Britannica Concise 2005

North Atlantic Current. The sun shines continuously between May 17 and July 29, and there is no sunlight from November 21 to January 21. Tour¬ ism and fish-oil processing are important economically.

hammerhead shark Any of the swift, powerful sharks in the family Sphyrnidae, having a broad, flattened, hammer- or spade-shaped head, with the eyes and nostrils at the ends of the sidewise projections. Widely distributed in all oceans, in warm and temperate waters, they feed on fish, stingrays, skates, and other sharks. Some species are fished for leather and oil. Three species seem to be particularly dangerous to humans: the great hammerhead (the largest hammerhead, growing to 15 ft, or 4.5 m, or more), the scalloped hammerhead, and the smooth hammerhead. All three are grayish and found throughout the tropics.

Hammerstein Vha-mor-.stln, 'ha-mar-.stenX, Oscar, II (b. July 12, 1895, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Aug. 23, 1960, Doylestown, Pa.) U.S. lyricist, musical-comedy author, and producer. Grandson of the opera impresario Oscar Hammerstein (1846-1919), he studied law at Columbia University before beginning his theatre career. Among his early musicals are Rose Marie (1924; music by Rudolf Friml), The Desert Song (1925; music by Sigmund Romberg), and the Jerome Kern musicals Sunny (1925) and Show Boat (1927), the latter a musical theatre landmark. In the early 1940s he began a famous collaboration with Richard Rodgers; the two soon became the preeminent figures in the American musical theatre, creating among others Oklahoma! (1943, Pulitzer Prize), Carousel (1945), State Fair (1945), South Pacific (1949, Pulitzer Prize), The King and I (1951), and The Sound of Music (1959). They formed the publishing firm Will¬ iamson Music, and from 1949 were theatrical producers as well.

Hammett, (Samuel) Dashiell (b. May 27, 1894, St. Mary’s county, Md., U.S.—-d. Jan. 10, 1961, New York, N.Y.) U.S. detective novelist.

He left school at age 13. He spent eight years as a private detective before beginning to publish fiction in pulp magazines. His first novels were Red Harvest (1929) and The Dain Curse (1929). The Maltese Fal¬ con (1930; film, 1941), considered his finest work, introduced Sam Spade, the prototype of the hard- boiled detective. It was followed by the story collection The Continental Op (1930) and the novel The Glass Key (1931). The Thin Man (1934), featuring the witty detective couple Nick and Nora Charles, spawned a popular series of movies. Nora was based on Lillian Hellman, with whom Hammett had a romantic alliance from 1930 until his death. He later worked as a screenwriter. For refusing to answer questions about his Communist Party affiliations and those of his associates, he served a six- month prison sentence in 1951.

Hamming, Richard Wesley (b. Feb. 11, 1915, Chicago, Ill., U.S.—d. Jan. 7, 1998, Monterey, Calif.) U.S. mathematician. He received a Ph.D. from the University of Illinois. In 1945 he was the chief math¬ ematician for the Manhattan Project. After the war, he joined Claude E. Shannon at Bell Laboratories, where in 1950 he invented Hamming codes. He realized that, by the appending of a parity check (an extra bit or block of bits) to each transmitted “word,” transmission errors could be corrected automatically, without having to resend the message. He is famous for saying, “The purpose of computation is insight, not numbers.” He received the Turing Award in 1968.

Hammurabi V.ha-mo-'ra-beN (fl. 18th century bc) Sixth and best-known ruler of the 1st (Amorite) dynasty of Babylon. His kingdom was one of several prominent realms in Babylonia. His desire to control the Euphrates River led him to conquer the cities of Uruk (Erech) and Isin in 1787 bc, but he gave up on further military campaigns in that area, turning instead to the northwest and the east in 1784. Twenty years of peace followed, and then 14 years of almost continuous warfare that resulted in a unified Mesopotamia. He used control of waterways (damming them to deny his enemies water or to create a flood by releasing them) to defeat his enemies. He also engaged in building and restoring temples, city walls,

Dashiell Hammett.

CULVER PICTURES, INC.

public buildings, and canals. His laws, collected in the Code of Ham¬ murabi, demonstrated his desire to be a just ruler.

Hammurabi, Code of Most complete and perfect extant collec¬ tion of Babylonian laws, developed during the reign (c. 1792-50 bc) of Hammurabi. It consists of 282 of his legal decisions, collected toward the end of his reign and inscribed on a diorite stela set up in the temple of Marduk. The text is in the Akkadian language. Despite a few references to family solidarity, trial by ordeal, and the lex talionis (an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth), it represents an advance over tribal custom in that it recognizes no blood feud, private retribution, or marriage by capture. The principal portion of the code is preserved in the Louvre Museum in Paris.

Hampden, John (b. 1594, London, Eng.—d. June 24, 1643, Thame, Oxfordshire, Eng.) English Parliamentary leader. In 1635 he refused to pay 20 shillings in ship money, a levy by Charles I for outfitting his navy, on the ground that only Parliament was empowered to levy taxes. Though the court ruled in favour of Charles, resistance to the tax became wide¬ spread. In the Long Parliament (1640), Hampden attacked royal policies and was one of the five members who evaded arrest by the king in 1642. The ship-money episode was one of the controversies that led to the English Civil Wars, in which Hampden was mortally wounded.

Hampshire Vhamp-.shhA Administrative (pop., 2001: 1,240,032), geo¬ graphic, and historic county, south-central England. It lies on the English Channel; Winchester is the county’s administrative centre. The Test and Avon are major rivers. Evidence of prehistoric settlement ranging from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age exists in the area. Towns developed at Silchester and Winchester during the Roman occupation. The region suf¬ fered from attacks by the Norse, but during the Middle Ages it was com¬ paratively peaceful and came to be known for its woolens. Portsmouth and Gosport form one of Britain’s principal naval centres, and Southamp¬ ton is a major passenger port.

Hampton City (pop., 2000: 146,437), southeastern Virginia, U.S. Located on Chesapeake Bay and the northern shore of Hampton Roads, it forms part of a metropolitan complex that includes Newport News, Nor¬ folk, Virginia Beach, Chesapeake, and Portsmouth. It originated around a fort built by the British in 1609 on the site of an Indian village. Permanent settlement dates from 1610-11, making it the country’s oldest continu¬ ously settled community of English origin. In 1861, during the American Civil War, it was burned by its Confederate residents to prevent it from being occupied by Union troops; it was rebuilt after the war. Military installations and tourism are important to the economy. Hampton Uni¬ versity (1868) was established there by the Freedmen's Bureau to educate former slaves.

Hammurabi, limestone relief; in the British Museum

COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM; PHOTOGRAPH, J.R. FREEMAN & CO. LTD.

Hampton, Lionel (b. April 20, 1908, Louisville, Ky., U.S.—d. Aug. 31, 2002, New York, N.Y.) U.S. jazz vibraphonist, drummer, and big- band leader. Hampton’s first vibra¬ phone recording, accompanying Louis Armstrong, was made in 1930. He became well known as a member of Benny Goodman’s small groups (1936-40) before forming his own big band. The rhythmic drive and excitement of Hampton’s band high¬ lighted his virtuosic playing and extraverted showmanship, and he became one of the direct progenitors of RHYTHM and blues.

Hampton, Wade (b. March 28, 1818, Charleston, S.C., U.S.—d. April 11, 1902, Columbia, S.C.) U.S. political leader and Confederate

Wade Hampton

COURTESY OF THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

834 I Hampton Roads ► Hancock

army officer. He studied law but never practiced, prefering instead to manage his family’s plantations in Mississippi and South Carolina. From 1852 to 1861 he served in the South Carolina legislature. In the American Civil War he organized and led “Hampton’s Legion” of South Carolina troops for the Confederate States of America and saw combat in many key battles. He eventually served as second in command under Jeb Stuart. After Stuart’s death, Hampton was promoted to major general and led the cavalry (1864). After the war he sought reconciliation but opposed the policies of Reconstruction. As governor of South Carolina (1876-79), he led the fight to restore white supremacy. He later served in the U.S. Sen¬ ate (1879-91).

Hampton Roads Channel in the U.S. through which the James, Eliza¬ beth, and Nansemond rivers flow into Chesapeake Bay. About 4 mi (6 km) wide and 40 ft (12 m) deep, it has been an important military base since colonial days. In 1862 it was the scene of the Battle of the Monitor and Merrimack. The port cities of Newport News, Norfolk, and Portsmouth comprise the Port of Hampton Roads, one of the busiest U.S. seaports.

Hampton Roads Conference (Feb. 3, 1865) Informal and unsuc¬ cessful peace talks at Hampton Roads, Va., during the American Civil War. Pres. Abraham Lincoln agreed to meet with the Confederate vice president, Alexander H. Stephens, to reach a peace settlement. Lincoln’s terms called for a reunion of the nation, emancipation of the slaves, and disbanding of Confederate troops. Since Stephens had been authorized to accept inde¬ pendence only, no settlement was reached.

hamster Any of various stout Old World rodents (in the family Muridae) with a short tail, soft fur, and long cheek pouches for carrying food. Hamsters are nocturnal and generally live in burrows; they feed on fruits, grain, and vegetables, though some species also eat insects and other small animals. The com¬ mon hamster of Europe and western Asia is 8-12 in. (20-30 cm) long, without the 1-2.5-in. (3-6-cm) tail; its coat is brown above and black below, with white patches along each side. The golden hamster of Syria is a popular pet and is widely used as a laboratory animal; it is golden brown with white underparts and 6-8 in. (15-20 cm) long, including the tail.

Hamsun Vham-.sunV Knut orig.

Knut Pedersen (b. Aug. 4, 1859,

Lorn, Nor.—d. Feb. 19, 1952, near Grimstad) Norwegian novelist, dra¬ matist, and poet. Of peasant origin, he had almost no formal education. His semiautobiographical first novel, Hunger (1890), about a starving young writer, revealed his impulsive, lyrical style. It was followed by such works as Mysteries (1892), Pan (1894), and Victoria (1898), with which he established himself as a leader of the Neoromantic revolt against social realism. Growth of the Soil (1917) and his many other novels express a message of fierce individualism and back-to-nature philosophy. He won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1920. His antipathy to modem Western culture led to his support of Nazi Germany during its wartime occupation of Norway; he was imprisoned and tried after the war, and his reputation was seriously damaged.

han Fief controlled by a daimyo, or territorial lord, during the Tokugawa period (1603-1867) in Japan. Collectively, the han resembled a confed¬ eration of principalities united under the Tokugawa shogunate. In 1869 the daimyo were requested to surrender their domains to the Meiji emperor; in 1871 they were abolished and replaced by the present-day prefectures.

Han dynasty \'han\ (206 bc-ad 220) Second great Chinese imperial dynasty. In contrast to the preceding Qin dynasty, the Han was a period of cultural flowering. One of the greatest of the early histories, the Shiji by Sima Qian, was composed, and the fu, a poetic form that became the norm for creative writing, began to flourish. The Yuefu, or Music Bureau, collected and recorded not only ceremonial chants but also the songs and ballads of ordinary people. Lacquerware, first developed during the Shang dynasty, reached a level of great mastery, and silk was woven for export

trade, which reached as far as Europe. Buddhism entered China during the Han. Paper was invented, time was measured with water clocks and sundials, and calendars were published frequently. So thoroughly did the Han dynasty establish what was thereafter considered Chinese culture that the Mandarin Chinese word for Chinese people is Han.

Han \'han\ River River, east-central China. A principal tributary of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang), it has a total length of about 950 mi (1,530 km). It rises in the mountains in southwestern Shaanxi province; known by various names in its upper course, it becomes the Han at Hanzhong and flows through a fertile basin some 60 mi (100 km) long and 12 mi (19 km) wide, then cuts through a series of deep gorges and emerges into the central Yangtze basin in Hubei province. Its lower course forms a dense network of water transport covering the southern part of the North China Plain.

Han Yongun Vhan-'yoq-'unV or Manhae (b. 1879, Korea—d. 1944, Korea) Korean poet and religious and political leader. After participating in the failed Tonghak Uprising, he fled to Mount Solok and studied Bud¬ dhism. He became a priest in 1905 and set out to restore and nationalize Buddhism in Korea. In 1910, when Korea came under Japanese rule, he joined the independence movement. He helped draft a Korean Declara¬ tion of Independence in 1919 and was arrested and jailed for three years. In 1927 he led in the establishment of the Singanhoe society, a united national independence front. His best-known work is a volume of poetry, The Silence of the Lover.

Han Yu or Han Yu Vhan-'yuA (b. 768, Henan province, China—d. 824, Chang’an) Chinese poet and prose writer, the first proponent of Neo- Confucianism. An orphan, he joined the Chinese bureaucracy and served in several high government posts. He attacked Daoism and Buddhism, which were then at the height of their influ¬ ence, and sought to restore Confu¬ cianism to its former status. He revived interest in the writings of Mencius and other neglected Confu- cian classics. His own works were written in a simple prose style unlike the elaborate manner popular at the time, and he became known as the “Prince of Letters.”

Hancock, Herbie orig. Her¬ bert Jeffrey Hancock (b. April 12, 1940, Chicago, Ill., U.S.) U.S. pianist, composer, and bandleader.

He was educated at Grinnell College.

Part of the superb rhythm section of Miles Davis’s mid-1960s group, he led the group after Davis left. In the 1970s he became involved in funk music, and later disco, while con¬ tinuing to tour with jazz groups, including that of Wynton Marsalis. In 1986 he acted in and scored ’Round Midnight (1986, Academy Award). His later career was notably diverse.

Hancock, John (b. Jan. 12, 1737, Braintree, Mass.—d. Oct. 8, 1793, Quincy, Mass., U.S.) American Revolutionary leader. He entered the mer¬ cantile business of his wealthy uncle in Boston in 1754. His adherence to the patriot cause dates from the Stamp Act, which, as a leading mer¬ chant, he protested. In 1769, soon after the British seized one of his ships, he was elected to the Massachusetts legislature, and he chaired the Bos¬ ton town committee formed after the Boston Massacre. He became presi¬ dent of the provincial congress (1774-75), and he and Samuel Adams led the Massachusetts Patriots. In 1775 both were forced to flee from British troops sent to arrest them for treason. Hancock was a member of the Con¬ tinental Congress (1775-80), serving as its president (1775-77); the bold flourish with which he signed the Declaration of Independence has made his name synonymous with “signature.” As governor of Massachusetts (1780-85, 1787—93), he presided over the state’s ratification of the Con¬ stitution in 1788.

Hancock, Winfield Scott (b. Feb. 14, 1824, Montgomery county, Pa., U.S.—d. Feb. 9, 1886, Governor’s Island, N.Y.) U.S. general and politi-

Golden hamster [Mesocricetus aura- tus).

JOHN MARKHAM

Han Yu, portrait by an unknown artist; in the National Palace Museum, Taipei, Taiwan.

COURTESY OF THE COLLECTION OF THE NATIONAL PALACE MUSEUM, TAIPEI, TAIWAN, REPUBUC OF CHINA

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

hand ► Hangul I 835

cian. He graduated from West Point and served in the Mexican War. Appointed a brigadier general of volunteers at the start of the American Civil War, he became a corps commander in the Army of the Potomac (1863-65) and served with distinction at the Battle of Gettysburg. After the war he commanded the military division of Louisiana and Texas. For his insistence that the region’s civil authorities be maintained in their “natural and rightful dominion,” he won the support of Democrats, who nominated him for president in 1880. He lost the election to James Garfield.

hand End part of the arm, consisting of the wrist joint, palm, thumb, and fingers. The hand has great mobility and flexibility to carry out precise movements. Bipedal locomotion in humans frees the hands for grasping and manipulation. The opposable thumb allows them to pick up small items and grip objects from both sides. Dexterity in the hands and increased brain size are believed to have evolved together in humans.

Hand, (Billings) Learned (b. Jan. 27, 1872, Albany, N.Y., U.S.—d. Aug. 18, 1961, New York, N.Y.) U.S. jurist. He attended Harvard Uni¬ versity, where he studied philosophy (under William James, Josiah Royce, and George Santayana) and law; thereafter he practiced law in Albany and New York City. In 1909 he was appointed a federal district judge, and in 1924 he was elevated to the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals, becoming chief judge in 1939. He sat in many cases after his official retirement in 1951. His 52-year tenure on the federal bench (from 1909 to his death in 1961) represents a record. Several of his decisions, especially in the anti¬ trust suit known as the Alcoa case (1945) and in a 1950 case involving charges of communist conspiracy, are considered landmarks. Although he never reached the Supreme Court of the United States, his reputation sur¬ passes that of all but a few who have sat there.

handball Any of a variety games in which a small rubber ball is struck against a wall with the hand or fist. It can be played in a three- or four- walled court or against a single wall by two or four players (in singles or doubles games, respectively). The object is to make the ball rebound off the wall so that it cannot be returned by the opponent. The game runs to 21 points. Handball games were played in ancient Rome and later (as pelota) in Spain and France. Modern handball developed in Ireland, where it is still popular. It was played widely among late-19th-century Irish immigrants in New York City, whence it eventually spread around North America.

Handel, George Frideric orig.

Feb. 23, 1685, Halle,

Brandenburg—d. April 14, 1759,

London, Eng.) German-born British composer. Born to a barber-surgeon in Halle, he showed a marked gift for music and studied organ, violin, and composition. He moved to Hamburg in 1703 and played in the opera orchestra under Reinhard Keiser (1674-1739), and his first opera was produced there in 1705. A Medici prince invited him to Florence; there and in Rome, patronized by cardinals and nobility, he wrote oratorios, can¬ tatas, and more operas. Hired as kapellmeister by the elector at Han¬ nover (1710), he asked permission to visit London before assuming his responsibilities. There his opera Rinaldo (1711) immediately made his name; forsaking Hannover, he remained in England for the rest of his life. In 1714 the German elector was made George I of England; any annoyance at Handel’s defection dissipated, and the king became one of his patrons. Handel was appointed musical director of the new Royal Academy of Music, an opera house that thrived until the public taste shifted away from Italian opera. In 1732 he revised his oratorio Esther for a public performance, the first public oratorio performance in England. Its success was followed by many more English-language oratorios, including his great Messiah (1741); by this time he had made oratorio and large-scale choral works the most popular musical forms in England. He was renowned as virtually the greatest organist and harpsichordist in the world. Handel wrote about 45 Italian operas, including Giulio Cesare

(1723), Orlando (1733), and Alcina (1735). His oratorios include Israel in Egypt (1739), Saul (1739), and Jephtha (1752). His church music includes the Chandos Anthems (1718) and Coronation Anthems (1727). Though the bulk of his music was vocal, he composed a number of great orchestral works, such as the famous Water Music (1717) and Royal Fire¬ works Music (1749).

handicap In sports and games, a method of offsetting the varying abili¬ ties or characteristics of competitors in order to equalize their chances of winning. Handicapping takes many, often complicated, forms. In horse racing, a track official known as the handicapper may assign weights to horses according to their speed in previous performances; the presumed fastest horse must carry the most weight. In golf, two unequal players may have a close match by allowing the poorer player a handicap, a cer¬ tain number of uncounted strokes based on earlier performances. In sail¬ boat racing, dissimilar boats compete under handicapping formulas that add time to the faster boats’ actual elapsed time for a race; thus, the win¬ ner of a race may not be the first to finish but rather the boat that per¬ forms best in relation to its design. See also bookmaking; gambling.

Handke Vhant-koV, Peter (b. Dec. 6, 1942, Griffen, Austria) Austrian writer. He studied law before beginning to write seriously. He earned an early reputation as a member of the avant-garde with plays such as Offend¬ ing the Audience (1966), in which actors analyze the nature of theatre and alternately insult the audience and praise its “performance,” and Kaspar (1968). His novels, mostly ultraobjective, deadpan accounts of characters in extreme states of mind, include The Goalie’s Anxiety at the Penalty Kick (1970) and The Left-Handed Woman (1976). A dominant theme of his works is the deadening effects and underlying irrationality of ordinary language, everyday reality, and rational order.

Handsome Lake See Ganioda'yo

Handy, W(illiam) C(hristopher) (b. Nov. 16, 1873, Florence, Ala., U.S.—d. March 28, 1958, New York, N.Y.) U.S. composer, cornetist, and bandleader known for integrating blues elements into ragtime, changing the course of popular music. Handy worked as a soloist and conductor with several bands around the turn of the century and became active as a music publisher in Memphis (1908) and later New York (1918). Handy’s com¬ positions, including “St. Louis Blues,” “Beale Street Blues,” and “Mem¬ phis Blues,” became favourites of singers and instrumentalists in the 1920s, helping to codify the blues as a framework within which to impro¬ vise.

Hanfeizi Vhan-'fa-'tsoN or Han-fei-tzu Vhan-'fa-'dziA (d. 233 bc, China) Greatest of China’s legalist philosophers. Much about his life is unknown; it ended when he was sent on a diplomatic mission to the court of the first Qin emperor, who had admired his writings; he was impris¬ oned and forced to drink poison. His works are collected in the Hanfeizi, presumably compiled after his death. In 55 sections of varying lengths, it presents a synthesis of legal theories up to his time. To Hanfeizi it was axiomatic that political institutions must change with changing historical circumstances and must be adapted to the prevailing pattern of human behaviour, which is determined not by moral sentiments but by economic conditions. Rulers should not try to make people good but only to restrain them from doing evil.

hang gliding Sport of flying in unpowered aircraft that are light enough to be carried by the pilot. Takeoff is usually achieved by launching into the air from a cliff or hill. Hang gliders were developed by the pioneers of practical flight. In Germany, starting in 1891, Otto Lilienthal made several thousand flights before a fatal gliding accident in 1896. In the U.S. collaboration between Augustus Herring and Octave Chanute resulted in successful flights of a biplane hang glider in 1896. Modern hang gliding emerged toward the end of the 1960s. In the early 1960s enthusiasts in California were gliding down coastal dunes on homebuilt delta-shaped wings they had adapted from kite designs developed by Francis and Ger¬ trude Rogallo. The Rogallos’ kites had attracted attention because of NASA’s interest in using them for spacecraft retrieval. By the early 1970s the sport had spread throughout the U.S. and into Europe. World cham¬ pionships in hang gliding have been held and records kept since 1975.

Hangul Alphabetic system used for writing the Korean language. The system, known as Chosdn muntcha in North Korea, consists of 24 letters—14 consonants and 10 vowels. The development of the Hangul alphabet is traditionally ascribed to Sejong, fourth king of the Choson (Yi) dynasty. Hangul was made the official writing system for the Korean lan-

Georg Friedrich Handel (b.

George Frideric Handel, detail of an oil painting after Thomas Hudson,

1756; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, LONDON

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

836 I Hangzhou ► Hanson

guage in the mid-1440s by one of Sejong’s decrees. Because of the influ¬ ence of Confucianism and of Chinese culture, however, Hangul was not widely used by scholars or Koreans of the upper classes until after 1945, when Korea ceased to be under Japanese rule.

Hangzhou or Hang-chou \Tiaq-jo\ conventional Hangchow Vhaq-'chaiA City (pop., 1999 est.: 1,346,148), capital of Zhejiang prov¬ ince, China. It lies at the head of Zhejiang Bay and is the southern ter¬ minus of the Grand Canal. Its buildings and gardens are renowned, and some of China’s most famous monasteries are located nearby. As Lin’an, it was the capital of the Song dynasty c. ad 1126-1279. A prosperous cen¬ tre of commerce with an estimated population then of 1-1.5 million, it was visited in the late 13th century by the Italian traveler Marco Polo, who called it Kinsai. Its importance as a port decreased as the bay silted up, but it remained a commercial centre and was opened to foreign trade in 1896. In addition to its cultural importance, it is also the centre for an industrial area.

haniwa \'ha-ne-,wa\ Terra-cotta cylinders and sculptures arranged on and around Japanese tombs during the Tumulus period (c. ad 250-552). The earliest haniwa were barrel-shaped hollow cylinders used to mark the borders of a burial ground. By the 4th century the cylinders were topped with sculptures of warriors, attendants, dancers, animals, boats, birds, and military equipment. After the introduction of Buddhism and the practice of cremation, the making of haniwa declined.

Hanks, Tom orig. Thomas J. Hanks (b. July 9, 1956, Concord, Calif., U.S.) U.S. film actor. He displayed a flair for light comedy in the television series Bosom Buddies (1980-82) then became a film star in the comedies Splash (1984) and Big (1988). After winning praise for A League of Their Own (1992) and the romantic hit Sleepless in Seattle (1993), he proved himself an accomplished dramatic actor in Philadel¬ phia (1993, Academy Award), Forrest Gump (1994, Academy Award), Apollo 13 (1995), Saving Private Ryan (1998), and Cast Away (2000). He made his debut as director and screenwriter with That Thing You Do

(1996).

Hanlin Academy Vhan-.linN Elite scholarly institution founded in the 8th century in China to perform secretarial, archival, and literary tasks for the court and establish the official interpretations of the Confucian Clas¬ sics (see Five Classics). By the time of the Ming dynasty, admittance was granted only to those who did exceptionally well in the Chinese examina¬ tion system. Hanlin scholars functioned as the emperor’s close advisers and confidential secretaries. The academy was closed when the Qing dynasty was overthrown in 1911.

Hanna, Mark orig. Marcus Alonzo Hanna (b. Sept. 24, 1837, New Lisbon, Ohio, U.S.—d. Feb. 15, 1904, Washington, D.C.) U.S. indus¬ trialist and political kingmaker. He became a businessman in Cleveland, Ohio, with interests in banking, coal and iron, transportation, and pub¬ lishing. Convinced that the interests of big business would best be served by the Republican Party, he began in 1880 to gather support among indus¬ trialists for its candidates. In 1892 he helped William McKinley secure the Ohio governorship. For McKinley’s 1896 presidential campaign Hanna helped the Republicans raise an unprecedented $3.5 million, enough to overwhelm the grassroots campaign of William Jennings Bryan. He served in the U.S. Senate (1897-1904).

Hanna, William (Denby); and Barbera, Joseph (Roland)

(respectively b. July 14, 1910, Melrose, N.M., U.S.—d. March 22, 2001, Hollywood, Calif.; b. March 24, 1911, New York, N.Y.) U.S. animators. Both Hanna and Barbera joined MGM in 1937 and there collaborated to create the cartoon characters Tom and Jerry. From 1940 to 1957 they pro¬ duced over 200 Tom and Jerry cartoons, 7 of which won Academy Awards. They founded Hanna-Barbera Productions in 1957 and collabo¬ rated on such popular television cartoon series as The Flintstones , Yogi Bear, and Huckleberry Hound.

Hannibal (b. 247 bc. North Africa—d. c. 183-181 bc, Libyssa, Bithynia) Carthaginian general, one of the great military leaders of antiquity. Taken to Spain by his father, the Carthaginian general Hamilcar Barca (d. 229/ 228 bc), he was sworn to eternal enmity with Rome. After the death of his father and brother-in-law, he took charge of Carthage’s army in Spain (221). He secured Spain, then crossed the Ebro River into Roman terri¬ tory and entered Gaul. He marched over the Alps into Italy; encumbered by elephants and horses, he was beset by Gallic tribes, harsh winter weather, and defection of his Spanish troops. He defeated Gaius Flaminius

but was severely harassed by Quintus Fabius Maximus Cunctator. In 216 he won the Battle of Cannae. In 203 he left for northern Africa to help Carthage fend off Scipio Africanus the Elder’s forces. He lost decisively to Scipio’s ally, Masinissa, at the Battle of Zama but escaped. He headed the Carthaginian government (c. 202-195); forced to flee, he sought refuge with Antiochus III, whose fleet he commanded against Rome, with disas¬ trous results. After the Battle of Magnesia (190) the Romans demanded he be handed over; he eluded them until, seeing no escape, he took poi¬ son.

Hannover Mia-'no-forN English Hanover Vha-.no-vorX City (pop., 2002 est.: city, 516,415; metro, area, 996,586), capital of Lower Saxony state, northwestern Germany. Located on the Leine River, it is first men¬ tioned in documents in ad 1100. It joined the Hanseatic League in 1386. From 1495 it belonged to the Welf dynasty (later the house of Hanover). It was the capital of the kingdom of Hanover (1815-66) and then was annexed by Prussia. Hannover became the capital of Lower Saxony in 1946. It suffered destruction in World War II but was rebuilt, and it is now an educational, financial, and commercial centre with highly diversified industries.

Hanoi \ha-'noi\ City (pop., 2004 est: 1,420,400), capital of Vietnam. Located in northern Vietnam on the western bank of the Red River, it became the capital of Vietnam’s Ly dynasty in 1010. It was the main capital of Vietnam until 1802, when the Nguyen dynasty transferred the capital south to Hue. Under French rule Hanoi again became an impor¬ tant administrative centre, and in 1902 it was made the capital of French Indochina. It became the capital of North Vietnam after the French defeat in 1954. During the Vietnam War many of its monuments and palaces were destroyed by U.S. bombing. As the capital of a united Vietnam since 1976, it has steadily been rebuilt and its industrial base has grown.

Hanotaux \a-n6-'t6\, (Albert-Auguste-) Gabriel (b. Nov. 19, 1853, Beaurevoir, France—d. April 11, 1944, Paris) French politician and historian. An archivist in the foreign ministry from 1880, he advanced rapidly and was appointed foreign minister in 1894. He oversaw French colonial expansion in French West Africa, Madagascar, and Tunisia. In 1898 he advocated a strong stand at Fashoda (see Fashoda Incident). He also championed a Franco-Russian alliance. His large body of historical writings centred on early modem institutional history and contemporary diplomatic affairs.

Hanover, house of British royal house of German origin. It was descended from George Louis, elector of Hanover, who succeeded to the British crown as George I in 1714. The dynasty also provided the mon- archs George II, George III, George IV, William IV, and Victoria. By the Act of Settlement (1701) the crown was to go to Anne (of the house of Stuart) and then, if she lacked issue, to Sophia (1665-1714), electress of Hanover (granddaughter of James I) and her descendants. The house of Hanover was succeeded in 1901 by the house of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, renamed in 1917 the house of Windsor.

Hansberry, Lorraine (b. May 19, 1930, Chicago, Ill., U.S.—d. Jan. 12, 1965, New York, N.Y.) U.S. playwright. Her first play was A Raisin in the Sun (1959), a penetrating psychological study of a working-class African American family in Chicago. The first drama by a black woman to be produced on Broadway, it won high critical praise and was filmed in 1961. Her next play, The Sign in Sidney Brustein’s Window (1964), a drama of political questioning and affirmation, had a modest Broadway run. Her promising career was cut short by her early death from cancer.

Hanseatic League \,han-se-'a-tik\ or Hansa (from German Hanse, “association”) Organization founded in the late medieval period by north¬ ern German towns and merchant communities to protect their trading interests. The league dominated commercial activity in northern Europe from the 13th to the 15th century. It protected transport of goods by quell¬ ing pirates and brigands and fostered safe navigation by building light¬ houses. Most important, it sought to organize and control trade by winning commercial privileges and monopolies and by establishing trading bases overseas. In extreme cases its members resorted to warfare, as when they raised an armed force that defeated the Danes in 1368 and confirmed the league’s supremacy in the Baltic Sea. Over 150 towns were at some point associated with the league, including Bremen, Hamburg, and Liibeck.

Hansen disease See leprosy

Hanson, Howard (Harold) (b. Oct. 28, 1896, Wahoo, Neb., U.S.—d. Feb. 26, 1981, New York, N.Y.) U.S. composer, conductor, and

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

hantavirus ► Hardee I 837

educator. He was awarded the Rome Prize in 1921 and studied in Italy with Ottorino Respighi. Returning to the U.S., he became director of the Eastman School of Music (1924), and remained there 40 years, building the school into a world-renowned institution. Despite his keen scholarly interest in modern developments, his own music is neo-Romantic; he is best known for his seven symphonies—including the second ( Romantic ) and fourth ( Requiem , Pulitzer Prize)—and his opera Merry Mount ( 1934).

hantavirus Genus of viruses of the family Bunyaviridae that cause pneumonia and hemorrhagic fevers. Carried by rodents, they spread to humans directly or by inhalation but apparently are not transmitted from one person to another. An outbreak in the 1990s in the southwestern U.S. caused a mysterious, often fatal, flulike illness with rapid respiratory fail¬ ure in previously healthy adults. The culprit was a hantavirus type car¬ ried by mice and not previously associated with human illness in the U.S.

Hanukkah Vha-no-ko, 'ka-no-k3\ In Judaism, a holiday celebrating the rededication of the Second Temple of Jerusalem in 164 bc, after its des¬ ecration three years earlier by order of Antiochus IV Epiphanes. The Mac¬ cabees recaptured Jerusalem and reconsecrated the Temple after leading a successful revolt against Syrian rule. The lighting of the menorah recalls the story that a one-day supply of oil burned miraculously in the Temple for eight days until new oil could be obtained. Sometimes called the Feast of Dedication or Feast of Lights, it is celebrated for eight days in Decem¬ ber, during which the ceremonial candles are lit and children play games and receive gifts. Originally a minor holiday, it has become more lavishly celebrated as a result of its proximity to Christmas.

Hanuman Vho-nu-.man, .ho-nu-'maM Monkey god of Hindu mythol¬ ogy, a central figure in the Ramayana. He was a guardian spirit, the off¬ spring of a nymph and the wind god. His great heroic exploit was recovering Rama’s wife, Sita, from captivity by the demon Ravana. Hanu¬ man also flew to the Himalayas and carried back a mountain of medici¬ nal herbs to cure Rama’s grievously wounded brother Laksmana. Worshiped in the form of a monkey, he is an important deity because of his strength and his faithfulness to Rama.

haplite See aplite haploidy See ploidy

Hapsburg dynasty See Habsburg dynasty

Hara Kei \'ha-ra-'ka\ or Hara Takashi \'ta-ka-she\ (b. March 15, 1856, Morioka, Japan—d. Nov. 4, 1921, Tokyo) Prime minister of Japan (1918-21) and cofounder of one of Japan’s first political parties, the Rikken SeiyOkai. Hara lowered the property qualifications for voting, thus enlarg¬ ing the electorate to include small landholders, who supported the Seiyu- kai. He attempted to reduce the power of the military, which led to his assassination by a right-wing fanatic.

hara-kiri See seppuku

harai \ha-'ri\ Purification ceremonies in the Shinto religion, used to cleanse an individual before he may approach a deity. Salt, water, and fire are the chief agents of purification, and the rites range from bathing in the cold sea to washing the hands before entering a temple. Priests undergo more rigorous harai rites intended to regulate the body, heart, environ¬ ment, and soul. Great purification ceremonies are held twice a year in Japan, on June 30 and December 31.

Harakat al-Muqawimah al-lslamiyyah See Hamas Harakat al-Tahrlr a I-Watarn al-FilastTni See Fatah

Harald III Sigurdsson known as Harald Hardraade Vh6r-,r6-d3\ or Harald the Ruthless (b. 1015, Norway—d. Sept. 25, 1066, Stam¬ ford Bridge, Yorkshire, Eng.) King of Norway (1045-66). The son of a Norwegian chieftain, he fought against the Danes in 1030, then fled the country, taking service in the Russian and Byzantine armies. He returned in 1045 to take the throne. He struggled unsuccessfully to wrest the Dan¬ ish throne from Sweyn II (1045-62). He expanded Norway’s possessions in the Orkney, Shetland, and Hebrides islands, and he attempted to con¬ quer England in 1066 but was defeated and killed at Stamford Bridge.

Harare \ha-'ra-ra \ formerly Salisbury \'solz-b3-re\ City (pop., 1999 est.: 1,686,000), capital of Zimbabwe. Located in northeastern Zimbabwe, it was founded as Salisbury by the British in 1890. It was the capital of, successively, the colony of Southern Rhodesia, the Federation of Rhode¬ sia and Nyasaland (1953-63), and Rhodesia (1965-79). Under the new

government of independent Zimbabwe (1980), it was renamed Harare. It is a cultural and educational centre and the site of the University of Zim¬ babwe (1957). The centre of Zimbabwe’s industry and commerce, it is the distribution point for the area’s agricultural produce. There are impor¬ tant gold mines nearby.

Harbin Vhar-bon, har-'bin\ Chinese Ha'erbin or Ha-erh-pin Vha- , 9r- l bin\ City (pop., 1999 est.: 2,586,978), capital and largest city of Heilongjiang province, northeastern China. Located on the Songhua River in the centre of Manchuria, it grew with the arrival of the Chinese East¬ ern Railway, built by the Russians in the late 19th century. A Russian military base during the Russo-Japanese War, it was a haven for Russian refugees after the Russian Revolution of 1917 and had the largest Russian population of any city outside the Soviet Union. Chinese communist forces took the city in 1946 and from it directed their conquest of Man¬ churia. Since 1949 it has become the chief industrial base of northeast¬ ern China, and it is a shipping centre for agricultural products.

harbour seal Nonmigratory, earless seal ( Phoca vitulina ) found throughout the Northern Hemisphere. Harbour seals are whitish or gray¬ ish at birth, generally gray with black spots as adults. The adult male may reach a length of about 6 ft (1.8 m) and a weight of almost 300 lb (130 kg); the female is somewhat smaller. Found along coastlines and in a few freshwater lakes in Canada and Alaska, the harbour seal is a gregarious animal that feeds on fish, squid, and crustaceans. It is of little economic value and in some areas is considered a nuisance by fishermen.

Harburg, E(dgar) Y(ipsel) orig. Isidore Hochberg (b. April 8, 1896/98, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. March 5, 1981, Hollywood, Calif.) U.S. lyricist, producer, and director. “Yip” Harburg attended The City College of New York with his friend Ira Gershwin. When his electrical- appliance business went bankrupt in 1929, he devoted himself to song¬ writing for Broadway, composing songs such as the Depression anthem “Brother, Can You Spare a Dime?” (with Jay Gorney). From 1935 Har¬ burg and Harold Arlen wrote songs for many films, notably The Wizard of Oz (1939). Blacklisted from films for his political views, Harburg returned to Broadway to write musicals, notably Finian’s Rainbow (1947; with Burton Lane). Among his best-known songs are “April in Paris,” “It’s Only a Paper Moon,” and “Over the Rainbow.”

hard coal See anthracite

hard disk Magnetic storage medium for a microcomputer. Hard disks are flat, circular’ plates made of aluminum or glass and coated with a mag¬ netic material. Hard disks for personal computers can store up to several gigabytes (billions of bytes) of information. Data are stored on their sur¬ faces in concentric tracks. A small electromagnet, called a magnetic head, writes a binary digit (1 or 0) by magnetizing tiny spots on the spinning disk in different directions and reads digits by detecting the magnetiza¬ tion direction of the spots. A computer’s hard drive is a device consisting of several hard disks, read/write heads, a drive motor to spin the disks, and a small amount of circuitry, all sealed in a metal case to protect the disks from dust. In addition to referring to the disks themselves, the term hard disk is also used to refer to the whole hard drive.

hard water Water that contains mineral salts of calcium and magne¬ sium, principally as bicarbonates, chlorides, and sulfates, and sometimes iron. Hardness caused by calcium bicarbonate is known as temporary, because boiling converts the bicarbonate to the insoluble carbonate; hard¬ ness from the other salts is called permanent. The calcium and magne¬ sium in hard waters form a hard, adherent scale on boiler plates, increasing fuel consumption and leading to deterioration through overheating. Home water softeners consist of tanks containing zeolite minerals or ion- exchange resins, which contain sodium ions that change places with the calcium and magnesium.

Hardanger Fjord Miar-'daq-or-.fyordV Fjord, southwestern Norway. The country’s second-largest fjord, it extends inland 70 mi (113 km) from the North Sea to the Hardanger Plateau. It has a maximum depth of 2,922 ft (891 m). Waterfalls pour from the surrounding mountains, which rise to about 5,000 ft (1,500 m). Frequented by tourists, the area has many branch fjords. A 17th-century baronial mansion stands at Rosendal, near the fjord’s mouth.

Hardee, William J(oseph) (b. Oct. 12, 1815, near Savannah, Ga., U.S.—d. Nov. 6, 1873, Whytheville, Va.) U.S. military leader. A gradu¬ ate of West Point (1838), he wrote Rifle and Light Infantry Tactics (1855), a popular manual that was later used by both sides in the American Civil

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

838 I Harden ► hare

War. When Georgia seceded in 1861, Hardee resigned his commission and assumed command of Confederate forces in northeastern Arkansas, later demonstrating his military skills at the Battles of Shiloh and Chat¬ tanooga. As commander of the military department of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, he attempted to halt the march of William T. Sher¬ man across Georgia. After the war he retired to his plantation.

Harden, Sir Arthur (b. Oct. 12, 1865, Manchester, Eng.—d. June 17, 1940, Bourne, Buckinghamshire) British biochemist. His more than 20 years of study of sugar fermentation advanced knowledge of metabolic processes in all living forms. In 1929 he shared the Nobel Prize for Chem¬ istry with Hans von Euler-Chelpin. He also produced pioneering studies of bacterial enzymes and metabolism. He was knighted in 1936.

Hardenberg Vhar-dsn-.berkV, Karl August, prince von (b. May

31, 1750, Essenrode, near Gifhorn, Brunswick—d. Nov. 26, 1822, Genoa, Italy) Prussian statesman who preserved the integrity of the Prussian state during the Napoleonic Wars. He won the abiding trust of Frederick Will¬ iam III in 1798 and served as foreign minister (1804-06). He was forced to withdraw from political life, at Napoleon’s behest, after Prussia’s col¬ lapse in the war of 1806-07 against France. When Prussia was faced with insolvency and could not pay war indemnities in 1810, Napoleon agreed to Hardenberg’s reinstatement, and he became prime minister with full powers. He continued the domestic reforms introduced by Karl, imperial baron vom und zum Stein, and liberalized financial, economic, and agri¬ cultural policies. In foreign affairs he exchanged Prussia’s alliance with France for an alliance with Russia in 1813, and in 1814-15 he represented Prussia at the peace negotiations in Paris and Vienna.

hardening In metallurgy, an increase in hardness of a metal induced, deliberately or accidentally, by hammering, rolling, drawing (see wire drawing), or other physical processes. The first few deformations imposed by such treatment weaken the metal, but because of the crystalline struc¬ ture of metal its strength increases with continued deformations. Crystals slip against each other; but, because of the complexity of the crystal structure, the more such slips are multiplied, the more they tend to place obstacles in the way of further slippage, as the various dislocation lines crisscross each other. See also carburizing, heat treating, tempering.

Hardie, J(ames) Keir (b. Aug. 15, 1856, Legbrannock, Lanark, Scot.—d. Sept. 26, 1915, Glasgow) British labour leader. A coal miner, he led strikes and helped form unions, then worked as a journalist and founded two newspapers. Elected to Parliament in 1892, he helped orga¬ nize the Independent Labour Party. In 1906 he became the first leader of the Labour Party in the House of Commons. A pacifist, he sought unsuc¬ cessfully to bind the Second International to declaring a general strike in all countries in the event of war. From 1903 he also acted as chief adviser to the militant suffragists headed by Emmeline Pankhurst.

Harding, Warren G(amaliel)

U.S.—d. Aug. 2, 1923, San Fran¬ cisco, Calif.) 29th president of the U.S. (1921-23). He became a news¬ paper publisher in Marion, Ohio, where he was allied with the Repub¬ lican Party’s political machine. He served successively as state senator (1899-1902), lieutenant governor (1903-04), and U.S. senator (1915—

21), supporting conservative poli¬ cies. At the deadlocked 1920 Republican presidential convention, he was chosen as the compromise candidate. Pledging a “return to nor¬ malcy” after World War I, he defeated James Cox with more than 60% of the popular vote, the largest margin to that time. On his recom¬ mendation, Congress established a budget system for the federal gov¬ ernment, passed a high protective tariff, revised wartime taxes, and restricted immigration. His administra¬ tion convened the Washington Conference (1921-22). His ill-advised cabinet appointments, including Albert Fall as secretary of the interior, led to the Teapot Dome scandal and earned his administration a reputation for coiTuption. After a vacation in Alaska in mid-June 1923, he arrived in San

Francisco reportedly suffering from food poisoning and other ailments; he died there under unclear circumstances. He was succeeded by his vice president, Calvin Cooudge.

hardness Resistance of a mineral to scratching, described relative to a standard scale of 10 minerals known as the Mohs hardness scale. Hard¬ ness is an important diagnostic property in mineral identification. There is a general link between hardness and chemical composition (via crystal structure); thus, most hydrous minerals, halides, carbonates, sulfates, and phosphates are relatively soft; most sulfides are relatively soft (two excep¬ tions being marcasite and pyrite); and most anhydrous oxides and sili¬ cates are hard. See also hardening.

hardness scale See Mohs hardness

hard pan Cemented or compacted and often clayey layer in soil that cannot be penetrated by roots. Lime, gypsum, iron, and other minerals may be carried up to the surface of soil by capillary action and deposited to form a natural concrete. In agricultural situations, special equipment may be used to chisel away hardpan so that crop plants can grow.

hardware Computer machinery and equipment, including memory, cabling, power supply, peripheral devices, and circuit boards. Computer operation requires both hardware and software. Hardware design speci¬ fies a computer’s capability; software instructs the computer on what to do. The advent of microprocessors in the late 1970s led to much smaller hardware assemblies and accelerated the proliferation of computers. Today’s personal computers are as powerful as the early mainframes, while mainframes are now smaller and have vastly more computing power than the early models.

hardwood Timber obtained from broad-leaved, flower-bearing trees. Hardwood trees are deciduous trees, except in the warmest regions. The term, a classification of material, applied originally to such hard Euro¬ pean woods as beech and oak but also includes some of the softest of woods. Included in the category are ebony, various mahoganies (see mahogany family), maple, teak, and American black walnut.

Hardy, Oliver See Laurel, Stan; and Hardy, Oliver

Hardy, Thomas (b. June 2, 1840, Higher Bockhampton, Dorset, Eng.—d. Jan. 11, 1928, Dorchester, Dorset) British novelist and poet. Son of a country stonemason and builder, he practiced architecture before beginning to write poetry, then prose. Many of his novels, beginning with his second, Under the Greenwood Tree (1872), are set in the imaginary county of Wessex. Far from the Madding Crowd (1874), his first success, was followed by The Return of the Native (1878), The Mayor of Caster- bridge (1886), Tess of the D’Urbervilles (1891), and Jude the Obscure (1895), all expressing his stoical pessimism and his sense of the inevi¬ table tragedy of life. Their continuing popularity (many have been filmed) owes much to their richly varied yet accessible style and their combina¬ tion of romantic plots with convincingly presented characters. Hardy’s works were increasingly at odds with Victorian morality, and public indig¬ nation at Jude so disgusted him that he wrote no more novels. He returned to poetry with Wessex Poems (1898), Poems of the Past and the Present (1901), and The Dynasts (1910), a huge poetic drama of the Napoleonic Wars.

Hardy-Weinberg law Equation that describes genetic balance within a population. It may be stated as follows: In a large, random-mating population, the proportion of dominant and recessive genes (see domi¬ nance and recessiveness) tends to remain constant from generation to gen¬ eration unless outside forces act to change it. Forces that can disturb this natural balance are selection, mutation, gene flow, and natural selection. Certain gene-controlled traits are selected for or against by the partners involved. The law is used to determine whether the number of harmful mutations in a population is increasing.

hare Bounding mammal (in the family Leporidae) whose young, unlike those of rabbits, are born fully haired, with open eyes, and sufficiently advanced to hop about a few minutes after birth. The common hare ( Lepus europaeus ) is native to central and southern Europe, the Middle East, and Africa; introduced into Australia, it has become a pest there. In North America the jackrabbit and snowshoe hare are widespread. Many other species occur naturally on all principal landmasses except Australia. Hares have well-developed hind legs, and the ears are usually longer than the head. Species vary in length from 16 to 28 in. (40-70 cm), without the

(b. Nov. 2, 1865, Caledonia, Ohio,

Warren G. Harding.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Hare Krishna ► Harlem Renaissance I 839

short tail. Hares in northern latitudes are white in winter and grayish brown in summer; elsewhere, they are usually grayish brown year- round. Hares are primarily herbivo¬ rous.

Hare Krishna movement

Vhar-e-'krish-noX officially Inter¬ national Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON)

20th-century Hindu religious move¬ ment. It was founded in the U.S. by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami (1896—

1977) in 1965. The organization claims a lineage of spiritual masters dating back to Caitanya (1485- 1534?), whom it regards as an incar¬ nation of Krishna. Hare Krishna became popular in the U.S. and Europe among young people of the 1960s and ’70s counterculture, who often appeared in public places dressed in saffron robes, chanting, dancing, and asking for contribu¬ tions. Members of the group are vegetarians. They renounce alcohol and drugs and chant several hours every day. Peace and joy are to be gained by surrendering to Krishna. Since the founder’s death in 1977, the com¬ munes in which many members live have been governed by an interna¬ tional commission. The movement has endured several schisms since its founding and was among the first groups to be attacked by anticult orga¬ nizations.

harebell Widespread, slender-stemmed perennial plant (Campanula rotundifolia), also called Scottish bluebell, of the bellflower family, native to woods, meadows, and cliffsides of northern Eurasia and North America and of mountains farther south. It bears nodding, blue, bell-like flowers. There are more than 30 named wild varieties. Each of its delicate stems, growing in clumps, bears one to several drooping blue-violet bells.

harem Arabic harim In Muslim society, that part of a house set apart for the women of the family or the part from which males not of the fam¬ ily are excluded. Through extension it has come to refer generally to the mandatory seclusion of women from the outside world. Institutions simi¬ lar to the harem existed in the pre-Islamic civilizations of the Middle East; in the courts of pre-Islamic Assyria, Persia, and Egypt, they were often the loci of political intrigues involving rival court factions. Large harems for wives (and often for concubines) were common in wealthy Middle Eastern households until the 20th century. From the 15th to the 20th cen¬ tury, the great harem, termed the seraglio, of the sultans of the Ottoman Empire housed several hundred women. In Iran—and in parts of Central and South Asia influenced by Persian culture—the institution of seclusion has traditionally been known as purdah. In the present-day Islamic world, seclusion of women is practiced only within conservative communities; concubinage has been generally outlawed. Similar systems have existed in other parts of Asia.

Hargobind X.hor-'go-bin-do, .hor-'go-bindX (b. 1595, Wadali, India—d. 1644, Kiratpur, near the Himalayas) Sixth Sikh Guru (1606^14). He became Guru after the execution of his father. Guru Arjan, by the Mughal rulers of India. Until his time, Sikhism had been a passive and peace-loving religion, but Hargobind gave it a strong military character in response to the enmity of the Mughals. He created an army, fortified cities, and built a defensive encampment near the holy city of Amritsar. For this he was jailed for 12 years by the emperor. After his release he defeated the armies of Shah Jahan, ending the notion of Mughal invincibility. He was suc¬ ceeded by his grandson, Hari Rai.

Hargreaves, James (baptized Jan. 8, 1720, Stanhill, Lancashire, Eng.—d. April 22, 1778, Nottingham, Nottinghamshire) British inventor of the spinning jenny. A poor, uneducated spinner and weaver, he is said to have conceived the idea for the machine when he observed a spinning wheel accidentally overturned; as the spindle continued to revolve while upright, he reasoned that many spindles could be so turned, and went on to construct the first machine (patented 1770) with which one person could spin several threads at once.

Hari Rai \'h9-re-'ra-e\ (b. 1630, Punjab, India—d. 1661, Punjab) Sev¬ enth Sikh Guru (1644-61). He was nominated as Guru by his grandfa¬ ther, Guru Hargobind, and his leadership marked a decline in the fortunes of his followers. Contemplative by temperament, he shunned military obligations and weakened the Sikhs in their struggle against India’s Mughal emperors. He made a political blunder by helping the brother of the emperor Aurangzeb foment a rebellion. His_son, Ram Rai, won him a pardon, but he did it by altering a line of the Adi Granth; Hari Rai pun¬ ished him for this blasphemy by passing him over in selecting the next Guru.

Haring, Keith (b. May 4, 1958, Reading, Pa., U.S.—d. Feb. 16, 1990, New York, N.Y.) U.S. painter and draftsman. He studied at New York City’s School of Visual Arts and developed a unique style inspired by graffiti, cartoons, and comic strips, which he displayed in works drawn clandestinely at night on subway station walls around the city. He also created paintings, drawings, and prints in a graffiti style, filling the works from edge to edge using signs, abstract symbols, and human and animal figures writhing in a spaceless, airless design. In the 1980s he executed murals in New York and exhibited internationally, achieving great com¬ mercial success.

Haringvliet \'har-iq-,vlet\ Freshwater channel, southwestern Nether¬ lands. A distributary of the Hollandsch Canal, the Haring flows about 20 mi (32 km) to discharge into the North Sea. Its low shores were devas¬ tated by tidal surge floods in 1953. As part of a plan for land reclamation and flood protection, a dam was completed at its mouth in 1971; it incor¬ porates a lock that allows the channel to remain open to shipping.

Harlan, John Marshall (b. June 1, 1833, Boyle county, Ky., U.S.—d. Oct. 14, 1911, Washington, D.C.) U.S. jurist. In the 1850s he was a law¬ yer and county judge in Boyle county, Ky. From 1861 to 1863 he com¬ manded a Union regiment in the American Civil War. He served as state attorney general (1863—67) and ran unsuccessfully as a Republican can¬ didate for governor in 1871 and 1875. In 1877 he was appointed to the Supreme Court of the United States by Pres. Rutherford B. Hayes. During his tenure, which lasted to his death in 1911, he became one of the most forceful dissenters in the court’s history and its outstanding liberal jus¬ tice. His best-known dissenting opinions, such as those in Plessy v. Fergu¬ son (1896) and the Civil Rights cases (1883), favoured the rights of blacks. He also issued famous dissents in favour of the federal income tax (1895) and opposing monopolies in cases arising under the Sherman Anti¬ trust Act of 1890. His grandson John Marshall Harlan (1899-1971) also served on the Supreme Court (1955-71).

Harlem District occupying part of northern Manhattan Island, New York City, U.S. It lies north of Central Park, with its business district centred on 125th Street. Founded by Peter Stuyvesant in 1658 as Nieuw Haarlem, it was named after Haarlem in the Netherlands. During the American Revo¬ lution it was the site of the Battle of Harlem Heights (Sept. 16, 1776). It was a farming area in the 18th century and a fashionable residential dis¬ trict in the 19th century. A black residential and commercial area by World War I, in the 1920s it was the centre of the cultural movement known as the Harlem Renaissance.

Harlem Globetrotters African American professional basketball team. The team was organized in 1927 in Chicago by the promoter Abe Saperstein and initially was a competitive team that won a world profes¬ sional championship in 1940. Since the 1930s the team had incorporated comic routines into their games, and, with the integration of the NBA in the 1950s, the team increasingly emphasized comedy over competition. For the next 50 years the Globetrotters played exhibition games all over the world, displaying spectacular ball handling and humorous antics and always defeating their official opposition, the Washington Generals. In the mid-1990s the team returned to playing competitive games.

Harlem Renaissance or New Negro Movement Period of out¬ standing vigour and creativity centred in New York’s black ghetto of Har¬ lem in the 1920s. Its leading literary figures included Alain Locke (1886— 1954), James Weldon Johnson, Claude McKay, Countee Cullen, Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, Jessie Redmon Fauset, Jean Toomer, Wallace Thurman (1902-34), and Arna Bontemps. The literary movement, which both fed and took inspiration from the great creative and commercial growth of jazz and a concurrent burgeoning of the visual arts (see Aaron Douglas) —in Harlem as well as in Paris, Chicago, Washington, D.C., London, and the Caribbean—altered the character of much African

Black-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus californicus )

© G.C. KELLEY/PHOTO RESEARCHERS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

840 I Harlequin ► harp

American literature. Increasingly, this literature reflected a newfound con¬ fidence in self-expression and examined the African American experience in all its variety.

Harlequin \'har-li-k(w)3n\ Principal stock character of the Italian com- media dell'arte. In the 16th century he was a wily, unscrupulous comic ser¬ vant, but by the early 17th century he was a faithful valet involved in amorous exploits. His costume of peasant clothes covered with coloured patches developed into a tight-fitting costume decorated with bright tri¬ angles and diamond shapes. He carried a batte, or slapstick, and wore a black half-mask. In mid-18th-century England Harlequin was portrayed by John Rich in dance pantomimes (see mime and pantomime). He was also the principal character of the slapstick form known as a harlequinade in England and elsewhere.

Harley, Robert, 1st earl of Oxford (b. Dec. 5, 1661, London, Eng.—d. May 21, 1724, London) English politician. Elected to Parlia¬ ment in 1688, he led a coalition of Whigs and moderate Tories. He was speaker of the House of Commons (1701-05) and secretary of state (1704-08). A favourite of Queen Anne, he changed his politics to ally with the Tories. He became chancellor of the Exchequer and head of the Tory ministry in 1710. Created earl of Oxford (1711) and lord treasurer, he secured a reasonable peace at the Peace of Utrecht (1713). He was exiled from power by the Hanoverian succession and imprisoned (1715— 17), after which he retired from politics.

Harlow, Jean orig. Harlean Carpenter (b. March 3, 1911, Kan¬ sas City, Mo., U.S.—d. June 7, 1937,

Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. film actress. She worked as an extra and played bit parts before her first suc¬ cess, in Hell’s Angels (1930). With her platinum-blonde hair and flashy vulgarity, she became Warner Broth¬ ers’ resident sex symbol in The Pub¬ lic Enemy and Platinum Blonde (1931). At MGM she showed herself to be an able actress with a flair for comedy in films such as Dinner at Eight (1933), China Seas (1935),

Libeled Lady (1936), and Saratoga (1937). After surviving two divorces, the suicide of her second husband, and public scandal, she died of ure¬ mic poisoning at 26.

harmonic See overtone

harmonic motion See simple har¬ monic MOTION

harmonica or mouth organ

Small rectangular wind instrument consisting of free metal reeds set in slots in a small wooden frame and blown through two parallel rows of wind channels. Successive notes of the diatonic (seven-note) scale are obtained by alternately blowing and sucking; the tongue covers channels not required. In chromatic (12-note scale) models, a finger-operated stop selects either of two sets of reeds tuned a semitone apart. The har¬ monica was invented in 1821 by Friedrich Buschmann (1805-64) of Berlin, who borrowed the basic prin¬ ciple from the Chinese sheng. It is widely used in blues as well as folk music and country music.

harmonium or reed organ

Free-reed keyboard instrument in which wind from a foot-operated bellows causes metal reeds to vibrate. Pitch is determined by the size of the reed; there are no pipes.

Separate sets of reed produce differ¬ ent tone colours, the sound quality being determined by the size and shape of the tone chamber surround¬

ing each reed. The harmonium developed in the early to mid-19th cen¬ tury in Europe and America, and it was a very popular church and home instrument into the 1930s.

harmony In music, the sound of two or more notes heard simulta¬ neously. In a narrower sense harmony refers to the extensively developed system of chords and the rules that govern relations between them in Western music. Harmony has always existed as the “vertical” (the rela¬ tionship between simultaneous melodic lines) aspect of older music that is primarily contrapuntal; the rules of counterpoint are intended to con¬ trol consonance and dissonance, which are fundamental aspects of har¬ mony. However, the sense of harmony as dominating the individual contrapuntal lines followed from the invention of the continuo c. 1600; the bass line became the generating force upon which harmonies were built. This approach was formalized in the 18th century in a treatise by Jean-Philippe Rameau, who argued that all harmony is based on the “root” or fundamental note of a chord. Tonality is principally a harmonic con¬ cept and is based not only on a seven-note scale of a given key but on a set of harmonic relations and progressions based on triads (three-note chords) drawn from the scale.

Harmsworth, Alfred See Viscount Northcliffe

harness racing Horse-racing sport. In harness racing, Standardbred horses are harnessed to lightweight, two-wheeled, bodiless (seat-only) vehicles known as sulkies. The sport’s origins date to ancient chariot races. Today two types of horses are used, trotters and pacers. The former employ a gait in which the legs move in diagonal pairs, the latter a gait in which the legs move in lateral pairs. Since the establishment of pari¬ mutuel racing under lights in the 1940s, the sport has grown tremendously in popularity.

Harnett, William (Michael) (b. Aug. 10, 1848, Clonakilty, Ire.—d. Oct. 29, 1892, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Irish-born U.S. still-life painter. Brought to Philadelphia as a child, he was trained as an engraver and soon developed outstanding skill in trompe l'oeil painting. While traveling in Europe he painted his best-known work, After the Hunt (1885). In 1886 he settled in New York City. His work, popular with the public, was gen¬ erally dismissed by critics. After a long period of disrepute, his works again were appreciated and sought after when mid-20th-century critics recognized Harnett’s outstanding skill at abstract composition.

Harold I known as Harold Harefoot (d. March 17, 1040, Oxford, Eng.) King of England (1035-40). The illegitimate son of Canute the Great, he served as regent of England for his half brother Hardecanute, king of Denmark. In 1036 he murdered the royal claimant, Alfred the Aetheling, and proclaimed himself king. He fended off Welsh and Scot¬ tish invaders and was succeeded by Hardecanute.

Harold II known as Harold Godwineson (b. c. 1020—d. Oct. 14, 1066, near Hastings, Sussex, Eng.) King of England (1066). The son of the politically powerful Godwine, earl of Wessex, he inherited his father’s earldom and power in 1053. When Edward the Confessor died in Janu¬ ary 1066, Harold’s supporters domi¬ nated the witan (king’s council) and chose him as king. He was opposed by King Harald III Sigurdsson of Nor¬ way, whom he defeated on Sept. 25,

1066, at Stamford Bridge near York.

He then marched south to meet Wil¬ liam, duke of Normandy, and was killed at the Battle of Hastings.

Harold III (Norway) See Harald III Sigurdsson

harp Plucked stringed instrument in which the resonator, or belly, is per¬ pendicular to the plane of the strings.

Harps are roughly triangular. In early harps and many folk harps, the strings are strung between the reso¬ nating “body” and the “neck.” Early harps and many folk harps lack the

forepillar or column—forming the Double-action pedal harp third side of the triangle—that char- courtesy of lyon-healy acterizes frame harps; the column

Harmonium by Jacob Alexandre, Paris, 19th century

BEHR PHOTOGRAPHY

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

harp seal ► Harriman I 841

permits high string tension and higher-pitched tuning. Small, primitive harps date back to at least 3000 bc in the ancient Mediterranean and Middle East. In Europe they became particularly important in Celtic soci¬ eties. The large modern orchestral harp emerged in the 18th century. It has 47 strings and a range of almost seven octaves. It plays the entire chromatic (12-note) scale by means of seven pedals, each of which can alter the pitch of a note (in all octaves) by two semitones through tight¬ ening or relaxing the strings by turning a forklike projection against it; it is thus known as the double-action harp. Its massive resonator permits considerable volume of tone. See also Aeolian harp.

harp seal Migratory earless seal ( Pagophilus groenlandicus, sometimes Phoca groenlandica) of the North Atlantic and Arctic oceans. The adult male is light grayish or yellowish, with brown or black on the head and a similarly coloured U-shaped marking on the back and sides. The female is less clearly marked. Adults are about 6 ft (1.8 m) long and 400 lb (180 kg). Strong swimmers, harp seals feed on fish and crustaceans and spend much of the year at sea. They breed near Newfoundland, Can., and in the Greenland and White seas. Until two weeks old, the pups bear a fluffy white coat highly valued by the fur trade; public indignation over hunt¬ ing methods (including clubbing) has led to increased regulation and supervision of sealing activities in the Newfoundland area.

Harper, Stephen in full Stephen Joseph Harper (b. April 30, 1959, Toronto, Ont., Can.) Canadian prime minister from 2006. Though originally from eastern Canada, he moved at an early age to Calgary,

Alta. Harper received an M.A. degree in economics from the University of Calgary in 1991, after which he directed his career toward politics and public-policy analysis. He was elected to the Canadian House of Commons in 1993 as a member of the western-based Reform Party, but he did not seek reelection in 1997. In 2002 he returned to the House of Commons and became leader of the opposition Canadian Alliance (the successor to the Reform Party), and in 2004 he was elected head of the Conservative Party of Canada, formed by the merger of the Progres¬ sive Conservative and Canadian Alli¬ ance parties. In 2006 he led the Conservative Party to victory and became prime minister.

Harper brothers U.S. printers and publishers. The two oldest broth¬ ers, James (1795-1869) and John (1797-1875) established J. & J. Harper in 1817; their siblings Joseph (1801-70) and Fletcher (1806-77) joined in 1823 and 1825. The firm took the name Harper & Brothers in 1833. The company began publishing periodicals in 1850 with Harper’s New Monthly Magazine (see Harper's Magazine), which was followed by Harp¬ er’s Weekly (1857) and Harper’s Bazaar (1867). In 1900 the business passed out of family hands. Two of the Harper magazines are still being published; the name Harper also survives in the international book¬ publishing firm HarperCollins.

Harpers Ferry National Historical Park National preserve, West Virginia, U.S., in the Blue Ridge at the point where West Virginia, Virginia, and Maryland converge. Authorized as a national monument in 1944 and a historical park in 1963, it covers 1,909 acres (772 hectares). It is located at the confluence of the Shenandoah and Potomac rivers and consists pri¬ marily of the town of Harpers Ferry, W.Va. (pop., 2000: 307). It is the site of the 1859 raid by abolitionist John Brown, an incident that precipitated the American Civil War, and of several battles during the war.

Harper's Magazine Monthly magazine published in New York, N.Y., U.S., one of the oldest and most prestigious literary and opinion journals in the U.S. Founded in 1850 as Harper’s New Monthly Magazine by the print¬ ing and publishing firm of the Harper brothers, it was a leader in publishing works by illustrious British and U.S. authors. By 1865 it had become the most successful periodical in the U.S. In the 1920s its format changed to that of a forum on public affairs, balanced with short stories. Financial problems began in the 1960s, and in 1980 its demise was averted by grants

from a philanthropic organization, the MacArthur Foundation. Since 1976 it has been edited almost continuously by Lewis Lapham (b. 1935).

harpsichord Keyboard instrument in which the strings are set in vibra¬ tion by a plucking mechanism. The latter consists of plectra made of quill (or sometimes leather) mounted on vertical wooden jacks that are activated by the keys. A cloth damper touches the string when the player releases the key. It often has two parallel keyboards (or manuals) and generally has two or more sets of strings, each of which produces different tone qualities; these permit the simultaneous sounding of pitches an octave higher or lower than the note struck. The notes’ loudness is not affected by the power with which the keys are struck, and there is no way to sustain a note after the key is released. Primitive harpsichords existed by the mid-15th century. In the 17th—18th centuries the harpsichord became a very important solo, accompanimental, and ensemble instrument. From c. 1750 the pianoforte, with its greater dynamic capacity, began to displace it, and by 1820 the harpsichord had largely vanished. It was revived in the late 19th century by scholars, performers, and instrument builders.

Harpy In Greek and Roman mythology, a bird of prey with a woman’s face. Often depicted on tombs. Harpies may originally have been con¬ ceived of as ghosts. In early Greek literature, including the writings of Homer and Hesiod, they were wind spirits and were not represented as ugly or repellent. In the legend of Jason and the Argonauts, however, the Har¬ pies were hideous, foul-smelling birds with the faces of women, sent to punish King Phineus of Thrace by defiling his food; they were frightened away by the sons of Boreas.

harrier Any of about 11 species of hawks (subfamily Circinae; family Accipitridae) that are plain-looking, long-legged, long-tailed, and slender. Harriers cruise low over meadows and marshes looking for mice, snakes, frogs, small birds, and insects. They are about 20 in. (50 cm) long and have a small beak and face feathers that form a facial disk. They nest in marshes or tall grass. The best-known harrier is the marsh hawk ( Circus cyaneus ), commonly called hen harrier in Britain, which breeds in tem¬ perate and northern regions throughout the Northern Hemisphere. Other common species are found in Africa, South America, Europe, and Asia.

Harriman, Edward H(enry) (b. Feb. 25, 1848, Hempstead, N.Y., U.S.—d. Sept. 9, 1909, near Turner, N.Y.) U.S. financier and railroad magnate. After working as an office boy and then a stockbroker on Wall Street, he began his career in railroad management as an executive with the Illinois Central. In 1898 he organized a syndicate to acquire the bank¬ rupt Union Pacific Railroad Co., which he soon brought into prosperity. Using unpopular business methods, he acquired several other lines, nota¬ bly the Southern Pacific. His abortive 1901 contest with James J. Hill for control of the Northern Pacific led to one of Wall Street’s most serious financial crises. The railway trust Harriman formed with J.P. Morgan was dissolved by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1904. His son W. Averell Har¬ riman joined the company in 1915 (chairman 1932-46) and was active in politics; he was elected governor of New York (1954-58) and served the U.S. government as a representative and diplomat in Europe, the Far East, and the Soviet Union.

Harriman, W(illiam) Averell (b. Nov. 15, 1891, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. July 26, 1986, Yorktown Heights, N.Y.) U.S. diplomat. The son of Edward H. Harriman, he worked for the Union Pacific Railroad Co. from 1915, serving as chairman of the board from 1932 to 1946. In 1934 Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed him to the National Recovery Adminis¬ tration. In 1941 he went to Britain to expedite lend-lease aid; he later served as ambassador to the Soviet Union (1943^-6) and to Britain (1946), as secretary of commerce (1947-48), and as special U.S. repre¬ sentative to supervise the Marshall Plan (1948-50). He was governor of New York from 1954 to 1958. In 1961 he was appointed assistant sec¬ retary of state for Far Eastern affairs by Pres. John F. Kennedy, for whom he helped negotiate the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. As ambassador-at-large

tm? ■■

Y

Stephen Harper.

IOURTESY OF THE OFFICE OF THE PRIME MINISTER, GOVERNMENT OF CANADA

Harpsichord with soundboard by Hans Ruckers, Amsterdam, 1612

FROM THE NATIONAL TRUST PROPERTY, FENTON HOUSE, HAMPSTEAD, LONDON; BY GRACIOUS PERMISSION OF HER MAJESTY QUEEN ELIZABETH, THE QUEEN MOTHER

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

842 I Harris ► Harrods

for Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson, Harriman led the U.S. delegation to the Paris peace talks with North Vietnam (1968-69).

Harris, Sir Arthur Travers, T st Baronet (b. April 13, 1892, Chel¬ tenham, Gloucestershire, Eng.—d. April 5, 1984, Goring-on-Thames, Oxfordshire) British air officer. He served in World War I and after the war in various posts in the Royal Air Force (RAF). Nicknamed Bomber Harris, as air marshal and commander of the RAF bomber command (1942), he developed the saturation technique of mass bombing (concen¬ trating clouds of bombers in a giant raid on a single city) that was applied with destructive effect on Germany in World War II.

Harris, Barbara Clementine (b. June 12, 1930, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.) U.S. clergywoman. Harris worked as a public relations executive in the 1960s. An African American, she was also active in the civil rights movement and the women’s rights movement before beginning studies for the Anglican clergy in 1974. She was ordained an Episcopal priest in October 1980. On Feb. 11, 1989, despite much opposition, she was con¬ secrated bishop suffragan (assistant) for the diocese of Massachusetts, becoming the first female bishop in the Anglican Communion. As bishop, she continued her advocacy for ethnic minorities and women until her retirement in 2002. In 2003 she began serving as assisting bishop in the diocese of Washington, D.C.

Harris, Joel Chandler (b. Dec. 9, 1848, Eatonton, Ga., U.S.—d. July 3, 1908, Atlanta, Ga.) U.S. writer. He became known as a humorist in his pieces for various newspapers, including (1876-1900) the Atlanta Consti¬ tution. He created a vogue for a distinct type of dialect literature with “Tar- Baby” (1879) and later stories that drew on folklore and featured the character Uncle Remus, a wise, genial old black man who weaves his phi¬ losophy of life into tales about Brer Rabbit, Brer Fox, and other animals.

Harris, Roy orig. LeRoy Ellsworth Harris (b. Feb. 12, 1898, near Chandler, Okla., U.S.—d. Oct. 1, 1979, Santa Monica, Calif.) U.S. com¬ poser. He farmed and did odd jobs to support his music studies. After World War I he attended the University of California at Berkeley. In the 1920s he studied with Arthur Farwell (1872-1952) and Nadia Boulanger, building a reputation for craft and seriousness of purpose. Of his 12 completed sym¬ phonies, the third (1937) is the best known. His music, while unmistakably modern, has roots in folk song and is often sombre and plainspoken.

Harris, Townsend (b. Oct. 3, 1804, Sandy Hill, N.Y., U.S.—d. Feb. 25, 1878, New York City) U.S. diplomat. He served as president of New York City’s board of education and helped found the Free Academy (later City College of New York). In 1847 he left New York to embark on trad¬ ing voyages in the Pacific and Indian oceans. In 1853 he met Matthew Perry in Shanghai and tried to accompany him to Japan, but his bid was rejected. In 1856 he secured an appointment as consul general to Japan; he was unwelcome at first, but changing attitudes in Japan and Harris’s perseverance produced a commercial treaty in 1858 that opened Japanese ports to U.S. trade.

Harrisburg City (pop., 2000: 48,950), capital of Pennsylvania, U.S. Located in southeastern Pennsylvania on the Susquehanna River, the site was first established c. 1718 as a trading post and ferry service by John Harris, who named it Harris’

Ferry. Laid out in 1785, it became known as Harrisburg and was made the state capital in 1812. In 1839 it was the scene of the first national Whig Party convention, which nomi¬ nated William H. Harrison. After completion of the Pennsylvania Rail¬ road’s main line from Harrisburg to Pittsburgh in 1847, it developed as a transportation centre. The state capi- tol, with a dome patterned after St.

Peter’s in Rome, was completed in

Harrison, Benjamin (b. Aug.

20, 1833, North Bend, Ohio,

U.S.—d. March 13, 1901, India¬ napolis, Ind.) 23rd president of the U.S. (1889-93). The grandson of William H. Harrison, the 9th presi¬

Benjamin Harrison, photograph by George Prince, 1888.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

dent of the U.S., he practiced law in Indianapolis from the mid-1850s. He served in the Union army in the American Civil War, rising to brigadier general. After a single term in the U.S. Senate (1881-87), he won the Republican nomination for president and defeated the incumbent, Grover Cleveland, in the electoral college, though Cleveland received more popu¬ lar votes. His presidency was marked by passage of the Sherman Antitrust Act. His secretary of state, James Blaine, presided at the conference that led to the establishment of the Pan-American Union, resisted pressure to abandon U.S. interests in the Samoan Islands (1889), and negotiated a treaty with Britain in the Bering Sea Dispute (1891). Defeated for reelec¬ tion by Cleveland in 1892, Harrison returned to Indianapolis to practice law. In 1898-99 he was the leading counsel for Venezuela in its bound¬ ary dispute with Britain.

Harrison, John (b. March 1693, Foulby, Yorkshire, Eng.—d. March 24, 1776, London) British horologist. The son of a carpenter, in 1735 he invented the first practical marine chronometer. He followed it with three later instruments, each smaller and more accurate than its predecessor, and in 1762 his No. 4 chronometer was found to be in error by only five seconds (1 1/4' longitude) after a voyage from England to Jamaica. Chro¬ nometers gave mariners their first practical method of fixing position at sea from celestial observations. See also Ferdinand Berthoud.

Harrison, Sir Rex orig. Reginald Carey Harrison (b. March 5, 1908, Huyton, Lancashire, Eng.—d. June 2, 1990, New York, N.Y., U.S.) British actor. He made his debut in films and on the London stage in 1930, later appearing in successful plays such as French Without Tears (1936). After World War II he returned to the screen as a suave leading man in films such as Blithe Spirit (1945) and Notorious Gentleman (1945). He made his U.S. film debut in Anna and the King of Siam (1946). His most famous role, as Prof. Henry Higgins in My Fair Lady (1956, Tony Award), won him equal acclaim in its film version (1964, Academy Award). He was an impressive Julius Caesar in Cleopatra (1963).

Harrison, William Henry (b. Feb. 9, 1773, Charles City county, Va.—d. April 4, 1841, Washington,

D.C., U.S.) Ninth president of the U.S. (1841). Born into a politically prominent family, he enlisted in the army at age 18 and served under Anthony Wayne at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. In 1798 he became secretary of the Northwest Territo¬ ries and in 1800 governor of the new Indiana Territory. In response to pressure from white settlers, he negotiated treaties with the Indians that ceded millions of acres of addi¬ tional land to the U.S. When Tecum- seh organized an uprising in 1811,

Harrison led a U.S. force to defeat the Indians at the Battle of Tippeca¬ noe, a victory that largely established his reputation in the public mind. In the War of 1812 he was made a brigadier general and defeated the British and their Indian allies at the Battle of the Thames in Ontario. After the war he moved to Ohio, where he

became prominent in the Whig Party. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1816-19) and Senate (1825-28). As the Whig candidate in the 1836 presidential election, he lost narrowly. In 1840 he and his running mate, John Tyler, won election with a slogan emphasizing Harri¬ son’s frontier triumph: “Tippecanoe and Tyler too.” The 68-year-old Har¬ rison delivered his inaugural speech without a hat or overcoat in a cold drizzle, contracted pneumonia, and died one month later; he was the first U.S. president to die in office.

William Henry Harrison, detail of an oil painting by Abel Nichols; in the Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, Mas¬ sachusetts.

Harrods \'har-odz\ Renowned London department store. It was founded by a miller, Henry Charles Harrod, as a grocery store in 1849. The store expanded in the late 1800s, and many new departments were added. Though Harrods still sells gourmet food, it now emphasizes fashionable clothing. Known for its zealous customer service, it is considered the best department store in Britain. In 1985 it was bought by Mohammed al-Fayed (bom 1933).

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Harrow School ► Hartline I 843

Harrow School Independent boarding school for boys in Harrow, Greater London, England. Its founder, John Lyon (d. 1592), was a yeo¬ man of neighboring Preston who yearly set aside funds for the education of poor children of Harrow. Elizabeth I granted the school’s charter in 1571, and the first building was opened in 1611. It has long been renowned as one of the two or three greatest English public (i.e., independent) schools; its graduates include Richard Brinsley Sheridan, Lord Byron, Sir Robert Peel, and Winston Churchill.

Harsa or Harsha Vhor-shoV or Harsavardhana Vhor-sho-'vor- d3-no\ (b. c. 590—d. c. 647) Ruler of a large empire in northern India (606-47). He was a Buddhist convert in a Hindu era. He brought what is now Uttar Pradesh and parts of Punjab and Rajasthan under his hegemony, but he contented himself with tribute and homage and never built a cen¬ tralized empire. His chroniclers, including the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, describe him as benevolent and energetic. He set up institutions to benefit the poor and the sick and established the first diplomatic relations between India and China (641). A patron of scholars, he was himself a poet.

Hart, Basil Liddell See Basil Liddell Hart

Hart, Lorenz (Milton) (b. May 2, 1895, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Nov. 22, 1943, New York City) U.S. lyricist. A descendant of Heinrich Heine, Hart initially worked as a translator of German. In 1918 he met Richard Rodgers, then age 16, at Columbia University. Their many Broad¬ way hits would include The Garrick Gaieties (1925), A Connecticut Yan¬ kee (1927), The Boys from Syracuse (1938), and Pal Joey (1940). Their 25-year collaboration (often difficult because of Hart’s alcoholism and aversion to deadlines) yielded nearly 1,000 songs, including “Blue Moon” (their only song not introduced on stage or film), “My Funny Valentine,” “The Lady Is a Tramp,” and “Bewitched, Bothered, and Bewildered.” Hart died of liver failure at age 48.

Hart, Moss (b. Oct. 24, 1904, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Dec. 20, 1961, Palm Springs, Calif.) U.S. playwright and director. He wrote his first play at age 18 and achieved recognition when he collaborated with George S. Kaufman on Once in a Lifetime (1930). That success led to their popular comedies You Can’t Take It with You (1936, Pulitzer Prize; film, 1938) and The Man Who Came to Dinner (1939; film, 1942). Hart wrote books for musicals for Irving Berlin and Cole Porter, wrote and directed plays such as Lady in the Dark (1941; film, 1944) and Winged Victory (1943; film, 1944), and directed the long-running musicals My Fair Lady (1956, Tony Award) and Came lot (1960).

Hart, William S. (b. Dec. 6, 1870, Newburgh, N.Y., U.S.—d. June 23, 1946, Newhall, Calif.) U.S. stage and film actor. He made his stage debut in 1889 and portrayed a series of western heroes in the plays The Squaw Man (1905), The Virginian (1907), and The Trail of the Lone¬ some Pine (1912). In 1914 he went to Hollywood, where his stern, taci¬ turn performances made him a star and the first cowboy hero. Among his numerous films, many of which he wrote and directed, were The Passing of Two-Gun Hicks (1914—

15), The Square-Deal Man (1917),

Wild Bill Hickok (1923), and A Lighter of Flames (1923).

Hartack, Bill in full William John Hartack (b. Dec. 9, 1932,

Ebensburg, Pa., U.S.) U.S. jockey.

He became the second jockey (after Eddie Arcaro) ever to win five Ken¬ tucky Derbies (1957, 1960, 1962,

1964, 1969). In 1956 he became the first jockey to win $2 million in a single year; he surpassed $3 million the following year. In 1972 he became the fifth jockey ever to win over 4,000 races.

Harte, Bret orig. Francis Brett Harte (b. Aug. 25, 1836, Albany, N.Y., U.S.—d. May 5, 1902, London, Eng.) U.S. writer. He briefly expe¬

rienced camp life in California min¬ ing country before becoming a newspaper and periodical editor and writer. His works, which helped cre¬ ate the local-colour school in Ameri¬ can fiction, include the short stories “The Luck of Roaring Camp” (1868) and “The Outcasts of Poker Flat”

(1869), the poem “The Heathen Chinee” (1870), and the play Ah Sin (1877; with Mark Twain). In an era when the West was a popular subject, these works made him internation¬ ally famous. His writing slumped in the 1870s, and he accepted consul¬ ships in Europe, never returning to the U.S.

hartebeest Vhar-t3-,best\ Either of two species of swift, slender ante¬ lope (genus Alcelaphus) found in herds on open plains and scrublands of sub-Saharan Africa. They often mingle with herds of other antelope or zebras. Hartebeests stand about 4 ft (1.2 m) tall at the shoulder, and the back slopes downward from heavy forequarters to narrow hindquarters.

The long face is accentuated, in both sexes, by ringed, lyre-shaped horns united at the base. The red hartebeest is pale reddish brown with a lighter rump. Two subspecies (Swayne’s hartebeest and the tora) are listed as endangered.

Hartford City (pop., 2000:

121,578), capital of Connecticut,

U.S. Lying on the Connecticut River, it was settled by Dutch traders in the 1630s. The Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, which later served as a model for the U.S. Constitution, were adopted (1639) in Hartford. The city’s insurance industry, its major business, dates from 1794, when the first Hartford fire insurance policy was issued. The statehouse (1796) was designed by Charles Bulfinch. Institutions of higher learning include Trin¬ ity College. The birthplace of J.P. Morgan, Hartford was also the home of Harriet Beecher Stowe and Mark Twain, whose houses are preserved.

Hartford Convention (Dec. 5, 1814-Jan. 5, 1815) Secret meeting of Federalist Party delegates from New England states who opposed the War of 1812. It adopted a strong states 7 -rights position in opposition to the mercantile policies of Pres. James Madison and the Embargo Act of 1807 and other measures that prohibited trade with Britain and France. News of the signing of the Treaty of Ghent on Dec. 24, 1814, which ended the war, discredited the nascent separatist movement at the convention and weakened Federalist influence.

Hartley, Marsden (b. Jan. 4, 1877, Lewiston, Maine, U.S.—d. Sept. 2, 1943, Ellsworth, Maine) U.S. painter. After attending the Cleveland School of Alt, he settled in New York City but also lived sporadically in France and Germany. From 1900 he spent most summers in his native Maine, painting landscapes. He first exhibited them at Alfred Stiegutz’s “291” gallery in 1909. In 1913 he exhibited with Der Blaue Reiter in Ber¬ lin and at the Armory Show. His early style of abstract painting with strongly outlined forms and brilliant colours evolved into a personal inter¬ pretation of Expressionism, most evident in his bold and brooding Maine landscapes. He produced a dramatic series of pastels and oil paintings of New Mexico (1918-20) and in 1932 a notable series of the volcano Popocatepetl in Mexico.

Hartline, Haldan Keffer (b. Dec. 22, 1903, Bloomsburg, Pa., U.S.—d. March 17, 1983, Fallston, Md.) U.S. physiologist. He received his M.D. from Johns Hopkins University. Experimenting on horseshoe crabs, he was the first to record the electrical impulses sent by a single optic-nerve fibre. He found that when one of the eye’s receptor cells is stimulated, others nearby are depressed, enhancing contrast and sharpen-

William S. Hart in The Gun Fighter,

1916-17.

MUSEUM OF MODERN ART/FILM STILLS ARCHIVE

Harte.

Coke's hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus cokii).

LEONARD LEE RUE III

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

844 I Hartmann von Aue ► Hasanlu

ing perception of shapes. He showed how simple retinal mechanisms constitute vital steps in the integration of visual information. In 1967 he shared a Nobel Prize with George Wald and Ragnar Arthur Granit.

Hartmann von Aue Vhart-msn-fon-'au-oV (fl. 1190-1210) Middle High German poet. Apparently a member of the Swabian court, he took part in the crusade of 1197. He is noted for his courtly epics, the Arthu¬ rian romances Erec (c. 1180-85) and Iwein (c. 1200), both based on works by Chretien de Troyes. Through Erec, Arthurian legend first entered Ger¬ man literature. Der arme Heinrich (“Poor Heinrich”), his finest poem, is a didactic religious epic. He also wrote lyrics and allegorical love poems.

Hartree, Douglas R(ayner) (b. March 27, 1897, Cambridge, Cam¬ bridgeshire, Eng.—d. Feb. 12, 1958, Cambridge) English physicist, math¬ ematician, and computer pioneer. At Manchester University in the mid 1930s he built a mechanical computer for solving differential equations, based on the differential analyzer of Vannevar Bush. During World War II he was involved with the ENIAC project in the U.S. At the University of Cambridge he introduced the self-consistent field approximation scheme that is the basis for most atomic calculations and for the prevailing physi¬ cal understanding of the wave mechanics of atoms. The Hartree method— sometimes called the Hartree-Fock method to acknowledge Vladimir Fock (1898-1974), who generalized Hartree’s scheme—is widely used to describe electrons in atoms, molecules, and solids.

Hartwell, Leland H. (b. Oct. 30,1939, Los Angeles, Calif., U.S.) U.S. scientist. He received his Ph.D. from the Massachusetts Institute of Tech¬ nology. He began teaching at the University of Washington in 1968 and in 1996 joined the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, becoming president and director in 1997. Using baker’s yeast, he studied how cells control their growth and division and was able to identify more than 100 genes involved in cell-cycle control, including the gene that regulates the first step of each cell cycle. Such work aided in the understanding of can¬ cer cell development. Hartwell shared a Nobel Prize with R. Timothy Hunt and Sir Paul M. Nurse in 2001.

HarQn a I-Rashid \ha-'run-al-ra-'shed\ (b. March 763 or February 766, Rayy, Iran—d. March 24, 809, Tus, Iran) Fifth caliph of the ‘Abbasid dynasty. Neither a great ruler nor a prepossessing character, Harun ruled (786-809) at a time when Islamic society reached its zenith in terms of wealth, learning, and power. He is best remembered, however, as a cen¬ tral character in The Thousand and One Nights, where he is portrayed as the epitome of the learned and just ruler. In his early years he was strongly influenced by his mother and by his tutor Yahya of the Barmakid line of viziers. He succeeded his brother after the latter’s untimely death and ruled over a realm that was torn increasingly by strife, as regional lead¬ ers sought autonomy. On his death, his sons al-Ma’mun and al-Amln fell into open civil war.

Harvard University Oldest institution of higher learning in the U.S. and widely considered one of the most prestigious. Founded in 1636 in Cambridge, Mass., it was named Harvard College for a Puritan minister, John Harvard (1607-38), who bequeathed to the school his books and half of his estate. It became a university with the establishment of the medical school in 1782. Schools of divinity and law were established in the early 19th century. Charles Eliot, during his long tenure as president (1869-1909), made Harvard an institution with national influence. Har¬ vard has educated seven U.S. presidents, many Supreme Court justices, cabinet officers, and congressional leaders, dozens of major literary and intellectual figures, and numerous Nobel laureates. Its undergraduate school. Harvard College, contains about one-third of the total student body. Radcliffe College (1879) was a coordinate undergraduate women’s college. From 1960 women graduated from both Harvard and Radcliffe, and in 1999 Radcliffe was absorbed by Harvard, the name surviving in the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study. Harvard University also has graduate or professional schools of business, education, government, den¬ tistry, architecture and landscape design, and public health. Among its affiliated research institutes are the Museum of Comparative Zoology, the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, and the Fogg Art Museum. Its Widener Library is one of the largest and most important libraries in the world.

harvestman See daddy longlegs

Harvey, Paul (b. Sept. 4, 1918, Tulsa, Okla., U.S.) U.S. radio com¬ mentator and news columnist. He worked as an announcer and radio sta¬ tion director in the Midwest in the 1940s. He became a news commentator

and analyst for ABC in 1944 and a syndicated columnist in 1954. Noted for his firm, staccato delivery and his conservative but individualistic opinions on current events, he enjoyed an almost unparalleled longevity as a national broadcaster.

Harvey, William (b. April 1, 1578, Folkestone, Kent, Eng.—d. June 3, 1657, London) English physician. He studied at Cambridge University and later at the University of Padua, then considered the best medical school in Europe. After receiving a medical diploma, he was appointed to St. Bartholemew’s Hospital (1609). He became one of James I’s phy¬ sicians c. 1618 and continued as a king’s physician for Charles I, whose personal friend he became. Harvey’s elucidation of blood circulation over¬ turned the work of Galen and advanced that of Andreas Vesalius and Hiero¬ nymus Fabricius. To reach his conclusions, Harvey depended on his own observations and reasoning, numerous animal dissections, autopsies, and clinical observations. His Anatomical Exercise Concerning the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals (1628) recorded his findings. It clarified the function of heart valves, proved that blood did not pass through the septum in the heart, explained the purpose of valves in the veins and of the pulmonary circulation, showed that blood is pumped from the atria into the ventricles and then into the rest of the circulatory system, and proved that the pulse reflected heart contractions.

Haryana \,har-e-'a-n9\ State (pop., 2001 prelim.: 21,082,989), northern India. Bordered by the states of Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttaranchal, and Uttar Pradesh and the Delhi national capital territory, it occupies an area of 17,070 sq mi (44,212 sq km). The city of Chandigarh is the joint admin¬ istrative capital of Haryana and Punjab. The region is the legendary birth¬ place of Hinduism, and its festivals attract many pilgrims. Most of Haryana lies on the flat Gangetic Plain, an area that has seen waves of migration from the time of Alexander the Great. It came under the control of the British East India Company in 1803, became a part of Punjab in 1858, and became a separate state in 1966. Its economy is mainly agricultural.

Harz \'harts \ Mountains Mountain range, central Germany. Lying between the Weser and Elbe rivers, it is 60 mi (100 km) long and about 20 mi (32 km) wide. The northwestern and highest portion is known as the Oberharz, and the more extensive southeastern part is the Unterharz; the Brocken group, dividing the two, is considered part of the Oberharz. The highest peak is Mount Brocken. The Harz owes its early settlement and intensive development from the 10th to the 16th century to mining and metallurgy (silver, lead, iron, copper, and zinc). Its most important industry is tourism.

Hasan Vha-san\ in full Hasan ibn ‘All ibn Abl Talib (b. 624, Arabia—d. 680, Medina) Grandson of Muhammad, the elder son of Muhammad’s daughter Fajimah. He is one of the five most revered per¬ sons in the ShTite branch of Islam. After the murder of his father, ‘Au, in 661, he was seen by many as the Prophet’s rightful heir. When Mu'awiyah I opposed Hasan’s succession and began to prepare for war, Hasan raised an army to meet him. Plagued by defections, however, he opened peace negotiations within the year and abandoned the caliphate to his opponent. For the rest of his life he lived quietly in Medina.

Hasan al-Basrl Vha-san-al-bas-'re\, al- in full Abu SaTd ibn Abl al-Hasan Yasar al-Basrl (b. 642, Medina, Arabia—d. 728, Basra, Iraq) Muslim ascetic and major figure in early Islam. He took part in the conquest of eastern Iran as a young soldier. He then settled at Basra, and from 684 he was a popular preacher. He emphasized the practice of reli¬ gious self-examination and asserted that true Muslims must live in a state of anxiety about their destiny after death. Rejecting determinism, he held that people are entirely respon¬ sible for their actions. Political oppo¬ sition forced him into hiding (705- 714), but he afterward lived openly in Basra. He is considered a founder of the two major schools of early Sunnite Islam, the Mu'tazilah and the Ash'ariyyah.

Hasanlu Vha-son-.liiX Archaelogi- cal site, northwestern Iran. Excava¬ tions have revealed the area’s prehistory, especially the late 2nd and early 1st millennia bc. It was inhab¬ ited from c. 2100 to c. 825 bc, but the

Unglazed pot from Hasanlu, 9th cen¬ tury bc; in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.

COURTESY OF THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW 'fORKClTY, PURCHASE, 1960, ROGERS FUND

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Hasdeu ► Hastings I 845

richest period, often called Mannaean, dates to the 10th-9th centuries bc. It was crowned by a high citadel surrounded by a fortification wall. The outer town, which was unfortified, consisted primarily of ordinary dwellings and a cemetery. Many metal artifacts have been found, including a solid gold bowl and two bronze vessels in the shape of horse heads.

Hasdeu \hash-'dyti\, Bogdan Petriceicu (b. Feb. 16, 1836, Cris- tine§ti, Bessarabia, Russian Empire—d. Aug. 25, 1907, Campina, Rom.) Romanian linguist. He collected and published ancient Slavic and Roma¬ nian documents in The Historical Archive of Romania (1865-67) and in his subsequent writings initiated the critical investigation of Romanian history. He became director of the state archives in 1876 and was appointed professor of philology at the University of Bucharest in 1878. His Words of the Ancestors (1878-81) was the first history of apocryphal literature in Romania.

Hasek Vha-shek\, Jaroslav (b. April 30, 1883, Prague, Bohemia, Austria-Hungary—d. Jan. 3, 1923, Lipnice nad Sazavou, Czech.) Czech writer. He published 16 volumes of short stories before World War I, when he became a prisoner of war. After his release he devoted himself to writ¬ ing a six-volume war novel, The Good Soldier Schweik, but died after completing only four volumes (published 1921-23). Even in its incom¬ plete state, it is considered one of the world’s masterpieces of satire.

hashish \ha-'shesh\ Hallucinogenic drug preparation derived from resin from the flowers of hemp plants. Marijuana, a product of the same plant, is far less potent. Hashish is smoked or eaten. The active ingredient, tet¬ rahydrocannabinol (THC), makes up 10-15% of hashish.

Hasidism Vha-sa-.di-zonA Pietistic and mystical movement in Judaism that originated in 18th-century Poland. It was a reaction against rigid legalism and Talmudic learning in favour of a joyful form of worship that served as a spiritual outlet for the common people. Hasidism began with the preaching of the man later known as the Ba'al Shem Tov. Teaching that God was immanent in all things and that piety was more important than scholarship, he won followers known as Hasidim (“loyalists”). Dov Baer founded the first Hasidic community c. 1710, and countless small com¬ munities soon sprang up in Poland, Russia, Lithuania, and Palestine, each led by a zaddik. Communal services were marked by dancing, shouting, and singing, through which participants reached a state of spiritual ecstasy. Though excommunicated from Orthodox Judaism in 1772, the Hasidim continued to flourish. By the 19th century Hasidism had become an ultra¬ conservative movement that was accepted by the Orthodox as legitimate. Huge numbers of Hasidim fell victim to the Holocaust, but their survi¬ vors established vital movements in Israel and the U.S. The Lubavitcher sect, based in Brooklyn, N.Y., numbers about 200,000.

Haskala or Haskalah \,has-ka-'la\ Intellectual movement in Euro¬ pean Judaism in the 18th—19th century, which sought to supplement tradi¬ tional Talmudic studies with education in secular subjects, European languages, and Hebrew. Partly inspired by the Enlightenment, the Haskala was sometimes called the Jewish Enlightenment. It originated with pros¬ perous and socially mobile Jews, who hoped to use reforms to enable the Jews to escape ghetto life and enter the mainstream of European society and culture. This meant adding secular subjects to the school curriculum, adopting the language of the larger society in place of Yiddish, abandoning traditional garb, and reforming synagogue services. One of its leaders was Moses Mendelssohn, who began a revival of Hebrew writing. Haskala’s emphasis on the study of Jewish history and ancient Hebrew as a means of reviving Jewish national consciousness influenced Zionism, and its call to modernize religious practices led to the emergence of Reform Judaism.

Hasmonean V.haz-mo-'ne-onV dynasty Dynasty of ancient Judaea, descendants of the Maccabee family. The name derives from their ances¬ tor Hasmoneus, but the first of the ruling dynasty was Simon Maccabeus, who became leader of the Maccabean revolt against the Seleucid king c. 143 bc and, in victory, was made high priest, ruler, and ethnarch of Judaea. The last Hasmonean was deposed and executed in 37 bc by the Romans under Mark Antony.

Hassam \'has-3m\, (Frederick) Childe (b. Oct. 17, 1859, Boston, Mass., U.S.—d. Aug. 27, 1935, East Hampton, N.Y.) U.S. painter and printmaker. He studied in Boston and Paris before settling in New York City. From 1898 to 1918 he exhibited together with a group of New York and Boston painters known as The Ten, who became the foremost pro¬ ponents of U.S. Impressionism. Urban life was his favourite subject, but his landscapes of New England and rural New York also became popular.

Paintings such as Washington Arch, Spring (1890) are characterized by clear, luminous atmosphere and brilliant colour. He also produced some 400 etchings and lithographs.

Hassan \'ha-san,\ English \ha-'san\ II orig. Mawlay Hasan Muhammad ibn Yusuf (b. July 9, 1929, Rabat, Mor.—d. July 23, 1999, Rabat) King of Morocco (1961-99). On his succession to the throne, he introduced a new constitution providing for a popularly elected legislature but exercised authoritarian rule from 1965 to 1970, instituting a new constitution in 1970. He claimed Western Sahara for Morocco; this led to ongoing hostilities with the Saharawi guerrilla organization PoLlSA- rio. In 1986 he became the second Arab leader to meet publicly with an Israeli leader. He condemned the 1990 invasion of Kuwait by Iraq. Under his leadership Morocco achieved political stability and some economic and social development, though there were accusations that human rights were not respected in his kingdom. See also Muhammad V; Saharan Arab Democratic Republic.

Hassler Vhas-tarN, Hans Leo (b. Oct. 26, 1564, Niimberg—d. June 8, 1612, Frankfurt am Main) German composer and organist. Born into a fam¬ ily of organists, he studied with Andrea and Giovanni Gabrieli in Venice. He served as chamber organist to the Fugger family of Augsburg (1586-c. 1600). His compositions became widely known and were granted copy¬ right protection by the emperor in 1591. A Protestant, he eventually left Catholic Augsburg to take posts in Niimberg, Ulm, and Dresden. He is best known for his sacred Latin choral music, including masses, psalms, and motets, but he also composed Italian madrigals, German part-songs (sev¬ eral became Protestant hymns), and instrumental music.

Hassuna \ha-'sii-n3\ Archaeological site, northern Iraq. An ancient Mesopotamian town located south of Mosul, it was excavated in 1943^44 and was found to represent an advanced village culture that apparently spread throughout northern Mesopotamia. At Hassuna itself, six layers of houses were uncovered, each progressively more substantial. Vessels and pottery dating to c. 5600-5350 bc were discovered. Similar wares found elsewhere in the Middle East show that even as early as the 6th millen¬ nium bc an extensive trade network existed in the region.

Hastings, Battle of (Oct. 14, 1066) Battle that ended in the defeat of Harold II of England by William, duke of Normandy, and established the Normans as rulers of England. On his deathbed Edward the Confessor had granted the English throne to Harold, earl of Wessex, despite an earlier promise to make William his heir. William crossed to England from Nor¬ mandy with a skilled army of 4,000-7,000 men, landing at Pevensey in Sussex and moving eastward along the coast to Hastings. Harold met the Norman invaders with an army of 7,000 men, many of whom were exhausted from the forced march south to meet William following Harold’s victory at the battle of Stamford Bridge three weeks earlier. The English were defeated after a day-long battle in which Harold was killed. After the battle, the Norman duke moved his army to London and was crowned William I on December 25. See also Norman Conquest.

Hastings, Warren (b. Dec. 6, 1732, Churchill, near Daylesford, Oxfordshire, Eng.—d. Aug. 22,

1818, Daylesford) British colonial administrator in India. He worked for the English East India Company from 1750, rising to membership in its council in Bengal (1761-64) and Madras (now Chennai; 1769). As governor of Bengal (1772-74), he moved the central government to Calcutta (now Kolkata) under direct British control and remodeled the justice system. In 1774 he acquired the new title of governor-general, with responsibilities for supervising other British settlements in India.

His powers were shared with a coun¬ cil of four, several of whom tried to blame Hastings for the continuing abuses of power by Englishmen.

From 1777 to 1783 he sought to counter the instability created by the fall of the Mughal Empire and tried to maintain peaceful relations with neighbouring states but was drawn into

f

Warren Hastings, oil painting by Tilly Kettle; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

846 I hat ► Hauptmann

the Maratha Wars. This disrupted the company’s trade and antagonized opinion in England, as did several dubious ventures Hastings entered into to raise extra funds. In 1785 he left India at peace and retired to England. In 1786 Edmund Burke introduced an impeachment process against him on charges of corruption; after a trial that lasted from 1788 to 1795, Hast¬ ings was acquitted.

hat Head covering of any of various styles, used for warmth, fashion, or religious or ceremonial purposes, when it often symbolizes the office or rank of the wearer. In the West, through the Middle Ages, men wore hats in the form of caps or hoods, and women wore veils, hoods, or head drap¬ eries. The silk top hat originated in Florence c. 1760. The derby (bowler) was introduced in 1850. The cloth cap with visor was for decades the international standard for workingmen and boys. Women’s hats went through periods of astonishing ostentation, the last being the years pre¬ ceding World War I. Since c. 1960 the wearing of hats by both men and women has greatly declined in the West. With 15th-century origins, the broad-brimmed sombrero is still popular in Mexico and parts of Latin America. The people of East Asia have devised head coverings as simple as the Chinese coolie hat, a one-piece flattened cone, and as elaborate and decorative as the Japanese cap-shaped kammuri of black lacquered silk decorated with an upright streamer and imperial chrysanthemum crest. In India the Gandhi cap, fez, and turban are in general use. In regions where the Ottoman Empire ruled (including the Balkans and North Africa), the traditional headgear of the fez and tarboosh remained popular for men until the 20th century. Farther east, from Iran to South Asia (as well as in parts of coastal Arabia), various types of turbans have been worn by men. In the Arabian interior, the Levant, and parts of Syria and Iraq, the kaf- fiyeh (sometimes called a ghutrah), a wide cloth held in place by a camel- hair cord ( c iqdl), remains customary, even for men sporting Western attire. In Israel the yarmulke is common, particularly among observant Jews.

Hat Act (1732) British law that restricted colonial manufacture and export of hats in competition with English hat makers, limiting the num¬ ber of apprentices and forbidding the use of blacks in the trade. Part of the mercantile policy that restricted trade by the colonies and subordi¬ nated them economically, it enabled English hatters to dominate markets formerly supplied by New England and New York manufacturers.

Hatch Act (1939, amended 1940) Legislation enacted by the U.S. Con¬ gress to eliminate corrupt practices in national elections. The bill was sponsored by Sen. Carl Hatch of New Mexico (1889-1963) in response to allegations that officials of the Works Progress Administration were using their positions to win votes for the Democratic Party in the 1936 election. It forbade intimidation or bribery of voters and restricted politi¬ cal campaign activities by federal employees. It also limited campaign contributions by individuals and spending by campaign committees.

hate crime In law, a crime directed at a person or persons on the basis of characteristics such as race, religion, ethnicity, or sexual orientation. The concept emerged in the U.S. in the late 1970s, and since then laws have been passed in many U.S. states mandating additional penalties for violent crimes motivated by bias or bigotry against particular groups. Several other Western countries, including Australia, Britain, and Canada, have adopted laws designed to curb violent crime against racial and reli¬ gious minorities. For example, German law forbids public incitement and instigation of racial hatred, including the distribution of Nazi propaganda.

Hatfields and McCoys Two families of the U.S. Appalachian Moun¬ tains who engaged in a backwoods feud in the late 19th century. The families, each with at least 13 children and numerous other relatives, lived on opposite sides of a border stream, the Hatfields in West Virginia and the McCoys in Kentucky. The feud may have originated in opposing alle¬ giances in the American Civil War. In 1882 the first murder of a Hatfield was followed by the murder of three McCoys. Retaliatory raids and mur¬ ders continued with little interference from local police. In 1888 a posse of McCoys led by a deputy sheriff captured nine Hatfields in West Vir¬ ginia and took them to Kentucky to stand trial for murder. West Virginia officials charged Kentucky officials with kidnapping. Newspapers nation¬ wide carried the story. The U.S. Supreme Court eventually ruled in favour of Kentucky. The trials resulted in one sentence of death and eight of imprisonment. Flare-ups gradually abated by the 1920s.

Hathor \'ha-tor\ or Athyr Va-'thirV In ancient Egyptian religion, the god¬ dess of the sky, of women, and of fertility and love. Her principal animal form was a cow, and she was strongly associated with motherhood. Her worship was linked at Heliopolis with that of Re, whose wife or daughter

she was said to be. In Upper Egypt she was worshiped with Horus, and in the necropolis at Thebes she was held to be the patroness of the dead.

Hatshepsut \hat-'shep-siit\ Queen of Egypt (c. 1472-58 bc). Daughter of Thutmose I and wife of Thutmose II, she first acted as regent for her stepson, Thutmose III, but soon ordered herself crowned as pharaoh.

She attained unprecedented power, adopting the titles and regalia of a pharaoh, complete with a false beard. She devoted much of the profit from expanded trade and trib¬ ute to an extensive building program, most notably to a splendid temple at Dayr al-Bahri. Thutmose III, who had become head of the army, suc¬ ceeded her; whether she died natu¬ rally or was deposed and killed is uncertain.

Hatta Vha-ta\, Mohammad (b.

Aug. 12, 1902, Bukittinggi, Dutch East Indies—d. March 14, 1980,

Jakarta, Indon.) Indonesian indepen¬ dence leader and prime minister (1948-50). While at school in The Netherlands (1922-32), he became president of a group of Indonesian nationalist students studying over¬ seas. He was imprisoned in a concentration camp in West New Guinea for his activities and then exiled to the island of Bandanaira. He collaborated with the Japanese during World War II. He became prime minister in 1948 and gained support from Western countries that year by suppressing a com¬ munist revolt. Hatta helped guide Indonesia to complete independence in 1949. He became vice president under Sukarno in 1950, but resigned in 1956. After Sukarno’s downfall, he served as an adviser to Suharto.

Hauhau Vhau-.hatA Member of the Pai Marire, a religious-military cult of the Maori people of New Zealand. The cult was founded in 1864 by Te Ua Haumene, who claimed to have been visited by the angel Gabriel and to have sacrificed his child in repentance for the straying of the Maori people. A mixture of Jewish, Christian, and Maori beliefs, the movement held that the Maori were a new chosen people and charged them with driving out the Europeans and recovering the ancestral lands. The effort failed, though fighting lasted until 1872. Some cult beliefs have persisted among the Maoris.

Hauptmann Vhaupt-.manN, Gerhart (Johann Robert) (b. Nov. 15, 1862, Bad Salzbrunn, Silesia,

Prussia—d. June 6, 1946, Agneten- dorf, Ger.) German playwright and poet. He studied sculpture before turning to literature in his early 20s.

His first play, the starkly realistic social drama Before Dawn (1889), made him famous and signaled the end of highly stylized German drama. His naturalistic plays on themes of social reality and proletar¬ ian tragedy, including The Weavers (1892), The Beaver Coat ( 1893), and Drayman Henschel (1898), made him the most prominent German playwright of his era. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1912. In his novels, stories, epic poems, and later plays, he abandoned naturalism for mystical religiosity and mythical symbolism.

Hauptmann Vhaupt- I man\ /

Moritz (b. Oct. 13, 1792, Dresden,

Saxony—d. Jan. 3, 1868, Leipzig) German musicologist. After studying composition and violin with Louis Spohr, he played in a number of orches¬ tras. From 1842 he was cantor of the music school at J.S. Bach’s former

Hatshepsut, limestone sculpture, c.

1485 bc; in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.

COURTESY OF THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW TORK, ROGERS FUND AND CONTRIBUTIONS FROM EDWARD S. HARKNESS, 1929

Gerhart Hauptmann, etching by Her¬ mann Struck, 1 904; in the Schiller- Nationalmuseum, Marbach, Ger.

COURTESY OF THE SCHILLER-NATIONALMUSEUM, MARBACH, GER

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Hausa ► Hawaiian I 847

church in Leipzig. In 1850 he cofounded the Bach Gesellschaft, devoted to publishing Bach’s complete works; he served as its president the rest of his life and edited its first three volumes. As a theorist, he is known for his emphasis on the harmonic dualism of major and minor (based on the philosophy of G.W.F. Hegel).

Hausa \'hau-so\ People of northwestern Nigeria and southern Niger. Their language, also called Hausa, is an Afroasiatic language of the Chadic group. The Hausa, numbering some 32 million, are the largest ethnic group in the area. In the mid 14th century a confederation of Hausa states was formed, influenced by the spread of Islam from the Mali empire. Hausa society traditionally was, and to some extent continues to be, organized on a feudal basis. The head of an emirate is surrounded by titled office¬ holders who hold villages as fiefs, from which their agents collect taxes. The economy has traditionally rested on agriculture, though craftwork and trade are also important. Hausa society is markedly hierarchical; the rank¬ ing, both of offices and social classes, is expressed in an elaborate eti¬ quette. See also Fulani.

Hausa Vhau-ss, 'hau-zo\ language Afro-Asiatic language of northern Nigeria and southern Niger. Hausa, which is spoken by some 31 million people, belongs to the Chadic branch of Afro-Asiatic. Outside of Hau- saland, communities of Hausa merchants have stimulated the use of Hausa as a lingua franca by tens of millions more across a broad area of the African Sahel and savanna region. Hausa is now customarily written in the Latin alphabet, introduced in the early 20th century, though writing in an adaptation of the Arabic alphabet, attested about a century earlier, con¬ tinues in Qur’anic schools and some other contexts.

hausen See beluga

Haushofer Vhaus-.ho-forV, Karl (Ernst) (b. Aug. 27, 1869, Munich, Bavaria—d. March 13, 1946, Pahl, W.Ger.) German officer and leading proponent of geopolitics. As an army officer in Japan (1908-10), he stud¬ ied its expansionist policies in Asia and later wrote several books on Japan’s role in 20th-century politics. After retiring from the army (1919), he founded the Journal for Geopolitics (1924) and taught at the Univer¬ sity of Munich (1921-39). Haushofer’s influence in military circles was considerable, and in World War II he attempted to justify Germany and Japan in their drives for world power. Investigated for war crimes after the war, he and his wife committed suicide.

Haussmarm \6s-'man\, Georges-Eugene later Baron Hauss- mann (b. March 27, 1809, Paris, Fr.—d. Jan. 11, 1891, Paris) French administrator and city planner. He entered the French civil service in 1831 and became prefect of the Seine department (1853-70). He inaugurated a wide-reaching program of municipal improvements in Paris, including a new water supply and sewage system, the creation of wide avenues through Paris’s mass of small streets, the landscape gardening of the Bois de Boulogne, and the construction of the Paris Opera and Les Halles mar¬ ket. Though the aesthetic merits of his creations are open to dispute, there is no doubt that as a town planner he exerted great influence on cities throughout the world.

Hauy \a-'w y e\, Rene-Just (b. Feb. 28, 1743, Saint-Just-en-Chaussee, France—d. June 1,1822, Paris) French mineralogist, one of the founders of the science of crystallography. He studied theology and was a professor at the College de Navarra for 21 years. He became a professor of mineralogy at the Museum of Natural History (1802) and at the Sorbonne (1809). By experimentation he derived a theory of crystal structure, and he subse¬ quently applied his theory to the classification of minerals. He also was known for his studies of pyroelectricity and piezoelectricity in crystals.

Havana Spanish La Habana \,la-a-'ba-na\ City, capital, and prov¬ ince (pop., 2001 est.: 2,181,500) of Cuba. The city lies on the island’s northern coast. The largest city in the Caribbean, it is Cuba’s chief port, and it has one of the best harbours in the Western Hemisphere. It was founded by the Spanish in 1515 and moved to its present location in 1519. The de facto capital of Cuba by 1553, it was Spain’s chief naval station in the New World. Its harbour was the scene of the destruction of the U.S. battleship Maine in 1898, the immediate cause of the Spanish-American War. Before 1959, when Fidel Castro came to power, Havana was a haven for U.S. tourists, offering gambling and showy nightlife. In addition to being Cuba’s commercial and industrial centre, it contains many build¬ ings of Spanish colonial style, including the 17th-century Cathedral of Havana, the Museum of the City of Havana, and Morro Castle. Old Havana and its fortifications are a UNESCO World Heritage site.

Havel \'ha-v3l\, Vaclav (b. Oct. 5, 1936, Prague, Czech.) Czech play¬ wright and dissident, first president of the Czech Republic (from 1993). He worked in a Prague theatre from 1959 and became resident playwright by 1968. His plays, including The Memorandum (1965), are absurdist, satirical examinations of bureaucratic routines that explore the moral com¬ promises made by those living under totalitarianism. They were banned by the communist authorities, and Havel was repeatedly arrested and imprisoned in the 1970s and ’80s. During antigovernment demonstrations in 1989, he became the leading figure in the Civic Forum, a coalition of groups pressing for democratic reforms. The Communist Party capitulated (in the bloodless “Velvet Revolution”) and formed a coalition government with the Civic Forum, and Havel was elected president in 1989. In 1993 he was elected president of the new Czech Republic.

Havel River \'ha-Pl\ River, northeastern Germany. It flows south out of Mecklenburg to Spandau (in Berlin), where it is joined by the Spree River. Curving past Potsdam and Brandenburg, the Havel heads northwest to join the Elbe River after a course of 213 mi (343 km). Over much of its course it forms part of a canal system that links the Elbe with the Oder River.

Havelok (the Dane) Vha-v9-,lak\ Middle English metrical romance of some 3,000 lines, written c. 1300. Of the literature produced after the Nor¬ man Conquest, it offers the first view of ordinary life. Composed in a Lin¬ colnshire dialect and containing many local traditions, it tells the story of the English princess Goldeboru and the orphaned Danish prince Havelok, who defeats a usurper to become king of Denmark and part of England.

Haverford College Private liberal arts college in Haverford, Pa., near Philadelphia. Founded by Quakers in 1833 as a men’s college, it became coeducational in 1980. It is consistently ranked as one of the top U.S. colleges. It maintains cooperative programs with Bryn Mawr and Swarth- more colleges and the University of Pennsylvania.

Havre, Le See Le Havre

Hawaii formerly Sandwich Islands State (pop., 2000: 1,211,537), U.S., comprising a group of islands in the central Pacific Ocean that cov¬ ers 6,459 sq mi (16,729 sq km). Its capital, Honolulu, lies 2,397 mi (3,857 km) west of San Francisco. The state’s major islands are, from west to east, Niihau, Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Kahoolawe, Maui, and Hawaii; there are more than 120 islets. The state’s active volcanoes include Mauna Loa and Kilauea. The majority of the state’s residents live on Oahu. The original Hawaiians were of Polynesian origin and came from the Mar¬ quesas Islands c. ad 400. Capt. James Cook visited the islands in 1778 and called them the Sandwich Islands. At the beginning of the 19th century, Kamehameha I united the group under his rule. American whalers began to stop there; they were followed in 1820 by New England missionaries, and Western influences changed the islands. While Kamehameha III in 1851 placed Hawaii under U.S. protection, a coup fomented by U.S. sugar interests resulted in the monarchy’s overthrow and the establishment of a Republic of Hawaii (1893). In 1898 the new republic and the U.S. agreed on annexation, and in 1900 Hawaii became a U.S. territory. The bomb¬ ing of Pearl Harbor by the Japanese in 1941 led to U.S. involvement in World War II, and Hawaii became a major naval station. Hawaii became the 50th state in 1959. Its largest industry is tourism. It is also a world astronomy centre, with telescopes atop Mauna Kea.

Hawaii Volcanic island, part of the state of Hawaii, U.S. It lies south of Maui and constitutes Hawaii county, with Hilo (pop., 2000: 40,759) the island’s main town. Known as the Big Island, it is the largest in area at 4,028 sq mi (10,433 sq km) and southeasternmost of the Hawaiian Island group. It is the youngest geologically and was formed by five vol¬ canoes connected by lava ridges. Kilauea, the world’s most active volcano, is located there in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. The island has other volcanic peaks, including Mauna Kea. Sugar, tourism, cattle, orchids, and coffee are the basis of the economy.

Hawaii Volcanoes National Park National preserve, southeast¬ ern shore of Hawaii island, U.S. Established in 1916, it occupies an area of 358 sq mi (927 sq km) and includes the active volcanoes Mauna Loa and Kilauea, 25 mi (40 km) apart. Other highlights are Kau Desert, an area of lava formations near Kilauea, and a tree-fern forest that receives nearly 100 in. (2,500 mm) of annual rainfall.

Hawaiian Any of the aboriginal people of Hawaii. They are the descen¬ dants of Polynesians who migrated to Hawaii in two waves: the first from the Marquesas Islands probably c. ad 400; the second from Tahiti in the 9th or 10th century. Without metals, pottery, or beasts of burden, Hawai-

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848 I Hawaiian goose ► hawthorn

ians made implements of stone, wood, shell, teeth, and bone. They had a highly developed oral culture and possessed percussion, string, and wind instruments. Their basic unit of land, the ahupuaa, usually extended from the shore to the mountaintop, providing the occupants with the means to grow and gather all they needed. Hawaiians had four principal gods and many lesser deities. Their laws, which included intricate taboos, bore heavily upon the people, especially women. After the arrival of Christian missionaries in 1820, some of the more repressive laws and taboos were abolished, but the native population was devastated by Western diseases. Numbering about 300,000 in 1778, full-blooded Hawaiians today num¬ ber fewer than 10,000.

Hawaiian goose See nene

hawk Any of many small to medium-sized, diurnal birds of prey, par¬ ticularly those in the genus Accipiter.

The term is often applied to other birds in the Accipitridae family (including buzzards, harriers, and kites) and sometimes to certain fal¬ cons. Hawks usually eat small mam¬ mals, reptiles, and insects but occasionally kill birds. There is often no difference in plumage between sexes. Hawks are found on the six major continents. Most nest in trees, but some nest on the ground or on cliffs. True hawks (accipiters) can usually be distinguished in flight by their long tails and short, rounded wings. They are exemplified by the 12-in (30-cm) sharp-shinned hawk (A. striatus), gray above with fine rusty barring below, found through¬ out much of the New World. See also GOSHAWK, SPARROW HAWK.

hawk moth or sphinx moth Any moth of the lepidopteran family Sphingidae. Found worldwide, these stout-bodied moths have long, nar¬ row forewings and shorter hind wings, with wingspans ranging from 2 to 8 in. (5-20 cm). Many species pollinate flowers while sucking nectar; the proboscis of some species is up to 13 in. (32.5 cm) long. Some hawk moths migrate. The larvae, which are smooth and have a dorsal “horn,” are called hornworms; larvae of two North American species—the tobacco, or southern, hornworm, and the tomato, or northern, hornworm—attack tomato, tobacco, and potato crops.

Hawkesbury River River, New South Wales, Australia. Rising in the Great Dividing Range, it flows 293 mi (472 km) northeast to the Tasman Sea north of Sydney. Known as the Wollondilly in its upper course and as the Warragamba after receiving the Nattai River, it becomes the Hawkes¬ bury after its junction with the Grose. It continues for 100 mi (160 km), becoming a salt tidal stream.

Hawking, Stephen W(illiam) (b. Jan. 8, 1942, Oxford, Oxford¬ shire, Eng.) English theoretical physicist. He studied at the University of Oxford and later received his Ph.D. from Cambridge. He has worked pri¬ marily in the field of general relativity and particularly on the physics of black holes. In 1971 he suggested that numerous objects, formed after the big bang, each had as much as one billion tons of mass but the size of only a proton. These “mini black holes” are unique in being subject to both the laws of relativity, due to their immense mass and gravity, and the laws of quantum mechanics, due to then - minute size. In 1974 he proposed that black holes “evaporate” by what is now known as Hawking radiation. His work greatly spurred efforts to delineate the properties of black holes. His work also showed the relationship of these properties to the laws of classical thermodynamics and quantum mechanics. Hawking’s achieve¬ ments, despite near-total paralysis from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, have earned him extraordinary honours. His books include the best-selling A Brief History of Time (1988).

Hawking radiation Radiation theoretically emitted from just outside the event horizon of a black hole. Stephen W. Hawking proposed in 1974 that subatomic particle pairs (photons, neutrinos, and some massive par¬ ticles) arising naturally near the event horizon may result in one particle’s escaping the vicinity of the black hole while the other particle, of nega¬

tive energy, disappears into it. The flow of particles of negative energy into the black hole reduces its mass until it disappears completely in a final burst of radiation.

Hawkins, Coleman (Randolph) (b. Nov. 21,1904, St. Joseph, Mo., U.S.—d. May 19, 1969, New York,

N.Y.) U.S. jazz musician. Hawkins came to prominence as a member of Fletcher Henderson’s big band (1924- 34), with which he absorbed the style of Louis Armstrong and developed the smooth legato phrasing and robust tone that set the technical standard for all tenor players. He worked in Europe (1934-39) and soon after his return recorded “Body and Soul,” which became a commercial success and one of the masterpieces of impro¬ vised jazz. Hawkins was the first important tenor saxophone soloist in jazz. He was receptive to the har¬ monic advances made by younger players, who widely acknowledged his influence.

Hawkins, Erick (b. April 23,

1909, Trinidad, Colo., U.S.—d. Nov. 23, 1994, New York, N.Y.) U.S. modern dancer. He worked with George Balanchine (1935-37) before join¬ ing the Martha Graham company in 1938. He became a leading dancer for the company, and he and Graham were married for a number of years. He stayed with her company until 1951, when he organized his own troupe and devoted himself to an approach based on kinesthetic awareness.

Hawkins, Sir John (b. 1532, Plymouth, Devon, Eng.—d. Nov. 12, 1595, at sea off Puerto Rico) English naval administrator and commander. A relative of Sir Francis Drake, he became a merchant in the African trade and the first English slave trader. After a successful slave-trading voyage in 1562-63, a group that included Elizabeth I provided money for a sec¬ ond expedition. A Spanish fleet attacked him on his third voyage (1567— 69, with Drake), beginning the quarrel between England and Spain that led to war in 1585. As treasurer (1577) and controller (1589) of the navy, he rebuilt older ships and helped design the faster ships that withstood the Spanish Armada in 1588. He later devised the naval blockade to intercept Spanish treasure ships. One of the foremost seamen of 16th-century England, he was the chief architect of the Elizabethan navy.

Hawks, Howard (Winchester) (b. May 30, 1896, Goshen, Ind., U.S.—d. Dec. 26, 1977, Palm Springs, Calif.) U.S. film director, screen¬ writer, and producer. He served as a pilot in World War I, then wrote screenplays in Hollywood (from 1922) and directed several projects before making his first major film, A Girl in Every Port (1928). A master technician and storyteller, he created a sense of intimacy by filming from eye level. He directed over 40 films (many of which he also produced and wrote) in a variety of genres: adventure ( The Dawn Patrol , 1930), crime (Scarface, 1932), comedy (Bringing Up Baby, 1938), war (Sergeant York, 1941), musicals (Gentlemen Prefer Blondes, 1953), film noir (The Big Sleep, 1946), science fiction (The Thing, 1951), and westerns (Red River, 1948; Rio Bravo, 1959).

hawkweed Any of the approxi¬ mately 200 species of weedy plants that make up the genus Hieracium, in the composite family, native to tem¬ perate regions. Mouse-ear hawk- weed (H. pilosella ), orange hawkweed (H. aurantiacum), and common hawkweed (H. vulgatum ) are widely distributed weeds. Some species are cultivated as garden ornamentals for their attractive flower clusters.

Hawr al-Hammar See Lake Hammar

hawthorn Any of various thorny shrubs or small trees of the genus

Red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis ).

ALAN CAREY

Coleman Hawkins, c. 1943.

REPRINTED WITH PERMISSION OF DOWN BEAT MAGAZINE

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Hawthorne ► Hayes I 849

Crataegus, in the rose family, native to the northern temperate zone. Many species are native to North America. The simple leaves are usually toothed or lobed. Hawthorns bear white or pink flowers, usually in clusters, and small applelike, red (rarely blue or black) fruits. Many cultivated varieties are grown as ornamentals for their attractive flowers and fruits. The haw¬ thorn is well suited for hedgerows; its combination of sturdy twigs, hard wood, and many thorns makes it a formidable barrier to cattle and hogs.

Hawthorne, Nathaniel (b. July 4, 1804, Salem, Mass., U.S.—d. May 19, 1864, Plymouth, N.H.) U.S. novelist and short-story writer.

Descended from Puritans, he was imbued with a deep moral earnest¬ ness. After producing several unex¬ ceptional works, he wrote some of his greatest tales, including “My Kinsman, Major Molineux” (1832),

“Roger Malvin’s Burial” (1832), and “Young Goodman Brown” (1835).

His story collections include Twice- Told Tales (1837), Mosses from an Old Manse (1846), and The Snow- Image (1851). He is best known for the novels The Scarlet Letter (1850), a story of adultery set in colonial New England considered to be one of the best American novels, and The House of the Seven Gables (1851), the story of a family that lives under a curse for generations. His later works include The Blithedale Romance (1852) and The Marble Faun (1860). A skilled literary craftsman and a master of allegory and symbol¬ ism, he ranks among the greatest American fiction writers.

Hay See Armenian

hay In agriculture, dried grasses and other foliage used as animal feed. Typical hay crops are timothy, alfalfa, and clover. Usually the material is cut in the field while still green and then either dried in the field or mechanically dried by forced hot air. Balers compress hay into tightly packed rectangular or cylindrical bales tied with wire or twine. Loose hay may also be “vacuumed” off the field and then blown into stacks in a barn or other storage facility. Properly cured hay with 20% or less moisture may be stored for months without danger of spoilage.

Hay, John (Milton) (b. Oct. 8, 1838, Salem, Ind., U.S.—d. July 1, 1905, Newbury, N.H.) U.S. diplomat and writer. He studied law in Spring- field, Ill., where he met Abraham Lincoln. He served as President Lincoln’s private secretary (1861-65) and then held diplomatic posts in Europe (1865-70). After writing editorials for the New York Tribune (1870-75), he served as assistant secretary of state (1879-81). He coauthored a 10-volume biography of Lincoln (1890). He was appointed ambassador to Britain (1897-98) by Pres. William McKinley. As secretary of state (1898-1905), Hay helped negotiate the end of the Spanish-American War, supported the decision to retain the Philippines for the U.S., promulgated the Open Door policy, and negotiated treaties that gave the U.S. an exclu¬ sive right to build the Panama Canal.

hay fever Seasonal sneezing, nasal congestion, and tearing and itch¬ ing of the eyes caused by allergy to the pollen of certain plants. These plants are chiefly those pollinated by the wind (e.g., ragweed in North America, timothy grass in Britain). Antihistamines and corticosteroids may provide temporary relief, but the most effective long-range treatment is desensitization. Unless properly treated, about one-third of patients with hay fever develop asthma.

Haya de la Torre \'a-ya-tha-la-'t6r-ra\, Victor Raul (b. Feb. 22, 1895, Trujillo, Peru—d. Aug. 2, 1979, Lima) Peruvian political theorist and activist. The son of wealthy parents, in 1914 he founded APRA, a left-of-centre reformist party. He ran for president repeatedly but was always thwarted by the military and other conservative forces. He spent much of his life in prison, exile, or hiding, influencing Peruvian politics through his underground activities and writings. See also indigenismo.

Hayashi Razan \ha-'ya-she-ra-'zan\ (b. August 1583, Kyoto, Japan—d. Feb. 4, 1657, Edo) Japanese Neo-Confucian scholar. Originally a student of Buddhism, he became a loyal adherent of Neo-Confucianism, and from 1607 he served the Tokugawa shogunate. He established the

Neo-Confucian teachings of Zhu Xi as the ideology of the shogunate, emphasizing loyalty and a hierarchical social order. Hayashi also reinter¬ preted Shinto from the point of view of Zhu Xi’s philosophy, laying the foundation for the Confucianized Shinto of later centuries. In 1630 the third Tokugawa shogun gave him an estate in Edo, where he founded an academy.

Haydarabad See Hyderabad

Haydn \'hl-d 3 n\, (Franz) Joseph (b. March 31, 1732, Rohrau, Austria—d. May 31, 1809, Vienna) Austrian composer. Intended for the priesthood, he was recruited at age eight to the choir at St. Stephen’s Church, Vienna, where he learned violin and keyboard. On leaving the choir, he began supporting himself by teaching and playing violin, while undertaking rigorous study of counterpoint and harmony. He came to the attention of Pietro Metastasio and through him became factotum to the com¬ poser Nicola Porpora in exchange for lessons. Gaining entree to high soci¬ ety, in 1761 he became head of the musical establishment at the great palace of the Esterhazy family, which would support him for most of his career. In this position of artistic isolation but with excellent resources, Haydn felt free to experiment and was forced to become original. By his late years he was recognized internationally as the greatest living composer. He com¬ posed important works in almost every genre, and his elegant and ingrati¬ ating works balance wit and seriousness, custom and innovation. The first great symphonist, he composed 108 symphonies, including the popular last 12 “London symphonies” (1791-95). He virtually invented the string quar¬ tet, and his 68 quartets remain the foundation of the quartet literature. His choral works include 15 masses and the oratorios The Creation (1798) and The Seasons (1801). He also wrote 48 piano sonatas and more than 100 beautiful works for the cello-like baryton. The principal shaper of the Clas¬ sical style, he exerted major influence on his friend Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and on his student Ludwig van Beethoven.

Hayek Vhi-ak\, Friedrich (August) von (b. May 8, 1899, Vienna, Austria—d. March 23, 1992, Freiburg, Ger.) Austrian-born British econo¬ mist. He moved to London in 1931 and held positions at the University of London and the London School of Economics, becoming a British citi¬ zen in 1938. Later posts included a professorship at the University of Chicago (1950-62). Throughout his life Hayek criticized socialism, often contrasting it with a system of free markets. In his works he opposed the theories of John Maynard Keynes and argued that government intervention in the free market is destructive of individual values and could not pre¬ vent such economic ailments as inflation, unemployment, and recession. His books include The Road to Serfdom (1944), The Constitution of Lib¬ erty (1960), and The Political Order of a Free People (1979). His views have been highly influential among conservatives, including Margaret Thatcher. In 1974 he shared the Nobel Prize with Gunnar Myrdal.

Hayes, Bob in full Robert Lee Hayes (b. Dec. 20, 1942, Jackson¬ ville, Fla., U.S.—d. Sept. 18, 2002, Jacksonville) U.S. sprinter and foot¬ ball player. He was a star sprinter and running back for Florida A&M University. In 1963 he set a world record (9.1 seconds) in the 100-yard dash that stood for 11 years. At the 1964 Olympic Games in Tokyo he won gold medals in the 100-m event and the 4 x 100-m relay; his remark¬ able performance in the latter event—his relay split was 8.6 seconds— helped earn him the unofficial title “World’s Fastest Human.” He later joined the Dallas Cowboys football team of the NFL as a wide receiver (1965-76) and kick returner and was a member of the 1972 team that won the Super Bowl.

Hayes (Brown), Helen (b. Oct. 10, 1900, Washington, D.C., U.S.—d. March 17, 1993, Nyack, N.Y.) U.S. actress. She began her stage career at age five and made her Broadway debut at nine. She went on to an illustrious career, starring in Broadway productions such as Caesar and Cleopatra (1925), What Every Woman Knows (1926), and The Animal Kingdom (1932) and became known as “the First Lady of the American Theatre.” Her small physical size belied a majestic stage presence that made her memorable in Mary of Scotland (1933—34) and Victoria Regina (1935-39). She starred in revivals of The Skin of Our Teeth (1955), The Glass Menagerie (1956), and Long Day’s Journey into Night (1971), acted in numerous radio and television plays, and won Academy Awards for her films The Sin ofMadelon Claudet{ 1931) and Airport (1970), three Tony Awards, and the Presidential Medal of Freedom. She was married to Charles MacArthur.

Hayes, Rutherford B(irchard) (b. Oct. 4, 1822, Delaware, Ohio, U.S.—d. Jan. 17, 1893, Fremont, Ohio) 19th president of the U.S. (1877—

Nathaniel Hawthorne, photograph by Mathew Brady.

THE GRANGER COLLECTION, NEW YORK CITY

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

850 I Haymarket Riot ► headhunting

81). He practiced law in Cincinnati,

Ohio, where he represented defen¬ dants in several fugitive-slave cases and became associated with the new Republican Party. After fighting in the Union army in the American Civil War, he served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1865-67). As gov¬ ernor of Ohio (1868-72, 1875-76), he advocated a sound currency backed by gold. In 1876 he won the Republican nomination for presi¬ dent. His opponent, Samuel Tilden, won a larger popular vote, but the Hayes campaign contested the electoral-vote returns in four states, and a special Electoral Commission awarded the election to Hayes. As part of a secret compromise reached with Southerners during the electoral dispute (see Wormley Conference),

Hayes withdrew the remaining federal troops from the South, ending Reconstruction, and promised not to interfere with elections there, ensur¬ ing the return of white supremacy. His decision to introduce civil-service reform based on merit provoked a dispute with Roscoe Conkling and the conservative “stalwart” Republicans. At the request of state governors, Hayes used federal troops against railroad strikers in 1877. Declining to run for a second term, he retired to work for humanitarian causes.

Haymarket Riot (May 4, 1886) Violent confrontation between police and labour protesters in Chicago that dramatized the labour movement’s struggle for recognition. Radical unionists had called a mass meeting in Haymarket Square to protest police brutality in a strike action. A bomb was thrown into the crowd, killing seven policemen and injuring 60 oth¬ ers. Police and workers fired on each other. Public demand for action led to the arrest of eight anarchists (see anarchism). Convicted of conspiracy to murder, they were sentenced to death; four were executed and one committed suicide. In 1893 the three survivors were pardoned by Illinois Gov. John Peter Altgeld.

Hayne, Robert Young (b. Nov. 10, 1791, Colleton District, S.C., U.S.—d. Sept. 24, 1839, Asheville, N.C.) U.S. politician. In 1823 he entered the U.S. Senate, where he became a spokesman for the South and the doctrine of states' rights. In his famous 1830 debate with Daniel Web¬ ster on the Constitution, he argued that the federal Constitution was a compact among the states and that any state might nullify a federal law that it considered in violation of the constitutional compact (see nullifica¬ tion). At the South Carolina nullification convention in 1832, he devel¬ oped an ordinance that declared federal tariff laws null and void in the state. Resigning from the Senate in 1832, he served as governor of South Carolina (1832-34) and as mayor of Charleston (1834-37).

Hays Off ice formally Motion Picture Producers and Distribu¬ tors of America U.S. organization that promulgated a moral code for films. In 1922, after a number of scandals involving Hollywood person¬ alities, film industry leaders formed the organization to counteract the threat of government censorship and to create favourable publicity for the industry. Under Will H. Hays (1879-1954), a politically active lawyer, it initiated a blacklist, inserted morals clauses into actors’ contracts, and in 1930 developed a Production Code that detailed what was morally accept¬ able on the screen. The code was supplanted in 1966 by a voluntary rat¬ ing system.

Haywood, William D(udley) (b. Feb. 4,1869, Salt Lake City, Utah, U.S.—d. May 18,1928, Moscow, Russia) U.S. labour leader. A miner from the age of 15, he chaired the founding convention of the Industrial Workers of the World in 1905 and led its organizing efforts. In 1907 he was acquitted of a charge of involvement in the murder of Idaho’s antilabour former gov¬ ernor, Frank Steunenberg (1861-1905). “Big Bill” Haywood then under¬ took a speaking tour for the Socialist Party and supported numerous strikes. He was later forced out of the party for advocating violence. In 1917 he was convicted of sedition for his opposition to World War I and sentenced to 20 years in prison; in 1921, while free on bail, he fled to Russia.

Hayworth, Rita orig. Margarita Carmen Cansino (b. Oct. 17, 1918, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.—d. May 14, 1987, New York City) U.S. film

actress. She danced with her father in nightclubs from age 12 and played bit parts in films from 1935. She cultivated a sophisticated glamour in Only Angels Have Wings (1939), Strawberry Blonde (1941), and Blood and Sand (1941). The musicals You’ll Never Get Rich (1941), You Were Never Lovelier (1942), and Cover Girl (1944) made her a star and a favourite pinup of U.S. GIs during World War II. Her worldly, erotic role in Gilda (1946) confirmed her status in Hollywood as “the Love God¬ dess.” Her later films include The Lady from Shanghai (1948), Pal Joey (1957), and Separate Tables (1958).

hazel See filbert

Hazeltine Vha-zol-.tinV (Louis) Alan (b. Aug. 7, 1886, Morristown, N.J., U.S.—d. May 24, 1964, Maplewood, N.J.) U.S. electrical engineer and physicist. In the early 1920s he invented the neutrodyne circuit, which made commercial radio possible by neutralizing the noise that plagued all radio receivers of the time; by 1927 some 10 million radio receivers were using the device. Hazeltine later advised the U.S. government on regu¬ lation of radio broadcasting, and during World War II he served on the National Defense Research Committee.

Hazlitt, William (b. April 10, 1778, Maidstone, Kent, Eng.—d. Sept. 18, 1830, Soho, London) British essayist. He studied for the ministry, but to remedy his poverty he became instead a prolific critic, essayist, and lecturer. He began contributing to journals, notably to The Examiner , and to essay collections, such as The Round Table (1817). His lecture courses were published as On the English Poets (1818) and On the English Comic Writers (1819). Many of his most brilliant essays appeared in his two best-known books, Table Talk (1821) and The Plain Speaker (1826). The Spirit of the Age (1825) contains some of his most effective writing.

H.D. See Hilda Doolittle

Head, Bessie orig. Bessie Amelia Emery (b. July 6, 1937, Pieter¬ maritzburg, S.Af.—d. April 17, 1986, Serowe, Bots.) South African-bom Botswanan writer. Born of an illegal union between a white mother and a black father, she suffered rejection and alienation from an early age. She described the contradictions and shortcomings of pre- and postcolonial African society in morally didactic novels and stories, including When Rain Clouds Gather (1969), Maru (1971), A Question of Power (1973), The Collector of Treasures (1977), Serowe, Village of the Rainwind (1981), A Bewitched Crossroad (1984), and The Cardinals (1993).

Head, Edith (b. Oct. 28, 1897, San Bernardino, Calif., U.S.—d. Oct. 24, 1981, Hollywood, Calif.) U.S. costume designer. She became chief designer at Paramount Pictures in 1933 and later worked at Universal. Hollywood’s best-known designer, she was noted for the wide range of her costumes, from the elegantly simple to the elaborately flamboyant. She won a record eight Academy Awards for her work in films such as All About Eve (1950), Roman Holiday (1953), and The Sting (1973).

head louse See human louse head rhyme See alliteration

headache Pain in the upper portion of the head. Episodic tension head¬ aches are the most common, usually causing mild to moderate pain on both sides. They result from sustained contraction of face and neck muscles, often due to fatigue, stress, or frustration. Headaches are treated with aspirin, acetaminophen, or other NSAIDs. Chronic daily headaches are similar but more frequent. They usually have a psychological cause and respond to certain antidepressants. They may also come from overuse of pain relievers. Migraine and cluster headaches are vascular headaches. Headaches may also be caused by distension of arteries at the base of the brain, from fever, hangover, or an attack of high blood pressure. Head¬ ache can be a symptom of meningitis, hemorrhagic stroke, or tumour.

Heade Yhed\, Martin Johnson (b. Aug. 11, 1819, Lumberville, Pa., U.S.—d. Sept. 4, 1904, St. Augustine, Fla.) U.S. painter. He studied in Europe and Britain, then returned to the U.S. to take up portrait and land¬ scape painting. An avid naturalist, he made extensive trips in South and Central America and the Caribbean (1863-70), where he produced lumi¬ nous, meticulously detailed images of the tropical forests and landscapes. The New England coast and the rocky shore of Lake George, N.Y., also inspired notable paintings. He was a leading exponent of luminism.

headhunting Practice of removing, displaying, and in some cases pre¬ serving human heads. Headhunting arises in some cultures from a belief in the existence of a more or less material soul that resides in the head.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

health ► heart I 851

The headhunter seeks, through decapitation of his enemies, to transfer this soul matter to himself and his community. Headhunting is thus sometimes found with certain forms of cannibalism as well as with human sacrifice. It has been practiced worldwide and may date to Paleolithic times. The region of Assam in northeastern India was home to many headhunting peoples. In South America, the skull was removed and the skin was packed with hot sand to create a shrunken head.

health Extent of continuing physical, emotional, mental, and social abil¬ ity to cope with one’s environment. Good health is harder to define than bad health (which can be equated with presence of disease) because it must convey a more positive concept than mere absence of disease, and there is a variable area between health and disease. A person may be in good physical condition but have a cold or be mentally ill. Someone may appear healthy but have a serious condition (e.g., cancer) that is detect¬ able only by physical examination or diagnostic tests or not even by these.

health insurance System for the advance financing of medical expenses through contributions or taxes paid into a common fund to pay for all or part of health services specified in an insurance policy or law. The key elements are advance payment of premiums or taxes, pooling of funds, and eligibility for benefits on the basis of contributions or employ¬ ment without an income or assets test. Health insurance may apply to a limited or comprehensive range of medical services and may provide for full or partial payment of the costs of specific services. Benefits may con¬ sist of the right to certain medical services or reimbursement of the insured for specified medical costs. Private health insurance is organized and administered by an insurance company or other private agency; public health insurance is run by the government (see social insurance). Both forms of health insurance are to be distinguished from socialized medi¬ cine and government medical-care programs, in which doctors are employed directly or indirectly by the goverment, which also owns the health-care facilities (e.g., Britain’s National Health Service). See also

INSURANCE.

health maintenance organization (HMO) Public or private organization providing comprehensive medical care to subscribers on the basis of a prepaid contract. HMOs deliver a broad range of health ser¬ vices for a fixed fee. In the prepaid group-practice model, physicians are organized into a group practice with one insuring agency. A medical care foundation, or individual practice association, usually involves multiple insurance companies and reimburses members of a loose network of indi¬ vidual physicians from subscribers’ prepaid fees. Originally viewed as a way to control health-care costs and meet increased demand for health services, HMOs have become controversial because some limit care by refusing to pay for tests or treatment against their own doctors’ advice.

Healy, T(imothy) M(ichael) (b. May 17, 1855, Bantry, County Cork, Ire.—d. March 26, 1931, Dublin) Irish political leader. Soon after he entered Parliament in 1880, the “Healy Clause” of the Land Act of 1881, protecting tenant farmers’ agrarian improvements from rent increases, made him popular in Ireland. Long associated with Charles Stewart Parnell, he broke with him in 1886. He grew dissatisfied with both the Liberals and the Irish Nationalists in the wake of the 1916 Easter Rising, and after 1917 he supported Sinn Fein. He was supported by both the British and Irish min¬ istries as governor-general (1922-28) of the new Irish Free State.

Heaney \'he-ne\, Seamus (Justin) (b. April 13, 1939, near Cas- tledawson. County Londonderry, N.Ire.) Irish poet. After studying at Queen’s University in Belfast, he became a teacher and lecturer. Appalled by the violence in his native Northern Ireland, he moved to the Republic of Ireland in 1972. In recent years he has taught at Harvard, Oxford, and Cambridge. His works, rooted in Northern Irish rural life, evoke histori¬ cal events and draw on Irish myth, but they also reflect the land’s recent troubled decades. His collections include Death of a Naturalist (1966), Door into the Dark (1969), North (1975), Station Island (1984), The Haw Lantern (1987), Seeing Things (1991), and The Spirit Level (1996). Pre¬ occupations (1980) consists of essays on poetry and poets. He also made a noteworthy translation of Beowulf. He received the Nobel Prize for Lit¬ erature in 1995.

hearing In law, a trial, or more specifically the formal examination of a cause before a judge according to the laws of the land. In popular usage the term often refers to a formal proceeding before a magistrate prior to the inception of a case, and in particular to a preliminary hearing, where a magistrate or judge determines whether the evidence justifies proceed¬ ing with the case.

hearing or audition or sound reception Physiological process of perceiving sound. Hearing entails the transformation of sound vibrations into nerve impulses, which travel to the brain and are interpreted as sounds. Members of two animal groups, arthropods and vertebrates, are capable of sound reception. Hearing enables an animal to sense danger, locate food, find mates, and, in more complex creatures, engage in com¬ munication (see animal communication). All vertebrates have two ears, often with an inner chamber housing auditory hair cells (papillae) and an outer eardrum that receives and transmits sound vibrations. Localization of sound depends on the recognition of minute differences in intensity and in the time of arrival of the sound at the two ears. Sound reception in mammals is generally well developed and often highly specialized, as in bats and dolphins, which use echolocation, and whales and elephants, which can hear mating calls from tens or even hundreds of miles away. Dogs and other canines can similarly detect faraway sounds. The human ear can detect frequencies of 20-20,000 hertz (Hz); it is most sensitive to those between 1,000 and 3,000 Hz. Impulses travel along the central auditory pathway from the cochlear nerve to the medulla to the cerebral cortex. Hearing may be impaired by disease, injury, or old age; some dis¬ orders, including deafness, may be congenital. See also hearing aid.

hearing aid Device that increases the loudness of sounds in the user’s EAR. Its principal components are a microphone, an amplifier, and an ear¬ phone. Hearing aids are increasingly smaller and less conspicuous, fitting behind the earlobe or within the ear canal. They have widely differing characteristics, amplifying different components of speech sounds for maximum comprehension by each wearer. Hearing aids with automatic volume control vary the amplification automatically with the input.

Hearn, (Patricio) Lafcadio (Tessima Carlos) Japanese Koi¬ zumi Yalcumo (b. June 27, 1850, Levkas, Ionian Islands, Greece—d. Sept. 26, 1904, Okubo, Japan) Irish-U.S.-Japanese writer, translator, and teacher. He immigrated to the U.S. at age 19 and worked as a reporter and translator, writing on a wide range of subjects. In 1890 he traveled as a magazine writer to Japan, where he soon became a teacher, took a Japa¬ nese wife and name, and became a Japanese subject. Articles and books about Japan’s customs, religion, and literature followed, including Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan (1894), Exotics and Retrospective (1898), In Ghostly Japan (1899), Shadowings (1900), and A Japanese Miscellany (1901); Kwaidan (1904) is a collection of supernatural stories and haiku translations. It was Hearn who, perhaps more than any other single per¬ son, introduced the broad culture of Japan to the West.

Hearst VhorstV William Randolph (b. April 29, 1863, San Fran¬ cisco, Calif., U.S.—d. Aug. 14,

1951, Beverly Hills, Calif.) U.S. newspaper publisher. Hearst in 1887 took over the struggling San Fran¬ cisco Examiner, which he remade into a successful blend of investiga¬ tive reporting and lurid sensational¬ ism. After buying the New York Morning Journal (later New York Journal-American) in 1895, he fought fierce circulation wars with other papers and helped bring about the era of yellow journalism, employ¬ ing circulation-boosting strategems that profoundly influenced U.S. jour¬ nalism. Distorted reportage in Hearst papers fanned public sentiment against Spain that led to the Spanish- American War. He served in Con¬ gress (1903-07) but ran unsuccessfully for other offices. In the 1920s he built a grandiose castle in San Simeon, Calif. At the peak of his fortune in 1935 he owned 28 major newspapers, 18 magazines, radio stations, movie companies, and news services. Extravagance and the Depression weakened him financially, and by 1940 he had lost control of his empire. He spent his last years in virtual seclusion.

heart Organ that pumps blood, circulating it to all parts of the body (see circulation). The human heart is a four-chambered double pump with its right and left sides fully separated by a septum and subdivided on both sides into an atrium above and a ventricle below. The right atrium receives venous blood from the superior and inferior venae cavae (see vena cava)

William Randolph Hearst, 1906.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

852 I heart attack ► heat pump

and propels it into the pulmonary circulation. The left atrium takes in blood from the pulmonary veins and sends it into the systemic circula¬ tion. Electrical signals from a natural pacemaker cause the heart muscle to contract. Valves in the heart keep blood flowing in one direction. Their snapping shut after each contraction causes the sounds heard as the heart¬ beat. See also cardiovascular system.

tricuspid

valve

right ventricle

inferior - vena cava

left common carotid artery -left subclavian artery

aorta

left

pulmonary artery

pulmonary trunk

left veins left atrium (auricle) mitral valve pulmonary valve

papillary

muscle

left

ventricle

septum

artery right

pulmonary artery superior vena cava

right pulmonary veins

right

atrium

Structure of the human heart. Oxygen-rich blood from the lungs enters the heart through the pulmonary veins, passing into the left atrium and on to the left ventricle. Contraction of the muscles of the left ventricle forces blood into the aorta. The mitral valve prevents blood from moving back into the left atrium during contraction. Vari¬ ous arteries branch off from the aorta to supply blood to all parts of the body. Oxygen-poor blood draining from the body into the superior vena cava and infe¬ rior vena cava flows to the right atrium, through the tricuspid valve, and into the right ventricle. As the right ventricle contracts, oxygen-poor blood passes through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary arteries and on to the lungs to receive oxy¬

gen.

© MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

heart attack or myocardial infarction Death of a section of heart muscle when its blood supply is cut off, usually by a blood clot in a coro¬ nary artery narrowed by atherosclerosis. Hypertension, diabetes mellitus, high cholesterol, cigarette smoking, and coronary heart disease increase the risk. Symptoms include severe chest pain, often radiating to the left arm, and shortness of breath. Up to 20% of victims die before reaching the hos¬ pital. Diagnosis is done by electrocardiography and by analysis for enzymes in the blood. Treatment aims to limit the area of tissue death (infarct) and prevent and treat complications. Thrombolytic (clot-dissolving) drugs may be administered. Beta-blockers alleviate pain and slow the heart rate. Angioplasty or coronary bypass restores blood flow to heart muscle. Follow-up may include drugs, exercise programs, and counseling on diet and lifestyle changes.

heart clam See cockle

heart disease Any disorder of the heart. Examples include coronary HEART DISEASE, CONGENITAL HEART DISEASE, and PULMONARY HEART DISEASE, as well as rheumatic heart disease (see rheumatic fever), hypertension, inflamma¬ tion of the heart muscle (myocarditis) or of its inner or outer membrane (endocarditis, pericarditis), and heart valve disease. Abnormalities of the heart’s natural pacemaker or of the nerves that conduct its impulses cause arrhythmias. Some connective tissue diseases (notably systemic lupus erythe¬ matosus, rheumatoid arthritis, and scleroderma) can affect the heart. Heart failure may result from many of these disorders.

heart failure Inability of one or both sides of the heart to pump enough blood for the body. Causes include pulmonary heart disease, hypertension, and coronary atherosclerosis. A person with left-sided heart failure expe¬ riences shortness of breath after exertion, difficulty in breathing while

lying down and night breathlessness, and abnormally high pressure in the pulmonary veins. A person with right-sided failure experiences abnor¬ mally high pressure in the systemic veins, liver enlargement, and accu¬ mulation of fluid in the legs. A person with failure of both ventricles has an enlarged heart and a three-beat heartbeat. Treatment includes bed rest, medications such as digitalis, control of excess salt and water retention, and elimination of the underlying cause. See also congestive heart failure.

heart transplant Procedure to remove a diseased heart and replace it with a healthy one from a legally dead donor. The first was performed in 1967 by Christiaan Barnard. The diseased heart is removed (except for some atrial tissue to preserve nerve connections to the natural pacemaker). The new heart is put in place and connected to the recipient’s blood ves¬ sels. Patients and donors are matched for tissue type, but the patient’s immune system must still be suppressed to prevent rejection (see immuno¬ suppression). A successful transplant can enable the recipient to have an active life for many years.

heartwood Dead, central wood of trees. Its cells usually contain tan¬ nins or other substances that make it dark and sometimes fragrant. Heart- wood is mechanically strong, resistant to decay, and less easily penetrated by wood-preservative chemicals than other types of wood. One or more layers of living and functional sapwood cells are periodically converted to heartwood.

heartworm Species (Dirofilaria immitis) of filarial worm that parasit¬ izes mammals, especially dogs. Up to 500 adult heartworms, which can grow to 6-12 in. (15-30 cm) long, live in the dog’s heart, and the microfi¬ lariae (embryonic larvae) pass into the blood. Mosquitoes transfer infested blood from dog to dog. Both adult and larval heartworms tax the heart and restrict blood flow to the lungs, kidneys, and liver. By the time vis¬ ible symptoms (chronic cough, labored breathing, listlessness, heart fail¬ ure) develop, it may be too late for treatment. Preventive medicines and treatments, including surgery, exist.

heat Energy transferred from one body to another as the result of a dif¬ ference in temperature. Heat flows from a hotter body to a colder body when the two bodies are brought together. This transfer of energy usually results in an increase in the temperature of the colder body and a decrease in that of the hotter body. A substance may absorb heat without an increase in temperature as it changes from one phase to another—that is, when it melts or boils. The distinction between heat (a form of energy) and tem¬ perature (a measure of the amount of energy) was clarified in the 19th century by such scientists as J.-B. Fourier, Gustav Kirchhoff, and Ludwig Boltzmann.

heat capacity Ratio of heat absorbed by a material to the change in temperature. It is usually expressed as calories per degree in terms of the amount of the material being considered. Heat capacity and its tempera¬ ture variation depend on differences in energy levels for atoms. Heat capacities are measured with a calorimeter and are important as a means of determining the entropies of materials. See also specific heat.

heat exchanger Any of several devices that transfer heat from a hot to a cold fluid. In many engineering applications, one fluid needs to be heated and another cooled, a requirement economically accomplished by a heat exchanger. In double-pipe exchangers, one fluid flows inside the inner pipe, and the other in the annular space between the two pipes. In shell-and-tube exchangers, many tubes are mounted inside a shell; one fluid flows in the tubes and the other flows in the shell, outside the tubes. Special-purpose devices such as boilers, evaporators, superheaters, con¬ densers, and coolers are all heat exchangers. Heat exchangers are used extensively in fossil-fuel and nuclear power plants, gas turbines, heating and air conditioning, refrigeration, and the chemical industry. See also COOLING SYSTEM.

heat exhaustion or heat prostration Response of the body to excessive heat. The body temperature rises moderately and heavy perspi¬ ration persists. Heat exhaustion results from inadequate water and salt intake and can lead to dehydration and collapse. It may progress to heat¬ stroke if not treated by lying down in a cool place and drinking fluids, preferably water with salt added.

heat pump Device for transferring heat from a substance or space at one temperature to another at a higher temperature. It consists of a com¬ pressor, a condenser, a throttle or expansion valve, an evaporator, and a working fluid (refrigerant). The compressor delivers vapourized refriger¬ ant to the condenser in the space to be heated. There, cooler air condenses

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

heat-treating ► heavy spar I 853

the refrigerant and becomes heated during the process. The liquid refrig¬ erant then enters the throttle valve and expands, coming out as a liquid- vapour mixture at a lower temperature and pressure. It then enters the evaporator, where the liquid is evaporated by contact with the warmer space. The vapour then passes to the compressor and the cycle is repeated. A heat pump is a reversible system and is commonly used both to heat and to cool buildings. It operates on the same thermodynamic principles as REFRIGERATION.

heat-treating Changing the properties of materials such as metals or glass by processes involving heating. It is used to harden, soften, or modify other properties of materials that have different crystal structures at low and high temperatures. The type of transformation depends on the temperature that the material is heated to, how fast it is heated, how long it is kept heated, what temperature it is first cooled to, and how fast it is cooled. For example, quenching hardens steel by heating it to high tem¬ peratures and then quickly immersing it in room temperature oil, water, or salt brine to “freeze” the new crystal structure; in cryogenic treatments the cooling bath ranges from -180 to -70 °C (-300 to -100 °F), and it is often used in treating high-carbon and high-alloy steels. The two main approaches to softening a metal (to restore its ductility) are annealing, in which its temperature is slowly raised, held for some time, and slowly cooled, and tempering, in which it is slowly heated in an oil bath and held for some hours.

Heath, Sir Edward (Richard George) (b. July 9, 1916, Broad- stairs, Kent, Eng.—d. July 17, 2005, Salisbury, Wiltshire) British politi¬ cian, prime minister of Britain (1970-74). He held various government positions after being elected to Parliament in 1950, and after the Conser¬ vative defeat in 1964 he became a major opposition figure. As prime min¬ ister, he faced the crisis of violent conflict in Northern Ireland, over which he imposed direct British rule in 1972, and won French acceptance of British entry into the European Economic Community. Unable to cope with Britain’s mounting economic problems, chiefly rising inflation and unem¬ ployment and crippling labour strikes, he was succeeded as prime min¬ ister by Harold Wilson in 1974 and replaced as party leader by Margaret Thatcher in 1975. Heath, who was knighted in 1992, remained in the House of Commons until 2001.

heath family Family Ericaceae, made up mostly of shrubs and small trees, including azaleas, rhododendrons, mountain laurel, blueberries, and the low evergreen shrubs of the genus Erica (see erica). A large percent¬ age of the family’s approximately 110 genera and 4,000 species are cul¬ tivated. Members are widely distributed, extending into the subarctic and along mountain chains through the tropics. They are often evergreen spe¬ cies that thrive on open, barren land with usually acid and poorly drained soils. See also heather.

Heathcoat, John (b. Aug. 7, 1783, Duffield, Derbyshire, Eng.—d. Jan. 18, 1861, Tiverton, Devon) British inventor. The lacemaking machine he patented in 1809, the most complex textile machine then in existence, produced an exact imitation of handmade pillow lace. His lace factory was destroyed by Luddites in 1816. He later developed means for orna¬ menting net in the course of manufacture, for making ribbons as well as plaited and twisted net, and for winding raw silk from cocoons.

heather or Scotch heather Low evergreen shrub (Calluna vulgaris ) of the heath family, widespread in western Europe and Asia, North America, and Greenland. It is the chief vegetation on many wastelands of northern and western Europe. C. vulgaris is distinguished from true heaths, which are sometimes loosely called heather, by the lobes of its calyx (see flower), which conceal the petals; in true heaths the petals cover the calyx. Scotch heather has purple stems, close-leaved green shoots, and feathery spikes of bell-shaped flowers. It has various economic uses: large stems are made into brooms, shorter ones are tied into bundles that serve as brushes, and long trailing shoots are woven into baskets.

heating Process of raising the temperature of an enclosed space. Heat can be delivered by convection, radiation, and thermal conduction. With the exception of the ancient Romans, who developed a form of central heating, most cultures relied on direct heating methods such as fireplaces and stoves. Central heating, adopted for use again in the 19th century, is a method of indirect heating: heat is produced away from the occupants and then conveyed to them. In warm-air heating, air heated by a furnace rises through ducts to rooms above, where it is emitted through grills. In hot-water systems, a pump circulates water from a boiler through a sys¬ tem of pipes to radiators or convectors in rooms. In steam systems, steam

is generated in the boiler and led to radiators through pipes. The high temperature of the steam makes it hard to control, and steam heating has been largely superseded. A common type of electric heating system con¬ verts electric current to heat by means of resistors that emit radiant energy. See also radiant heating, solar heating.

heatstroke Debility caused by exposure to heat and humidity, usually for many hours, called sunstroke when caused by direct sunlight. Body temperature is 106-110°F (41^J3°C) or higher. Perspiration almost stops, leading to the rapid temperature rise, collapse, and coma. Cooling with ice-water baths or packs, with massage to promote circulation, is urgent to save the victim’s life. Even after body temperature drops, circulatory disorder and brain damage may cause death. See also heat exhaustion.

heaven Dwelling place of God or the gods and the abode of the blessed dead. The term also refers to the celestial sphere, the place of the sun, moon, planets, and stars and the source of light, which symbolizes good. For later Judaism and Chris¬ tianity, heaven is the destination of the faithful after a general resurrec¬ tion of the dead, in contrast to hell, the place of punishment for the wicked. Islam has a similar belief. In Chinese religion, heaven is equated with the divine will, which guides the operation of all physical and moral laws. In some Mahay ana Bud¬ dhist sects, heaven is a paradise for those who have received the saving grace of Amitabha.

Heaven's Gate U.S. religious group that committed mass suicide in 1997 and that had been founded on a belief in unidentified flying objects. Established by Marshall H.

Applewhite (1932-1997) and Bon¬ nie Nettles (1927-1985) in 1972, the group assumed a variety of names over the years, including Human Individual Metamorphosis. As prepara¬ tion for the “transition” to a new life on a spaceship, it advocated self- renunciation to the point of castration. Settling finally in the San Diego area in 1996, the group support itself by creating sites on the World Wide Web and quietly preparing for the end time. They believed that the comet Hale-Bopp was followed by a spaceship that would take them to a better place. On March 26, 1997, as the comet approached, the remaining 39 members of the group took poison and committed suicide in a carefully orchestrated manner.

Heaviside Vhe-ve-,sld\, Oliver (b. May 18, 1850, London, Eng.—d. Feb. 3, 1925, Torquay, Devon) English physicist. In 1902 he predicted the presence of the ionosphere. Since Arthur Kennelly (1861-1939) had made a similar prediction, the ionosphere was long known as the Kennelly- Heaviside layer. Heaviside’s work on telephone theory made long¬ distance service practical. In his Electromagnetic Theory (1893-1912) he postulated that an electric charge would increase in mass as its velocity increased, anticipating one aspect of Albert Einstein’s special theory of relativity. He also developed the system of mathematical transforms known as Heaviside calculus.

heavy hydrogen See deuterium

heavy metal Type of rock music marked by highly amplified, distorted “power chords” on electric guitar, a hard beat, thumping bass, and often dark lyrics. It evolved in Britain and the U.S. in the late 1960s from the heavy, blues-oriented music of Steppenwolf, Jimi Hendrix, and others. In the 1970s the genre was defined by the music of bands such as Led Zep¬ pelin, Black Sabbath, Kiss, AC/DC, and Aerosmith. After a period of decline, a new generation of bands such as Def Leppard, Iron Maiden, Motley Criie, and Van Halen revived heavy metal in the 1980s, along with the careers of many of its pioneers, including Ozzy Osbourne of Black Sabbath.

heavy spar See barite

"The Angel Shows John the Heavenly Jerusalem/' from the Apocalypse of St. John, c. 1020; in the Staatsbibliothek Bamberg, Germany (MS. 140).

COURTESY OF THE STAATSBIBLIOTHEK BAMBERG, GERMANY

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

854 I heavy water ► Hebrides

heavy water or deuterium \du-'tir-e-3m\ oxide Water composed of two atoms of deuterium (D; a heavy isotope of hydrogen) and one atom of oxygen (O), chemical formula D 2 0. Water from most natural sources contains about 0.015% deuterium oxide; this can be enriched or purified by distillation, electrolysis, or chemical processing. Heavy water is used as a moderator in nuclear power plants, slowing down the fast neutrons so that they can react with the fuel in the reactor. Heavy water is also used in research as an isotopic tracer for chemical reactions and biochemical pathways. Water with tritium (T 2 0) rather than deuterium may also be called heavy water.

Heb-Sed festival One of the oldest festivals of ancient Egypt, cel¬ ebrated by the king after 30 years of rule and repeated every three years thereafter. The event was probably a ritual reenactment of the unification of Egypt by Menes c. 3000 bc. After beginning the celebration by offer¬ ing a sacrifice to the gods, the king was crowned with the white crown of Upper Egypt, followed by the red crown of Lower Egypt. He then ran a ritual course four times, before being carried in procession to the chap¬ els of Horus and Seth.

Hebbel, (Christian) Friedrich (b. March 18, 1813, Wesselburn, Schleswig-Holstein—d. Dec. 13, 1863, Vienna, Austria) German poet and dramatist. After an early life marked by poverty, he became famous with the prose play Judith (1840), based on the biblical story. Among his later tragedies, Maria Magdalene (1843), portraying the lower middle class, and Gyges and His Ring (1856), probably his most mature and subtle work, are realistic psychological tragedies that make use of G.W.F. Hegel’s concepts of history and moral values. The mythological trilogy Die Nibelungen (1862) grandiosely depicts the clash between heathen and Christian.

Hebe Vhe-be\ Greek goddess of youth, daughter of Zeus and Hera. She served as cupbearer to the gods, and when Heracles ascended into heaven after his painful death, she became his bride. She was generally wor¬ shiped along with her mother.

Hebei Vh9-'ba\ or Ho-peh con¬ ventional Hopeh Vho-'ba \ formerly Chihli Vjo-'leV Province (pop., 2002 est.: 67,350,000), northern China. It is bordered by the Bo Hai (Gulf of Chihli), the provinces of Liaoning,