Britannica Concise 2005 - читать бесплатно онлайн полную версию книги автора Encyclopedia Britannica (ч. 37)

Painted wooden Egyptian doll, 2000

BC.

COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM

Dolmen at Pentre Evan, Dyfed, Wales

CROWN COPYRIGHT: CADW: WELSH HISTORIC MONUMENTS

Bottle-nosed dolphins (Tursiops trunca- tus)

COURTESY OF THE MIAMI SEAQUARIUM

560 I Dombrowska ► domestic service

three-level “server.organization.type” format. The top level denotes the type of organization, such as “com” (for commercial sites) or “edu” (for educational sites); the second level is the top level plus the name of the organization (e.g., “britannica.com” for Encyclopaedia Britannica); and the third level identifies a specific host server at the address, such as the “www” (World Wide Web) host server for “www.britannica.com”. A domain name is ultimately mapped to an IP address, but two or more domain names can be mapped to the same IP address. A domain name must be unique on the Internet, and must be assigned by a registrar accred¬ ited by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). See also URL.

Dombrowska, Maria See Maria Dabrowska

dome In architecture, a hemispherical structure evolved from the arch, forming a ceiling or roof. Domes first appeared on round huts and tombs in the ancient Middle East, India, and the Mediterranean in forms, such as solid mounds, adaptable only to the smallest buildings. The Romans intro¬ duced the large-scale masonry hemisphere. A dome exerts thrust all around its perimeter, and the earliest monumental examples (see Pantheon) required heavy supporting walls. Byzantine architects invented a technique for raising domes on piers, making the transition from a cubic base to the hemisphere by four pendentives. Bulbous or pointed domes were widely used in Islamic architecture. The design spread to Russia, where it gained great popularity in the form of the onion dome, a pointed, domelike roof structure. The modern geodesic dome, developed by R. Buckminster Fuller, is fabricated of lightweight triangular framing that distributes stresses within the structure itself. See illustration opposite.

Dome of the Rock or Mosque of Omar Oldest existing Islamic monument. It is located on Temple Mount, previously the site of the Temple of Jerusalem. The rock over which it is built is sacred to both Mus¬ lims and Jews. In Islam, Muhammad is believed to have ascended into heaven from the site. In Judaism it is the site where Abraham prepared to sacrifice his son Isaac. Built in 685-91 as a place of pilgrimage, the octagonal building has richly decorated walls and a gold-overlaid dome mounted above a circle of piers and columns.

Domenichino N.do-ma-ne-'ke-noV orig. Domenico Zampieri (b.

Oct. 1581, Bologna, Papal States—d. April 6, 1641, Naples)

Italian painter. He was trained in the academy of Lodovico Carracci in Bologna. In 1602 he joined the Bolognese artists in Rome working under Annibale Carracci in the deco¬ ration of the Famese Palace. His work, done in the Baroque Classical style, is marked by lucid and bal¬ anced compositions, even and serene lighting and subdued colours, and the sober expressions and restrained gestures of its figures. He became Rome’s leading painter and had a succession of major decorative com¬ missions. He was an outstanding draftsman and portraitist; his paint¬ ings were regarded as second only to those of I^phael throughout the 17th—18th centuries and had great influence on Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain.

Domenico Veneziano \d6-'ma- ne-ko-vo-.net-se-'a-noV (b. c. 1410,

Venice, Republic of Venice—d. May 15, 1461, Florence, Republic of Flo¬ rence) Italian painter. He was active mainly in Florence, where he settled c. 1439. Two signed works survive: fresco fragments of the Virgin and Child from a street tabernacle (1430s) and the altarpiece for the church of Santa Lucia dei Magnoli, called the St. Lucy Altarpiece (c. 1445), one of the outstanding Florentine early Renaissance paintings of the mid 15th century and Domenico’s most suc¬ cessful experiment in rendering outdoor light. He used colour and texture as the basis of perspective and composition; his influence can be seen in the work of Alesso Baldovinetti.

A dome is traditionally supported primarily by a cylindrical or polygonal drum; it may be surmounted by a cupola, which may have a lantern to admit light. The classic hemispherical dome has a circular base and semicircular section; the poly¬ hedral dome has segments resting on a polyhedral base and meeting at the top; the onion dome rests on a circular base and has an ogee section.

Domesday Book VdUmz-.da, 'domz-,da\ (1086) Original record or summary of William I the Conqueror’s survey of England. The most remarkable administrative feat of the Middle Ages, the survey was carried out, against popular resentment, by panels of commissioners who compiled accounts of the estates of the king and his tenants. As summarized in the Domesday Book, it now serves as the starting point for the history of most English towns and villages. Originally called “the description of England,” the name Domesday Book (a reference to doomsday, when people face a final accounting of their lives) was later popularly attached to it.

domestic cat or house cat Domesticated carnivore (Felis catus) that retains many characteristics of the larger wild cats but differs in coat and size. Breeds are either shorthaired (e.g., Siamese) or longhaired (e.g., Per¬ sian). Domestic cats are usually white, black, yellow, or gray and some¬ times have markings of a different colour. A pattern of dark stripes or swirls on a lighter background is called tabby. Males may reach lengths of 28 in. (71 cm), and females are usually about 20 in. (51 cm) long. Weights generally vary from 6 to 10 lb (2.5 to 4.5 kg), though nonped- igreed cats may weigh up to 28 lb (13 kg). The most closely related wild species are the North African wildcats (including Felix lybica). Valued for their mouse and rat hunting, which protected farmers’ grain supplies, cats were being domesticated in ancient Egypt by 1500 bc. The Cat Fan¬ ciers’ Association now recognizes about 37 breeds.

domestic service Employment of hired workers by private households for tasks including housecleaning, cooking, child care, gardening, and per¬ sonal service. It also includes the performance of similar tasks for hire in public institutions and businesses, including hotels and boardinghouses. In ancient Greece and Rome domestic service was performed almost exclu¬ sively by slaves. In medieval Europe serfs provided much of the necessary labour force. Indentured servants were widely used in colonial America, as were black slaves in the pre-Civil War South. In Victorian England many middle- and upper-class households hired domestic servants; the royalty and gentry often employed huge staffs with an elaborate hierarchy. Domes-

Last Communion of Saint Jerome, oil painting by Domenichino, 1614; in the Vatican Museum.

SCALA/ART RESOURCE, NEW 'YORK

domestic system ► Dominican i 561

tic service has declined in the U.S. and Europe since the early 1920s, a trend attributed to the leveling of social classes, greater job opportunities for women, and the spread of labour-saving household devices.

domestic system or putting-out system Production system wide¬ spread in 17th-century Europe in which merchant-employers “put out” materials to rural home workers, who then returned finished products to the employers for payment. The domestic system differed from the handicraft system of home production in that the workers neither bought materials nor sold products. It undermined the urban guilds and brought the first wide¬ spread industrial employment of women and children. The system was generally superseded by employment in factories but was retained in the 20th century in some industries, notably watchmaking in Switzerland, toy manufacturing in Germany, and many industries in India and China.

domestic tragedy Drama in which the main characters are ordinary people. This form of tragedy contrasts with Classical tragedy, in which the main characters are of royal or aristocratic rank. An early domestic tragedy, A Warning for Faire Women (1599), deals with the murder of a merchant by his wife. The form became popular in the mid-18th century and reached its maturity in the 19th-century bourgeois tragedies of Hen¬ rik Ibsen. Gerhart Hauptmann, Eugene O'Neill, and Arthur Miller wrote important 20th-century domestic tragedies.

domestication Process of hereditary reorganization of wild animals and plants into forms more accommodating to the interests of people. In its strictest sense, it refers to the initial stage of human mastery of wild animals and plants. The fundamental distinction of domesticated animals and plants from their wild ancestors is that they are created by human labour to meet specific requirements or whims and are adapted to the con¬ ditions of continuous care people maintain for them. A variety of animals have been domesticated for food (e.g., cattle, chickens, pigs), clothing (e.g., sheep, silkworms), transportation and labour (e.g., camels, donkeys, horses), and pleasure (e.g., cats, dogs). See also breeding; selection.

domicile Place where an individual has a fixed and permanent home for legal purposes. The term refers to the place where an organization (e.g., a corporation) is chartered or that is the organization’s principal place of business. The domicile of an individual or organization determines the proper jurisdiction and venue for legal process, including taxation. For persons lacking capacity (e.g., minors), domicile is usually defined as the domicile of the guardian.

dominance In genetics, the greater influence by one of a pair of genes (alleles) that affect the same inherited trait. If an individual pea plant that has one allele for tallness and one for shortness is the same height as an individual that has two alleles for tallness, the tallness allele is said to be completely dominant. If such an individual is shorter than an individual that has two tallness alleles but still taller than one that has two shortness alleles, the tallness allele is said to be partially or incompletely dominant and the shortness allele is said to be recessive (see recessiveness).

Domingo, Placido (b. Jan. 21,

1941, Madrid, Spain) Spanish tenor and conductor. He moved to Mexico in 1949 with his parents, both of whom were zarzuela (a form of Span¬ ish light opera) singers. He studied voice, piano, and conducting, mak¬ ing his debut as a baritone. After developing his tenor range, he made his U.S. debut, spent three years in Tel Aviv (singing in Hebrew), came to the New York City Opera in 1965, and debuted with the Metropolitan Opera at Lewissohn Stadium in 1966. His resonant, powerful voice, imposing physical stature, good looks, and dramatic ability made him one of the most popular tenors of the second half of the 20th century.

Dominic, Saint orig. Domingo de Guzman (b. 1170, Caleruega,

Castile—d. Aug. 6, 1221, Bologna,

Romagna; canonized July 3, 1234; feast day August 8) Founder of the

St. Dominic, detail of a panel by the school of Messina (?), 15th century; in the Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Palermo, Italy.

ANDERSON—AllNARI FROM ART RESOURCE

Order of Friars Preachers, or Dominicans. He joined the religious com¬ munity of the cathedral of Osma c. 1196. On a visit to southern France in 1203, he encountered the Albigensian heresy (see Cathari) and deter¬ mined to fight it. He gathered a group of preachers willing to travel the roads barefoot and in poverty, and in 1206 he founded a convent of nuns converted from heresy. While designing his order devoted to preaching, Dominic may first have met St. Francis of Assisi, who became his good friend. In 1216 he received sanction for his order from Pope Honorius III. He established schools of theology at his two principal houses near the Universities of Paris and Bologna.

Dominica \ 1 da-m3- , ne-k9\ officially Commonwealth of Domin¬ ica Island country, Lesser Antilles, Caribbean Sea. It is located between the French islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique. Area: 290 sq mi (750

Dominica Passage

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2002 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

sq km). Population (2005 est.): 69,000. Capital: Roseau. The majority of the people are of African or mixed African and Euro¬ pean descent. Languages: English (offi¬ cial), French patois. Religion: Christianity (predominantly Roman Catholic; also Protestant). Currency: Eastern Car¬ ibbean dollar. A mountainous island, Dominica is broken midway by a plain drained by the Layou River. It has a warm tropical climate with heavy rainfall. The main crop is bananas. Dominica is among the poorest of the Caribbean nations. A developing tourist trade was helped by the establishment in 1975 of Morne Trois Pi tons National Park, a unique tropical mountain wilderness, but the country was ravaged by hurricanes in 1979 and 1980. With financial help from Britain, it is trying to protect its coastline. It is a republic with one legislative house; its chief of state is the president, and its head of government is the prime minister. At the time of Christopher Columbus’s arrival in 1493, it was inhabited by the Caribs. Because of its steep coastal cliffs and inaccessible mountains, it remained in the possession of the Caribs until the 18th century; it was then settled by the French and later taken by Britain in 1783. Subsequent hostilities between the settlers and the native inhabitants resulted in the Caribs’ near extinction. Incorporated with the Leeward Islands in 1833 and with the Windward Islands in 1940, it became a member of the West Indies Federation in 1958. Dominica became independent in 1978. See also West Indies. Offshore banking, a controversial boom to the Dominican economy in the late 20th century, was discontinued early in the 21st century.

Dominican Member of the Order of Friars Preachers, a Roman Catho¬ lic preaching and teaching order founded by St. Dominic. It dates officially from 1216, when Pope Honorius III gave it his approval, though Dominic had begun to build it at least a decade earlier. In contrast with earlier orders, the Dominicans were not organized in autonomous monastic houses, but joined the order at large and could be sent to any house or

562 I Dominican Republic ► donatario

province on the order’s business. The early teaching centers were at Bolo¬ gna, Paris, Cologne, and Oxford. Dominican preachers spoke out against the Cathari, the Moors, and the Jews and were among the first mission¬ aries under the Spanish and Portuguese explorers. Dominicans were put in charge of the Inquisition when it was founded. Perhaps their most famous member was St. Thomas Aquinas.

Dominican Republic Country in the West Indies, occupying the east¬ ern two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola, which it shares with Haiti. Area: 18,792 sq mi (48,671 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 8,895,000. Capital:

Santo Domingo. The majority of the people are of mixed European-African ancestry; most of the rest are of European or African descent. Language: Spanish (official). Religion: Christianity (predomi¬ nantly Roman Catholic; also Protestant). Currency: Dominican peso. The country is generally mountainous, with ranges and hills running from northwest to southeast. The Central Highlands reach 10,417 ft (3,175 m) at Duarte Peak, the highest point in the West Indies. The Cibao Valley in the north is noted for its fertility; the southwestern part of the country is generally dry with large stretches of desert. Traditionally dominated by sugar production, the Dominican Republic’s mixed economy became increasingly diversified in the late 20th century, when the country expe¬ rienced one of the world’s highest economic growth rates, though wide¬ spread poverty remained despite a growing middle class. It is a republic with two legislative houses; its head of state and government is the presi¬ dent. The Dominican Republic was originally part of the Spanish colony of Hispaniola. In 1697 the western third of the island, which later became Haiti, was ceded to France; the remainder of the island passed to France in 1795. The eastern two-thirds of the island were returned to Spain in 1809, and the colony declared its independence in 1821. Within a matter of weeks it was overrun by Haitian troops and occupied until 1844. Since then the country has been under the rule of a succession of dictators, except for short interludes of democratic government, and the U.S. has frequently been involved in its affairs. The termination of the dictatorship of Rafael Trujillo in 1961 led to civil war in 1965 and U.S. military inter¬ vention. For the rest of the country, politics in the Dominican Republic were dominated by seven-time president Joaquin Balaguer. The country suffered from severe hurricanes in 1979 and 1998.

domino theory or domino effect Doctrine of U.S. foreign policy during the Cold War, according to which the fall of a noncommunist state to communism would precipitate the fall of other neighbouring noncom¬ munist states. The theory was first enunciated by Pres. Harry Truman, who used it to justify sending U.S. military aid to Greece and Turkey in the late 1940s. Dwight D. Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy, and Lyndon B. Johnson

invoked it to justify U.S. military involvement in Southeast Asia, espe¬ cially the prosecution of the Vietnam War.

dominoes Game of several variations played with a set of flat rectan¬ gular blocks (dominoes) whose faces are divided into two equal parts that are blank or bear from one to six dots arranged as on dice faces. The usual set consists of 28 pieces. Dominoes in China may date to the 12th cen¬ tury ad; the Eskimos have also long played a domino-like game. There is no record of dominoes in Europe before the mid-18th century. The prin¬ ciple in nearly all modern dominoes games is to match one end of a piece to another that is identically or reciprocally numbered. The game may be set at 50 or 100 points.

Domitian \do-'mish-3n\ Latin Caesar Domitianus Augustus orig. Titus Flavius Domitianus (b. Oct. 24, ad 51—d. Sept. 18, 96, Rome) Roman emperor (81-96). The son of Vespasian, he succeeded his brother Titus, whom he probably had killed. His administration was osten¬ sibly egalitarian and based on precedent, but his laws were severe. Defeats in Britain and Germany undid his successes, though increased pay for the army kept it loyal. From 89 he became crueler, imposing a reign of ter¬ ror over prominent senators and confiscating his victims’ property to cover imperial expenses. The group that killed him included his wife and possibly his successor, Nerva.

domovoy Vds-ms-'voA In Slavic mythology and folklore, a spirit- guardian of home and family. It never leaves the household to which it belongs. It favours hardworking people; when displeased with its family, it may cause trouble with farm animals or make knocking or grating noises. Its weeping, moaning, or singing are interpreted as portents of evil or good.

Don \'don\ In Welsh mythology, a mother-goddess, the counterpart of the Irish Danu. According to the Mabinogion, she was the sister of the magician-king Math and the mother of Gwydion (a master of magic and poetry) and Arianrhod, who was in turn the mother of Dylan (presumed to be a sea god) and Lieu Llaw Gyffes (probably the Welsh form of Lugus).

Don Juan Fictional character famous as a heartless womanizer but also noted for his charm and courage. In Spanish legend, Don Juan was a licentious rogue who seduced a young girl of noble family and killed her father. Coming across a stone effigy of the father in a cemetery, he invited it home to dine with him, and the ghost of the father arrived for dinner as the harbinger of Don Juan’s death. The legend of Don Juan was first written down by Tirso de Molina, who gave it an original twist in his trag¬ edy The Seducer of Seville (1630). The story was subsequently taken up by many other artists including W. A. Mozart, in the opera Don Giovanni (1787); Moliere and George Bernard Shaw, in plays; and Lord Byron in his long satiric poem Don Juan (1819-24).

Don Pacifico Affair (1850) Conflict between Britain and Greece that originated when the home of David Pacifico (known as Don Pacifico), a British subject living in Athens, was burned down in an anti-Semitic riot. In support of his demand for compensation, Viscount Palmerston sent a naval squadron to blockade the Greek coast. Palmerston’s policy drew protests from France and Russia as well as Britain’s House of Lords, but he won the support of the Commons after arguing that Britain should pro¬ tect its subjects from injustice wherever they might live.

Don River \'don\ Tatar Duna Vdu-nsX ancient Tanais. River, south¬ western Russia. Rising south of Moscow in the central Russian uplands, it flows generally south for 1,162 mi (1,870 km) to enter the Gulf of Taganrog in the Sea of Azov. In its middle course it flows into the Tsim- lyansk Reservoir, which dominates the Don’s lower course. Most of its basin is rich farmland and timberland. A major shipping artery, it is navi¬ gable (in the spring) as far as 990 mi (1,584 km) from the Sea of Azov.

Donaldson, Walter (b. Feb. 15, 1893, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.—d. July 15, 1947, Santa Monica, Calif.) U.S. songwriter. He began his career as a music publisher’s pianist and later established his own music publish¬ ing company. After his first Broadway success with “My Mammy,” intro¬ duced by Al Jolson in Sinbad (1918), he continued writing for Broadway revues for more than 25 years, producing songs such as “My Buddy,” “My Blue Heaven,” “Carolina in the Morning,” “Yes Sir! That’s My Baby,” and “Makin’ Whoopee.” He also wrote for many films.

donatario Recipient of a capitama (captaincy), which was both a ter¬ ritorial division and a royal land grant in Portugal’s colonies. The system was introduced to Brazil in 1533 by King John III in order to consolidate

Donatello ► Dong Son I 563

Portuguese power in the colony. Each donatdrio received a portion of land and was charged with recruiting and protecting settlers and promoting agriculture and commerce. At one time Brazil’s viability as a colony depended on the success of the donatarios, but by 1754 all the captain¬ cies had been abolished.

Donatello \,do-na-'tel-lo,\ English \,da-n3-'te-lo\ orig. Donato di Niccolo (b. c. 1386, Florence—d.

Dec. 13, 1466, Florence) Italian sculptor active in Florence. He learned stone carving from the sculp¬ tors of the Florence Cathedral (c.

1400), and in 1404 joined the work¬ shop of Lorenzo Ghiberti. He drew his inspiration from Classical and medi¬ eval sources. With his marble statues of St. Mark (1411-13) and St.

George (c. 1415) for the church of Or San Michele in Florence, he revolu¬ tionized the concept of sculpture; not since antiquity had the human body been rendered with such naturalism and emotional impact. He invented his own style of bas-relief with his marble panel St. George Killing the Dragon (c. 1417). His bronze sculp¬ ture David, conceived independently of any architectural setting, was the first large-scale, freestanding nude statue of the Renaissance. In Florence he worked for the Medici family (1433—43), producing sculptural decoration for the sacristy of San Lorenzo, the Medici family church, and in Padua (1450s) for the church of Sant’Antonio. He was the greatest European sculptor of the 15th cen¬ tury, influencing painters as well as sculptors, and was a founder of the Renaissance style.

Donation of Constantine Document concerning the supposed grant by the emperor Constantine I (the Great) to Pope Sylvester I (314-335) and later popes of temporal power over Rome and the Western Empire. The gift was said to have been motivated by Constantine’s gratitude to Sylvester for miraculously healing his leprosy and converting him to Christianity. Based on legends from the 5th century concerning Sylvester and Constantine, the Donation was probably written at Rome in the mid 8th century and was related to the coronation of Pippin III, the first Caro- lingian king of the Franks. Proved in the 15th century by Lorenzo Valla to be a forgery, the document was already questioned by the emperor Otto III (r. 996-1002) but was often cited in the 11th—15th centuries to support papal claims in the struggle between church and state.

Donation of Pippin (754) Promise made by the Frankish king Pippin III to win for Pope Stephen II Byzantine imperial lands in Italy conquered by the Lombards. The Donation was made in the context of the papal struggle with the Lombards, the collapse of Byzantine support for the papacy, and Pippin’s elevation to the royal throne with papal support. In 756 it was written in a document that became the basis of papal rule over central Italy, which lasted until the 19th century. Pippin won territory from the Lombard king in two military campaigns (754, 756) and gave it to the papacy. The Donation was later confirmed and enlarged by Charlemagne

(774).

Donatism Vdo-no-.ti-zom, 'da-no-.ti-zomX Schismatic Christian move¬ ment in North Africa in the 4th century. It arose out of the debate over the status of church leaders who had cooperated with Roman officials during persecutions of Christians. The movement’s leader, Donatus (died c. ad 355), denied the validity of priestly duties performed by such lead¬ ers, insisting that lapsed Christians were not in a state of grace and thus had no authority to administer the sacraments. The struggle over the Donatist heresy came to a head in 311, when Caecilian was consecrated bishop of Carthage by a lapsed bishop. The Donatists declared the elec¬ tion invalid, but Constantine I decided in favor of Caecilian, prompting the Donatists to break with the Roman church in 312. Despite persecu¬ tion, Donatism survived in North Africa until the advent of Islam (7th century).

Donbas See Donets Basin

Donders Vdon-dorzX, Frans Cornells (b. May 27, 1818, Tilburg, Neth.—d. March 24, 1889, Utrecht) Dutch ophthalmologist. His study of

“muscae volitantes” (spots before the eyes) resulted in Donders’ law, stat¬ ing that the rotation of the eye around the line of sight is involuntary. His research improved diagnosis, operative treatment, and use of eyeglasses for vision problems. He found that in farsightedness the eyeball is short¬ ened, resulting in light rays being focused behind the retina (1858). His finding that astigmatism is caused by uneven corneal and lens surfaces (1862) created the field of scientific clinical refraction. His On the Anoma¬ lies of Accommodation and Refraction (1864) was the first authoritative work in the field.

Donen Vdo-nonX, Stanley (b. April 13, 1924, Columbia, S.C., U.S.) U.S. film director and choreographer. He began his career in the stage chorus of Pal Joey (1940), where he met Gene Kelly. He and Kelly cho¬ reographed Best Foot Forward (1941 ; film, 1943) and other musicals, and the two codirected On the Town (1949) and the acclaimed Singin’ in the Rain (1952). Both films showed off Donen’s skill at intensifying a sense of fantasy and served to reenergize the musical film genre. He later directed and produced films such as The Pajama Game (1957), Funny Face (1957), and Damn Yankees (1958). He also branched into nonmu¬ sical films such as Charade (1963) and Two for the Road (1967).

Donets Basin \do-'nyets,\ English Xdo-'netsX or Donbas X'dan-.basX Large mining and industrial region, southeastern Ukraine and southwest¬ ern Russia. Notable for its coal and iron reserves, the exploited area of the coalfield covers nearly 9,000 sq mi (23,300 sq km) south of the Donets River. First mined in the early 19th century, by 1913 the Donets Basin was producing 87% of Russian coal. The coalfields adjoin the rich ironfield of Krivoi Rog, where an ironworks was set up in 1872 in Donetsk; by 1913 it was making 74% of all Russian pig iron. The area today is the largest single producing area of iron and steel in Ukraine and one of the world’s major heavy-industrial complexes.

Donets River River, southwestern Russia and eastern Ukraine. Rising in the Central Russian Upland, it winds south and east through Russia and Ukraine for some 650 mi (1,050 km) to join the Don River below Konstantinovsk. It flows along the northern Donets Basin industrial region, which uses it for heavy shipping and also causes severe pollution prob¬ lems. A water shortage in the river and industrial area led to the construc¬ tion in the 1970s of a canal connecting the Dnieper to the Donets. Six weirs make navigation possible upstream to the city of Donetsk.

Donetsk Xdo-'nyetsk \ formerly (1924-61) Stalino X'sta-lyi-noX City (pop., 2001: 1,016,000), southeastern Ukraine. In 1872 an ironworks was founded there by a Welshman, John Hughes, to produce iron rails for the growing Russian rail network. Fueled by the rich deposits of the Donets Basin, both coal mining and steelmaking developed rapidly. Extensive destruction in World War II led to postwar modernization, and subsequent growth has been rapid. Modern Donetsk is one of Ukraine’s largest met¬ allurgical centres.

Dong-nai River or Donnai River X'dorj-'nlX River, southern Viet¬ nam. Rising in the central highlands, it flows southwest for about 300 mi (480 km), joining the Saigon River northeast of Ho Chi Minh City and combining with it and other streams to form an estuary north of the Mekong delta.

Dong Qichang X'duq-'che-'chagX or Tung Ch'i-ch'ang (b. 1555, Huating, Kiangsu province, China—d. 1636) Chinese painter, calligra¬ pher, and theoretician of the late Ming period. He is noted especially for his writings on Chinese painting, which he divided into the Northern school, which taught the acquisition of truth, and the Southern school, which emphasized sudden, intuitive understanding. At the centre of the scholarly ideal of the Southern school was the art of calligraphy, which expressed the true nature of the artist without the interposition of picto¬ rial description. Dong Qichang’s own paintings stress stark forms, seem¬ ingly anomalous spatial renderings, and naive handling of ink and brush. His ideas continue to influence Chinese aesthetic theory.

Dong Son X'doq-'sonX culture Important prehistoric culture of main¬ land Southeast Asia that developed in the 1st millennium bc, best known for its bronzes. Excavations at the site of Dong Son in northern Vietnam revealed bronze objects, iron, pottery, and Chinese artifacts. The Dong Son were a seafaring people who traded throughout Southeast Asia. They are credited with making the Red River delta area a great rice-growing region. Dong Son culture, transformed by Chinese and Indian influence, became the basis of the general civilization of the region. The Dong Son homeland was taken over by the Han dynasty of China in ad 43.

Equestrian statue of Gattamelata, bronze sculpture by Donatello, 1447- 53; in the Piazza del Santo, Padua, Italy.

ANDERSON-AUNARI FROM ART RESOURCE/EB INC.

564 I Dong Thap Muoi ► Doolittle

Dong Thap Muoi See Plain of Reeds

Dong Zhongshu V'duq-'juq-'shiiXorTung Chung-shu (b. c. 179 bc, Guangchuan, China—d. c. 104 bc, China) Confucian scholar. As chief minister to Wudi of the Han dynasty, he dismissed all non-Confucian scholars from government. He established Confucianism as the empire’s unifying ideology (136 bc) and set up an imperial college, instrumental in the later establishment of the Chinese civil service. As a philosopher, he made the theory of the interaction between heaven and humanity his central theme. He merged the yin-yang concept with Confucianism and believed that one of the emperor’s duties was to preserve the balance of yin and yang. His Chunqiufanlu is one of the most important philosophi¬ cal works of the Han period.

Dongan Vdaq-gonV Thomas, 2nd earl of Limerick (b. 1634, Castletown, County Kildare, Ire.—d. Dec. 14, 1715, London, Eng.) Brit¬ ish colonial governor of New York. A member of an Irish royalist family, he was exiled to France after the English Civil Wars. Recalled to England in 1677, he served as lieutenant governor of Tangiers from 1678 to 1680. As governor of New York (1682-88), he organized the colony’s first rep¬ resentative assembly, issued a “Charter of Liberties” in 1683, and pursued a policy of cooperation with the Iroquois Confederacy against the French. He returned to England in 1691.

Dongbei See Manchuria

Donglin Academy or Tung-lin Academy Vduq-'linX Chinese academy founded during the Song dynasty and revived in 1604 by schol¬ ars and officials to protest the moral laxity and intellectual weakness undermining public life in the last years of the Ming dynasty. Its members cultivated the antiabsolutist views of Mencius and rebuked the court for failing to uphold Confucian values. The court eunuch Wei Zhongxian per¬ secuted members and supporters of the Academy, practically wiping it out by 1627. It was rehabilitated after Wei’s death.

Dongting Lake Chinese Dongting Hu Vduq-'tiq-'hiiV or Tung- t'ing Hu Large, shallow lake, northeastern Hunan province, China. Its size varies greatly from season to season. Its normal area of 1,089 sq mi (2,820 sq km) may increase up to 7,700 sq mi (20,000 sq km) in flood season. Some two-fifths of the water from the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) flows into the lake through four channels. It also is fed by the Zi, Yuan, Xiang, and Li rivers. It discharges into the Yangtze.

Donitz \'doe-nits,\ English Vdor-notsV, Karl or Karl Doenitz (b. Sept. 16, 1891, Griinau-bei-Berlin, Ger.—d. Dec. 22, 1980, Aumiihle, W.Ger.) German admiral. After serving as a submarine officer in World War I, he oversaw the creation of the German U-boat fleet in the 1930s, thus vio¬ lating the Treaty of Versailles. As the fleet’s commander, he conducted the Battle of the Atlantic in World War II, then served as commander in chief of the navy (1943—45). He succeeded Adolf Hitler as Germany’s leader in the last few days of the war and executed Germany’s surrender to the Allies. Convicted of war crimes at the Niimberg trials, he served 10 years in prison.

Donizetti \,do-ned-'za-te,\ English V.da-no-'ze-teV (Domenico) Gaetano (Maria) (b. Nov. 29, 1797, Bergamo, Cisalpine

Republic—d. April 8, 1848, Bergamo, Lombardy, Austrian Empire) Ital¬ ian opera composer. He was tutored and guided by the opera composer Simone Mayr (1763-1845). His opera Zoraida di Granata had a success¬ ful premiere in Rome in 1822, but it was Anna Bolena in 1830 that made his name internationally. Later successes included L’Elisir d’amore (1832), Lucrezia Borgia (1833), Lucia di Lammermoor (1835), Roberto Devereux (1837), La Fille du regiment (1840), and Don Pasquale (1843). Enormously prolific, he could produce an entire opera in weeks. He com¬ pleted almost 70 operas, as well as more than 150 sacred works and hun¬ dreds of songs. Infected with syphilis, he suffered a severe four-year decline leading to his death. He was one of the foremost Italian opera composers of the early 19th century and a principal master of the bel canto style.

donkey or burro Descendant of the African wild ass that has been used as a beast of burden since 4000 bc. The average donkey stands about 40 in. (100 cm) high at the shoulder, but breeds range from 24 to 66 in. (61-168 cm). Coats range from white to gray or black, usually with a dark stripe from mane to tail and a crosswise stripe on the shoulders. The mane is short and upright, and the tail has long hairs only at the end. The very long ears are dark at the base and tip. Donkeys are surefooted and can carry heavy loads over rough terrain. See also mule.

Donkin, Bryan (b. March 22, 1768, Sandree, Northumberland, Eng.—d. Feb. 27, 1855, London) British inventor. Initially apprenticed to a papermaker, Donkin perfected a version of the Fourdrinier machine. He established a factory to produce and can vegetable soups and preserved meats for the Royal Navy. With a printer he developed a forerunner of the rotary press and a composition printing roller. He became a civil engi¬ neer in London, received two gold medals from the Society of Arts, and was a founder of the British Institution of Civil Engineers (1818).

Donme or Donmeh \doen-'m t,\English N.don-'maX Jewish-Islamic sect founded in Salonika (now Thessaloniki, Greece) in the late 17th century. Its members were followers of Shabbetai Tzevi, whom they believed to be the Messiah. Arrested by Ottoman authorities in 1666, he chose conversion to Islam over death, as did his followers, who believed that his conver¬ sion was a step in the fulfillment of messianic prophecy. While accepting Islam, they secretly practiced various Jewish rites, preserved some knowl¬ edge of Hebrew, and refused to intermarry with Muslims. The commu¬ nity moved to Turkey in the early 20th century and gradually was assimilated, resisting Jewish attempts to return them to Judaism.

Donnai River See Dong-nai River

Donne \'don\, John (b. c. Jan. 24-June 19, 1572, London, Eng.—d. March 31, 1631, London) English poet. Donne was born into a Roman Catholic family. He entered the Uni¬ versity of Oxford at age 12; he later transferred to the University of Cam¬ bridge and subsequently studied law.

An adventurer in youth, he hoped for a high public appointment, but his clandestine marriage to his employ¬ er’s daughter ruined his prospects.

He converted to Anglicanism; ordained in 1615, he became a preacher of great power and elo¬ quence and was installed as dean of St. Paul's Cathedral in 1621. The greatest of the English Metaphysical poets (see Metaphysical poetry), he is noted for his love lyrics, religious verse and treatises, and sermons. His secular poetry, most written early in his career, is direct, intense, bril¬ liantly witty, and daringly imagina¬ tive. Later his tone darkened with works such as the Anniversaries (1611-12), two long poems meditating on the decay of the world. His 19 famous Holy Sonnets (written 1607-13) were published posthumously. Among his prose works, many as dramatic and intimate as his poetry, the most enduring is Devotions upon Emergent Occasions (1624).

Donner party Group of U.S. pioneers stranded en route to California. In late 1846, 87 immigrants led by George and Jacob Donner were trapped by heavy snow in the Sierra Nevada. Fifteen of the group set out to find help. When the others’ food ran out, they resorted to cannibalism of those already dead. The 47 surviving members were rescued in February 1847. Donner Lake and Donner Pass, Cal., are named for them.

Donostia-San Sebastian X.tho-no-'ste-a, san-sa-,bas-'tyan\ Seaport and city (pop., 2001: 178,377), northern Spain. The city is situated at the mouth of the Urumea River on the Bay of Biscay, near the French border. First mentioned in 1014, it was chartered by Sancho the Wise of Navarra c. 1175. The town was burned in 1813 after Anglo-Portuguese troops took it from the French during the Peninsular War. Formerly the summer resi¬ dence of the Spanish royal court, it is now a fashionable seaside resort. Nearby is Mount Urgull, with the 16th-century Mota Castle at its sum¬ mit. Donostia-San Sebastian is the official place-name, incorporating first the Basque name and then the Spanish.

Doolittle, Hilda known as H.D. (b. Sept. 10, 1886, Bethlehem, Pa., U.S.—d. Sept. 27, 1961, Zurich, Switz.) U.S. poet. Doolittle went to Europe in 1911 and remained there the rest of her life. One of the first Imagists (see Imagism) and deeply influenced by Ezra Pound, she wrote clear, impersonal, sensuous verse that combined classical themes with modernist techniques. Her later work was looser and more passionate, though it remained erudite and symbolic. Her collections include Sea

Donne, detail of an oil painting by an unknown artist after I. Oliver, c. 1616; in the National Portrait Gallery, London

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY,

LONDON

Doolittle ► Dorian I 565

Garden (1916), Hymen (1921), and Red Roses for Bronze (1929). She was also acclaimed for her translations, verse drama, and prose works.

Doolittle, Jimmy orig. James Harold Doolittle (b. Dec. 14,1896, Alameda, Calif., U.S.—d. Sept. 27, 1993, Pebble Beach, Calif.) U.S. gen¬ eral. He enlisted in the army in World War I and became an aviator. After the war he earned a Ph.D. in engineering and remained in the Army Air Corps as a test pilot until 1930, when he became head of aviation for Shell Oil Co. In 1932 he set a world air speed record. Returning to active duty during World War II, he led a daring raid on Tokyo (1942), for which he received the Congressional Medal of Honor. He commanded air opera¬ tions on many fronts, including attacks on Germany in 1944-45. After the war he remained active in the aerospace industry. He received the Presi¬ dential Medal of Freedom in 1989.

door Movable bander installed in the entry of a room or building to restrict access or provide visual privacy. Early doors were hides or tex¬ tiles. With monumental architecture came pivoting doors of rigid, perma¬ nent materials; important chambers often had stone or bronze doors. Pompeiian doors looked much like modem wooden doors; they were constructed of stiles (vertical planks) and rails (horizontal planks) fastened together to support panels and occasionally equipped with locks and hinges. The typical Western medieval door was of vertical planks backed with horizontal or diagonal bracing. In the 20th century, a single, hollow- core panel door became most common. Other types include the revolv¬ ing door, folding door, sliding door (inspired by the Japanese SHOJl), rolling door, and Dutch door (divided horizontally so that the lower or upper part can be opened separately).

Door Peninsula Peninsula, northeastern Wisconsin, U.S. Located between Green Bay and Lake Michigan, it was named for a strait at its tip known as La Porte des Mortes (“Death’s Door”). About 80 mi (130 km) long and 25 mi (40 km) wide at its base, the peninsula was visited in the 17th century by French traders and missionaries. It is now a year-round vacation area, and tourism is a major business. The whole peninsula is popularly known as Door County, though Door is but one of four coun¬ ties on the peninsula.

dopamine Vdo-po-.menX One of the catecholamines, widely distributed in the central nervous system. Through a series of enzymatic reactions (see enzyme) it is formed from levodopa and converted to norepinephrine and then epinephrine. It is a central nervous system neurotransmitter essential to con¬ trol of motion; it also acts as a hormone. Degeneration of certain dopamine-producing brain cells results in parkinsonism.

dopant \'do-p9nt\ Any impurity added to a semiconductor to modify its electrical conductivity. The most common semiconductors, silicon and germanium, form crystalline lattices in which each atom shares electrons with four neighbours (see bonding). Replacing some atoms with donor atoms (e.g., phosphorus, arsenic) that have five bonding electrons makes extra electrons available. The semiconductor thus doped is called n-type (for negative, because of the additional negative charges). Doping with acceptor atoms (e.g., gallium), which have only three electrons available, creates “holes,” which are positively charged. Conduction can occur by migration of holes through the crystal structure of such a semiconductor, known as p-type (for positive).

Doppler effect Apparent difference between the frequency at which waves —including light, sound, and radio waves—leave a source and that at which they reach an observer. The effect, first described by the Aus¬ trian physicist Christian Doppler (1803-1853), is caused by the relative motion of the observer and the wave source. It can be observed by lis¬ tening to the blowing horn or siren of an approaching vehicle, whose pitch rises as the vehicle approaches the observer and falls as it recedes. It is used in radar and to calculate the speed of stars by observing the change in frequency of their light.

Dorchester Former town, now a ward of Boston, Mass., U.S. It extended nearly to the Rhode Island border and included Dorchester Heights, whose fortification by George Washington’s artillery led the British to evacuate Boston on March 17, 1776, at the start of the Ameri¬ can Revolution.

Dorchester ancient Durnovaria Town (pop., 1995 est.: 16,000) and county seat of Dorset, England. On the River Frome, the ancient town was a sizable Roman British centre, and many remains of the period have been found. By 1086 it was a royal borough, and a castle had been built by the 12th century; the Franciscan priory, founded before 1331, is

thought to have been constructed from its ruins. The town is now a mar¬ ketplace serving an extensive rural area. Thomas Hardy was born near Dorchester, the “Casterbridge” of his Wessex novels.

Dorchester (of Dorchester), Guy Carleton, 1st Baron (b.

Sept. 3, 1724, Strabane, County Tyrone, Ire.—d. Nov. 10, 1808, Stub- bings, Berkshire, Eng.) Irish soldier-statesman. In 1759 he was sent to Canada, where he fought in the Battle of Quebec. He served as lieuten¬ ant governor (1766-68) and governor (1768-78) of Quebec province. His conciliatory policies toward the French Canadians led to passage of the Quebec Act of 1774. He helped repel the attack on Quebec by American Revolutionary forces in 1775. He was appointed commander of British forces in North America in 1782 and then governor in chief of British North America (1786-96).

Dordogne River \d6r-'don y \ ancient Duranius. River, southwestern France. Rising in the Massif Central and flowing west for 293 mi (472 km), it unites with the Garonne River north of Bordeaux to form the Gironde Estuary. It then flows through the spa resorts of Monts Dore in the Puy-de-Dome. The river is a source for hydroelectric power.

Dore \do-'ra\, Gustave (-Paul) (b. Jan. 6, 1832, Strasbourg, France—d. Jan. 23, 1883, Paris) French printmaker. In 1847 he went to Paris and began producing lithographic caricatures for a weekly journal and several albums of lithographs (1847-54). He achieved fame and wide popularity with his wood-engraved book illustrations; among the finest were editions of Dante’s Inferno (1861) and the Bible (1866). His vivid work is characterized by images of the grotesque and bizarre. Employing over 40 block cutters, he eventually produced more than 90 illustrated books.

Doren, Carl and Mark Van See Carl and Mark Van Doren

Dorgon Vd6r-,gan\ Chinese Chengzong or Ch'eng-tsung

Vcheq-'dzurjV (b. Nov. 7, 1612, Yenden, Manchuria—d. Dec. 31, 1650, Kharahotu) Prince of the Manchu people, instrumental in founding the Qing (Manchu) dynasty in China. He joined his former enemy Wu Sangui in driving the Chinese rebel Li Zicheng from Beijing, where Li had already unseated the last Ming-dynasty emperor. Though some wanted to put Dor¬ gon on the throne, he saw to it that his nephew Fu-lin was proclaimed emperor (Dorgon acted as regent); this loyalty and selflessness won him the high regard of future historians.

Doria Vd6r-ya\, Andrea (b. Nov. 30, 1466, Oneglia, Duchy of Milan—d. Nov. 25, 1560, Genoa)

Genoese statesman, mercenary, and admiral, the foremost naval com¬ mander of his time. A member of an aristocratic family, he was orphaned at an early age and became a soldier of fortune. In 1522 he entered the service of Francis I, who was fight¬ ing Emperor Charles V in Italy. Doria later transferred his services to Charles and in 1528 drove the French out of Genoa. He became the new ruler of Genoa and reorganized its government into an effective and stable oligarchy. He commanded several naval expeditions against the Turks and helped Charles V extend his domination over the Italian pen¬ insula. Though greedy and authori¬ tarian, Doria was also a fearless commander with outstanding tactical and strategic talents.

Dorian Any member of a major division of the ancient Greeks. Com¬ ing from the north and northwest, they conquered the Peloponnese c. 1100- 1000 bc, overran the remnants of the Mycenaean and Minoan civilizations, and ushered in a dark age that lasted almost three centuries, until the rise of the Greek city-states. They had their own dialect and were organized into three tribes. Patterns of settlement determined their alliances in later Greek conflicts. To Greek culture they gave the Doric order of architec¬ ture, the tragic choral lyric, and a militarized aristocratic government. They assimilated into Greek societies in some cases, but in Sparta and Crete they held power and resisted cultural advancement.

Andrea Doria, detail of a portrait by Sebastiano del Piombo; in the Doria Palace, Rome.

AUNARI/ART RESOURCE, NEW VORK

566 I dormer ► double-aspect theory

dormer Window set vertically in a structure that projects from a slop¬ ing roof. It often illuminates a bedroom. In the late Gothic and early Renaissance periods, elaborate masonry dormers were designed. Dormers were used along with the mansard roof to defy a Parisian law limiting buildings to six stories; the seventh story was called a garret (or attic) and was made habitable by the dormer. See also gable.

dormouse Any of 20 rodent species (family Gliridae) found through¬ out Eurasia and northern Africa.

Dormice have large eyes, soft fur, rounded ears, and a hairy (sometimes bushy) tail. They live in trees, bushes, and rock walls and in nests of plant material. They eat fruit, nuts, birds’ eggs, and some insects and small animals. Many species sleep for long periods, particularly in win¬ ter. The largest species, the edible dormouse (Glis glis), is gray and attains a maximum length of about 8 in. (20 cm), excluding the 6-in. (15- cm) tail.

Dornberger Vdom-.ber-gorX,

Walter Robert (b. Sept. 6, 1895,

Giessen, Ger.—d. June 27, 1980,

Baden-Wtirttemberg) German-born U.S. engineer. From 1932, with Wernher von Braun, he began to per¬ fect the rocket engine. During World War II he directed construction of the V-2 rocket, the forerunner of all postwar spacecraft. In the U.S. after the war, he worked as an adviser on guided missiles for the U.S. Air Force. In the 1950s he participated in the Air Force-NASA project Dyna-Soar, which eventually became the space shuttle program.

Dorr, Thomas Wilson (b. Nov. 5, 1805, Providence, R.I., U.S.—d. Dec. 27, 1854, Providence) U.S. politician. From 1834 he served in the Rhode Island legislature, where he tried to introduce constitutional reform to expand white manhood suffrage. In 1841 he organized the People’s Party, which held elections and installed Dorr as governor in 1842. The existing government refused to recognize his authority, labeling the action “Dorr’s Rebellion.” The state had two governments until 1844, when Dorr was tried for treason; though given a life sentence, he was released in

Dorset Administrative (pop., 2001: 390,986), geographic, and historic county, southwestern England. It is located on the English Channel; its county seat is Dorchester. Prehistoric peoples were active in the area and left abundant monuments dating from the Neolithic Period, Bronze Age, and Iron Age, including Maiden Castle, a huge earthworks just outside Dorchester. The area subsequently became part of the West Saxon king¬ dom. As Wessex, it appears in the writings of Thomas Hardy.

Dorsey, Thomas A(ndrew) (b. July 1, 1899, Villa Rica, Ga., U.S.—d. Jan. 23, 1993, Chicago, Ill.) U.S. songwriter, singer, and pianist, the “father of gospel music.” Born the son of a revivalist preacher, Dorsey was influenced by blues pianists in the Atlanta area. After moving to Chi¬ cago in 1916, he appeared under the name of “Georgia Tom,” became a pianist with Ma Rainey, and composed secular “hokum” songs (those pep¬ pered with risque double entendres). He wrote his first gospel song in 1919, and in 1932 he abandoned the blues completely and founded the Pilgrim Baptist Church in Chicago. His more than 1,000 gospel songs include “Precious Lord, Take My Hand,” “Peace in the Valley,” and “If We Ever Needed the Lord Before.” He recorded extensively in the early 1930s. Many of his songs were introduced by Mahalia Jackson. He founded and directed the National Convention of Gospel Choirs and Cho¬ ruses.

Dorsey, Tommy orig. Thomas Dorsey (b. Nov. 19, 1905, Shenan¬ doah, Pa., U.S.—d. Nov. 26, 1956, Greenwich, Conn.) U.S. trombonist and band leader. Dorsey led the Dorsey Brothers Orchestra from 1934 with his brother, saxophonist and clarinetist Jimmy Dorsey (1904-57); they later separated to lead their own groups. Tommy Dorsey’s band combined smooth ballad performances with up-tempo jazz arrangements featuring some of the best musicians of the period, including Buddy Rich,

Frank Sinatra, and arranger Sy Oliver. Dorsey’s trombone playing was technically impeccable, and his seamless phrasing and sweet tone were a major influence on singers and brass players alike. The Tommy Dorsey band was one of the most popular big bands of the swing era

Dortmund Vdort-.munA ancient Throtmannia City (pop., 2002 est.: 589,200), North Rhine-Westphalia, western Germany. First mentioned in ad 885, it became a free imperial city in 1220 and later joined the Hanseatic League. A prosperous trading centre in the 14th century, it declined after the Thirty Years' War and lost its imperial rights in 1803. The development of coal and iron ore mining and the completion of the Dortmund-Ems Canal in 1899 stimulated its regrowth. The city was largely destroyed in World War II but was extensively rebuilt. It is a major transportation and industrial hub of the Ruhr area.

Dorylaeum V.dor-o-'le-omV, Battle of (July 1, 1097) Battle in which a combined force of crusaders and Byzantines defeated an army of Sel- juq Turks in Anatolia. The crusaders later captured Antioch. See also Cru¬ sades.

Dos Passos \das-'pa-s9s\, John (Roderigo) (b. Jan. 14, 1896, Chi¬ cago, Ill., U.S.—d. Sept. 28, 1970, Baltimore, Md.) U.S. writer. Son of a wealthy lawyer, Dos Passos attended Harvard University. His wartime service as an ambulance driver and later work as a journalist led him to see the U.S. as “two nations,” one for the rich and one for the poor. His reputation as social historian, radical critic of American life, and major novelist of the postwar “lost generation” rests primarily on his powerful U.S.A. trilogy, comprising The 42nd Parallel (1930), 1919 (1932), and The Big Money (1936).

Dostoyevsky \das-to-'yef-ske\, Fyodor (Mikhaylovich) (b. Nov. 11, 1821, Moscow, Russia—d. Feb. 9, 1881, St. Petersburg) Russian nov¬ elist. Dostoyevsky gave up an engineering career early in order to write. In 1849 he was arrested for belonging to a radical discussion group; sen¬ tenced to be shot, he was reprieved at the last moment and spent four years at hard labour in Siberia, where he developed epilepsy and expe¬ rienced a deepening of his religious faith. Later he published and wrote for several periodicals while producing his best novels. His novels are concerned especially with faith, suffering, and the meaning of life; they are famous for their psychological depth and insight and their near- prophetic treatment of issues in philosophy and politics. His first, Poor Folk (1846), was followed the same year by The Double. The House of the Dead (1862) is based on his imprisonment and The Gambler (1866) on his own gambling addiction. Best known are the novella Notes from the Underground (1864) and the great novels Crime and Punishment (1866), The Idiot (1869), The Possessed (1872), and The Brothers Kara¬ mazov (1880), which focuses on the problem of evil, the nature of free¬ dom, and the characters’ craving for some kind of faith. By the end of his life, he had been acclaimed one of his country’s greatest writers, and his works had a profound influence on 20th-century literature.

Dou Vdau\, Gerrit or Gerard Dou (b. April 7, 1613, Leiden, Neth.—d. Feb. 9, 1675, Leiden) Dutch painter. From 1628 to 1631 he studied with Rembrandt, adopting his subject matter, careful draftsman¬ ship, and dramatic treatment of light and shadow. When Rembrandt left Leiden, Dou developed his own style, painting smooth, meticulously detailed, small-scale domestic interiors and portraits. He used the “frame within a frame” device of surrounding his figures by a window or curtain and excelled at scenes lit by candlelight. With Jan Steen he was among the founders of the Guild of St. Luke at Leiden (1648).

Douala \dii-'a-la\ City (pop., 1992 est.: 1,200,000), chief port of Cam¬ eroon, on the Bight of Biafra. It was the capital of German Kamerun and later of French Cameroun and was taken from the Germans in 1914. Cameroon’s largest city, it is one of Central Africa’s major industrial cen¬ tres, and its deepwater port handles most of the country’s overseas trade. It is home to a variety of commercial, agricultural, and industrial schools; a museum and handicraft centre encourage the production and preserva¬ tion of Cameroonian art.

double-aspect theory or dual-aspect theory Type of mind- body monism. According to double-aspect theory, the mental and the mate¬ rial are different aspects or attributes of a unitary reality, which itself is neither mental nor material. The view is derived from the metaphysics of Benedict de Spinoza, who held that mind and matter are merely two of an infinite number of “modes” of a single existing substance, which he iden¬ tified with God. See also mind-body problem.

Edible dormouse (Glis glis).

SCHUNEMANN/BAVARIA-VERLAG

double bass ► Douglas I 567

double bass Lowest-pitched of the modern stringed instruments. It var¬ ies in size, up to 80 inches (200 cm) tall. Its shape also varies; its shoul¬ ders usually slope more than those of the violin, reflecting its status as a hybrid of the viol and violin families (the name comes from the double- bass viol). It emerged from these families in the late Renaissance, and it has always been less standardized in form than its cousins in the violin family. It normally has four strings; the orchestral instrument often has a lower fifth string (more often, an extension is added to the fourth string), and the jazz instrument has a higher fifth string. Its range is an octave below that of the cello. It is normally bowed in orchestral music and plucked in jazz. In rock bands and some jazz bands, the electric bass is used instead.

double jeopardy In law, the prosecution of a person for an offense for which he or she already has been prosecuted. In U.S. law, double jeopardy is prohibited by the 5th Amendment to the Constitution of the United States, which states that no person shall “be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life and limb.” The clause bars sec¬ ond prosecutions after acquittal or conviction and prohibits multiple con¬ victions for the same offense. Thus a person cannot be guilty of both murder and manslaughter for the same homicide, nor can a person be retried for the same crime after the case has been resolved. A person can, however, be convicted of both murder and robbery if the murder arose from the robbery. The prohibition against double jeopardy is not violated when an individual is charged for behaviour stemming from an offense for which he has been charged in a different jurisdiction or in a different court (e.g., a civil court as opposed to a criminal court). See also rights of the accused; due process.

double refraction or birefringence Optical property in which a single ray of unpolarized light (see polarization) splits into two compo¬ nents traveling at different velocities and in different directions. One ray is refracted (see refraction) at an angle as it travels through the medium, while the other passes through unchanged. The splitting occurs because the speed of the ray through the medium is determined by the orientation of the light compared with the crystal lattice of the medium. Since unpo¬ larized light consists of waves that vibrate in all directions, some will pass through the lattice without being affected, while others will be refracted and change direction. Materials that exhibit double refraction include ice, quartz, and sugar.

double vision or diplopia Perception of two images of an object, usually caused by temporary or permanent eye-muscle paralysis. Nor¬ mally, the brain fuses slightly different images from each eye by matching corresponding points on each retina. When an eye muscle is paralyzed, the image falls at a different point and the images do not correspond. Double vision may be an early symptom of botulism or myasthenia gravis and occurs in other infections, head injuries, and nerve or muscle disorders.

Doubleday, Abner (b. June 26, 1819, Ballston Spa, N.Y., U.S.—d. Jan. 26, 1893, Mendham, N.J.) U.S.

Army officer, once thought to be the inventor of baseball. Doubleday served in the Mexican War and the Seminole Wars. As a major general in the American Civil War, he gave the first order to fire at Fort Sumter, and he later fought in other major battles. In 1907 a commission appointed by A.G. Spalding con¬ cluded that Doubleday formulated the essential rules of baseball in 1839 at Cooperstown, N.Y., leading to the choice of Cooperstown as the site of the Baseball Hall of Fame. It was later proved that Doubleday was not in Cooperstown in 1839. See also Alexander Cartwright.

Doubs River \'dii\ ancient Dubis. River, eastern France and western Switzerland. Rising in the Jura Mtns., it flows northeast to form part of the French-Swiss border. It continues east into Switzerland, makes a hairpin turn and heads back into France, finally entering the Saone River, after a course of about 270 mi (435 km), only 56 mi (90 km) from its source.

Dougga See Thugga

Douglas, Aaron (b. May 26, 1899, Topeka, Kan., U.S.—d. Feb. 2, 1979, Nashville, Tenn.) U.S. painter and graphic artist. In 1925 he moved to New York City, where he joined the burgeoning arts scene in Harlem that later became known as the Harlem Renaissance. In his magazine illus¬ trations and murals, he synthesized Cubist forms with stylized and geo¬ metric shapes drawn from African art. Perhaps his most significant work was a series of four murals, collectively titled Aspects of Negro Life, for the 135th Street branch of the New York Public Library. His illustrations are widely known for their tonal gradations and Art DECO-style silhou¬ ettes. He taught at Fisk University from 1939 to 1966.

Douglas, Sir James (b. Aug. 15, 1803, Demerara, British Guiana—d. Aug. 2, 1877, Victoria, B.C., Can.) Canadian statesman, known as “the father of British Columbia.” He joined the Hudson's Bay Co. in 1821 and became a senior member in charge of operations west of the Rocky Moun¬ tains. In 1849 he moved the company’s headquarters from Oregon to Vancouver Island. He served as governor of Vancouver from 1851 to 1864. When gold was discovered on the Fraser River in 1858, he extended his authority to the mainland to preserve Britain’s Pacific foothold. When Britain created the colony of British Columbia, Douglas was appointed governor (1858-64).

Douglas, Kirk orig. Issur Danielovitch later Isadore Dems-

key (b. Dec. 9, 1916, Amsterdam, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. film actor and pro¬ ducer. He had minor Broadway roles before making his film debut in The Strange Love of Martha Ivers (1946) and emerged as a major star in Champion (1949). Despite giving sensitive performances in The Glass Menagerie (1950) and Paths of Glory (1957), he became identified with the intense, forceful roles he played in films such as The Bad and the Beautiful (1952), Lust for Life (1956), Gunfight at the O.K. Corral (1957), and Seven Days in May (1964). He produced and starred in Spartacus (1960). He continued to appear in films into the 21st century.

Douglas, Michael (b. Sept. 25, 1944, New Brunswick, N.J., U.S.) U.S. actor and producer. The son of Kirk Douglas, he made his film act¬ ing debut in 1969 and began his career as a producer with One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975). He produced and acted in films such as The China Syndrome (1979), Romancing the Stone (1984), Fatal Attraction (1987), and Wall Street (1987, Academy Award) and also starred in Basic Instinct (1992), Traffic (2000), and Wonder Boys (2000).

Douglas, Stephen A(rnold) (b. April 23, 1813, Brandon, Vt., U.S.—d. June 3, 1861, Chicago, Ill.) U.S. politician. He was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives (1843-47) and Senate (1847-61), where he strongly supported the Union and national expansion. To settle the bitter dispute over the extension of slavery to the territories, he devel¬ oped the policy of popular sovereignty. He was influential in the passage of the Compromise of 1850 and the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Short and heavy- set, he was dubbed “the Little Giant” for his oratorical skill. In 1858 he engaged in a number of widely publicized debates with Abraham Lincoln in a close contest for the Senate seat in Illinois (see Lincoln-Douglas Debates). The Democrats nominated Douglas for president in 1860, but a splinter group of Southerners nominated John C. Breckinridge, which divided the Democratic vote and gave the presidency to Lincoln. In 1861 he undertook a mission for Lincoln to gain support for the Union among the Southern border states and in the Northwest. His untimely death of typhoid was partly a result of these exertions.

Douglas, Tommy orig. Thomas Clement Douglas (b. Oct. 20, 1904, Falkirk, Stirlingshire, Scot.—d. Feb. 24, 1986, Ottawa, Ont., Can.) Scottish-born Canadian politician. His family immigrated to Winnipeg in 1919. An ordained minister, he became active in the socialist Co-operative Commonwealth Federation, and he served in the Canadian Parliament (1935-44). As premier of Saskatchewan (1944-61), he led Canada’s first socialist government. He established a system of state-run health care in the province, the first such system in the nation; for this he is considered the father of socialized medicine in Canada. He resigned in 1961 to become leader of the New Democratic Party, a post he held until 1971.

Douglas, William O(rville) (b. Oct. 16, 1898, Maine, Minn., U.S.—d. Jan. 19, 1980, Washington, D.C.) U.S. jurist and public official. He attended Columbia University Law School, where he edited the law review and graduated second in his class. After learning the intricacies of financial and corporate law at a Wall Street law firm, he joined the law faculty at Yale, where he taught until 1936. He became a member of the

568 I Douglas fir ► Dover

Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) in 1936. As SEC chairman (1937-39) he engineered the reorganization of the country’s stock exchanges, instituted measures for the protection of small investors, and began government regulation of the sale of securities (see security). In 1939 Pres. Franklin Roosevelt appointed him to the Supreme Court of the United States, on which he served until 1975. Although responsible for writing opinions in many complicated financial cases, he became most famous for his pronouncements on civil liberties (see civil liberty). He rejected government limitations on freedom of speech and was an outspo¬ ken defender of an unfettered press. He also strove to uphold the rights of the accused. He wrote numerous books on history, politics, foreign relations, and conservation, including Of Men and Mountains (1950) and A Wilderness Bill of Rights (1965).

Douglas fir Any of about six species of coniferous evergreen timber trees (see conifer) that make up the genus Pseudotsuga, in the PINE fam¬ ily, native to western North America and eastern Asia. Long, flat, spirally arranged yellow- or blue-green needles grow directly from the branch. The North American tree commonly called Douglas fir is P. menziesii (sometimes P. douglasii ).

Douglas firs may grow to 250 ft (75 m) tall and 8 ft (2.4 m) in diameter.

One of the best timber trees in North America, it is also a popular orna¬ mental and Christmas tree and is used for reforestation along the Pacific Coast.

Douqlas-HomeVdag-bs-'hyumV Sir Alec orig. Alexander Fred¬ erick later Baron Home (of the Hirsel of Coldstream) (b. July 2, 1903, London, Eng.—d. Oct. 9,

1995, The Hirsel, Coldstream, Berwickshire, Scot.) British statesman. A member of the House of Commons (1931-45 and 1950-51), he entered the House of Lords after inheriting the earldom of Home (1951). He served as minister of state for Scotland (1951-55), leader of the House of Lords (1957-60), and foreign secretary (1960-63) before succeeding Harold Macmillan as prime minister in 1963, relinquishing his hereditary titles. He was unable to improve the British balance-of-payments situa¬ tion and antagonized Conservatives by supporting legislation against price-fixing, but gained U.S. approval as a result of his anti-Communism. After his government fell in 1964, he became Conservative opposition spokesman on foreign affairs and later again foreign secretary (1970-74). In 1974 he was created a life peer.

Douglass, Frederick orig. Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey (b. February 1818?, Tuckahoe, Md., U.S.—d. Feb. 20, 1895, Washington, D.C.) U.S. abolitionist. The son of a slave mother and a white father, he was sent to work as a house servant in Baltimore, where he learned to read. At age 16 he was returned to the plantation; later he was hired out as a ship caulker. In 1838 he fled to New York City and then to New Bedford, Mass., changing his name to elude slave hunters. His elo¬ quence at an 1841 antislavery convention propelled him into a new career as an agent for the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society, in which capac¬ ity he endured frequent insults and violent personal attacks. In 1845 he wrote his autobiography, now regarded as a classic. To avoid recapture by his owner, whose name he had given in the narrative, he embarked on a speaking tour of England and Ireland (1845—47), returning with enough money to buy his freedom and to start an antislavery newspaper North Star , which he published until 1860 in Rochester, N.Y. In 1851 he split with the radical abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison and allied himself with moderates led by James Birney. In the American Civil War he was a con¬ sultant to Pres. Abraham Lincoln. During Reconstruction he fought for full civil rights for freedmen and supported women’s rights. He served in government posts in Washington, D.C. (1877-86), and as U.S. minister to Haiti (1889-91).

Douhet Xdti-'eX, Giulio (b. May 30, 1869, Caserta, Italy—d. Feb. 15, 1930, Rome) Italian general. He served as commander of Italy’s first aviation unit, the Aeronautical Battalion (1912-15). In World War I his criticism of the war’s conduct led to his court-martial, imprisonment, and

retirement. An investigation in 1917 justified his criticisms; his convic¬ tion was reversed, and he was appointed head of the aviation service. In books such as The Command of the Air (1921) he advanced his ideas on strategic air power and the importance of strategic bombing. He advo¬ cated the creation of an independent air force, reduction of land and sea forces, and unification of the armed forces. Though his ideas aroused great controversy, many were adopted by the major powers.

Doukhobors or Dukhobors Vdii-ko-.borX (Russian: “Spirit Wres¬ tler”) Member of a Russian peasant religious sect. Its members, most of whom originally lived in southern Russia, objected to the liturgical reforms (1652) of Patriarch Nikon and Russia’s Westernization under Peter

I. They had no priests or sacraments, and their egalitarian and pacifist beliefs provoked sporadic persecution from 1773 on. Leo Tolstoy won them the right to emigrate, and by 1899 7,500 had left for western Canada. In the early 20th century they clashed repeatedly with the Canadian gov¬ ernment over noncompliance with land, tax, and education laws. The removal of Doukhobor children from their parents 1953-59 prompted legal action to obtain compensation in the late 1990s.

Douris \'du-ris\ (fl. early 5th century bc, Greece) Greek vase painter. He was known for his work in red-figure pottery, which exhibit his fine drafts¬ manship and rhythmic composition. He decorated his vases with a vari¬ ety of themes, including the legend of the Golden Fleece. His signature has been identified on some 40 vases; more than 200 have been attrib¬ uted to him, including a cup depicting Eos Embracing Her Dead Son Memnon.

Douro River Vdo-.ruV Spanish Duero Ydwa-ro\ ancient Durius. River in Spain and Portugal. The third-longest in the Iberian Peninsula, it rises in the Sierra de Urbion in central Spain, and crosses the Numantian Plateau. It flows generally westward for 556 mi (895 km) across Spain and northern Portugal to the Atlantic Ocean. It has extensive barge traffic in its Portuguese section, and has been harnessed for hydroelectric power.

dove Any of certain birds of the pigeon family (Columbidae). The names pigeon and dove are often used interchangeably. Though “dove” usually refers to the smaller, long-tailed members of the pigeon family, there are exceptions: the common street pigeon, generally typical for birds desig¬ nated as pigeons, is frequently called the rock dove. The common names of these birds do not necessarily reflect their accurate biological relation¬ ships to one another.

Dove, Rita (Frances) (b. Aug. 28, 1952, Akron, Ohio, U.S.) U.S. writer and teacher. She studied writing at the University of Iowa and pub¬ lished the first of several chapbooks of her poetry in 1977. Her poems and short stories focus on the particulars of family life and personal struggle, addressing the larger dimensions of the African American experience pri¬ marily by indirection. Her poetry collections include Museum (1983), Thomas and Beulah (1986, Pulitzer Prize), Mother Love (1995), and On the Bus with Rosa Parks (1999). She was poet laureate of the U.S. from 1993 to 1995.

Dover City (pop., 2000: 32,135), capital of Delaware, U.S., on the St. Jones River. Laid out in 1717 as the site for a county courthouse and jail by order of William Penn and named for Dover, Eng., it became the capi¬ tal in 1777. Its many colonial buildings include the Old State House (rebuilt 1787-92), which served as the capitol building until 1933; dis¬ played there are King Charles II’s original royal grant and Penn’s deeds to Delaware (1682). The modern city is a farm trade centre and shipping point for fruits, and it has some light industries.

Dover ancient Dubris Portus Town (pop., 1995 est.: 34,000) and seaport on the Strait of Dover, Dover district, administrative and historic county of Kent, southeastern England. A pre-Roman settlement existed on the site, and in the 4th century ad it was guarded by a Saxon fort. During the 11th century it was chief of the Cinque Ports. Dover Castle, a strong¬ hold of medieval England, was besieged by rebellious barons in 1216. The town was held by Parliamentarians in the English Civil Wars. It was a naval base in World War I and was bombed by Germans in World War

II. Landmarks include the castle, a Roman lighthouse, and an ancient for¬ tress church. Famous for the white chalk cliffs rising above it, Dover is a leading passenger port.

Dover, Strait of French Pas de Calais \,pad-ka-Ta\ ancient Fre- tum Gallicum. Channel separating southeastern England from north¬ western France. Connecting the English Channel with the North Sea, it is about 20 mi (32 km) wide at its narrowest point. Lined on the British side

Cone of a Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii )

GRANT HEILMAN

Dover ► Dracula I 569

with the famous White Cliffs, which are composed of soft chalk, it is one of the world’s busiest seaways; its chief ports include Dover and Folke¬ stone in England and Calais and Boulogne in France. It was the scene of several historic naval battles, including the repulse by the English of the Spanish Armada in 1588. Allied troops in the Dunkirk Evacuation crossed to Dover in 1940.

Dover, Treaty of (1670) Pact between Charles II of England and Louis XIV in which Charles promised to support French policy in Europe in return for a French subsidy that would free him from financial depen¬ dence on Parliament. There were actually two treaties: a secret one con¬ cerning the conversion of England to the Roman Catholic faith (which never took effect), and a formal one concerning an Anglo-French military and naval alliance designed to subjugate the United Provinces of the Netherlands.

Dow, Herbert H(enry) (b. Feb. 26, 1866, Belleville, Ont., Can.—d. Oct. 15, 1930, Rochester, Minn., U.S.) U.S. inventor and manufacturer. After attending college in Cleveland, Dow developed and patented elec¬ trolytic methods (the Dow process) for extracting bromine from brines (concentrated water solutions of salts). In 1895 he founded the Dow Chemi¬ cal Co. to electrolyze brine for chlorine, used in insecticides. He was the first U.S. producer of iodine (which he also extracted from brine). He eventually was granted some 65 patents as his company became one of the world’s leading chemical manufacturers.

Dow Chemical Co, Leading U.S. petrochemical company that manu¬ factures chemicals, pharmaceuticals, consumer goods, paint, and many other products for industrial and home use. It was founded in 1897 by the chemist Herbert H. Dow, initially as a bleach plant to use wastes produced by the Midland Chemical Co. It was incorporated with Midland Chemi¬ cal and the Dow Process Co. in 1900. Dow’s products have included a broad range of industrial chemicals and metals, plastics and packaging materials, and bioproducts, including mustard gas, napalm, Agent Orange, silicone breast implants, aspirin, plastic wrap, and Styrofoam.

Dow Jones average Stock price average computed by Dow Jones & Co. Founded in 1882 by Charles H. Dow (1851-1902) and Edward D. Jones (1856-1920), Dow Jones & Co. commenced publication of the Wall Street Journal in 1889 and began computing a daily industrials average in 1897. Dow Jones publishes averages based on 20 transportation stocks, 15 utility stocks, and 30 selected industrial stocks, as well as a compos¬ ite average of all three; the industrial-stocks average is universally fol¬ lowed by U.S. and international investors. The company also publishes several bond averages. See also NASDAQ; stock exchange.

Dowland, John (b. 1562/63, Westminster, London, Eng.—d. Jan. 21, 1626, London) English composer and lutenist. Educated at Oxford, he was refused a court position in 1594 and, believing his adoptive Catholicism had been the cause, he left for the continent. There he traveled exten¬ sively and took a position at the Danish court. In 1612, when his com¬ positions had made him famous, he was finally appointed lutenist to the English court. He published three collections of songs, including about 90 works for solo lute and some 80 lute songs, including “Come again, sweet love does now endite,” “ Flow my tears,” and “Weep you no more, sad fountains.” His Lachrimae is a collection for viol-and-lute ensemble.

Down District (pop., 1999 est.: 63,800), Northern Ireland. Formerly part of County Down, it was established as a district in 1973. It fronts Strang- ford Lough and the Irish Sea. Extreme southern and western Down is mountainous; the dome-shaped Mourne Mountains reach an elevation of 2,789 ft (850 m). Down is a rich agricultural district; livestock raising is important. Down was settled in prehistoric times. It was where St. Patrick began his mission in Ireland (ad 432), and his well and bathhouses are preserved near the district seat, Downpatrick. In Tudor times, parts of Down were colonized by English and Scottish adventurers.

Down syndrome or trisomy Vtrl-.so-meN 21 Congenital disorder caused by an extra chromosome (trisomy) on the chromosome 21 pair. Those with the syndrome may have broad, flat faces; up-slanted eyes, sometimes with epicanthal folds (whence its former name, mongolism); mental retardation (usually moderate); heart or kidney malformations; and abnormal fingerprint patterns. Many persons with Down syndrome can live and work independently or in a sheltered environment, but they age prematurely and have a short (55-year) life expectancy. The risk of bear¬ ing a child with the disorder increases with the mother’s age; it can be detected in the fetus by amniocentesis.

Downing, Andrew Jackson (b. Oct. 30, 1815, Newburgh, N.Y., U.S.—d. July 28, 1852, vicinity of Yonkers, N.Y.) U.S. horticulturist, landscape gardener, and architect. He educated himself in landscape gar¬ dening and architecture while working in his father’s nursery. In 1850 he began collaborating with the British architect Calvert Vaux (1824-95); the two designed a number of estates in New York’s Hudson River val¬ ley and on Long Island. Recognized as the foremost U.S. landscape designer of his day, he was commissioned in 1851 to lay out the grounds for the Capitol, the White House, and the Smithsonian Institution. His death at 36 in a steamboat accident prevented him from seeing his plans to completion. His books on architecture and landscaping became stan¬ dard works, and his influence on American conceptions of the middle- class home were far-reaching.

Downpatrick Town (pop., 1991: 10,113), seat of Down district. North¬ ern Ireland. It is on the southwestern end of Strangford Lough. Formerly a MacDunleary stronghold, it was seized in 1177 by the Anglo-Norman adventurer John de Courci and served as his headquarters until 1203. St. Patrick is reputedly buried on the grounds of its cathedral.

dowry Vdaii-re\ Money, goods, or estate that a woman brings to her husband in marriage. The dowry has a long history in Europe, South Asia, Africa, and other parts of the world. Some of its basic functions are to protect the wife against ill treatment by her husband, since a dowry can be a conditional gift; to help the husband discharge the responsibilities of marriage, since the dowry makes it possible for the young man to estab¬ lish a household; to provide the wife with support in case of her husband’s death; and to compensate the groom’s kin for their payment of bridewealth. In Europe, the dowry served to build the power and wealth of great fami¬ lies and played a role in the politics of grand alliance through marriage. The giving of a dowry more or less disappeared in Europe in the 19th and 20th centuries. The practice grew, however, in South Asia. In some cases, delayed or insufficient dowry made some young wives the victims of murder by their husbands or in-laws, a practice known as “bride burning” or “dowry death.”

dowsing Vdau-zh]\ Occult practice used for finding water, minerals, or other hidden substances. A dowser generally uses a Y-shaped piece of hazel, rowan, or willow wood (also called a dowser or a divining rod). The dowser grasps the rod by its two prongs and appears, while walking, to be receiving transmissions from beneath the earth. If the rod quivers violently or points downward, some buried substance has been located. First practiced in Europe during the Middle Ages, dowsing is most often used to find water but may also be employed to locate precious metals, buried treasure, archaeological remains, or even dead bodies.

Doyle, Arthur Conan See Sir Arthur Conan Doyle

Draa \'dra\ River River, southwestern Morocco. Rising from two head- streams in the Atlas Mountains, it flows south to form much of the Algerian-Moroccan frontier before emptying into the Atlantic Ocean near Cape Draa. Although it is Morocco’s longest river (700 mi [1,100 km] in length), all but the headstreams and upper course flow intermittently.

Drabble, Margaret (b. June 5, 1939, Sheffield, Yorkshire, Eng.) Brit¬ ish novelist. She graduated from the University of Cambridge. Her nov¬ els include The Realms of Gold (1975), The Radiant Way (1987), and The Gates of Ivory (1991). She has also written literary biographies (like her husband, Michael Holroyd) and other literary studies and has edited the Oxford Companion of English Literature (1985). A.S. Byatt is her sister.

dracaena \dr9-'se-no\ Any of about 50-80 species of ornamental foli¬ age plants that make up the genus Dracaena , in the agave family, native primarily to the Old World tropics. Most have short stalks and narrow, sword-shaped leaves; some have taller stalks and resemble trees. The small flowers are red, yellow, or green. D. sanderiana and D. fragrans are often grown as houseplants. The ornamental dragon tree ( D. draco ) of the Canary Islands bears orange fruit. Its trunk contains a red gum, called dragon’s blood, that was formerly used in medicines.

Draco Vdra-ko\ or Dracon (fl. 7th century bc) Athenian lawgiver. Almost nothing is known of his life. His harsh legal code (621 bc) pun¬ ished most crimes, even trivial ones, with death. Solon repealed Draco’s code, retaining only the homicide statutes.

Dracula Character created by Bram Stoker in his 1897 novel of the same name. A mesmerizing, ruthless vampire, Dracula captured the public imagi¬ nation, especially following Bela Lugosi’s elegant and chilling portrayal of

570 I draft ► Drakensberg

Count Dracula in Tod Browning’s 1931 horror film version. Stoker had named the character for the notoriously cruel Vlad III Tepes (1431-76), a ruler of Walachia, whose epithet was Dracula (“Son of the Dragon”).V- lad was said to have put to death 20,000 men, women, and children by impaling them upright on stakes. The Dracula character became a stock figure in the horror repertoire, portrayed with varying degrees of sympa¬ thy and repulsion.

draft See bill of exchange draft See conscription

Draft Riot of 1863 Four days of violence in New York City to pro¬ test the inequities of American Civil War conscription. The law permitted draftees to buy their way out of army service for $300, a sum relatively few men could afford. When the drawing of names began on July 11, mobs of Irish and other foreign-born workers surged into the streets, burning draft headquarters and other buildings, and assaulting blacks, who they had feared would take their jobs. About 100 people (mostly rioters) died.

drafting Precise graphical representation of a structure, machine, or its component parts that communicates the intent of a technical design to the fabricator (or the prospective buyer) of the product. Drawings may present the various aspects of an object’s form, show the object projected in space, or explain how it is built. Drafting uses orthographic projection, in which the object is viewed along parallel lines that are perpendicular to the plane of the drawing. Orthographic drawings include top views (plans), flat front and side views (elevations), and cross-sectional views showing profile. Perspective drawing, which presents a realistic illusion of space, uses a horizon line and vanishing points to show how objects and spatial rela¬ tionships might appear to the eye, including diminution of size and con¬ vergence of parallel lines. Drafting was done with precision instruments (T square or parallel rule, triangle, mechanical pens and pencils) until computerization revolutionized production methods in architectural and engineering offices.

drafting See drawing

drag Force exerted by a fluid stream on any obstacle in its path or felt by an object moving through a fluid. Its magnitude and how it may be reduced are important to designers of moving vehicles, ships, suspension bridges, cooling towers, and other structures. Drag forces are convention¬ ally described by a drag coefficient, defined irrespective of the shape of the body. Dimensional analysis reveals that the drag coefficient depends on the Reynolds number; the precise dependence must be elucidated experi¬ mentally and can be used to predict the drag forces experienced by other bodies in other fluids at other velocities. Engineers use this principle of dynamic similarity when they apply results obtained with a model struc¬ ture to predict the behaviour of other structures. See also friction; stream¬ line.

drag racing Form of motor racing in which two contestants race side by side from a standing start over a straight quarter-mile strip of pave¬ ment. Winners go on to compete against others in their class until only one is left undefeated. There are three main classes of vehicle: (1) the Top Fuel Eliminator (called a “rail” or “slingshot”), a lightweight, long- chassied vehicle with wide rear tires that is fueled by a special mixture, such as methanol and nitromethane; (2) the “funny car,” a high- performance copy of a late-model production car that uses special fuel; and (3) the standard production car, a modified version of a gasoline- powered production car. The Top Fuel class is the fastest, followed by the funny car. Drag racing is most popular in the U.S.

dragon Legendary monster usually depicted as a huge, bat-winged, fire-breathing lizard or snake with a barbed tail. The dragon symbolized evil in the ancient Middle East, and the Egyptian god Apepi was the great serpent of the world of darkness. The Greeks and Romans sometimes rep¬ resented dragons as evil creatures and sometimes as beneficent powers acquainted with the secrets of the earth. In Christianity the dragon sym¬ bolized sin and paganism, and saints such as St. George were shown tri¬ umphing over it. Used as warlike emblems in many cultures, dragons were carved on the prows of Norse ships and depicted on royal ensigns in medieval England. In the Far East the dragon was a beneficent creature, wingless but regarded as a power of the air. In China it symbolized yang in the yin-yang of cosmology, and it served as the emblem of the royal family.

dragon worm See guinea worm

dragonfly Any member of the insect suborder Anisoptera (order Odo- nata), characterized by four large, membranous, many-veined wings, that, when at rest, are held horizon¬ tally rather than vertically (see dam- selfly). Dragonflies are agile and have bulging eyes that often occupy most of the head and a wingspan of about 6 in. (16 cm). The dragonfly is one of the fastest-flying and most preda¬ ceous insects; in 30 minutes it can eat its own weight in food. Dragonflies differ from most other insects by hav¬ ing the male copulatory organs at the front part of the abdomen rather than at the back end. Male and female often fly in tandem during sperm transfer.

dragoon In late 16th-century Europe, a mounted soldier who fought as a light cavalryman on attack and as a dismounted infantryman on defense. The term derived from his weapon, a short musket called the dragoon. Dragoons were organized in companies, and their officers bore infantry titles. By the 18th century, dragoon referred to members of certain cav¬ alry regiments. The term is still applied in the British Army to certain armoured reconnaissance units.

Drake, Sir Francis (b. c. 1540-43, Devonshire, Eng.—d. Jan. 28, 1596, at sea, off Puerto Bello, Pan.)

English admiral, the most renowned seaman of the Elizabethan Age.

Brought up by his wealthy Hawkins relatives (see John Hawkins) in Ply¬ mouth, Drake went to sea at about age 18. He gained a reputation as an outstanding navigator and became wealthy by raiding and plundering Spanish colonies. In 1577 he set sail with five ships, but ultimately only his flagship, the Golden Hind, made its way through the Strait of Magel¬ lan into the Pacific and up the coast of South and North America. He sailed at least as far north as what is now San Francisco, claiming the area for Elizabeth, and continued westward to the Philippines and around the Cape of Good Hope.

Having circumnavigated the globe, he returned to Plymouth, Eng., in 1580 laden with treasure, the first captain ever to sail his own ship around the world. In 1581 he was knighted. Appointed vice admiral (1588), he destroyed ships and supplies destined for the Spanish Armada and delayed the Spanish attack for a year. But he is not known to have played any part in the battle that eventually occurred. In his lifetime, his reputation at home was equivocal, yet his legend grew. On his last voyage he suc¬ cumbed to fever and was buried at sea.

Drake equation or Green Bank equation Equation claimed to yield the number of technically advanced civilizations capable of inter¬ stellar communication in the Milky Way Galaxy as a function of several factors conducive to evolution of intelligent life with technological capa¬ bilities. It was largely developed by Frank D. Drake (b. 1930) in 1961 at a SETI conference in Green Bank, W.Va. Of all the stars that form in the Galaxy, only some will give rise to life-supporting planets, and of those planets, only some will generate life capable of high technology and yet able to avoid technological destruction. Because the numbers for each factor are poorly known, the results generated vary from zero to millions.

Drake Passage Strait, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans between Tierra del Fuego and the South Shetland Islands. Located about 100 mi (160 km) north of the Antarctic Peninsula, it is 600 mi (1,000 km) wide. In this area the climate changes from cool, humid, and subpolar to the frozen conditions of Antarctica. An important trade route in the 19th and early 20th centuries, its stormy seas and icy conditions made the rounding of Cape Horn a difficult journey.

Drakensberg Vdra-konz-.berkN Zulu Kwathlamba \'kwat-'lam-ba\ Mountain range, southern Africa. It rises to more than 11,400 ft (3,475

E.S. ROSS

' m. i>

.DKAiXi

Sir Francis Drake, oil painting by an unknown artist; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY,

LONDON

Draper ► Dreiser I 571

m) and extends from southwest to northeast in Lesotho and southeastern South Africa, separating the extensive high plateaus of the interior from the lower lands along the coast. It is an area of many game reserves and national parks.

Draper, Charles Stark (b. Oct. 2, 1901, Windsor, Mo., U.S.—d. July 25, 1987, Cambridge, Mass.) U.S. aeronautical engineer. He taught at MIT from 1935, where he developed a gunsight for naval anti-aircraft guns that was installed on most U.S. naval vessels in World War II. His iner¬ tial guidance system, called spatial inertial reference equipment (SPIRE), allowed planes, submarines, and ballistic missiles to travel thousands of miles to their destinations without reference to outside navigational aids, such as radio or the positions of celestial bodies. His group at the Mas¬ sachusetts Institute of Technology also developed guidance systems for the Apollo program. He is memorialized in the annual Charles Stark Draper Prize for achievement in engineering.

Draper, Ruth (b. Dec. 2,1884, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Dec. 30,1956, New York City) U.S. monologist. She began her career by writing dramatic sketches about people she had observed and performing them at parties. She made her New York debut (1917) in a series of one-act pieces. Her London debut (1920) established her as a master monologist. She per¬ formed worldwide, playing on a bare stage with few props and creating characters and settings by subtle modulation of feature, gesture, and voice.

Drau River See Drava River

Drava River Vdra-vo\ German Drau \'drau\ River, south-central Europe. It rises in the Camic Alps and flows east through Austria, where it forms the Drautal, the longest longitudinal valley of the Alps. Flowing southeast, it passes through Slovenia and forms part of the Croatian- Hungarian border. The Drava is 447 mi (719 km) long and a major tribu¬ tary of the Danube River. Its valley was the chief passage through which invaders penetrated the Alpine countries.

Dravidian Vdro-'vi-de-onV languages Family of 23 languages indig¬ enous to and spoken principally in South Asia by more than 210 million people. The four major Dravidian languages of southern India— Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, and Malayalam —have independent scripts and long docu¬ mented histories. They account for the overwhelming majority of all Dravidian-speakers, and they form the basis of the linguistic states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala. All have borrowed liberally from Sanskrit. The only Dravidian language spoken entirely out¬ side of India is Brahui, with fewer than two million speakers mainly in Pakistan and Afghanistan. Of the Dravidian languages, Tamil has the greatest geographical extension and the richest and most ancient litera¬ ture, which is paralleled in India only by that of Sanskrit. The Dravidian family, with no demonstrated relationship to other language families, is assumed to have covered a much more extensive area of South Asia before the spread of Indo-Aryan and was the source of loanwords into early Indo-Aryan dialects.

drawing Art or technique of producing images on a surface, usually paper, by means of marks in graphite, ink, chalk, charcoal, or crayon. It is often a preliminary stage to work in other media. According to Gior¬ gio Vasari, disegno (drawing and design) was the foundation of the three arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture. Beginning in the Italian Renaissance, debate arose regarding the role of drawing, as some saw it as an independent art form and others saw it as a preliminary stage in creating a painting or sculpture. By the 17th century, drawings had defi¬ nite market value; connoisseurs specialized in collecting them, and forg¬ ers began to exploit the demand. In the 20th century, the drawing became fully autonomous as an art form, figuring significantly among the works of virtually every major artist, and the line itself was exploited both for its representational and its purely expressive qualities.

drawing or drafting In yarn manufacture, process of attenuating a loose assemblage of fibres. These fibres, called sliver, pass through a series of rollers, which straighten the individual fibres and make them more par¬ allel. Each pair of rollers spins faster than the previous one. Drawing reduces a soft mass of fibres to a firm uniform strand of usable size. For synthetic fibres, drawing is a stretching process applied to fibres in the plas¬ tic state, increasing orientation and reducing size. In metalworking, draw¬ ing refers to the process of shaping sheet metal into complex, three- dimensional forms with metal dies. See also carding, wire drawing.

drawing frame or spinning frame Machine for drawing, twisting, and winding yarn. Invented in the 1730s by Lewis Paul and John Wyatt,

the spinning machine operated by drawing cotton or wool through pairs of successively faster rollers. It was eventually superseded by R. Ark¬ wright’s water frame.

Dreadnought, HMS British battleship launched in 1906 that estab¬ lished the pattern of the warships that dominated the world’s navies for the next 35 years. It was equipped entirely with big guns because recent improvements in naval gunnery had made preparation for short-range battle unnecessary. Powered by steam turbines instead of the steam pis¬ tons then common, it sailed at a record top speed of 21 knots. It displaced 18,000 tons (16,300 metric tons), was 526 ft (160 m) long, and carried a crew of about 800. By World War I it was nearly outclassed by faster “superdreadnoughts” carrying bigger guns. It was placed on reserve in 1919 and broken up for scrap in 1923.

dream Series of thoughts, images, or emotions occurring during sleep, particularly sleep accompanied by rapid eye movement (REM sleep). Dream reports range from the very ordinary and realistic to the fantastic and surreal. Humans have always attached great importance to dreams, which have been variously viewed as windows to the sacred, the past and the future, or the world of the dead. Dreams have provided creative solu¬ tions to intellectual and emotional problems and have offered ideas for artistic pursuits. A type of cognitive synthesis that facilitates conscious insight may occur subconsciously during dreaming. The most famous theory of the significance of dreams is the psychoanalytic model of Sig¬ mund Freud; in Freud’s view, desires that are ordinarily repressed (hidden from consciousness) because they represent forbidden impulses are given expression in dreams, though often in disguised (i.e., symbolic) form.

Dreaming, the or Dream-Time In the religion of the Australian Aborigines, the mythological time of the Creation. In the Dreaming the environment was shaped and humanized by mythic beings, many of whom took animal or human form. Some could change form at will. They took long journeys and created human life and the social order. In Aboriginal belief, these beings are eternal and continue to exist, although they may have traveled beyond the lands of the people who sing about them or may have metamorphosed into natural features such as rocky outcrops or water holes. The landscape is thus sacred to Aboriginal peoples. See also Aus¬ tralian RELIGION.

Dred Scott decision formally Dred Scott v. Sandford 1857 rul¬ ing of the Supreme Court of the United States that made slavery legal in all U.S. territories. Scott was a slave whose master had taken him in 1834 from a slave state (Missouri) to a free state and a free territory, then back to Missouri. Scott sued for his freedom in Missouri in 1846, claiming his residence in a free state and a free territory made him free. The opinion of Chief Justice Roger B. Taney declared that Scott was not entitled to rights as a U.S. citizen and, in fact, had “no rights which any white man was bound to respect”. Taney and six other justices struck down the Mis¬ souri Compromise as unconstitutional, maintaining that Congress had no power to prohibit slavery in the territories (see states' rights). The deci¬ sion, a clear victory for the South, increased Northern antislavery senti¬ ment, strengthened the new Republican Party, and fed the sectional strife that led to war in 1861.

Dreikaiserbund See Three Emper¬ ors' League

Dreiser VdrI-zoiA, Theodore (Herman Albert) (b. Aug. 27, 1871, Terre Haute, Ind., U.S.—d. Dec. 28, 1945, Hollywood, Calif.) U.S. novelist. Born to poor German immigrant parents, Dreiser left home at age 15 for Chicago. He worked as a journalist, and in 1894 he moved to New York, where he had a successful career as a magazine editor and pub¬ lisher. His first novel, Sister Carrie (1900), about a young kept woman who goes unpunished for her trans¬ gressions, was denounced as scandal¬ ous. His subsequent novels would confirm his reputation as the out¬ standing American practitioner of naturalism. After the success of Jen¬ nie Gerhardt (1911), he began writ-

Theodore Dreiser.

THE GRANGER COLLECTION, NEW YORK CITY

572 I Dresden ► Dreyfus

ing full-time, producing a trilogy consisting of The Financier (1912), The Titan (1914), and The Stoic (published 1947), which was followed by The Genius ( 1915) and its sequel, The Bulwark (published 1946). An American Tragedy ( 1925), based on a murder tidal and itself the basis for the 1931 film by that name and for a 1951 film entitled A Place in the Sun, made him a hero among social reformers.

Dresden City (pop., 2002: 478,600), situated on the Elbe River, east¬ ern Germany. Originally a Slavonic settlement, it was the residence of the margraves of Meissen in the early 13th century. The Dresden china indus¬ try originated there but was moved to Meissen in 1710 (see Meissen por¬ celain). Napoleon I made Dresden a centre of military operations and won his last great battle there in 1813. Dresden was occupied by Prussia in 1866. In World War II, it was severely damaged by Allied bombing raids in 1945. Several of its historic buildings have been restored or recon¬ structed. It is known for its art galleries, museums, and other cultural institutions. Industries produce precision and optical instruments.

Dresden Codex Latin Codex Dresdensis One of the few pre- Columbian Maya codices to survive book burnings by Spanish clergy. It contains exceptionally accurate astronomical calculations, including ECUPSE-prediction tables and the synodic period of Venus. The reputation of the Maya as astronomers is based largely on these figures.

dress Covering, or clothing and accessories, for the human body. The term encompasses garments as shirts, togas, footwear, hats, and gloves; hairstyles, facial hair, and wigs; and cosmetics, jewelry, and other forms of body decoration. In cultures thoughout the world, perhaps the most obvi¬ ous function of dress is to provide warmth and protection, but it can also serve religious or ritual purposes. Other basic functions of dress include identifying the wearer (by providing information about sex, age, occupa¬ tion, or other characteristic) and making the wearer appear more attrac¬ tive. In the West up through the modern era, dress has often functioned as a reflection of social and economic standing. See also fashion.

dressage \dr9-'sazh\ French "training" Equestrian sport involving the execution of precision movements by a trained horse in response to barely perceptible signals from its rider. Particularly important are the animal’s pace and bearing in performing walks, trots, canters, and more specialized maneuvers. Training is divided into the elementary campagne and the advanced haute ecole. Dressage competitions have been included in the Olympic Games since 1912. Riders compete as individuals and in teams.

Dressier, Marie orig. Leila Marie Koerber (b. Nov. 9, 1868, Cobourg, Ont., Can.—d. July 28, 1934, Santa Barbara, Calif., U.S.) Canadian-U.S. actress. She began her acting career as a vaudeville come¬ dian and made her film debut in Tillie’s Punctured Romance (1914), in which Charlie Chaplin also appeared. After a period of obscurity, she expe¬ rienced a career revival with the coming of sound films. In the 1930s she was known for her portrayals of self-sufficient, humorous old women (often costarring with Wallace Beery) in films such as Min and Bill (1931, Academy Award) and Tugboat Annie (1933).

Drew, Charles Richard (b. June 3, 1904, Washington, D.C., U.S.—d. April 1, 1950, near Burlington, N.C.) U.S. physician and surgeon. He received his Ph.D. from Columbia University. While researching the prop¬ erties and preservation of blood plasma, he developed efficient ways to process and store plasma in blood banks. He directed the U.S. and Brit¬ ain’s World War II blood-plasma programs until 1942. An African Ameri¬ can, he resigned over the segregation of the blood of blacks and whites in blood banks.

Drew, Daniel (b. July 29, 1797, Carmel, N.Y., U.S.—d. Sept. 18, 1879, New York, N.Y.) U.S. railway financier. In 1844 he founded the Wall Street brokerage firm of Drew, Robinson, and Co., which became one of the principal traders in railroad stocks in the U.S. The “Erie War” of 1866-68, in which Drew joined Jay Gould and James Fisk against Corne¬ lius Vanderbilt in a struggle for control of the Erie Railroad Co., eventually led to his ruin, and he filed for bankruptcy in 1876.

Drew family U.S. theatrical family. Louisa Lane (later Louisa Lane Drew; 1820-97) began her stage career at age eight in Philadelphia, where her widowed mother had brought her from England. Her many success¬ ful parts included Lady Teazle, Mrs. Malaprop, and such “breeches” roles as Shakespeare’s Romeo and Mark Antony. In 1850 she married the Irish comic actor John Drew (1827-62), who made his U.S. debut in 1842 and comanaged the Arch Street Theatre in Philadelphia. He toured widely, and

she managed the theatre from 1861, directing the renamed Mrs. John Drew’s Arch Street Theatre company with notable success until 1892. Their son John Drew, Jr. (1853-1927), made his debut (1873) with his mother’s company, then joined the companies of Augustin Daly (1838— 99) and Charles Frohman (1860-1915). He was noted for his roles in Shakespearean comedies, society dramas, and light comedies. Their daughter Georgiana Emma Drew (1854-93) made her acting debut with her mother’s company (1872). She became the wife of the actor Maurice Barrymore and the mother of the actors Lionel, Ethel, and John Barry¬ more (see Barrymore family).

Drexel, Anthony J(oseph) (b. Sept. 13, 1826, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—d. June 30, 1893, Carlsbad, Bohemia) U.S. banker and philanthro¬ pist. He and his brothers inherited his father’s Philadelphia banking house and built it into a successful investment-banking concern, specializing in flotation of government bonds, railroad organization, mining develop¬ ment, and urban real estate. In 1891 he founded the Drexel Institute of Art, Science, and Industry, now Drexel University. He was the uncle of St. Katherine Drexel.

Drexel, Saint Katharine (b. Nov. 26, 1858, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—d. March 3, 1955, Cornwells Heights, Pa.; canonized Oct. 1, 2000; feast day March 3) U.S. missionary. The niece of banker and philanthro¬ pist Anthony J. Drexel, she inherited a vast fortune, which she used to fund her charitable enterprises, including mission schools in Minnesota, South Dakota, Wyoming, and New Mexico. In 1887 Pope Leo XIII (1878-1903) asked her to become a missionary. In 1891 she founded the Blessed Sac¬ rament Sisters for Indians and Colored People (now Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament), a congregation of missionary nuns dedicated to the welfare of Native Americans and African Americans. She also founded several schools for minority students as well as Xavier University in New Orleans (1915). She was the second U.S.-born saint; the first was Elizabeth Ann Seton, canonized in 1975.

(b. Feb. 3, 1889, Copenhagen,

Carl Dreyei

Dreyer Vdrf-orN, Carl Theodor

Den.—d. March 20, 1968, Copen¬ hagen) Danish film director. He entered the film industry as a writer of subtitles and became a script¬ writer and editor. His first film as a director was The President (1919); after several others, he made his most famous silent film. The Passion of Joan of Arc (1928). He created a new directorial style based on exten¬ sive close-ups and the use of authen¬ tic settings. His other films include Vampire (1932), the celebrated Day of Wrath (1943), The Word (1955), and Gertrud (1964).

Dreyfus \dre-'fuis,\ English Vdri- fos, 'dra-fosV Alfred (b. Oct. 19,

1859, Mulhouse, France—d. July 12,

1935, Paris) French army officer, subject of the Dreyfus Affair (/ ’Affaire). Son of a Jewish textile manufacturer, he studied at the Ecole Poly technique, then entered the army and rose to the rank of captain (1889). He was assigned to the war ministry when, in 1894, he was accused of selling military secrets to Germany. He was convicted and sen¬ tenced to life imprisonment on Dev¬ il’s Island. The legal proceedings, based on insufficient evidence, were highly irregular, but public opinion and the French press, led by its viru¬ lently anti-Semitic section, wel¬ comed the verdict. Doubts began to grow as evidence came out suggest¬ ing that C. F. Esterhazy (1847-1923) was the true traitor. The movement

for revision of Dreyfus’s trial gained momentum when Emile Zola wrote an open letter under the headline “J’Accuse,” accusing the army of covering

n v

Alfred Dreyfus, before

H. ROGER-VIOLLET

Dreyfuss ► drug I 573

up its errors in making the case. After a new court-martial (1899) again found Dreyfus guilty, he was pardoned by the president of the republic in an effort to resolve the issue. In 1906 a civilian court of appeals cleared Dreyfus and reversed all previous convictions. Formally reinstated and decorated with the Legion of Honor, he later saw active service in World War I. The affair resulted in the separation of church and state in 1905.

Dreyfuss Vdra-fos\, Henry (b. March 2, 1904, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Oct. 5, 1972, South Pasadena, Calif.) U.S. industrial designer. He began designing stage sets for the Broadway theatre at age 17, and in 1929 he opened his first industrial design office. Bell Telephone Labora¬ tories hired him to design a series of telephones in the 1930s. Among his other notable designs was the interior of the ocean liner Independence. A pioneer of ergonomic design, he published several books explaining his methods, including Designing for People (1955, 1967).

drill Large, short-tailed monkey {Mandrillus leucophaeus, family Cerco- pithecidae). Formerly found from Nigeria to Cameroon, it is now restricted to remote forest regions of Cameroon because of hunting and deforestation. Like the related man¬ drill, the drill is stout-bodied and has vividly coloured buttocks. The male is about 32 in. (82 cm) long and has a black face. Its lower lip is bright red, the hairs around the face and a tuft behind the ears are yellowish white, and the rest of the fur is olive- brown. An omnivore, it is mainly ter¬ restrial, gregarious, and powerful, and it can fight ferociously if molested.

drill Tool to make holes, usually by revolving. Drills, gimlets, and augers have cutting edges that detach mate¬ rial to leave a hole. Drilling usually requires high speed and low torque, with little material being removed during each revolution of the tool. The earliest (perhaps Bronze Age) drill points had sharp edges that ultimately developed into arrow shapes with two distinct cutting edges. This shape was effective and remained popu¬ lar until the late 19th century, when factory-made, spiral-fluted twist drills became available at reasonable cost to displace the blacksmith-made articles. Rotating drill bits containing diamonds or other hard materials are used for drilling rock, as for tunnels or oil wells. See also drill press.

drill In military science, the preparation of soldiers for performance of their duties through the practice of prescribed movements. It trains sol¬ diers in battle formations, familiarizes them with their weapons, and develops a sense of teamwork and discipline. Today close-order drill is used for marching, ceremonies, and parades; combat drill is used to prac¬ tice the looser routines of battle. It was introduced by the Greeks, who practiced the maneuvers of the phalanx. Careful training of the legions was a major factor in the Roman Empire’s dominance. After Rome’s decline, drill largely disappeared and battles became free-for-all combats. Gustav II Adolf of Sweden led in reintroducing drill techniques in early 17th- century Europe.

drill press or drilling machine Machine tool for producing holes in hard substances. The drill is held in a rotating spindle and is fed into the workpiece, which is usually clamped in a vise supported on a table. The drill may be gripped in a chuck with three jaws that move radially in uni¬ son, or it may have a tapered shank that fits into a tapered hole in the spindle. Means are provided for varying the spindle speed and (on some machines) for automatically feeding the drill into the workpiece. See also BORING MACHINE.

Drina Vdre-no\ River River, central Balkans, southeastern Europe. Originating with the confluence of the Tara and Piva rivers, it follows a northerly course 285 mi (459 km) to enter the Sava River. Its upper course is through canyons, while its lower course is wider. The Drina constitutes a large part of the boundary that separates Bosnia and Herzegovina from Serbia and Montenegro.

drive In psychology, an urgent need pressing for satisfaction, usually rooted in some physiological deficiency or imbalance (e.g., hunger and

thirst) and impelling the organism to action. Psychologists distinguish between drives that are innate and directly related to basic physiological needs (e.g., food, air, and water) and drives that are learned (e.g., drug addiction). Among the other drives psychologists have identified are achievement, affection, affiliation, exploration, manipulation, maternity, pain avoidance, sex, and sleep.

driver Computer program that acts as an intermediary between the oper¬ ating system and a device such as a disk drive, video card, printer, or keyboard. The driver must contain a detailed knowledge of the device, including its set of specialized commands. The presence of a separate driver program frees the operating system from having to understand the details of every device; instead, the operating system issues general com¬ mands to the driver, which in turn translates them into specific instruc¬ tions for the device, or vice versa.

drop forging Process of shaping metal and increasing its strength. In most forging, an upper die is forced against a heated workpiece positioned on a stationary lower die. If the upper die or hammer is dropped, the pro¬ cess is known as drop forging. To increase the force of the blow, power is sometimes applied to augment gravity.

drop spindle See spindle and whorl

drosophila \dro-'sa-f3-l9\ Any member of about 1,000 species in the dipteran genus Drosophila, commonly known as fruit flies but also called vinegar flies. Some species, particularly D. melanogaster, are used exten¬ sively in laboratories for experiments on genetics and evolution because they are easy to raise and have a short life cycle (less than two weeks at room temperature). More data have been collected concerning the genet¬ ics of Drosophila than for any other animal. In the wild, its larvae live in rotting or damaged fruits or in fungi or fleshy flowers.

Droste-Hulshoff Vdro-sto-'hiEls-hofV Annette, Baroness von orig. Anna Elisabeth Franziska Adolphine Wilhelmine Lou¬ ise Maria, Freiin von Droste zu Hulshoff (b. Jan. 10, 1797, Schloss Hulshoff, near Munster, Westphalia—d. May 25, 1848, Meers- burg, Baden) German writer. One of the great women poets of Germany, she wrote religious verse, particularly Das geistliche Jahr (1851; “The Spiritual Year”), but she is best known for detailed, evocative poems about her native Westphalia. Her stories are considered forerunners of the 19th- century realistic short story. Her only complete prose work. The Jew’s Beech (1842), is a psychological study of a villager who murders a Jew.

Drottningholm Palace \'drut-niq- 1 h6lm\ Royal palace, near Stock¬ holm, Sweden. It was designed by Nicodemus Tessin (1615-1681) and built 1662-86. It shows French Baroque influences in its plan, gardens, and interior, but it also has Italian Classical elements and is capped by a Nordic sateri roof. A theater attached to it was built in the 1760s and is preserved with its original sets and stage machinery as a theatrical museum. The palace was formerly the Swedish royal family’s summer residence.

drought Lack or insufficiency of rain for an extended period that severely disturbs the hydrologic cycle in an area. Droughts involve water shortages, crop damage, streamflow reduction, and depletion of ground- water and soil moisture. They occur when evaporation and transpiration exceed precipitation for a considerable period. Drought is the most seri¬ ous hazard to agriculture in nearly every part of the world. Efforts have been made to control it by seeding clouds to induce rainfall, but these experiments have had only limited success.

drug Any chemical agent that affects the function of living things. Some, including antibiotics, stimulants, tranquilizers, antidepressants, analgesics, narcotics, and hormones, have generalized effects. Others, including laxa¬ tives, heart stimulants, anticoagulants, diuretics, and antihistamines, act on specific systems. Vaccines are sometimes considered drugs. Drugs may protect against attacking organisms (by killing them, stopping them from reproducing, or blocking their effects on the host), substitute for a miss¬ ing or defective substance in the body, or interrupt an abnormal process. A drug must bind with receptors in or on cells and cannot work if the receptors are absent or its configuration does not fit theirs. Drugs may be given by mouth, by injection, by inhalation, rectally, or through the skin. The oldest existing catalogue of drugs is a stone tablet from ancient Baby¬ lonia (c. 1700 bc); the modern drug era began when antibiotics were dis¬ covered in 1928. Synthetic versions of natural drugs led to design of drugs based on chemical structure. Drugs must be not only effective but safe; side effects can range from minor to dangerous (see drug poisoning). Many

Drill (Mandrillus leucophaeus).

J. KOHLER/BAVARIA-VERLAG

574 I drug addiction ► dry ice

illegal drugs also have medical uses (see cocaine; heroin; drug addiction). See also drug resistance; pharmacology; pharmacy.

drug addiction or chemical dependency Physical and/or psy¬ chological dependency on a psychoactive (mind-altering) substance (e.g., alcohol, narcotics, nicotine), defined as continued use despite knowing that the substance causes harm. Physical dependency results when the body builds up a tolerance to a drug, needing increasing doses to achieve the desired effects and to prevent withdrawal symptoms. Psychological dependency may have more to do with one’s psychological makeup; some people may have a genetic tendency to addiction. The most common addictions are to alcohol (see alcoholism), barbiturates, tranquilizers, and amphetamines, as well as to the stimulants nicotine and caffeine. Initial treatment (detoxification) should be conducted with medical supervision. Individual and group psychotherapy are critical elements. Alcoholics Anonymous and similar support groups can increase the success rate of other efforts. The ability to admit addiction and the will to change are necessary first steps.

drug poisoning or medicinal poisoning Harmful effects of drugs, from overdose or sensitivity to regular doses. Many medicines are dangerous; the margin between dose and overdose is often narrow. A nor¬ mally safe dose may be toxic in some people, over time, or in combina¬ tion with certain foods, alcohol, or other drugs. Safeguards to prevent drug poisoning include testing in animals, then human volunteers, and then patients. Drugs unsafe for self-medication are available only to doctors or by prescription. Pharmacists advise the public on proper use.

drug resistance Property of a disease-causing organism that allows it to withstand drug therapy. In any population of infectious agents, some have a mutation that helps them resist the action of a drug. The drug then kills more of the nonresistant microbes, leaving the mutants without com¬ petition to multiply into a resistant strain. This situation is more likely if the drug is not taken properly (e.g., a course of antibiotics not completed, anti-HIV drug doses missed) or not prescribed properly (e.g., an antibi¬ otic given for a viral disease). Resistance factors can also be transferred between species that infect the same body. The overprescription of anti¬ biotics in humans and the addition of antibiotics to animal feed have accelerated the evolution of resistant strains of bacteria, making it increas¬ ingly difficult to fight off certain disease-causing organisms.

Druid Member of a learned class of priests, teachers, and judges among the ancient Celtic peoples. The Druids instructed young men, oversaw sacrifices, judged quarrels, and decreed penalties; they were exempt from warfare and paid no tribute. They studied ancient verse, natural philoso¬ phy, astronomy and religious lore; their principal doctrine was belief in the immortality of the soul and the transmigration of souls. They some¬ times practiced human sacrifice to cure gravely ill people or protect war¬ riors in battle. The Druids were suppressed in Gaul by the Romans in the 1st century ad and in Britain a little later. They lost their priestly func¬ tions in Ireland after the coming of Christianity but survived as poets, historians, and judges. See also Celtic religion.

drum or croaker In biology, any of about 160 species (family Sci- aenidae) of carnivorous, generally bottom-dwelling fishes. Most are marine, found along warm and tropical seashores. Most can “vocalize” by moving strong muscles attached to the air bladder, which acts as a resonating chamber, amplifying the sounds. Drums have two dorsal fins and are usually silvery. The weakfishes, sea trouts, and squeteagues (genus Cynoscion ) have a large mouth, jutting jaws, and canine teeth, but most drums have an underslung lower jaw and small teeth. The largest species, the totuava, weighs up to 225 lbs (100 kg), but other species are much smaller. Many drums are food or game fishes. See also bass, kingfish.

drum Musical instrument, the sound of which is produced by the vibra¬ tion of a stretched membrane. Drums are usually either cylindrical or bowl-shaped. The drum is a universal instrument and very ancient; a drum dating to 6000 bc has been found in Moravia. Drums have been impor¬ tant ritually in cultures worldwide. They may have a definite pitch or be unpitched; those of Africa, South and Southeast Asia (see tabla), and the Middle East are mostly pitched, whereas Western drums are more often unpitched. Drumming has attained its highest degree of development in Africa and India. From the 13th century, the folk dance in Europe was accompanied by a single musician playing simultaneously the pipe or fife and the tabor, a small double-headed snare drum played with one stick. The side drum, or snare drum, has coiled wires or gut strings strung across the lower head, which vibrate against it when the upper head is struck.

The powerful bass drum is used especially in marching bands. The pitched timpani are the standard orchestral drums. Until the 17th cen¬ tury, drum parts in Western music were entirely improvised. The drum set used in popular music is played by a single person and normally includes a snare drum, tom-toms, a pedal-operated bass drum, and sus¬ pended and hi-hat cymbals.