Britannica Concise 2005

Arthur, Chester A(lan) (b. Oct. 5,1829, North Fairfield, Vt., U.S.—d. Nov. 18, 1886, New York, N.Y) 21st president of the U.S. (1881-85). He practiced law in New York City from 1854, later becoming a close asso¬ ciate of Sen. Roscoe Conkling, the Republican boss of New York. With Conkling’s backing, he was appointed customs collector for the port of New York (1871-78), an office long known for its use of the spoils sys¬ tem. He conducted the business of the office with integrity but continued to pad its payroll with Conkling loyalists. At the Republican national con¬ vention in 1880, Arthur was the compromise choice for vice president on

a ticket with James Garfield; he became president on Garfield’s assassina¬ tion. As president, Arthur displayed unexpected independence by vetoing measures that rewarded political patronage. He also signed the Pendleton Civil Service Act, which created a civil-service system based on merit. He and his navy secretary recommended appropriations that later helped transform the U.S. Navy into one of the world’s great fleets. He failed to win his party’s nomination for a second term.

Arthurian legend Body of stories and medieval romances centring on the legendary English king Arthur. The stories chronicle Arthur’s life, the adventures of his knights, and the adulterous love between his knight Sir Lancelot and his queen, Guinevere. The legend was popular in Wales before the 11th century, was brought into literature by Geoffrey of Mon¬ mouth, and was adapted by other medieval writers, including Chretien de Troyes, Wace, Layamon, and Sir Thomas Malory, becoming entwined with legends of the Holy Grail. From Victorian times, when interest in the leg¬ end revived, it has figured in major works by Alfred Tennyson (Idylls of the King) and T.H. White (The Once and Future King). It is uncertain whether Arthur was a historical figure. Medieval sources say he was a 6th-century warrior and champion of Christianity who united the British tribes against the Saxon invaders, died in battle at Camlann c. 539, and was buried at Glastonbury. See also Galahad; Merlin; Tristan and Isolde.

Arthur's Pass or Arthur Pass Mountain pass. Southern Alps, New Zealand. It lies at an elevation of 3,020 ft (920 m) at the northern end of the mountain range and provides the main railway and highway passage.

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112 I Artibonite River ► Aruba

with the rail line passing through the Otira Tunnel (5.3 mi [8.6 km]). Arthur’s Pass National Park was created in 1929.

Artibonite River \,ar-te-b6-'net\ River, Hispaniola Island. Rising in the Cordillera Central of the Dominican Republic, it flows along the Haitian border and then west and northwest into and through Haiti’s Artibonite Plain to enter the Gulf of Gonaives after a course of some 150 mi (240 km). It is the island’s longest river.

artichoke Large, coarse, herbaceous, thistlelike perennial plant {Cynara scolymus) of the composite family. The thick edible scales and bottom part (heart) of the immature flower heads are a culinary delicacy. The artichoke is native to the Mediterranean and is cultivated extensively in other regions with rich soil and a mild, humid climate. The Jerusalem artichoke is a tuber and does not resemble the artichoke.

Articles of Confederation Early U.S. constitution (1781-89) under the government by the Continental Congress, replaced in 1787 by the U.S. Constitution. It provided for a confederation of sovereign states and gave the Congress power to regulate foreign affairs, war, and the postal ser¬ vice, to control Indian affairs, and to borrow money. Under the Articles, Congress settled state claims to western lands and established the North¬ west Ordinances. But Congress had no power to enforce its requests to the states for money or troops, and by late 1786 the government had ceased to be effective, as was demonstrated by Shays's Rebellion (1786-87) against courts that had been enforcing seizures of property for debt. Delegates to the Annapolis Convention called a meeting of all the states to amend the Articles.

articulation In phonetics, the shaping of the vocal tract (larynx, phar¬ ynx, and oral and nasal cavities) by positioning mobile organs (such as the tongue) relative to other parts that may be rigid (such as the hard palate) and thus modifying the airstream to produce speech sounds. Articulators include the tongue, lips, teeth and upper gum ridge, hard and soft palate, uvula, pharyngeal wall, and glottis. Primary articulation refers either to where or how the vocal tract is narrowed or blocked to produce a con¬ sonant, or to the tongue contour, lip shape, and larynx height that deter¬ mine the sound of a vowel. Other articulators may be used to produce a secondary articulation such as palatalization (the front of the tongue approaching the hard palate), glottalization (complete or partial closure of the vocal cords), or nasalization (simultaneous passage of air through the nasal and oral tracts).

artificial heart Machine or mechanical pump that maintains blood cir¬ culation in the human body. The heart-lung machine, a mechanical pump, can maintain circulation for a few hours while the heart is stopped for surgery. It shunts blood away from the heart, oxygenates it, and returns it to the body. No device has yet been developed for total, long-term replace¬ ment of the heart; existing artificial hearts reduce the heart’s workload by pumping between beats or acting as an auxiliary ventricle and are suit¬ able only as temporary replacements in patients awaiting transplant. See also PACEMAKER.

artificial insemination Introduction of semen into a female’s vagina or cervix by means other than sexual intercourse. First developed for ani¬ mal breeding in the early 20th century in Russia, it is now also used to induce pregnancy in women whose partners cannot impregnate them. The partner’s (or other donor’s) semen is inserted with a syringe. Though rea¬ sonably successful, artificial insemination in humans raises moral issues that are not yet fully resolved. In livestock, deep-frozen semen from a male animal can be stored for long periods without losing its fertility, thus allowing a single bull to sire as many as 10,000 calves a year.

artificial intelligence (Al) Ability of a machine to perform tasks thought to require human intelligence. Typical applications include game playing, language translation, expert systems, and robotics. Although pseudo-intelligent machinery dates back to antiquity, the first glimmer¬ ings of true intelligence awaited the development of digital computers in the 1940s. AI, or at least the semblance of intelligence, has developed in parallel with computer processing power, which appears to be the main limiting factor. Early AI projects, such as playing chess and solving math¬ ematical problems, are now seen as trivial compared to visual pattern rec¬ ognition, complex decision making, and the use of natural language. See also Turing test.

artificial respiration Breathing induced by any of several techniques in a person who has stopped or is having difficulty breathing. It consists chiefly of keeping the air passage open and inducing inhalation and exha¬

lation. It does not include chest compressions to maintain circulation (see cardiopulmonary resuscitation). The primary method is mouth-to-mouth breathing, in which the rescuer breathes into the victim’s mouth, with pauses to allow exhalation.

Artigas \ar-'te-gas\, Jose Gervasio (b. June 19, 1764, probably Montevideo [Uru.]—d. Sept. 23, 1850, Ibiray, near Asuncion, Para.) Sol¬ dier and revolutionary leader regarded as the father of Uruguayan inde¬ pendence. In his youth Artigas was a gaucho in what is now Uruguay. Allied with the Buenos Aires junta, he fought for independence from Spain and won a brilliant victory at Las Piedras. His insistence on fed¬ eralism against the efforts of Buenos Aires to assert control over the entire region led to civil war. He ruled over a portion of what is now Uruguay and central Argentina until a Portuguese invasion forced him into exile in 1820. Uruguay achieved independence in 1828.

artillery In modern military science, big guns such as cannons, howit¬ zers, or mortars operated by crews and of a calibre greater than 15 mm. The earliest artillery, introduced in the 14th century, were cannons and mortars of bronze, brass, or iron mounted on two-wheeled carriages. Mod¬ ern artillery dates from the second half of the 19th century, when advances included steel gun barrels, more powerful gunpowders, and piston mount¬ ings that held artillery carriages steady during recoil. Both powder and projectile were encased in a shell, which allowed for faster loading. Since World War II, artillery has been ranked as light (up to 105 mm, for support of ground troops), medium (106-155 mm, for bombardment), and heavy (over 155 mm, for attacking rear installations). See also antiaircraft gun.

Arts and Crafts movement English social and aesthetic movement of the second half of the 19th century, dedicated to reestablishing the importance of craftsmanship in an era of mechanization and mass pro¬ duction. The name derives from the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society (1888). Inspired by John Ruskin and other writers who deplored the effects of industrialization, William Morris founded a firm of interior designers and manufacturers to produce handcrafted textiles, printed books, wall¬ paper, furniture, jewelry, and metalwork. The movement was criticized as elitist and impractical in an industrial society, but in the 1890s its appeal widened and spread to other countries, including the U.S. See also Art Nouveau.

An English room decorated by William Morris in the Arts and Crafts style.

COURTESY OF THE VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, LONDON, PHOTOGRAPH, JOHN WEBB

Aru Va-.rtA Islands Island group, eastern Indonesia. The easternmost island group of the Moluccas, located off southwestern New Guinea, it stretches north-south about 110 mi (180 km) and extends some 50 mi (80 km) east-west. The group consists of six main islands (Warilau, Kola, Wokam, Kobroor, Maikoor, and Trangan), which are separated by narrow channels, and dozens of smaller islands. Dobo, on Wamar Island, is the principal harbour. The islands became part of Indonesia in 1949.

Aruba Island (pop., 2005 est.: 97,400), Lesser Antilles, off northwest¬ ern Venezuela. Aruba is an internally self-governing part of The Nether¬ lands. It has an area of 75 sq mi (193 sq km). Its capital is Oranjestad.

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arugula ► asbestosis I 113

The majority of the present-day population is a combination of mostly American Indian, Spanish, and Dutch ancestry. Dutch is the official lan¬ guage; Papiamento, a Creole language, is used for daily affairs. The prin¬ cipal religion is Roman Catholicism. The currency is the Aruban florin. Aruba’s lack of water severely limits agriculture. The large petroleum¬ refining complex there, once the island’s main employer, reopened after closing in the mid-1980s, but tourism has become the island’s economic mainstay. The earliest inhabitants were Arawak Indians, whose cave draw¬ ings can still be seen. Though the Dutch took possession of Aruba in 1636, they did not begin to develop it aggressively until 1816. The Netherlands controls Aruba’s defense and foreign affairs, but internal affairs are handled by an island government directing its own judiciary and currency. In 1986 Aruba seceded from the Federation of the Netherlands Antilles in an initial step toward independence.

arugula \3-'ru-g3-l3\ or rocket Yellowish-flowered European herba¬ ceous plant ( Eruca vesicaria sativa), of the mustard family, cultivated for its foliage, which is used especially in salads. The leaves taste sharp and peppery when young and succulent but become bitter with age. A medici¬ nal oil is extracted from the seeds.

arum \'ar-3m\ family Family Araceae, containing about 2,000 species, many of which are popular ornamentals and foliage plants. Native pri¬ marily to the tropics and subtropics, a few species grow in temperate zones. The genera Philodendron and Monstera are grown for their vine¬ like habit and large green leaves. Other arums grown ornamentally include the florist’s calla lily and the water arum ( Calla palustris). Jack-in-the- pulpit ( Arisaema triphyllum) is well known in woodlands, and the foul¬ smelling eastern skunk cabbage (Symplocarpus foetidus) in marshes. The genus Arum contains about 15 perennial species noted for funnel-shaped bracts and glossy, arrow-shaped leaves. Sap in Arum species can be poi¬ sonous.

Arunachal Pradesh Var-u-.na-chol-pro-'deshX State (pop., 2001: 1,097,968), extreme northeastern India. Bordered by Bhutan, Tibet (China), and Myanmar and Nagaland and Assam states, it occupies 32,333 sq mi (83,743 sq km); its capital is Itanagar. A portion of the region was annexed by the Ahom rulers of Assam in the 16th century. By 1826 the British had made Assam part of British India. Later called the North East Frontier Agency, the region became Arunachal Pradesh union territory in 1972 and was granted statehood in 1987. It incorporates major ranges of the Hima¬ laya foothills and has a rugged terrain. The population consists of many ethnic groups who speak dialects of the Tibeto-Burman linguistic family.

arupa-loka Va-.rti-po-To-koV In Buddhism, the “world of immaterial form,” the highest of the three spheres of existence in which rebirth takes place. The others are the “fine-material world” ( rupa-loka ) and the “world of feeling” ( kama-loka ). In the arupa-loka, existence depends on the stage of concentration attained in the previous life, of which there are four lev¬ els: the infinity of space, the infinity of thought, the infinity of nonbeing, and the infinity of neither consciousness nor nonconsciousness. Beings in the arupa-loka do not have a material body.

Arusha National Park Preserve, northern Tanzania. Established in 1960, the park contains a rich variety of flora and fauna. It is the site of Mount Meru (14,978 ft [4,565 m]) and Ngurdoto Crater, an extinct vol¬ cano. Nearby are Mount Kilimanjaro, Olduvai Gorge, and Ngorongoro Crater, whose surrounding area teems with wildlife.

Arya Samaj Var-yo-sa-'majX Reform sect of Hinduism, founded in 1875 by Dayananda Sarasvati, in order to reestablish the Vedas as revealed and infallible truth. The Arya Samaj opposes idolatry, ancestor worship, ani¬ mal sacrifice, a caste system based on birth rather than merit, untouch- ability (see untouchable), child marriage, pilgrimages, and temple offerings. It upholds the sanctity of the cow, samskaras, oblations to fire, and social reform, including the education of women. Strongest in western and northern India, it is governed by representatives elected to samajas (“soci¬ eties”) at the local, provincial, and national levels, and it played an impor¬ tant role in the growth of Indian nationalism.

Aryabhata I (b. 476, possibly Ashmaka or Kusumapura, India) Astronomer and the earliest Indian mathematician whose work survives. He composed at least two works, Aryabhatiya (c. 499) and the now lost Aryabhatasiddhanta, which circulated mainly in the northwest of India and influenced the development of Islamic astronomy. Written in verse couplets, Aryabhatiya deals with mathematics and astronomy. Topics include prediction of solar and lunar eclipses and an explicit statement

that the apparent westward motion of the stars is due to the spherical Earth’s rotation about its axis. Aryabhata also correctly ascribed the lumi¬ nosity of the Moon and planets to reflected sunlight. The Indian govern¬ ment named its first satellite Aryabhata (launched 1975) in his honour.

Aryan \'ar-e-an\ Prehistoric people who settled in Iran and northern India. From their language, also called Aryan, the Indo-European lan¬ guages of South Asia are descended. In the 19th century there arose a notion, propagated by the count de Gobineau and later by his disciple Houston Stewart Chamberlain, of an “Aryan race”: people who spoke Indo- European, especially Germanic, languages and lived in northern Europe. The “Aryan race” was considered to be superior to all other peoples. Although this notion was repudiated by numerous scholars, including Franz Boas, the notion was seized on by Adolf Hitler and made the basis of the Nazi policy of exterminating Jews, Gypsies (Roma), and other “non-Aryans.” See also racism.

Asad, Hafiz al- See Hafiz al-AssAD

ASALA acronym for Armenian Secret Army to Liberate Arme¬ nia Marxist-Leninist group formed in 1975 to force the Turkish govern¬ ment to acknowledge the Armenian massacres of 1915 and pay reparations. Its activities, which have included acts of terrorism, have been directed against Turkish government officials and institutions. Its founder, Hagop Hagopian, was killed in 1988; thereafter the group’s activities diminished.

Asam Vaz-am\, Cosmos Damian and Egid Quirin (respectively b. Sept. 29, 1686, Benediktbeuren, Bavaria—d. May 10, 1739, Munich; b. Sept. 1, 1692, Tegemsee, Bavaria—d. April 29, 1750, Mannheim, Palatinate) Bavarian architects and decorators. After studying in Rome (1711-13), Cosmas Damian became a prolific fresco painter, and his brother, Egid Quirin, became a sculptor and stuccoist. They developed the effects of dramatic lighting and illusionism originated by Gian Lorenzo Bernini and Andrea Pozzo. Working as a team, they produced magnificent illusionistic decoration in ecclesiastical buildings, combining dramatic lighting and colour. Their works are notable for their profound and dra¬ matic intensity of religious feeling. The brothers became the principal late Baroque exponents of illusionist decoration in religious architecture. Their most notable collaboration is the church of St. John Nepomuk in Munich (1733-46)—known as the Asamkirche in honour of the brothers.

Asante or Ashanti People of southern Ghana and adjacent areas of Togo and Cote d’Ivoire. The largest segment of the Akan peoples, they speak Twi, a language of the Kwa group of Niger-Congo languages; all together the Akan peoples make up about half the population of Ghana. Though some Asante now live and work in urban centres, most live in villages and engage in agriculture. The symbol of Asante unity is the Golden Stool, held to be so sacred that not even kings were allowed to sit on it. The Asante supplied slaves to British and Dutch traders in exchange for firearms, which they used to build up a large empire in the 18th and 19th centuries. They fought several wars against the British (1824, 1863, 1869, 1874), finally losing their capital, Kumasi, in 1896. Thereafter what remained of the empire went into decline. Asante gold- work and kente cloth remain prominent items of trade. See also Fante.

asbestos Any of several minerals that separate readily into long, flex¬ ible fibres. Chrysotile accounts for about 95% of all asbestos still in com¬ mercial use. The other types all belong to the amphibole group and include the highly fibrous forms of anthophyllite, amosite, crocidolite, tremolite, and actinoute. Asbestos fibre was used in brake linings, insulation, roofing shingles, floor and ceiling tiles, cement pipes, and other building mate¬ rials. Asbestos fabrics were used for safety apparel and theatre curtains. In the 1970s it was found that prolonged inhalation of the tiny asbestos fibres can cause asbestosis, lung cancer, and/or mesothelioma, all serious lung diseases. The incidence of mesothelioma is most commonly associ¬ ated with extensive inhalation of amphibole asbestos. In 1989 the U.S. gov¬ ernment instituted a gradual ban on the manufacture, use, and export of most products made with asbestos.

asbestos, amphibole See amphibole asbestos

asbestosis X.as-.bes-'to-sosV Lung disease caused by long-term inhala¬ tion of asbestos fibres. A pneumoconiosis found primarily in asbestos work¬ ers, asbestosis is also seen in people living near asbestos industries. Fibres remain in the lungs and many years later cause extensive scarring and fibrosis. Shortness of breath and inadequate oxygenation result; advanced cases include a dry cough. There is no effective treatment. The associated increased cardiac effort may induce heart disease. Cigarette smoking

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114 I Ascalon ► Ash'ariyyah

greatly exacerbates its symptoms. Lung cancer and malignant mesothe¬ lioma are more common with asbestos inhalation and asbestosis.

Ascalon See Ashqelon

Ascanius \as-'ka-ne-os\ In Roman legend, the son of Aeneas and founder of Alba Longa (probably the site of modern Castel Gandolfo) near Rome. In Livy’s account, his mother was Lavinia, and he was born after Aeneas founded Lavinium. Ascanius was also called lulus, and he was considered the founder of the line that included Julius Caesar.

Ascension In Christian belief, the ascent of Jesus into heaven 40 days after the Resurrection. The Book of Acts relates that, after several appear¬ ances to the Apostles over a period of 40 days, Jesus was taken up in their presence and hidden behind a cloud, a symbol of God’s presence. The event is thought to indicate a new relationship between Jesus and God and between Jesus and his followers. The feast of the Ascension is uni¬ versally observed by Christians, and its celebration emphasizes the king- ship of Christ. Since the 4th century, it has been celebrated 40 days after Easter and 10 days before Pentecost.

asceticism Vo-'set-o-.siz-omX Practice of the denial of physical or psy¬ chological desires in order to attain a spiritual ideal or goal. Most reli¬ gions have some features of asceticism. The desire for ritual purity in order to come in contact with the divine, the need for atonement, and the wish to earn merit or gain access to supernatural powers all are reasons for ascetic practice. Christian hermits and monks, wandering Hindu ascet¬ ics, and Buddhist monks all reject worldly goods and practice various forms of self-denial, including celibacy, abstinence, and fasting. Mem¬ bers of the Digambara sect of Jainism practice an extreme form of asceti¬ cism that includes the rejection of wearing clothes. Though monasticism is rejected in the Qur’an, ascetic movements such as zuhd have arisen in Islam. Zoroastrianism forbids fasting and mortification.

Asch \'ash\, Sholem (b. Nov. 1, 1880, Kutno, Pol., Russian Empire—d. July 10, 1957, London, Eng.) Polish-born U.S. novelist and playwright. Much of his writing concerns the experience of Jews in eastern European villages or as immigrants in the U.S. (to which he himself immigrated in 1914). It includes the play The God of Vengeance (1907) and the novels Mottke the Thief (1916), Uncle Moses (1918), Judge Not (1926), and Chaim Lederer’s Return (1927). In later, more controversial works, he explored the common heritage of Judaism and Christianity. His career was outstanding for both output and impact, and he is one of the best-known writers in modern Yiddish literature.

Ascham Vas-komV Roger (b. 1515, Kirby Wiske, near York, Eng.—d. Dec. 30, 1568, London) English humanist, scholar, and writer. He entered Cambridge University at age 14 and studied Greek. He became the future Queen Elizabeth I’s tutor in Greek and Latin (1548-50) and continued to serve her after she took the throne. His best-known book is the posthu¬ mous The Scholemaster (1570), which deals with the psychology of learn¬ ing, the education of the whole person, and the ideal moral and intellectual personality that education should mold. He is notable also for his lucid prose style and his promotion of the vernacular.

ASCII Vas-,ke\ in full American Standard Code for Informa¬ tion Interchange. Data-transmission code used to represent both text (letters, numbers, punctuation marks) and noninput device commands (control characters) for electronic exchange and storage. Standard ASCII uses a string of 7 bits (binary digits) for each symbol and can thus rep¬ resent 2 7 = 128 characters. Extended ASCII uses an 8-bit encoding sys¬ tem and can thus represent 2 8 = 256 characters. While ASCII is still found in legacy data, Unicode, with 8-, 16-, and 32-bit versions, has become standard for modem operating systems and browsers. In particular, the 32-bit version now supports all of the characters in every major language.

Asclepius \as-'kle-pe-9s\ Latin Aesculapius \,es-ky9-'la-pe-9s\ Greco-Roman god of medicine. He was the son of Apollo and the nymph Coronis. He learned the ait of healing from the Centaur Chiron. Fearful that Asclepius would make humans immortal, Zeus slew him with a thun¬ derbolt. His cult originated in Thessaly and spread throughout Greece. Because he was said to cure the sick in dreams, the practice of sleeping in his temples became common. Asclepius was often represented holding a staff with a serpent coiled around it. See photograph opposite.

ascorbic acid See vitamin C

ASEAN in full Association of Southeast Asian Nations Inter¬ national organization established by the governments of Indonesia,

Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand in 1967 to accelerate regional economic growth, social progress, and cultural development and to promote peace and security in the region. Brunei became a member in 1984, Vietnam in 1995, Laos and Myanmar (Burma) in 1997, and Cam¬ bodia in 1999. ASEAN became a leading voice on regional trade and security issues in the 1990s; in 1992 member nations created the ASEAN Free Trade Area.

Asgard \'as-,gard\ In Norse mythology, the dwelling place of the gods. It consisted of 12 or more realms, including Valhalla, home of Odin; Thrudheim, home of Thor; and Breidablick, home of Balder. Each Norse god had his own palace in Asgard. This heavenly region could only be reached from earth via the rainbow bridge called Bifrost.

ash Any tree of the genus Fraxinus, in the olive family. The genus includes about 70 species of trees and shrubs found mostly in the North¬ ern Hemisphere. The U.S. boasts 18 species of ash, 5 of which furnish most of the ash cut as lumber. Most important are the white ash ( F. amer- icana) and the green ash ( F. pennsylvanica ), which yield wood that is stiff, strong, and resilient, yet lightweight. This “white ash” is used for base¬ ball bats, hockey sticks, paddles and oars, tennis and other racket frames, and the handles of agricultural tools. Black ash ( F. nigra), blue ash ( F. quadrangulata), and Oregon ash (F. latifolia) produce wood of compa¬ rable quality that is used for many more purposes, including furniture, interior paneling, and barrels.

Ash Can school Group of U.S. realist painters, active in New York City c. 1908-18, who specialized in scenes of everyday urban life. Inspired by Robert Henri, the core group included William Glackens, George Luks (1867-1933), Everett Shinn (1876-1953), and John Sloan. As artist-reporters on the Philadelphia Press before moving to New York, they had developed a quick eye and a memory for detail. Though they often depicted slums and outcasts of the city, they were more interested in the picturesque aspects of these subjects than in the social issues they raised. George Wesley Bellows and Edward Hopper were also associated with the group. See also The Eight.

ash cone See cinder cone

Ash Wednesday See Lent Ashanti See Asante

Ashari Va-sha-re\, Abu al-Hasan al- (b. 873/874, Basra, Iraq—d. 935/936, Baghdad) Muslim Arab theologian. He probably belonged to the family of Abu Musa al-Ash c arI, one of the Companions of the Prophet. He joined the Mu'tazilah school and compiled scholarly opin¬ ions in his Maqdlat al-Islamlyin (“Theological Opinions of the Mus¬ lims”). At about age 40 he concluded that his method had led to sterile concepts of God and humanity, and he turned to more orthodox theology. He expanded his Maqalat and authored Kitdb al-Luma ( (“The Luminous Book”). Reflecting on the ideas of al-MuHASiBi and others, he created his own school, which became known as the Khorasan, or Ash'arite, school. See also Ash'ariyyah.

Ash'ariyyah School of Muslim theology founded by Abu al-Hasan al-AsH l ARi in the 10th century. It sup¬ ported the use of reason and specu¬ lative theology (kalam) to defend the faith but was not as extreme in its rationalism as the Mu'tazilah school. Followers attempted to demonstrate the existence and nature of God through rational argument, while affirming the eternal, uncreated nature of the Qur’an. They were

Asclepius, from an ivory diptych, 5th century ad; in the Liverpool City Museum, England

THE BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY/ART RESOURCE

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