striated muscle in the upper esophagus and the myelin sheath covering nerve cells. He coined the term metabolism, identified the role played by microorganisms in the decomposition of organic matter, and formulated the basic principles of embryology by observing that the egg is a single cell that eventually develops into a complete organism.

Schwartz, Arthur See Howard Dietz

Schwartz Vshworts\, Delmore (b. Dec. 8, 1913, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.—d. July 11, 1966, New York, N.Y.) U.S. poet, short-story writer, and critic. He taught at Harvard and other schools and was an editor of Partisan Review (1943-55). His works include In Dreams Begin Respon¬ sibilities (1939), consisting of a short story and poetry; Shenandoah (1941), a verse play; and The World Is a Wedding (1948) and Successful Love (1961), collections of short stories dealing primarily with middle- class Jewish family life. His work is noted for its lyrical descriptions of cultural alienation and the search for identity. Brilliant but unstable, he became alcoholic and declined into insanity.

Schwarzenberg \'shvart-s9n-,berk\, Felix, prince zu (b. Oct. 2, 1800, Krummau, Bohemia, Austrian Habsburg domain—d. April 5, 1852, Vienna, Austria) Austrian statesman who restored the Habsburg empire as a European power. Entering the diplomatic service, he became a protege of Prince Klemens von Metternich and served in several Austrian embas¬ sies. In the Revolutions of 1848, he helped Joseph Radetzky defeat rebel forces in Italy. As prime minister and foreign minister of Austria (1848— 52), he secured the replacement of Emperor Ferdinand by Francis Joseph. He reestablished order in Austria with a new constitution that transformed the Habsburg empire into a unitary, centralized state. He also imposed the Punctation of Olmutz on Prussia.

Schwarzenegger Vsw6rts-3-,neg-9r\, Arnold (b. July 30, 1947, Graz, Austria) Austrian-born U.S. film actor and politician. A bodybuilder

in Austria, he moved to the U.S. in 1968 and won the title of Mr. Uni¬ verse five times and Mr. Olympia seven times before retiring undefeated in 1980. After appearing in the documentary Pumping Iron (1977), he starred in Conan the Barbarian (1982) and its sequel Conan the Destroyer (1984). Noted for his extraordinary physique and heavy accent, he became an international star with The Terminator (1984) and its sequels (1991, 2003). His other films include Kindergarten Cop (1990), Total Recall (1990), True Lies (1994), and The 6th Day (2000). In 2003 Schwarzeneg¬ ger was elected governor of California in a recall election.

Schwarzkopf Vshworts-.koA, Dame (Olga Maria) Elisabeth (Fredericke) (b. Dec. 9, 1915, Jarotschin, near Posen, Ger.) German- born British soprano. After studies at the Berlin High School for Music, she debuted in 1938 as a flower maiden in the opera Parsifal. A 1942 recital in Berlin caused Karl Bohm to invite her to the Vienna State Opera. She made her Covent Garden debut in 1947 with that company and remained there for five years. Her voice bloomed, and she began her long associations with the Salzburg Festival (1949-64) and La Scala (1949- 63). Her annual lieder recitals were legendary. Her opera farewell (1972) was in her famous role as the Marschallin in Der Rosenkavalier, and she retired in 1975.

Schwarzkopf, H. Norman (b. Aug. 22, 1934, Trenton, N.J., U.S.) U.S. army commander. The son of a brigadier general, he graduated from West Point and fought in the Vietnam War (1965-66, 1969-70). After various other assignments, he was promoted to major general (1983) and commanded forces in the invasion of Grenada. In 1988 he became a four- star general and commander of the U.S. Central Command, which included operations in the Middle East. Following Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in 1990, he directed the buildup of 700,000 U.S. and allied troops in Saudi Arabia and commanded the successful Desert Storm operations in the Persian Gulf War (1991), after which he retired from active service.

Schwarzschild Vshwort-.shihA, Karl (b. Oct. 9, 1873, Frankfurt am Main, Ger.—d. May 11, 1916, Potsdam) German astronomer. He pub¬ lished his first paper (on celestial orbits) at age 16. In 1901 he became professor and director of the observatory at the University of Gottingen. He gave the first exact solution of Albert Einstein’s general equations of gravitation, which led to a description of how mass curves space. He also laid the foundation of the theory of black holes, using the gravitational equations to show that a body of sufficient mass would have an escape velocity greater than the speed of light and therefore would not be directly observable, since even light rays from it could not escape into space. See also Schwarzschild radius.

Schwarzschild radius or gravitational radius Radius inside which the gravitational attraction between a body’s particles must cause its irreversible gravitational collapse, named for Karl Schwarzschild. This is thought to be the final fate of the most massive stars (see black hole). The gravitational radius ( R g ) of an object of mass M is given by R = 2 GM/c 2 , where G is the universal gravitational constant and c the speed of light. For a star like the Sun, the Schwarzschild radius would be about 1.8 mi (3 km).

Schweitzer \'shwlt-s9r\, Albert (b. Jan. 14, 1875, Kaysersberg, Upper Alsace, Ger.—d. Sept. 4, 1965, Lam- barene, Gabon) Alsatian-born Ger¬ man theologian, philosopher, organist, and mission doctor. In his early years he obtained a degree in philosophy (1899) and became an accomplished organist. In his biog¬ raphy of Johann Sebastian Bach (2 vol., 1905), he viewed Bach as a reli¬ gious mystic. He also wrote on organ construction and produced an edition of Bach’s organ works. His books on religion include several on St. Paul; his Quest of the Historical Jesus (1910) became widely influential. In 1905 he announced he would become a mission doctor and devote himself to philanthropic work. He and his wife moved in 1913 to Lam- barene in French Equatorial Africa (now Gabon) and with locals built a hospital on the banks of the Ogooue River, to which they later added a

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1704 I Schwitters ► Scipio Africanus

leper colony. In 1952 he received the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts on behalf of “the Brotherhood of Nations.” Two years before his death, his hospital and leper colony were serving 500 patients. His philosophical books discuss his famous principle of “reverence for life.”

Schwitters Vshvit-srzV Kurt (b. June 20, 1887, Hannover, Ger.—d. Jan. 8, 1948, Little Langdale, West¬ morland, Eng.) German Dada artist and poet. Associated with the Berlin Dadaists from 1918, he moved back to Hannover in 1924. He assembled collages and other constructions from everyday objects (train tickets, wooden spools, newspapers, postage stamps); his poems were composites of newspaper headlines, advertising slogans, and other printed ephemera.

He referred to all his artistic activities—and later to all his daily activities and even to himself—as Merz, the syllable left when he snipped letters from Kommerzbank (“Commercial Bank”). When the Nazis declared his art “degenerate” in 1937, he moved to Norway and later to England.

sciatica \sl-'a-ti-k3\ Pain along the course of the sciatic nerve, from the lower back down each leg. It often begins after lower back strain and is associated with spinal disk herniation. Pain is increased by coughing, sneezing, or bending the neck forward. Muscle relaxants, painkillers, and nerve stimulation are among the treatments, but surgery to relieve pres¬ sure on the nerve is needed if pain is disabling or nerve function is pro¬ gressively disturbed (with leg weakness and loss of feeling). Rarely, sciatica arises from other causes of nerve compression (e.g., tumour) or disorders involving the peripheral nervous system.

science, philosophy of Branch of philosophy that attempts to elu¬ cidate the nature of scientific inquiry—observational procedures, patterns of argument, methods of representation and calculation, metaphysical presuppositions—and evaluate the grounds of their validity from the points of view of epistemology, formal logic, scientific method, and meta¬ physics. Historically, it has had two main preoccupations, ontological and epistemological. The ontological preoccupations (which frequently over¬ lap with the sciences themselves) ask what kinds of entities can properly figure in scientific theories and what sort of existence such entities pos¬ sess. Epistemologically, philosophers of science have analyzed and evalu¬ ated the concepts and methods employed in studying natural phenomena, both the general concepts and methods common to all scientific inquiries and the specific ones that distinguish special sciences.

science fiction Fiction dealing principally with the impact of actual or imagined science on society or individuals, or more generally, literary fantasy including a scientific factor as an essential orienting component. Precursors of the genre include Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (1818), Rob¬ ert Louis Stevenson’s The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1886), and Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels (1726). From its beginnings in the works of Jules Verne and H.G. Wells, it emerged as a self-conscious genre in the pulp magazine Amazing Stories, founded in 1926. It came into its own as serious fiction in the magazine Astounding Science Fic¬ tion in the late 1930s and in works by such writers as Isaac Asimov, Arthur C. Clarke, and Robert Heinlein. A great boom in popularity followed World War II, when numerous writers’ approaches included predictions of future societies on Earth, analyses of the consequences of interstellar travel, and imaginative explorations of intelligent life in other worlds. Much recent fiction has been written in the “cyberpunk” genre, which deals with the effects of computers and artificial intelligence on anarchic future societ¬ ies. Radio, film, and television have reinforced the popularity of the genre.

Scientific American U.S. monthly magazine interpreting scientific developments to lay readers. It was founded in 1845 as a newspaper describing new inventions. By 1853 its circulation had reached 30,000 and it was reporting on various sciences, such as astronomy and medi¬ cine, apart from inventions. In 1921 it became a monthly. From its found¬

ing it used woodcut illustrations, and it was one of the first papers to use halftone illustrations. Its articles—solidly based on scholarly research, well written, carefully edited, and accompanied by definitions of scien¬ tific terms and by illustrations—have made it the most highly regarded magazine of its genre.

scientific method Mathematical and experimental techniques employed in the natural sciences. Many empirical sciences, especially the social sciences, use mathematical tools borrowed from probability theory and statistics, together with such outgrowths of these as decision theory, game theory, utility theory, and operations research. Philosophers of sci¬ ence have addressed general methodological problems, such as the nature of scientific explanation and the justification of induction. See also Mill's METHODS.

scientific visualization Process of graphically displaying real or simulated scientific data. It is a vital procedure in the creative realization of scientific ideas, particularly in computer science. Basic visualization techniques include surface rendering, volume rendering, and animation. High-performance workstations or supercomputers are used to show simu¬ lations, and high-level programming languages are being developed to support visualization programming. Scientific visualization has applica¬ tions in biology, business, chemistry, computer science, education, engi¬ neering, and medicine.

Scientology, Church of International movement established in the U.S. by L. Ron Hubbard in 1954. He introduced his ideas to the general public in Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health (1950). Dianet- ics sought to free subjects from the destructive imprints of past experi¬ ences, called engrams. Later Hubbard moved toward a structured system of belief involving the human soul, or thetan (each person’s spiritual self), and the origins of life and the universe. The organization has often been the subject of controversy.

Scilly Vsi-le\, Isles of or Scilly Isles Group of about 50 small islands and many more islets, southwestern England. Located off Land's End, with an area of about 6 sq mi (16 sq km), the islands are a continuation of the granite masses of the Cornish mainland. During the English Civil Wars, Prince Charles sheltered there until his escape to Jersey in 1646. The islands were a haunt of pirates and notorious for smuggling activities. Administratively, they are a distinct unit within England, though they form part of the county of Cornwall.

Scipio Africanus (the Elder) Vsi-pe-o, 'ski-pe-o\ in full Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus (b. 236—d. 184/183 bc, Litemum, Cam¬ pania) Roman general in the Second Punic War. He was bom into a patri¬ cian family that had produced several consuls. As a military tribune, he fought at the Battle of Cannae (216), managing to escape from the defeat. While still young, he secured Spain for Rome by 206, driving the Carthaginians out and avenging his father’s death. As consul in 205 he was granted permission to attack the Carthaginians in Africa. In 202 he was victorious over Hannibal at the Battle of Zama, ending the Second Punic War and winning the name Africanus. His political opponents, led by Cato, accused Scipio and his brother Lucius of offering too lenient terms to Macedonia after their engagement there and of not being able to account for money supposedly received in those terms. Though there was no evidence of his guilt, Scipio withdrew from public life and died a vir¬ tual exile.

Scipio Africanus (the Younger) or Scipio Aemilianus \i- I mil-e- , a-nos\ in full Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus Africanus Numantinus (b. 185/184—d. 129 bc, Rome) Roman gen¬ eral credited with the final subjugation of Carthage. He was the natural son of Paullus and the adoptive son of Publius Scipio, son of Scipio Afri¬ canus the Elder. Polybius instilled in him the ideals of honour, glory, and military success. He first distinguished himself in the Third Macedonian War (168). He then campaigned in Spain and went on to Africa (150), where he displayed great military skill against Carthage while serving as military tribune, and demand arose that he take the command against Carthage. Though under age, he was elected consul in 147 and returned to Africa. He besieged and destroyed Carthage (146), ending the Third Punic War and establishing the province of Africa. Again made consul in 134, he was given command of the Celtiberian War (see Celtiberia), and he secured Spain by besieging and destroying Numantia (133). Back in Rome, he took an unpopular position on a bill supported by his friend Tiberius Gracchus; he was due to speak on the question when he died unexpectedly.

Picture with Light Centre, collage of paper with oil on cardboard by Kurt Schwitters, 1919; in the Museum of Modern Art, New York City.

COURTESY OF THE MUSEUM OF MODERN ART, NEW YORK

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

scirocco ► scoter I 1705

scirocco See sirocco

scissors Cutting instrument or tool consisting of a pair of opposed metal blades that meet and cut when the handles at their ends are brought together. Modern scissors are of two types: the more usual pivoted blades have a rivet or screw connection between the cutting ends and the handle ends; spring shears have a C-shaped spring connection at the handle ends.

SCLC See Southern Christian Leadership Conference

scleroderma \ 1 skler-3-'d9r-m3\ or progressive systemic sclero¬ sis Vsis-'tem-ik-sklo-'ro-sosX Chronic disease that hardens the skin and fixes it to underlying structures. Swelling and collagen buildup lead to loss of elasticity. The cause is unknown. It usually begins at age 25-55, more often in women, with severe inflammation of underlying tissue and stiffness, pain, and skin tautness and thickening. Systemic problems that may arise years later include fever, trouble in breathing, fibrous tissue in the lungs, inflammation of heart muscle or membranes, gastrointestinal disorders, and kidney malfunction. Calcium deposits build up under the skin. The disease may finally stabilize or gradually regress. Steroids may help, and physical medicine and rehabilitation with heat, massage, and passive exercise (movement of the limbs by the therapist) help prevent limb fixation and deformity.

Scofield, (David) Paul (b. Jan. 21, 1922, Hurstpierpoint, Sussex, Eng.) British actor. After entertaining the troops in World War II, he joined the theatre company at Stratford-upon-Avon (later the Royal Shakespeare Company) in 1946, winning acclaim as Henry V and Hamlet. He had his greatest success in A Man for All Seasons in London (1960) and New York City (1961-62) and reprised the role on film (1966, Academy Award). He continued to excel in stage productions, notably Uncle Vanya (1970) and Amadeus (1979). He appeared in the film versions of King Lear (1971), A Delicate Balance (1973), and Henry V (1989), and he later acted in the films Quiz Show (1994) and The Crucible (1996).

Scone VskiinV, Stone of Rectangular block of yellow sandstone deco¬ rated with a Celtic cross, which has been associated with the crowning of Scottish kings since medieval times. Legend says it was Jacob’s pil¬ low in the Holy Land, and it was taken to Ireland and then carried off by invading Scots. Kenneth I MacAlpin brought it to the Scottish village of Scone c. 840. Edward I took it to England (1296), where it was later placed under the Coronation Chair in Westminster Abbey as a symbol of the authority of English kings over Scotland. It was finally returned to Scot¬ land in 1996.

Scopas or Skopas Vsk6-pos\ (fl. 4th century bc, Greece) Greek sculp¬ tor and architect. Ancient writers ranked him with Praxiteles and Lysippus as one of the major sculptors of the late Classical period. He helped establish the expression of powerful emotions as an artistic theme. He apparently worked on three monuments: the temple of Athena Alea at Tegea, the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, and the Mausoleum at Halicar¬ nassus. Of many freestanding sculptures attributed to him, the Maenad in Dresden and the Pothos in Rome are the most noteworthy.

Scopes Trial (July 10-21, 1925) Widely publicized trial (called the “Monkey Trial”) in Dayton, Tenn. John T. Scopes (1900-70), a high- school teacher, was charged with teaching Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution, which violated a state law prohibiting the teaching of any doc¬ trine that denied the divine creation of humans. The trial was broadcast live on radio and attracted worldwide interest. The prosecutor was Wil¬ liam Jennings Bryan; the defense attorney was Clarence Darrow. The judge limited arguments to the basic charge to avoid a test of the law’s consti¬ tutionality and a discussion of Darwin’s theory. Scopes was found guilty and fined $100; he was later acquitted on the technicality that he had been fined excessively. The law was repealed in 1967.

score In music, the parts of all the instruments or singers of an ensemble notated with simultaneous sounds aligned vertically, on a system of par¬ allel staffs arranged one above another. Polyphonic (multivoiced) music was being composed for some 600 years before the score came into regu¬ lar use in the 16th-17th centuries. Early examples of scores exist for works of the Notre-Dame school, and early composers may have used temporary scores during composition, perhaps on chalkboards, from which the parts for individual singers were then copied.

Scorel Vskor-oL, Jan van (b. August 1495, Schoorel, Habsburg Netherlands—d. Dec. 6, 1562, Utrecht) Dutch humanist, architect, engi¬ neer, and painter. He studied briefly with Jan Gossart, who encouraged