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r 3 2002 Encyclopaedia Britannica, I

French. Language: French (official). Reli¬ gions: Christianity (predominantly Roman Catholic; also Protestant); also Islam, Judaism. Currency: euro. France has extensive plains, rivers, and a number of mountain ranges, including the Pyrenees and the Alps. The climate is gen¬ erally moderate. More than half of the land is suitable for agriculture, and forests, largely unexploited, cover about one-fourth of the area. France has a developed mixed economy with a preponderance of small firms. Its chief of state is the president, and the head of government is the prime

French monarchs (to 1795)

Carolingian dynasty

Philip III

1270-85

Charlemagne

768-814

Philip IV

1285-1314

Louis 1

814-40

Louis X

1314-16

Charles II

843-77

John 1

1316

Louis II

877-79

Philip V

1316-22

Louis III

879-82

Charles IV

1322-28

Carloman

879-84

Valois dynasty

Charles (III)

884-87

Philip VI

1328-50

Robertian (Capetian) dynasty

John II

1350-64

Eudes

888-98

Charles V

1364-80

Carolingian dynasty

Charles VII

1422-61

Charles III

893/98-922

Charles VI

1380-1422

Robertian (Capetian) dynasty

Louis XI

1461-83

Robert 1

922-23

Charles VIII

1483-98

Rudolf

923-36

Valois dynasty (Orleans branch)

Carolingian dynasty

Louis XII

1498-1515

Louis IV

936-54

Valois dynasty (Angouleme branch)

Lothair

954-86

Francis 1

1515-47

Louis V

986-87

Henry II

1547-59

Capetian dynasty

Francis II

1559-60

Hugh Capet

987-96

Charles IX

1560-74

Robert II

996-1031

Henry III

1574-89

Henry 1

1031-60

House of Bourbon

Philip 1

1059/60-1108

Henry IV

1589-1610

Louis VI

1108-37

Louis XIII

1610-43

Louis VII

1137-80

Louis XIV

1643-1715

Philip II

1179-1223

Louis XV

1715-74

Louis VIII

1223-26

Louis XVI

1774-92

Louis IX (St. Louis)

1226-70

Louis (XVII)

1793-95

minister. The legislature consists of two houses. France is one of the major economic powers of the world and was a founding member of the Euro¬ pean Community (see European Union). Culturally, France has enjoyed a significant role in the world from the early Middle Ages. Archaeological excavations in France indicate continuous settlement from Paleolithic times. By the 5th century bc the Gauls migrated south from the Rhine River valley to the Mediterranean coast of modern France, and in 600 bc Ionian Greeks established several settlements, including one at Marseille. Juuus Caesar completed the Roman conquest of Gaul in 50 bc. During the 6th century ad the Salian Franks ruled; by the 8th century power had passed to the Carolingians, so named for the influential reign of Charle¬ magne. The Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) resulted in the return to France of land that had been held by England; by the end of the 15th century, France approximated its modem boundaries. The 16th century was marked by the Wars of Religion between Protestants (Huguenots) and Roman Catholics. Henry IV’ s Edict of Nantes (1598) granted substantial religious toleration, but this was revoked in 1685 by Louis XIV, who helped to raise monarchical absolutism to new heights. In 1789 the French Revo¬ lution proclaimed the rights of the individual and destroyed the ancien regime. Under the rule of Napoleon (1799-1814/15), France fought to expand its dominion. It then became a monarchy again until the found¬ ing of the Second Republic (1848-52), after which Napoleon III ruled as emperor before the creation of the Third Republic in 1871. World War I (1914-18) ravaged the northern part of France. After Nazi Germany’s invasion of France during World War II, the collaborationist Vichy regime governed. Liberated by Allied and Free French forces in 1944, France restored parliamentary democracy under the Fourth Republic. A costly war in Indochina (see Indochina wars) and rising nationalism in French colo¬ nies during the 1950s overwhelmed the Fourth Republic. The Fifth Repub¬ lic officially began in January 1959 under Charles de Gaulle, who presided over the dissolution of most of France’s overseas colonies (see Algerian War; French Equatorial Africa; French West Africa). In 1981 France elected its first socialist president, Francois Mitterrand. At various times from 1986 through the beginning of the 21st century, France balanced a form of divided government known as “cohabitation,” with a president and prime minister of different political parties.

France Vfra n s\, Anatole orig. Jacques-Anatole-Francois Thibault (b. April 16, 1844, Paris, France—d. Oct. 12, 1924, Saint-Cyr- sur-Loire) French novelist and critic. France’s characteristically ironic and urbane skepticism appeared in his early novels, including Le Crime de Sylvestre Bonnard (1881) and At the Sign of the Reine Pedauque (1893).

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

702 i Francesca ► Francis Ferdinand

Later he introduced both bitter satire and humanitarian concerns into many works, such as the tetralogy L’Histoire Contemporaine (1897— 1901), whose final volume, Monsieur Bergeret in Paris (1901), reflects his support for Alfred Dreyfus. The comedy Crainquebille (1903) pro¬ claims the hostility toward the bourgeois order that led him to embrace socialism, and he was ultimately drawn to communism. He won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1921.

Francesca, Piero della See Piero della Francesca

Francesco di Cristofano de Giudicis See Franciabigio

Franche-Comte \,fra n sh-k6 n -'ta\ Region (pop., 1999: 1,117,100), east- central France. It covers 6,256 sq mi (16,202 sq km), and its capital is Besangon. Included in the original kingdom of Burgundy in the 5th cen¬ tury ad, it later became the county of Burgundy, as distinct from the duchy of Burgundy. Part of the German (later Holy Roman) empire in the 11th century, it came under the control of Philip II (the Bold) in 1384. It passed to Maximilian I in the 15th century and, from him, to the Spanish Habsburgs. Occupied by Louis IX, it was ceded to him by Spain in 1678 and was a province of France until the 1789 Revolution, when it was split into sev¬ eral departments.

Francia \fran-'che-a\, Francesco orig. Francesco di Marco di Giacomo Raibolini (b. 1450, Bologna—d. Jan. 5, 1517/18, Bologna) Italian Renaissance artist, the major Bolognese painter of the late 15th and early 16th centuries. He was originally a goldsmith. His early works were influenced by the Ferrarese painter Lorenzo Costa (c. 1460-1535), though the strongest influences on his style were the works of Perugino and Raphael. His workshop produced numerous sweet, excessively refined Madonnas; he also specialized in portraiture.

Franciabigio N.fran-cha-'be-joV orig. Francesco di Cristofano de Giudicis \'ju-de-ches\ (b. 1482/83, Florence?, Republic of Florence—d. 1525, Florence) Italian painter. He was inspired by the work of Raphael and for some years maintained a studio with Andrea del Sarto in Florence. He and Andrea’s student Jacopo da Pontormo decorated the Medici family villa at Poggio a Caiano. He was a minor master of the High Renaissance style, best known for his portraits and religious paintings.

Francis I French Francois \fra n -'swa\ (b. Sept. 12, 1494, Cognac, France—d. March 31, 1547, Ram- bouillet) King of France (1515-47).

The cousin and son-in-law of Louis XII, Francis succeeded to the throne in 1515. Soon after his coronation he rode off to the Italian Wars (1515-16) and recovered the Duchy of Milan.

He was a Renaissance patron of the arts, a humanist, and a popular king who traveled throughout France, cur¬ tailing abuses by nobles and provid¬ ing games and processions for the people. All this ended with the elec¬ tion in 1519 of Charles V as Holy Roman emperor. Charles was already king of Spain, and his lands now encircled France. Francis vainly sought an alliance with Henry VIII on the Field of Cloth of Gold, then waged a series of wars with Charles from 1521. Francis was taken captive in 1525 and languished in prison, refus¬ ing to accede to Charles’s exorbitant demands, until in 1526 the French ambassadors concluded a treaty. The war with Charles resumed in 1536, and one of Francis’s last diplomatic achievements was an alliance with the Turks against the emperor.

Francis I German Franz (b. Dec. 8, 1708, Nancy, Duchy of Lorraine—d. Aug. 18, 1765, Innsbruck, Austria) Holy Roman emperor (1745-65). The son of the duke of Lorraine, he succeeded to the duchy in 1729 (as Francis Stephen). In 1736 he married Maria Theresa, heiress to Emperor Charles VI, who agreed to the marriage on the condition that Francis cede Lorraine to Stanislaw I of Poland, in compensation for which Francis was granted Tuscany (1737). He served with Maria Theresa as coregent (1740-45) and was elected emperor during the War of the Aus¬

trian Succession. He was overshadowed by his wife during his rule but was remembered for his cultural interests.

Francis II French Francois (b. Jan. 19, 1544, Fontainebleau, France—d. Dec. 5, 1560, Orleans) King of France (1559-60). He was the son of Henry II and Catherine de Medicis and was married in 1558 to Mary Stuart (later Mary, Queen of Scots), a relation of the powerful Guise fam¬ ily. Sickly and weak-willed, Francis was dominated throughout his brief reign by the Guises, who tried to use him to break the strength of the Huguenots. His premature death temporarily ended the Guises’ dominion. He was succeeded by his brother, Charles IX.

Francis II German Franz (b. Feb. 12, 1768, Florence—d. March 2, 1835, Vienna, Austria) Last Holy Roman emperor (1792-1806); as Fran¬ cis I, emperor of Austria (1804-35); as Francis, king of Hungary (1792- 1835) and king of Bohemia (1792-1835). He succeeded his father, Leopold II. as emperor in 1792. An absolutist who hated constitutionalism, Fran¬ cis supported the first coalition war against France (1792-97). Twice defeated by France, he elevated Austria to an empire (1804) soon after Napoleon made himself emperor of France. Napoleon dictated the disso¬ lution of the Holy Roman Empire, and Francis abdicated in 1806. Though he despised Napoleon, he was forced by reasons of state to marry his daughter Marie-Louise to Napoleon in 1810. Francis helped destroy Napo¬ leon’s power in battles in 1813-14. After the Congress of Vienna (1815), Francis supported his chief minister, Klemens, prince von Metternich, in instituting a conservative and restrictive political system in Germany and Europe.

Francis II Italian Francesco \fran-'cha-sko\ (b. Jan. 16, 1836, King¬ dom of Naples—d. Dec. 27, 1894, Arco, Italy) King of the Two Sicilies (1859-60), the last of the Bourbon kings of Naples. He succeeded his father, Ferdinand II. in 1859 and on his accession rejected proposals made by Count Cavour that he join Piedmont-Sardinia in the war against Aus¬ tria and grant liberal reforms on its conclusion. Alarmed by the invasion of Sicily by Giuseppe de Garibaldi in 1860, Francis capitulated to the lib¬ erals in his kingdom and restored the constitution of 1848, granted free¬ dom of the press, and promised new elections. It was too late to save the monarchy, however; the Bourbon forces were defeated by Garibaldi, and less than a month later Francis was deposed by a plebiscite. He then lived in exile in Rome and Paris.

Francis, James Bicheno (b. May 18, 1815, Southleigh, Devon, Eng.—d. Sept. 18, 1892, Lowell, Mass., U.S.) British-U.S. hydraulic engi¬ neer. He immigrated to the U.S. in 1833 and at 22 became chief engineer of the Proprietors of the Locks and Canals on the Merrimack River. In 40 years of managing the company’s waterpower interests and advising manufacturers on waterpower, he contributed greatly to the rise of Lowell as an industrial centre. He invented the mixed-flow, or Francis, turbine used for low-pressure installations. He is also known for his formulas for the flow of water over weirs and many other studies in hydraulics. He was considered one of the foremost civil engineers of his time.

Francis de Sales, Saint (b. Aug. 21, 1567, Thorens-Glieres, Savoy—d. Dec. 28, 1622, Lyon; canonized 1665; feast day January 24) Roman Catholic bishop of Geneva and Doctor of the Church. He studied in Paris and at Padua and was ordained in 1593. He was consecrated bishop of Geneva in 1602. In 1610, with St. Jane Frances de Chantal, he founded the Visitation of Holy Mary (the Visitation Nuns), a teaching order. His Introduction to a Devout Life (1609) argued that spiritual per¬ fection is possible for ordinary individuals busy with worldly affairs. He was an active opponent of Calvinism. Pius XI named him patron saint of writers.

Francis Ferdinand German Franz Ferdinand (b. Dec. 18, 1863, Graz, Austria—d. June 28, 1914, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina) Archduke of Austria, whose assassination was the immediate cause of World War I. Nephew of Emperor Francis Joseph, he became heir appar¬ ent in 1896. His desire to marry Sophie, countess von Chotek, a lady-in- waiting, brought him into sharp conflict with the emperor, and the marriage was only allowed after he agreed to renounce his future chil¬ dren’s rights to the throne. From 1906 he exerted influence in military matters and became inspector general of the army (1913). While on an official visit in Sarajevo in June 1914, he and his wife were assassinated by the Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip. In July Austria declared war against Serbia, precipitating World War I.

King Francis I of France, portrait by Pierre Dumonstier, after a drawing by Jean Clouet; in the Bibliotheque Natio- nale, Paris.

COURTESY OF THE BIBLIOTHEQUE NATIONALE, PARIS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Francis Joseph > Franco-Russian Alliance I 703

Francis Joseph German Franz Josef (b. Aug. 18, 1830, Schloss Schonbrunn, near Vienna—d. Nov.

21, 1916, Schloss Schonbrunn)

Emperor of Austria (1848-1916) and king of Hungary (1867-1916). He became emperor during the Revolu¬ tions of 1848 after the abdication of his uncle, Ferdinand I. With his prime minister, Felix, prince zu Schwarzen- berg, he achieved a powerful position for Austria, in particular with the Punctation of Olmutz convention in 1850. His harsh, absolutist rule within Austria produced a strong central government but also led to rioting and an assassination attempt.

Following Austria’s defeat by Prus¬ sia in the Seven Weeks' War (1866), he responded to Hungarian national unrest by accepting the Compromise of 1867. He adhered to the Three Emperors' League and formed an alli¬ ance with Prussian-led Germany that led to the Triple Alliance (1882). In 1898 his wife was assassinated, and in 1889 his son Rudolf, his heir apparent, died in a suicide love pact. In 1914 his ultimatum to Serbia fol¬ lowing the murder of the next heir presumptive, Francis Ferdinand, led Austria and Germany into World War I.

Francis of Assisi, Saint orig. Francesco di Pietro di Bernar- done (b. 1181/82, Assisi, duchy of Spoleto—d. Oct. 3, 1226, Assisi; canonized July 16, 1228; feast day October 4) Italian saint and founder of the Franciscan religious order.

Born into a wealthy family, he was a soldier and prisoner of war before he experienced a conversion in his early 20s. He sold his property, gave the proceeds to the church, and began a life of poverty and devoutness. He soon attracted followers, whom he sent to preach throughout Europe, and in 1209 Innocent III gave approval for the Franciscan order.

The Rule of St. Francis stressed the need to imitate the life of Jesus. In many ways a mystic, Francis viewed all nature as a mirror of God, calling all creatures his brothers and sisters.

In 1212 he allowed formation of an order for women, called the Poor Clares. In 1219 he went to Egypt, preached to the sultan, and visited the holy places of Jerusalem. In 1224, after a vision, he became the first person to receive the stigmata.

His influence helped restore popular faith in a church much corrupted by wealth and political aspirations.

Franciscan Member of a Christian religious order dedicated to the apostolic life of poverty and preaching founded in 1209 by St. Francis of Assisi. The Franciscans actually consist of three orders. The First Order comprises priests and lay brothers who have sworn to a life of prayer, preaching, and penance. The Second Order (founded 1212) consists of cloistered nuns known as the Poor Clares. The Third Order consists of religious members and laypersons who observe Franciscan principles in teaching, charity, and social service. The Rule of St. Francis stipulated that Franciscan friars could own no property of any kind, either individu¬ ally or communally. The friars wandered and preached among the people, helping the poor and sick. Their impact was immense; within 10 years they numbered 5,000. A milder version of the rule was approved in 1223, and after the death of St. Francis in 1226 the order was divided by con¬ flicts over the vow of poverty. A moderate interpretation of the rule was established while St. Bonaventure was minister general of the order (1257-

74), and the friars spread throughout Europe, their missionaries penetrat¬ ing as far as Syria and Africa. Though continuing controversy over the definition of poverty led to the intervention of the Pope John XXII, who persecuted the advocates of strict poverty, and to divisions of the order that lasted into the 19th century, the Franciscans flourished. They remain the largest Roman Catholic religious order.

Franck VfraqkV, Cesarf-Auguste) (b. Dec. 10, 1822, Liege, Neth.—d. Nov. 8, 1890, Paris, France) Belgian-French composer. A piano prodigy, he arrived in Paris at age 14 to study at the Paris Conservatoire. In 1858 he became organist at the large church of Sainte-Clotilde, where he would remain the rest of his life. In 1872 he became professor of organ at the Conservatoire. His compositions, which tend to be serious, German- influenced, and often religious, include the famous Symphony in D Minor (1888); the tone poems Les Eolides (1876), Le Chasseur maudit (1882), and Psyche (1888); the oratorio Les Beatitudes (1879); chamber works including a piano quintet (1879), a violin sonata (1886), and a string quartet (1889); and many works for organ and piano.

Franco Yfraq-koA English Vfraq-koV Francisco in full Francisco Paulino Hermenegildo Teodulo Franco Bahamonde (b. Dec. 4, 1892, El Ferrol, Spain—d. Nov. 20, 1975, Madrid) Spanish general and head of the government of Spain (1939-75). A career army officer, he was noted as a skillful leader and became army chief of staff in 1935. He joined the insurgents in the Spanish Civil War and was named El Caudillo (“The Leader”) of the Nationalist forces (1936). In 1937 he reorganized the fas¬ cist Falange party into a more pluralistic group and made it the regime’s official political movement. Though in sympathy with the Axis Powers in World War II, Spain remained formally neutral, but after the war Franco was ostracized as the “last surviving fascist dictator.” Relations with other nations regularized with the onset of the Cold War, as Franco became a leading anticommunist statesman. In the 1950s and ’60s, his domestic policies moderated, and Spain made great economic progress. He pro¬ vided for his succession by an official referendum in 1947 that made the Spanish state a monarchy, ratifying his powers as regent for life. In 1969 he designated Prince Juan Carlos as his successor.

Franco-Cantabrian \kan-'ta-bre-on\ school Oldest and most com¬ plete of several artistic traditions of the Paleolithic Period that flourished in southwestern France and the Cantabrian Mountains of northern Spain c. 40,000-10,000 bc. It developed in huge limestone caves, such as Alta- mira and Lascaux Grotto, which served as ceremonial centres for ancient hunters. Inspired by magical-religious beliefs, the art consists of large numbers of cave paintings of single, lively, unrelated animals, which may have been used in rituals invoking success in the hunt and animal fertil¬ ity. Small carved figurines incised with linear details have also been found.

Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War (1870-71) War in which a coalition of German states led by Prussia defeated France, ending French hegemony in continental Europe and creating a unified Germany. The immediate cause was the candidacy of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen for the Spanish throne, which raised the pos¬ sibility of a combination of Prussia and Spain against France. Following diplomatic maneuvers to block Leopold’s candidacy, the Prussian chan¬ cellor Otto von Bismarck published the Ems Telegram to provoke the French government into declaring war, which it did. The other German states sided with Prussia, and German troops under Gen. Helmuth von Moltke, superior in numbers and organization, scored repeated victories. After Napoleon III surrendered at the Battle of Sedan, French resistance was car¬ ried on by a new government, which deposed the emperor and established the Third Republic. Paris surrendered, but while treaty negotiations were going on, an insurrection by radicals in Paris created a short-lived gov¬ ernment, the Paris Commune. After its suppression, a harsh peace treaty was implemented: Germany annexed Alsace and half of Lorraine, and France was occupied until a large indemnity was paid. The German empire was established when William I of Prussia was proclaimed German emperor in 1871. The peace was an unstable one, marked by France’s determination to recover Alsace-Lorraine and Germany’s mounting impe¬ rialism, led by Prussian militarism. Their mutual animosity was a driving force that led to World War I.

Franco-Russian Alliance or Dual Alliance (1894) Political and military pact between France and Russia that was one of the basic Euro¬ pean alignments of the pre-World War I era. In the event of war, France wanted support against Germany, and Russia against Austria-Hungary. The alliance was formalized through an exchange of letters in order to

Francis Joseph, 1908

COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM; PHOTOGRAPH, J.R. FREEMAN & CO. LTD.

Saint Francis of Assisi, detail of a fresco by Cimabue, late 13th century; in the lower church of San Francesco, Assisi, Italy.

AUNARI—ANDERSON FROM ART RESOURCE

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

704 i Franconia ► Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung

preserve secrecy, and it was to be in force as long as the opposing Triple Alliance. The alliance was renewed and strengthened in 1899 and 1912.

Franconia German Franken Former duchy, south-central Germany. Today it is divided between Rhenish Franconia, now located in the Lander (states) of Rhineland-Palatinate, Baden- Wiirttemberg, and Hesse, and East Franconia, now in the Lander of Baden-Wiirttemberg and Bavaria. A medi¬ eval duchy, after ad 843 it was the German part of the former Carolin- gian empire. After the Carolingian line died out, Franconia’s duke became the first elected German king, as Conrad I. The duchy was then divided into Rhenish (west) and East Franconia, the latter alone retaining the name of Franconia after the 12th century. The name was abolished in 1806 but revived in 1837 by the kingdom of Bavaria in its subdivisions.

frangipani \,fran-j3-'pa-ne\ Any of the shrubs or small trees that make up the genus Plumeria , in the dogbane family, native to the New World tropics and widely cultivated as ornamentals; also, a perfume derived from or imitating the odour of the flower of one species, P. rubra. The white- edged, yellow flowers of the Mexican frangipani (P rubra acutifolia) are a popular component of the Hawaiian lei.

Frank Member of a Germanic-speaking people who invaded the west¬ ern Roman Empire in the 5th century. The Franks lived east of the Rhine River in the 3rd century and came under Roman influence. They gained control of northern Gaul by 494 and southern Gaul by 507, and the con¬ version of their leader Clovis I to Catholic Christianity won them the sup¬ port of the clergy and the Gallo-Roman population in Gaul. The Franks established one of the most powerful kingdoms of the early Middle Ages, ruling lands in present-day France (to which they gave their name), Bel¬ gium, and western Germany. The Merovingian dynasty to which Clovis belonged was succeeded by the Carolingian dynasty, whose most notable ruler, Charlemagne, created a great empire across Christian Europe. The division of the realm in the 9th century and the subsequent dissolution of a unified Frankish empire foreshadowed the formation of the modern countries of western Europe.

Frank \'fraqk,\ English \'fraqk\, Anne(lies Marie) (b. June 12, 1929, Frankfurt am Main, Ger.—d. March 1945, Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, near Hannover) German diarist. Frank was a young Jewish girl who kept a record of the two years her family spent in hiding in Amsterdam to escape Nazi persecution. After their discovery by the Gestapo in 1944, the family was transported to concentration camps; Anne died of typhus at Bergen-Belsen. Friends searching the hiding place found her diary, which her father published as The Diary of a Young Girl (1947). Preco¬ cious in style and insight, it traces her emotional growth amid adversity and is a classic of war literature.

Frank \'fraqk\, Jacob orig. Jacob Leibowicz (b. 1726, Berezanka or Korolowka, Galicia, Pol.—d. Dec. 10, 1791, Offenbach, Hessen) Jew¬ ish false Messiah. He was an uneducated visionary who claimed to be the reincarnation of Shabbetai Tzevi. He proclaimed himself messiah in 1751 and founded the Frankist, or Zoharist, sect, based on the Sefer ha-zohar, which he sought to put in the place of the Torah. The sect rejected tra¬ ditional Judaism, and their practices, including orgiastic rites, led the Jewish community to excommunicate them in 1756. Protected by Roman Catholic authorities, who hoped Frank would help in the conversion of the Jews, Frank and his followers were baptized in Poland. In 1760 he was imprisoned by the Inquisition, who had realized that Frank’s follow¬ ers regarded Frank, not Jesus, as the messiah. Freed in 1773 by invading Russians, he settled in Germany and lived as a baron until his death.

Frank, Robert (b. Nov. 9, 1924, Zurich, Switz.) Swiss-born U.S. pho¬ tographer. In the 1940s he worked as a fashion photographer for Harp¬ er’s Bazaar in Paris. He abandoned fashion work in 1947 to travel in the U.S. and South America and explore the use of the 35-mm camera. His collection The Americans (1959), with its gritty, discordant images of 1950s America, had enormous influence and established him as a major figure. After 1959 Frank turned to filmmaking; his short film Pull My Daisy (1959), a collaboration with Jack Kerouac, became an underground classic. A major later collection is Robert Frank: Moving Out (1994).

Frankel, Zacharias (b. Sept. 30, 1801, Prague, Bohemia—d. Feb. 13, 1875, Breslau, Ger.) Hungarian German rabbi and theologian. He gradu¬ ated from the University of Budapest and served as rabbi in several Ger¬ man communities. As chief rabbi in Dresden (1836-54), he developed a theology called positive-historical Judaism, which diverged from Ortho¬ dox Judaism in its willingness to accept scientific and historical research

as well as changes in the liturgy but adhered to traditional customs more firmly than Reform Judaism. In 1854 he became president of Breslau’s Jewish Theological Seminary, and his theology spread through central Europe and to the U.S., where it took root as Conservative Judaism. His books include Introduction to the Mishna (1859) and Introduction to the Palestinian Talmud (1870).

Frankenthaler, Helen (b. Dec. 12, 1928, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. painter. She studied with Rufino Tamayo in high school and at Benning¬ ton College, then returned to her native New York City and joined the “second generation” of Abstract Expressionists. Influenced by Jackson Pol¬ lock and Arshile Gorky, she developed a style featuring abstract colour combinations within large expanses of bare canvas. She perfected the technique of colour staining, producing diaphanous colour by thinning the oils and letting them soak into the unprimed canvas. In the 1960s she began to use acrylic paints. Though abstract, many of her paintings (e.g.. Ocean Desert, 1975) evoke landscapes and are noted for their lyricism. Her work influenced the colour-field painters Morris Louis and Kenneth Noland. She was married to Robert Motherwell from 1958 to 1971.

Frankfort Vfraqk-fortA City (pop., 2000: 27,741), capital of Kentucky, U.S. Located on the Kentucky River, it was founded in 1786 and has been the capital since statehood (1792). Twice during its early history the capi- tol was burned, and both times the larger cities of Louisville and Lexington tried to become the state capital. Frankfort was retained, however, because of its central location. It is a trading centre for the Bluegrass region, pro¬ ducing tobacco, com, and Thoroughbred horses, and the site of Kentucky State University (1886).

Frankfurt (am Main) City (pop., 2002 est.: city, 641,076; metro, area, 1,896,741), western Germany. Located on the Main River, it was the site of a Roman military settlement in the 1st century ad. It served as a royal residence of the Carolingians from the 9th century through the Middle Ages. A free imperial city (1372-1806), it lost its status under Napoleon but regained it in 1815. It was the capital of Germany from 1816 until it was annexed by Prussia in 1866. Its Old Town, once the largest surviving medieval city in Germany, was mostly destroyed in World War II; some landmarks survive, including its red sandstone cathedral, dedicated in 1239. International trade fairs have been held in Frankfurt since 1240; in the modern era, book, automobile, and computer fairs are popular annual events. The city’s manufactures include machinery and printing materi¬ als, as well as the high-quality sausages known as frankfurters. Frankfurt is the birthplace of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.

Frankfurt National Assembly officially German National Assembly (1848-49) German national parliament that tried and failed to create a united German state during the liberal Revolutions of 1848. Meet¬ ing in Frankfurt am Main, it proposed a constitution that provided for uni¬ versal suffrage and a parliamentary government, with a hereditary emperor. The assembly offered the crown to Frederick William IV of Prussia, but he was too conservative to receive a German imperial crown from any hands but those of the other German princes, and he refused. Lacking support from either Prussia or Austria, the assembly was forced to disband.

Frankfurt school Group of thinkers associated with the Institut fur Sozialforschung (Institute for Social Research), founded in Frankfurt in 1923 by Felix J. Weil, Carl Griinberg, Max Horkheimer, and Friedrich Pol¬ lock. Other important members of the school are Theodor Adorno, Walter Benjamin, Herbert Marcuse, and JOrgen Habermas. After the Nazi seizure of power in 1933, Horkheimer moved the institute to Columbia University in New York City, where it functioned until 1941; it was reestablished in Frankfurt in 1950. Though the institute was originally conceived as a cen¬ tre for neo-Marxian social research, there is no doctrine common to all members of the Frankfurt school. Intellectually, the school is most indebted to the writings of G.W.F. Hegel and the Young Hegelians (see Hegelianism), Immanuel Kant, Karl Marx, Wilhelm Dilthey, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Sigmund Freud. See also critical theory.

Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung Vfraqk-fur-tor-'al-ge-.mi-no- 'tsl-tur)\ (FAZ) German "Frankfurt General Newspaper" Daily newspaper published in Frankfurt am Main, one of the most prestigious and influential in Germany. It was created after World War II by journal¬ ists who had worked on the highly respected Frankfurter Zeitung before the war. When control of the press was turned over to the new West Ger¬ man government in 1949, FAZ began publication. It was the first daily of truly national scope and quickly won a high reputation. Its editorial policy is regarded as conservative because it champions private enterprise.

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Frankfurter ► Fraser I 705

Frankfurter, Felix (b. Nov. 15, 1882, Vienna, Austria-Hungary—d. Feb. 22, 1965, Washington, D.C.,

U.S.) Austrian-born U.S. jurist and public official. Immigrating to the U.S. at the age of 12, he was edu¬ cated at the City College of New York and Harvard Law School, where he later taught (1914-39). He served as secretary of war (1911-13) under Pres. William H. Taft. He advised Woodrow Wilson at the Paris Peace Conference (1919) and counseled Franklin Roosevelt on New Deal legislation (1933-39). He pro¬ moted Zionism in the U.S. and helped found the American Civil Liberties Union; his friend Louis Brandeis secretly encouraged his attacks on the Sacco-Vanzetti conviction. In 1939 he was appointed by Roosevelt to the Supreme Court of the United States, on which he served until 1962. He became a leading exponent of judicial restraint, holding that judges should adhere closely to precedent and largely disregard their personal views; his opinions evince a concern with the integrity of government, sometimes at the expense of individual liberties.

frankincense Fragrant gum resin obtained from trees of the genus Boswellia (family Burseraceae), particularly several varieties found in Somalia, Yemen, and Oman. This important incense resin was used in ancient times in religious rites and in embalming. It constituted part of the Jewish incense of the sanctuary and is frequently mentioned in the Pentateuch; it was one of the gifts of the magi to the infant Jesus. It is used today in incense and fumigants and as a fixative in perfumes.

Franklin, Aretha (Louise) (b. March 25, 1942, Memphis, Tenn., U.S.) U.S. popular singer. Franklin’s family moved from Memphis to Detroit when she was two. Her father, C.L. Franklin, was a well-known revivalist preacher; his church and home were visited by musical lumi¬ naries such as Clara Ward, Mahalia Jackson, B.B. King, and Dinah Wash¬ ington. Franklin made her first recording at age 12. At first she performed only gospel music, but at age 18 she switched from sacred to secular music. After struggling for a number of years to achieve crossover success, in 1967 her powerful and fervent voice took the country by storm as she began to release a string of songs including “I Never Loved a Man,” “Respect,” “Chain of Fools,” “Think,” and “Natural Woman.” Her rous¬ ing mixture of gospel and rhythm and blues defined the golden age of soul music of the 1960s. In 1987 she became the first woman inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.

the Constitution of the U.S. He is regarded as one of the most extraordi¬ nary and brilliant public servants in U.S. history.

Franklin, John Hope (b. Jan. 2, 1915, Rentiesville, Okla., U.S.) U.S. historian. He attended Fisk Univer¬ sity and received graduate degrees from Harvard and has taught at many colleges and universities, including Howard, Chicago, and Duke. He first gained international attention with From Slavery to Freedom (1947). He helped fashion the legal brief that led to the landmark Brown v. Board of Education decision. He was the first black president of the American His¬ torical Association (1978-79) and was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1995.

Franklin, Rosalind (Elsie) (b.

July 25, 1920, London, Eng.—d.

April 16, 1958, London) British biologist. After graduating from the University of Cambridge, she con¬ ducted important experimental work ~°P e Franklin, 1990

for the coal and coke industries. She ^ PIX PHOTOGRAPHY _

later produced the X-ray diffraction

pictures that allowed James D. Watson and Francis Crick to deduce that the three-dimensional form of DNA was a double helix. In studies of the tobacco mosaic virus, she helped show that its RNA is located in its pro¬ tein rather than in its central cavity and that this RNA is a single-stranded helix rather than the double helix found in the DNA of bacterial viruses and higher organisms. Her death from cancer at age 37 probably cost her a share of the 1962 Nobel Prize awarded to Watson, Crick, and Maurice Wilkins.

Franz \'frants\, Robert orig. Robert Franz Knauth (b. June 28, 1815, Halle, Saxony—d. Oct. 24, 1892, Halle, Ger.) German song com¬ poser. In 1842 he became director of the Singakademie of his native Halle and organized choral festivals there. He sent Robert Schumann a set of songs, which Schumann had published in 1843 without consulting Franz. Franz Liszt became another influential supporter and published his own book about Franz in 1872. By 1867 Franz had become almost completely deaf and was obliged to relinquish his posts, including his professorship at the University of Halle. He was mentally unstable in his later years, when honours were increasingly heaped upon him. His more than 300 songs are remarkable for their sensitive musical prosody; he is a signifi¬ cant figure in the history of the ued.

Franz Josef See Francis Joseph

Franklin, Benjamin (b. Jan. 17, 1706, Boston, Mass.—d. April 17, 1790, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.) American statesman, scientist, philosopher, and publisher. He was apprenticed at age 12 to his brother, a local printer. He taught himself to write effectively, and in 1723 he moved to Philadel¬ phia, where he founded the Pennsylvania Gazette (1730—48) and wrote Poor Richard’s Almanack (1732-57), whose proverbs and aphorisms emphasized prudence, industry, and honesty. He became prosperous and promoted public services in Philadelphia, including a library, a fire depart¬ ment, a hospital, an insurance company, and an academy that became the University of Pennsylvania. His inventions included the Franklin stove and bifocal spectacles, and his experiments in electricity led to the invention of the lightning rod. He served as a member of the colonial legislature (1736—51). He was a delegate to the Albany Congress (1754). He repre¬ sented the colony in England in a dispute over land and taxes (1757-62); he returned there in 1764 as agent for several colonies. The issue of taxa¬ tion gradually caused him to abandon his initial support for a unified colonial government under British rule. Believing that taxation ought to be the prerogative of the representative legislatures, he opposed the Stamp Act and helped secure its repeal. He served as a delegate to the second Continental Congress and as a member of the committee to draft the Dec¬ laration of Independence. In 1776 he went to France to seek aid for the American Revolution. Lionized by the French, he negotiated a treaty that provided loans and military support for the U.S. In 1781 he helped nego¬ tiate a preliminary peace treaty with Britain. As a member of the 1787 Constitutional Convention, he was instrumental in achieving adoption of

Franz Josef Land Russian Zemlya Frantsa-losifa

Nzim-'lya-'frants-so-'yo-so-foX Archipelago, northeastern Barents Sea. Con¬ sisting of about 190 islands, it is the northernmost territory of Russia and the most northerly land of the Eastern Hemisphere. With a land area of about 6,229 sq mi (16,134 sq km), the islands comprise a series of low¬ land plateaus, 85% of which is ice-covered. The Arctic climate supports polar bears and the Arctic fox, with numerous bird species. The Soviet Union annexed the islands in 1926 and maintained permanent weather stations there.

Fraser, Dawn (b. Sept. 4, 1937, Balmain, near Sydney, Austl.) Austra¬ lian swimmer. She broke the women’s world record for the 100-m freestyle race nine successive times between 1956 and 1964 and became the first woman swimmer to win gold medals in three consecutive Olympic Games. Her 1964 100-m freestyle record of 58.9 seconds stood for eight years. She set world marks in freestyle swimming at six different distances.

Fraser, George MacDonald (b. 1925) British novelist. He trained as a journalist and served as deputy editor of the Glasgow Herald (1968— 69). The success of his first novel, Flashman (1969), led him to become a full-time writer. In it and subsequent novels filled with historical colour and detail, the bully of Thomas Hughes’s Tom Brown’s Schooldays is his hero. Recent novels include Black Ajax (1998) and Flashman and the Tiger (2000). He has also written screenplays.

Fraser, Simon (b. May, 20, 1776, Mapletown, N.Y.—d. Aug. 18?, 1862, St. Andrews West, Canada West) Canadian explorer and fur trader.

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706 I Fraser ► Frederick II

In 1784 he moved to Canada, where he became a clerk (1791) and later a partner (1801) in the North West Co. In 1805 he set out to find more suitable trade routes for the fur company. He discovered a river (later Fraser River) that he mistook for the Columbia River, realizing his error only after having followed its course for more than a year. In 1817, as head of the company’s Red River Valley department, he was arrested for his alleged participation in the Seven Oaks Massacre. After his acquittal, he retired to Ontario. Simon Fraser University is named for him.

Fraser Vfra-zor, 'fra-zhorV River River, south-central British Columbia, Can. Rising in the Rocky Mountains near Yellowhead Pass, it flows north¬ west and south nearly to the U.S. border. It then turns west through the Coast Mountains in a spectacular canyon to empty into the Strait of Geor¬ gia south of Vancouver; it is 850 mi (1,368 km) long. The Cariboo gold rush, which began in 1858, took place in the Fraser River basin; lumber¬ ing is now the main industry.

Fratellini \,fra-t9- , le-ne\ family European circus family best known for the Fratellini Brothers clown trio—Paul (1877-1940), Francois (1879— 1951), and Albert (1886-1961). They grew up in the circus, where their father was a trapeze artist and acrobat. They worked as clowns in pairs until their eldest brother died in 1909, whereupon they formed their unique triple act. The makeup Albert designed for himself—high black brows, exaggerated mouth, and bulbous red nose—influenced that of many later clowns. The brothers toured in Europe and Russia before join¬ ing the Cirque Medrano in Paris, where they were widely admired for their wit and charm. Many of their children became successful clowns, notably Paul’s son Victor (1901-79) and granddaughter Annie (1932-97).

fraternity and sorority Social, professional, or honorary societies for males and females, respectively. Most such organizations use combi¬ nations of letters of the Greek alphabet as names. Many social organiza¬ tions at U.S. colleges and universities are residential and require new members (“pledges”) to partake in initiation rites. Certain honorary soci¬ eties, such as Phi Beta Kappa, are also called fraternities; membership is based on general undergraduate scholarship. See also secret society.

fraud In law, the deliberate misrepresentation of fact for the purpose of depriving someone of a valuable possession or legal right. Any omission or concealment that is injurious to another or that allows a person to take unconscionable advantage of another may constitute criminal fraud. The most common type of fraud is the obtaining of property by giving a check for which there are insufficient funds in the signer’s account. Another is the assumption of someone else’s or a fictitious identity with the intent to deceive. Also important are mail and wire fraud (fraud committed by use of the postal service or electronic devices, such as telephones or com¬ puters). A tort action based on fraud is sometimes referred to as an action of deceit.

Fraunhofer lines In astronomical spectroscopy, dark lines in a star’s spectrum caused by selective absorption of its radiation at specific wave¬ lengths by the various chemical elements in its atmosphere. First observed in 1802, they are named for the German physicist Joseph von Fraunhofer (1787-1826), who from c. 1814 plotted over 500 of them and designated the brightest with the first few letters of the alphabet. About 25,000 Fraun¬ hofer lines are known to exist in the Sun’s spectrum, between the wave¬ lengths of 2,950 and 10,000 angstroms.

Fray Jorge V.fri-'hor-haV National Park National park, north-central Chile. Established in 1941 and covering 38 sq mi (100 sq km), it pre¬ serves a pocket of subtropical forest in a semiarid region. Botanists con¬ jecture that this unusual situation exists because the relatively warm discharge of a nearby river into the cold Pacific Ocean creates an almost continuous fog, providing moisture for the forest.

Frazer, Sir James George (b. Jan. 1, 1854, Glasgow, Scot.—d. May 7, 1941, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, Eng.) British anthropologist, folk¬ lorist, and classical scholar. Frazer attended Glasgow University and Trin¬ ity College, Cambridge, where he became a professor and remained the rest of his life. In The Golden Bough (1890; enlarged to 12 vols., 1911— 15), Frazer examined the evolution of modes of thought from the magi¬ cal to the religious and, finally, to the scientific. Although his evolutionary sequence is no longer accepted, Frazer’s synthesis of the new science of cultural anthropology with traditional humanistic concerns and his lively descriptions of exotic cultural beliefs and practices had a wide influence. His other works include Totemism and Exogamy (1910) and Folk-Lore in the Old Testament (1918).

Frazier Vfra-zhorV, E(dward) Franklin (b. Sept. 24, 1894, Balti¬ more, Md., U.S.—d. May 17, 1962, Washington, D.C.) U.S. sociologist. Frazier studied at Howard and Clark universities. At Morehouse College he organized the Atlanta University School of Social Work (for African Americans). His controversial article “The Pathology of Race Prejudice” (1927) forced him to leave Morehouse; he obtained a Ph.D. at the Uni¬ versity of Chicago in 1931, then taught at Fisk University (1929-34) and Howard University (1934-59). His The Negro Family in the United States (1939) is among the first sociological works on blacks researched and written by an African American.

Fredegund Vfre-do-g3nd\ (d. 597, Paris) Queen consort of the Frank¬ ish king Chilperic I. Originally a servant, she became Chilperic’s mistress after he killed his wife (c. 568). The murder set off a 40-year feud with the family of his half brother Sigebert I, whose assassination Fredegund ordered in 575. Known for her ruthlessness and appetite for intrigue, she also made attempts on the lives of his widow and son. After Chilperic was murdered (584), possibly at her order, she took his riches and fled to Paris, where she lived until her death. Her son, Chlotar II, triumphed over Fredegund’s rival and took control of the Frankish kingdom in 613.

Frederick I German Friedrich known as Frederick Barbarossa ("Redbeard") (b. c. 1123—d. June 10, 1190, Kingdom of Armenia) Duke of Swabia (1147-90), German king (1152-90), and Holy Roman Emperor (1155-90). He signed the Treaty of Constance (1153), which promised him the imperial crown in return for his allegiance to the papacy. In 1154 he launched the first of six military campaigns against northern Italy and suppressed a revolt in Rome that restored the pope who crowned Frederick emperor in 1155. His support for a series of antipopes against Alexander III led to his excommunication in 1160 and a prolonged struggle with Rome. Renewed expeditions against Italy met with opposition from the Lombard League, which inflicted a severe defeat on Frederick in 1176. In the Peace of Venice (1177) he acknowledged Alexander III as the true pope, and a treaty with the Lombards was confirmed in 1183. Frederick conquered Liibeck in 1180 and broke the power of his chief rival, Duke Henry the Lion. He strengthened the feudal system and curbed the power of the princes by creating a stronger imperial administration. He launched the Third Crusade in 1189 but drowned while crossing a river.

Frederick I German Friedrich Vfre-.drikN (b. July 11, 1657, Konigs- berg, Prussia—d. Feb. 25, 1713, Berlin, Ger.) King of Prussia (1701-13). In 1688 he succeeded his father, Frederick William, as elector of Branden¬ burg (as Frederick III). In European politics, Frederick allied himself with Austria, England, and Holland against France. Prussia’s contingents in the imperial army distinguished themselves in the wars of the Grand Alli¬ ance and in the War of the Spanish Succession. Austria and Prussia signed a secret treaty that permitted Frederick to crown himself king of Prussia, which was obliged to support Austria militarily and in imperial affairs. As a monarchy, Prussia’s diverse Hohenzollern lands were turned into prov¬ inces, and Frederick freed the new kingdom from imperial control and increased its revenues.

Frederick II German Friedrich (b. Dec. 26, 1194, Jesi, Ancona, Papal States—d. Dec. 13, 1250, Castel Fiorentino, Apulia, Kingdom of Sicily) King of Sicily (1197-1250), duke of Swabia (1228-35), German king (1212-50), and Holy Roman Emperor (1220-50). The grandson of Fre¬ derick I Barbarossa, he became king of Sicily at age three but did not gain control over the strife-ridden country until 1212. He defeated his rival Otto IV in 1214, and though the planned union of Sicily and Germany alarmed the pope (1220), he negotiated a compromise and was crowned emperor. A delay in departing for the Sixth Crusade brought excommu¬ nication (1227), later revoked. By 1229 Frederick was king of Jerusalem. On his return he quelled a rebellion in Germany led by his son Henry, who had allied with the Lombard League. Seeing Frederick as a growing threat to papal authority, Gregory IX excommunicated him again in 1239; the emperor responded by invading the Papal States. He tried and failed (1245) to negotiate peace with Innocent IV, and his struggle with the papacy continued. By the time of his death Frederick had lost much of central Italy, and his support in Germany was uncertain.

Frederick II German Friedrich known as Frederick the Great (b.

Jan. 24, 1712, Berlin—d. Aug. 17, 1786, Potsdam, near Berlin) King of Prussia (1740-86). The son of Frederick William I, he suffered an unhappy early life, subject to his father’s capricious bullying. After trying to escape in 1730, he submitted to his father but continued to pursue intellectual and artistic interests. On his father’s death (1740), Frederick became king and

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Frederick III ► free energy I 707

asserted his leadership. He seized parts of Silesia during the War of the Aus¬ trian Succession, strengthening Prussia considerably. He invaded Saxony in 1756 and marched on into Bohemia. Frederick was almost defeated in the Seven Years' War (1756-63), until his admirer Peter III signed a Russo- Prussian peace treaty that lasted until 1780. The First Partition of Poland in 1772 led to enormous territorial gains for Prussia. Austro-Prussian rivalry led to the War of the Bavarian Succession (1778-79), a diplomatic victory for Frederick, but continued fear of Habsburg ambitions led him to form a league of German states against Joseph II. Under Frederick’s leadership Prussia became one of the great states of Europe, with vastly expanded ter¬ ritories and impressive military strength. In addition to modernizing the army, Frederick also espoused the ideas of enlightened despotism and insti¬ tuted numerous economic, civil, and social reforms.

Frederick III German Friedrich (b. Sept. 21, 1415, Innsbruck, Austria—d. Aug. 19, 1493, Linz) Holy Roman emperor from 1452 and king of Germany (as Frederick IV) from 1440. By 1439 he was the senior member of the Habsburg dynasty, and he united the Austrian holdings of two rival branches of the dynasty (partitioned in 1379), helping to lay the foundations for the greatness of the house of Habsburg in European affairs. His greatest achievement was marrying his son Maximilian (later Maximilian I) to Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, which gave the house of Habsburg a large part of Burgundy and made the Austrians a European power. Frederick was the last emperor to be crowned in Rome by a pope.

Frederick V German Friedrich known as Frederick the Winter King (b. Aug. 26, 1596, Amberg, Upper Palatinate—d. Nov. 29, 1632, Mainz) Elector palatine of the Rhine (1610-23) and king of Bohemia (as Frederick I) for one winter (1619-20). The Protestant Bohemian estates revolted against the Catholic emperor Ferdinand II and offered the crown to Frederick (1619), making him head of the Protestant union against Catholic Austria at the beginning of the Thirty Years' War. He was soon abandoned by his allies and was routed in the Battle of White Mountain. In 1622 he went into exile in Holland. In 1623 he was deprived of his rights as an elector, and in 1628 the Upper Palatinate was annexed by Bavaria.

Frederick VII Danish Frederik Vfrith-rik\ (b. Oct. 6, 1808, Amalien- borg Castle, Den.—d. Nov. 15, 1863, Glucksburg Castle) King of Den¬ mark (1848-63). After the popular demonstrations of 1848, he appointed a liberal ministry, renounced absolute rule, and adopted a representative government. His policy in Schleswig resulted in the duchy’s incorpora¬ tion into Denmark and war with Austria and Prussia soon after his death (see Schleswig-Holstein Question). The childless Frederick was succeeded by Christian IX.

Frederick Barbarossa See Frederick I (Holy Roman Empire)

Frederick Henry Dutch Frederik Hendrik Vfra-do-rok-'hen-drokV (b. Jan. 29, 1584, Delft, Holland—d. March 14, 1647, The Hague) Third hereditary stadtholder (1625—47) of the Dutch Republic. He succeeded his half brother, Maurice of Nassau, as prince of Orange and count of Nas¬ sau. Like his father, William I, Frederick Henry continued the war of inde¬ pendence against Spain. By establishing hereditary succession to the stadtholdership for the house of Orange, he exercised semimonarchical powers. A successful strategist, he was responsible for the United Prov¬ inces’ foreign policy, beginning negotiations that led to a favourable treaty with Spain in 1648.

Frederick the Great See Frederick II Frederick the Winter King See Frederick V

Frederick William German Friedrich Wilhelm known as the Great Elector (b. Feb. 16, 1620, Colin, near Berlin—d. May 9, 1688, Potsdam) Elector of Brandenburg (1640-88) who restored the Hohenzol- lern dominions after the Thirty Years' War. At his accession to the elec¬ torship, Brandenburg was ravaged by war and occupied by foreign troops. He cautiously maintained neutrality between the warring Swedes and Habsburgs, started to build a standing army, and added to his territories with the Peace of Westphalia (1648). In the First Northern War (1655— 60) he gained sovereignty over the duchy of Prussia. In the complex power struggles in Europe starting in 1661, he shifted allegiance by always join¬ ing with the weaker party, hoping to maintain the balance of power. He issued the Edict of Potsdam in 1685, granting asylum to Huguenots expelled from France. When he died, he left a centralized political admin¬ istration, sound finances, and an efficient army, laying the foundation for the future Prussian monarchy.

Frederick William I German Friedrich Wilhelm (b. Aug. 15, 1688, Berlin—d. May 31, 1740, Potsdam, Prussia) King of Prussia (1713— 40). The son of Frederick I, he received valuable military experience in the War of the Spanish Succession. Realizing that Prussia’s military and finan¬ cial weakness made it dependent on the relations between the great pow¬ ers, he built up an army that became a strong military presence on the Continent, instituted economic and financial reforms, centralized his administration, encouraged industry and manufacture, mandated compul¬ sory primary education (1717), and freed the serfs on his own domains (1719). He was succeeded by his son, Frederick II.

Frederick William II German Friedrich Wilhelm (b. Sept. 25, 1744, Berlin, Prussia—d. Nov. 16, 1797, Berlin) King of Prussia from 1786. He succeeded his uncle Frederick II. Prussia expanded under his rule, adding territories it gained in the second (1793) and third (1795) parti¬ tions of Poland and acquiring additional German lands. He entered into an Austro-Prussian alliance, chiefly in opposition to the French Revolu¬ tion, but signed a separate treaty with France and withdrew from the alli¬ ance in 1795 after defeat in the French Revolutionary Wars. Cultural activities, especially music, flourished in his reign; both Wolfgang Ama¬ deus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven visited the king and dedicated music to him.

Frederick William III German Friedrich Wilhelm (b. Aug. 3, 1770, Potsdam, Prussia—d. June 7, 1840, Berlin) King of Prussia (1797— 1840). The son of Frederick William II, he pursued a policy of neutrality in the early years of the Napoleonic Wars, which accelerated the decline of Prussia’s prestige. Prussia joined the third coalition against France in 1806 and suffered crushing defeat at the Battles of Jena and Auerstedt. Defeat convinced the king of the need to make decisive changes. He allowed Prussian statesmen such as Karl August, prince von Hardenberg, and Karl, imperial baron vom Stein, to make domestic reforms, though the state remained absolutist. The Congress of Vienna confirmed Prussia’s acqui¬ sition of Westphalia and much of Saxony, but the last 25 years of the king’s reign brought a downward trend in Prussia’s fortunes.

Frederick William IV German Friedrich Wilhelm (b. Oct. 15, 1795, Colin, near Berlin, Prussia—d. Jan. 2, 1861, Potsdam) King of Prussia (1840-61). The son of Frederick William III, he was a disciple of the German Romantic movement and an artistic dilettante, but his con¬ servative policies helped spark the Revolutions of 1848, in opposition. In 1849 he refused the imperial crown offered by the Frankfurt National Assembly. His subsequent efforts to create a German union under Prussian leadership were thwarted by Austria (see Punctation of OlmOtz). A stroke left him paralyzed in 1857, and his brother, the future William I, became regent in 1858.

Fredericksburg, Battle of (Dec. 13,1862) Engagement of the Ameri¬ can Civil War fought at Fredericksburg, Va., that resulted in a decisive victory for the Confederate forces. Over 120,000 Union troops under Ambrose E. Burnside were met at Fredericksburg by an entrenched Con¬ federate force of 78,000 under Robert E. Lee. The Union attack failed, resulting in more than 12,500 casualties compared to 5,000 for the Con¬ federates. Burnside was relieved of his command, and the victory restored Confederate morale lost after the defeat in the Battle of Antietam.

Fredericton City (pop., 2001: 47,560), capital of New Brunswick, Canada Located on the St. John River and originally the site of a French fort (1692), Fredericton was laid out as the provincial capital in 1785. Across the river, the village of St. Anne’s Point had been settled by the French c. 1740. After 1825 Fredericton became a British garrison town, and its reconstructed military compound is a federal historic site. Now primarily an administrative and educational centre, it is the seat of the University of New Brunswick and St. Thomas University. It is the shop¬ ping and distribution centre for central New Brunswick.

free association See association

Free Democratic Party (FDP) German centrist political party that advocates individualism and free economic competition. It was formed in 1948 by liberal delegates in the U.S., British, and French zones of occu¬ pation. Though relatively small, the party has made and broken govern¬ ments by forming coalitions with larger parties, including the Christian Democratic Union and the Social Democratic Party.

free energy Measure of the total combined energies within a system, derived from heats of transformation, disorder, and other forms of inter¬ nal energy (e.g., electrostatic charges). A system will change spontane-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

708 I free-enterprise system ► freedom of speech

ously to achieve a lower total free energy. Thus, free energy is the driving force toward equilibrium conditions. The change in free energy between an initial and a final state is useful in evaluating certain thermodynamic processes and can be used to judge whether transformations will occur spontaneously. There are two forms of free energy, with different defini¬ tions and applications: the Helmholtz (see Hermann von Helmholtz) free energy, sometimes called the work function, and the Gibbs (see J. Wil¬ lard Gibbs) free energy.

free-enterprise system See capitalism

free fall In mechanics, the state of a body that moves freely in any man¬ ner in the presence of gravity. The planets are in free fall in the gravita¬ tional field of the Sun. A body in free fall follows an orbit such that the sum of gravitational and inertial forces equals zero. See also gravitation; Newton's laws of motion.

Free French French movement to continue warfare against Germany after France’s 1940 defeat in World War li. Led by Charles de Gaulle in exile in London, the Free French Forces gained power in 1942 with the growing underground Resistance movement in France and the defection of many Vichy France troops stationed in North Africa. After a power struggle with Henri Honore Giraud, commander in chief of French forces in North Africa, de Gaulle succeeded by 1944 in controlling the entire French war effort. The 300,000 Free French forces took part in the Allied invasions of southern France and Normandy (see Normandy Campaign) and were the first Allied troops to liberate Paris.

free-market economy See capitalism

free radical or radical Molecule containing at least one unpaired electron. Most molecules contain even numbers of electrons, and their covalent bonds normally consist of shared electron pairs. Cleavage of such bonds produces two separate free radicals, each with an unpaired electron (in addition to any paired electrons). They may be electrically charged or neutral and are highly reactive and usually short-lived. They combine with one another or with atoms that have unpaired electrons. In reactions with intact molecules, they abstract a part to complete their own electronic structure, generating new radicals that go on to react with other molecules. Such chain reactions are particularly important in decomposition of sub¬ stances at high temperatures and in polymerization. In the human body, oxidized (see oxidation-reduction) free radicals can damage tissues. Anti¬ oxidant nutrients (e.g., vitamin C, vitamin E, selenium) may reduce these effects. Heat, ultraviolet radiation, and ionizing radiation (see radiation injury) all generate free radicals. They are magnetic, so their properties can be studied with such techniques as magnetic susceptibility and elec¬ tron paramagnetic resonance measurements.

Free Silver Movement Late-19th-century U.S. political movement that advocated unlimited coinage of silver. Proponents included owners of western silver mines, farmers who wanted higher crop prices, and debtors who believed an expanded currency would allow them easier payment. A depression in the mid-1870s led to an 1878 law requiring the U.S. Trea¬ sury to purchase millions of dollars in silver and coin it. After farm prices rose briefly, farm and land prices collapsed in 1887, reviving the demand of farmers for free silver. In 1890 Congress again increased silver pur¬ chases, and free silver was an objective of the Populist Movement in the 1892 election. In 1893 the amount of gold in the treasury dropped sharply, precipitating a panic. Congress repealed the act of 1890, angering farmers. In 1896 the Democrats nominated William Jennings Bryan for president and backed free silver. The Republican William McKinley narrowly won. In 1900 a Republican Congress enacted the Gold Standard Act.

Free-Soil Party Minor but influential 19th-century U.S. political party that opposed the extension of slavery into the western territories. In 1846 proponents of the Wilmot Proviso and other antislavery factions formed a party; in 1848 it nominated former president Martin Van Buren to head its ticket. Though Van Buren lost, many party supporters were elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. By 1854 the party was absorbed into the Republican Party.

Free State See Orange Free State

free-tailed bat Any of about 90 species of bats (family Molossidae), found worldwide in warm regions, that are named for the way part of the tail extends beyond the membrane attached between the hind legs. Also known as mastiff or bulldog bats because of their facial resemblance to those dogs, free-tailed bats are swift fliers with a stout body and long,

slender wings. They are about 1.6-5 in. (4-13 cm) long, excluding the 0.6-3-in. (1.5-8-cm) tail, and typically have small eyes, a heavy snout, large ears, and dark fur. They eat insects and roost in tree hollows, caves, and buildings. Most species live in groups; some, including the Mexican free-tailed bat, form colonies of several million. In the past, guano from such colonies was mined for fertilizer and for sodium nitrate (used to make gunpowder).

free trade Policy in which a government does not discriminate against imports or interfere with exports. A free-trade policy does not necessar¬ ily imply that the government abandons all control and taxation of imports and exports, but rather that it refrains from actions specifically designed to hinder international trade, such as tariff barriers, currency restrictions, and import quotas. The theoretical case for free trade is based on Adam Smith’s argument that the division of labour among countries leads to spe¬ cialization, greater efficiency, and higher aggregate production. The way to foster such a division of labour. Smith believed, is to allow nations to make and sell whatever products can compete successfully in an interna¬ tional market.

free-trade zone Area within which goods may be landed, handled, and re-exported freely. The purpose is to remove obstacles to trade and to permit quick turnaround of ships and planes. Only when the goods are moved to consumers within the country in which the zone is located do they become subject to tariffs and customs regulation. Free-trade zones are found around major seaports, international airports, and national fron¬ tiers; there are more than 200 such zones in the U.S. alone.

free verse Poetry organized according to the cadences of speech and image patterns rather than according to a regular metrical scheme. Its rhythms are based on patterned elements such as sounds, words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs, rather than on the traditional units of metrical feet (see metrical foot). Free verse thus eliminates much of the artifici¬ ality and some of the aesthetic distance of poetic expression. It became current in English poetics in the early 20th century. See also prosody.

free will problem Problem arising from the apparent inconsistency between causal determinism in nature and the human power or capacity to choose among alternatives or act freely in certain situations, thus inde¬ pendently of natural, social, or divine compulsions. Its significance derives from the fact that free will is generally considered a necessary presupposition of moral responsibility, while determinism has (at least until the advent of quantum mechanics) been regarded a necessary presup¬ position of natural science. Arguments for free will are based on the sub¬ jective experience of freedom, on sentiments of guilt, on revealed religion, and on the supposition of responsibility for personal actions that under¬ lies the concepts of law, reward, punishment, and incentive. In theology, the existence of free will must be reconciled with God’s foreknowledge, with divine omniscience and goodness (in allowing humans to choose badly), and with divine grace, which allegedly is necessary for any meri¬ torious act.

Freed, Arthur orig. Arthur Grossman (b. Sept. 9, 1894, Charles¬ ton, S.C., U.S.—d. April 12, 1973, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. film pro¬ ducer and lyricist. He performed in vaudeville and wrote songs in the 1920s. MGM hired him in 1929 to write lyrics for musicals, and over the next decade he produced hits such as “Singin’ in the Rain,” “Temptation,” and “You Are My Lucky Star.” After serving as associate producer of The Wizard ofOz (1939), he was promoted to producer. He was largely respon¬ sible for the high quality of MGM’s musicals of the 1940s and ’50s, including Meet Me in St. Louis (1944), Easter Parade (1948), An Ameri¬ can in Paris (1951, Academy Award), Singin’ in the Rain (1952), and Gigi (1958, Academy Award).

Freedmen's Bureau (1865-72) U.S. agency established during Reconstruction to help freed slaves in their transition to freedom. Offi¬ cially named the U.S. Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, it was directed by Oliver O. Howard. It built hospitals and pro¬ vided medical assistance to more than 1 million freed blacks and 21 mil¬ lion rations for blacks and whites. It also built more than 1,000 schools for black children and helped found colleges and teacher-training insti¬ tutes for blacks, but it had little success in safeguarding civil rights and promoting land redistribution. Congress later responded to pressure from white Southerners by terminating the bureau.

freedom of speech Right, as stated in the 1st and 14th Amendments to the Constitution of the United States, to express information, ideas, and

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freehold ► Fremont I 709

opinions free of government restrictions based on content. A modern legal test of the legitimacy of proposed restrictions on freedom of speech was stated in the opinion by Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. in Schenk v. U.S. (1919): a restriction is legitimate only if the speech in question poses a “clear and present danger”—i.e., a risk or threat to safety or to other pub¬ lic interests that is serious and imminent. Many cases involving freedom of speech and of the press also have concerned defamation, obscenity, and prior restraint (see Pentagon Papers). See also censorship.

freehold In Anglo-American law, ownership of a substantial interest in real property (see real and personal property) held for an indefinite period. The term originally designated the owner of an estate held in free tenure, who possessed, under the Magna Carta, the rights of a free man. Today a freehold is distinguished from a leasehold, a contract to hold real prop¬ erty for a specified period. See also copyhold, fee, landlord and tenant.

Freemasonry Teachings and practices of the fraternal order of Free and Accepted Masons, the largest worldwide secret society. Originating with the guilds of medieval stonemasons, the organization became an honorary society in the 17th and 18 th century, adopting the rites and trap¬ pings of ancient religious orders and chivalric brotherhoods. The first association of lodges, the Grand Lodge, was founded in England in 1717, and Freemasonry soon spread to other countries in the British Empire. Freemasons took an active role in the American Revolution and later in U.S. politics, and in the 19th century popular fears of their influence led to the Anti-Masonic movement. Membership is extended only to adult males willing to express belief in a Supreme Being and the immortality of the soul. In Latin countries, the lodges have often attracted freethink¬ ers and anticlerical types; in Anglo-Saxon nations, membership has mostly been drawn from white Protestants. Freemasonry has also given rise to social organizations such as the Ancient Arabic Order of the Noble Mystic Shrine, or Shriners.

freesia Vfre-zhoV Any of the approximately 20 species of South Afri¬ can plants that make up the genus Freesia, in the iris family, with corms, grassy foliage, and wiry spikes of bell-like, lemon-scented flowers in white, yellow, orange, and blue. The flower spikes usually turn at right angles from the stem, displaying the flowers in a horizontal line. Two spe¬ cies much used in hybridization are F. refracta, greenish-yellow to yel¬ low or white, and F. armstrongii, tinged rose-purple. The plants are grown indoors in pots or in gardens in mild climates.

Freetown Capital (pop., 1999 est.: metro, area: 822,000) and largest city of Sierra Leone. Located at the mouth of the Sierra Leone River, it has the best harbour in western Africa. It was founded in 1787 by an English abolitionist, Granville Sharp, as a haven for freed African slaves from England. Later more freed slaves from Nova Scotia and runaway slaves from Jamaica settled there. Their descendants, known as Creoles, are now outnumbered by Mende and Temne immigrants from the interior. In 1821 Freetown became the seat of government for Britain’s West Afri¬ can possessions. Incorporated as a municipality in 1893, it became Sierra Leone’s capital in 1961. It is the nation’s commercial, educational, and transportation centre. The city sustained extensive damage during the civil war that wracked the country in the 1990s and has seen an increase in population due to the war.

freezing Method of food preservation in which low temperatures (0 °F [-18 °C] or lower) inhibit the growth of microorganisms. Used for cen¬ turies in cold regions, it was not until the advent of mechanical refrigera¬ tion in the mid 19th century that the process became widely applicable commercially. In the 20th century, quick (or flash) freezing was devel¬ oped by Clarence Birdseye. Except for beef and venison, which benefit from an aging process, meat is frozen as promptly as possible after slaughter. Fruits and vegetables are often frozen in a syrup or vacuum-sealed to exclude air and prevent oxidation and desiccation.

freezing point Temperature at which a liquid becomes a solid. When the pressure surrounding the liquid is increased, the freezing point is raised. The addition of some solids can lower the freezing point of a liquid, a principle used when salt is applied to melt ice on frozen surfaces. For pure substances, the freezing point is the same as the melting point. In mixtures and certain organic compounds, the early solid formation changes the composition of the remaining liquid, usually steadily lower¬ ing its freezing point, a principle that is applied in mixture separation. The freezing point of pure water at standard atmospheric pressure is 32°F (0°C). To change a liquid at its freezing point to a solid at the same tem¬ perature, the heat of fusion (see latent heat) must be removed.

Frege Vfra-goV, (Friedrich Ludwig) Gottlob (b. Nov. 8, 1848, Wis- mar, Mecklenburg-Schwerin—d. July 26, 1925, Bad Kleinen, Ger.) Ger¬ man mathematician and logician, inventor of modern mathematical logic and one of the founders of the analytic tradition in philosophy. He taught at the University of Jena from 1871 to 1917. His Begriffsschrift (1879, “Conceptscript”), was the first presentation of a system of mathematical logic in the modem sense. Using an original notation of quantifiers and variables, he was able to give formal expression to sentences containing multiple quantification, such as “Everybody loves someone”; this is impossible in the syllogistic derived from Aristotle, which had been con¬ sidered complete until the time of Immanuel Kant (see predicate calculus). In the Die Grundlagen der Arithmetik he attempted to establish the doc¬ trine later known as logicism. He also made significant contributions to the philosophy OF language, including a highly influential theory of the dis¬ tinction between sense and reference. Though Frege’s work was admired by Bertrand Russell and the early Ludwig Wittgenstein, it was unknown to or ignored by most other philosophers and mathematicians during Frege’s lifetime; its significance was not generally appreciated until the mid-20th century.

Frei \'fra\ (Montalvo), Eduardo (b. Jan. 16, 1911, Santiago, Chile—d. Jan. 22, 1982, Santiago) Chilean politician and president (1964-70). He earned a law degree in 1933, held government posts in the 1940s, ran for president in 1958, and became president as a centre-left candidate in 1964. He offered a moderate program of agrarian reform, economic stabilization, “Chileanization” of U.S.-owned copper interests, and a more equitable distribution of wealth. Though he made marked progress in expanding educational opportunities for the poor, most of his reform efforts failed to achieve their objectives, and his administration was plagued by inflation and labour unrest. His son Eduardo Frei Ruiz- Tagle (b. 1942) served as president from 1994 to 2000. See also Salva¬ dor Allende.

Freiburg \'fn-,burk\ (im Breisgau) City (pop., 2002 est.: 208,294), southwestern Germany. It is situated on the western slopes of the Black Forest. Chartered in 1120, Freiburg passed to the counts of Urach (later Freiburg) in 1218. It was ruled by the Habsburgs from 1368 to 1806, when it passed to Baden. The city was heavily bombed by the Allies during World War II. Since rebuilt, it is now the cultural and economic centre of the Black Forest region. Freiburg is the seat of the Albert Ludwig Uni¬ versity of Freiburg (founded 1457).

Freikorps Vfri-,k6r\ (German: “Free Corps”) Private German paramili¬ tary groups that first appeared in late 1918 after Germany’s defeat in World War I. Composed of ex-soldiers and unemployed youth and led by ex-officers, they eventually included over 65 corps of varying sizes. Most were nationalistic and radically conservative, and they were employed unofficially to put down left-wing revolts throughout Germany. Initially sanctioned by the government, they came to be viewed as a nuisance and a threat and were supplanted by regular army and police or absorbed by new units of the Nazis and other political parties.

Freire \'fra-re\, Paulo (b. Sept. 19, 1921, Recife, Braz.—d. May 2, 1997, Sao Paulo) Brazilian educator. His ideas developed from his expe¬ rience teaching Brazil’s peasants to read. His interactive methods, which encouraged students to question the teacher, often led to literacy in as little as 30 hours of instruction. In 1963 he was appointed director of the Brazilian National Literacy Program, but he was jailed following a mili¬ tary coup in 1964. He went into exile, returning in 1979 to help found the Workers Party. His seminal work was Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1970).

Frelinghuysen Vfre-liq- I hI-z 3 n\, Frederick Theodore (b. Aug. 4, 1817, Millstone, N.J., U.S.—d. May 20, 1885, Newark, N.J.) U.S. poli¬ tician. Born into a prominent political family, he helped found the New Jersey Republican Party and served as state attorney general (1861-66). He was appointed, then elected, to the U.S. Senate (1866-69, 1871-77). As secretary of state (1881-85) he obtained Pearl Harbor in Hawaii as a U.S. naval base and opened treaty relations with Korea (1882).

Fremont City (pop., 2000: 203,413), California, U.S. It is located on the southeastern shore of San Francisco Bay (there spanned by the Dum¬ barton Bridge). The site of Mission San Jose de Guadalupe (founded 1797), the city was formed in 1956 through the amalgamation of five communities: Centerville, Irvington, Niles, Mission San Jose, and Warm Springs. Freeway connections stimulated residential and industrial growth as part of the San Francisco Bay development.

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710 I Fremont ► French language

Fremont Vfre-.mantA, John C(harles) (b. Jan. 21, 1813, Savannah, Ga., U.S.—d. July 13, 1890, New York, N.Y.) U.S. explorer. In 1838 he helped Joseph Nicholas Nicollet (1786-1843) survey and map the upper Mississippi and Missouri rivers. Aided by Thomas Hart Benton, who became his sponsor and, in 1841, his father-in-law, he led government expeditions to map much of the area between the Mississippi River val¬ ley and the Pacific Ocean. In 1845, on an expedition to California (on which he may have carried secret instructions for action in case of war), he supported the Bear Flag Revolt. In the Mexican War he was appointed a major and with Robert F. Stockton helped conquer California; Stockton later appointed him military governor of the territory. In a dispute with Gen. Stephen Kearny he was arrested and court-martialed; though his sen¬ tence of dismissal from the army was set aside by Pres. James K. Polk, he resigned. He became wealthy in the gold rush and was elected one of California’s first U.S. senators (1850-51). As the new Republican Party’s presidential candidate in 1856, he was defeated by James Buchanan. In the 1870s he embarked on railroad ventures and lost his fortune. He later served as governor of Arizona Territory (1878-83).

French, Daniel Chester (b. April 20, 1850, Exeter, N.H., U.S.—d. Oct. 7, 1931, Stockbridge, Mass.) U.S. sculptor. He produced his first important commission for the town of Concord, Mass.—the famous statue The Minute Man (1874). He was the leading turn-of-the-century Ameri¬ can sculptor, with studios in Boston, Concord, Washington, D.C., and New York City. His best-known work, the seated marble figure of Abra¬ ham Lincoln in the Lincoln Memorial, Washington, D.C., was dedicated in 1922. His other notable public monuments include the equestrian stat¬ ues of Ulysses S. Grant in Philadelphia (1898) and George Washington in Paris (1900) and sculptures representing Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, in front of the New York City customhouse (1907).

French, John (Denton Pinkstone), 1 st earl of Ypres \'epr 3 \ (b. Sept. 28, 1852, Ripple, Kent, Eng.—d. May 22, 1925, Deal, Kent) Brit¬ ish military leader. A soldier from 1874, he successfully led the British cavalry in the South African War. He was appointed inspector general in 1907 and chief of the army general staff in 1913. As commander of the British Expeditionary Force from the beginning of World War I, he was criticized for his indecisive leadership at Ypres, Belg., and elsewhere that caused large numbers of British casualties. Forced to resign in 1915, he served as commander in chief in Britain and later as lord lieutenant of Ireland (1918-21).

French and Indian War North American phase of a war between France and Britain to control colonial territory (1754-63). The war’s more complex European phase was the Seven Years' War. Earlier phases of the quest for overseas mastery were King William's War (1689-97), Queen Anne's War (1702-13), and King George's War (1744-48). The North American dispute was whether the upper Ohio River valley was a part of the British empire or part of the French Empire; the bigger question was which national culture would dominate the heart of North America. Brit¬ ish settlers were the majority in the coveted area, but French exploration, trade, and Indian alliances predominated. In 1754 the French ousted a British force, including a colonial militia under Col. George Washington, at Fort Necessity, Pa. Until 1757 the French continued to dominate, but in 1758 Britain increased aid to its troops and won victories at Louis- bourg, Fort Frontenac, and Fort Duquesne (Pittsburgh). The final British victory at the Battle of Quebec (1759) led to the fall of New France (1760). In the Treaty of Paris (1763) France ceded its North American territory to Britain.

French Broad River River, western North Carolina, U.S. Rising in the Blue Ridge and flowing 210 mi (340 km) north through the Great Smoky Mountains into Tennessee, it then turns west to join the Holston River near Knoxville, forming the Tennessee River. Douglas Dam, part of the Ten¬ nessee Valley Authority, is on the river near the junction.

French Communist Party French branch of the international com¬ munist movement. It was founded in 1920 by the left wing of the French Socialist Party but did not gain significant influence until it affliliated with Leon Blum’s Popular Front coalition government in 1936. From 1945 to 1968 it won almost 25% of the vote in each election and had a large rep¬ resentation in the National Assembly. It lost ground when Charles de Gaulle was elected in 1958, but in 1965 it formed an alliance with other left-wing parties. In the early 1980s it allied with the Socialist Party. It has since lost many of its traditional working-class supporters.

French Community (French, la Communaute) Association of over¬ seas territories created in 1958 by the constitution of the Fifth Republic to replace the French Union in dealing with matters of foreign policy, defense, currency and economic policy, and higher education. As the former colonies gained full independence in the 1960s and ’70s, the Com¬ munity became obsolete; it was defunct by the late 1970s.

French Congo See French Equatorial Africa French East India Co. See French East India Co.

French Equatorial Africa formerly French Congo Former fed¬ eration of French possessions, western Central Africa. It was in existence from 1910 to 1959; its capital was Brazzaville. With independence in 1960, the former territory of Ubangi-Shari, to which Chad had been attached in 1920, became the Central African Republic and the Republic of Chad; the Middle Congo became the Republic of the Congo; and Gabon became the Republic of Gabon.

French Guiana \ge-'a-no, ge-'a-no\ French Guyane Francaise

\gwe-'yan-fra n -'sez\ Overseas department (pop., 2002 est.: 172,000) of France, northeastern coast of South America. It has an area of 33,399 sq mi (86,504 sq km) and is bounded by Brazil to the south and east, by Suriname to the west, and by the Atlantic Ocean to the northeast. The capital is Cayenne. Most of French Guiana is low-lying, with mountains in the south and a swampy coastal plain. The Maroni River forms the bor¬ der with Suriname. French Guiana’s population is mostly Creole. The principal languages are French (official) and creole; nine-tenths of the people are Roman Catholic. Originally settled by the Spanish, French, and Dutch, the territory of French Guiana was awarded to France in 1667, and the inhabitants were made French citizens after 1877. By 1852 the French began using the territory for penal settlement; the penal colony at Devils Island was notorious. French Guiana became a department of France in 1946; the penal colonies were closed by 1953.

French Guinea See Guinea

French horn Orchestral and military brass instrument, a valved circular horn with a wide bell. It is normally a transposing instrument (its music written in a different tone than its actual sound) in F. It has a wide bore and three (sometimes four) rotary valves; its conical mouthpiece produces a mellower tone than the cup-shaped mouthpieces of other brass instru¬ ments. Homs long relied on separable crooks—circular lengths of tubing that could be attached and removed rapidly—for music modulating to new keys. Since c. 1900 the standard horn has been a “double” instrument, with built-in crooks in F and B-flat that can be selected rapidly by means of a thumb valve. The modern symphony orchestra usually includes four horns. Though difficult to play and prone to producing conspicuous errors, its tone is widely admired.

French Indochina Former name (until 1950) for the eastern part of mainland Southeast Asia. The region now comprises the countries of Cam¬ bodia, Laos, and Vietnam. After establishing its rule by 1893, France gov¬ erned it through the Indochinese Union. During World War II it was occupied by Japan, but the French continued to administer it until the Japanese ousted them in 1945. After the Japanese surrender, the Viet Minh under Ho Chi Minh proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Laos and Cambodia were reoccupied by the French, who founded the Indoch¬ inese Federation. The First Indochina war soon erupted, and the French ratified treaties (1949-50) that recognized Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia as independent states within the French Union. The area achieved full independence from France after the Geneva Conference of 1954.

French language Romance language spoken as a first language by about 72 million people in France, Belgium, Switzerland, Canada (mainly Quebec), and many other countries and regions formerly governed by France. French is an official language of more than 25 countries. Its ear¬ liest written materials date from the 9th century. Numerous regional dia¬ lects were eventually pushed aside by Francien, the dialect of Paris, adopted as the standard language in the mid-16th century. This largely replaced the dialects of northern and central France, known as the langue d’oi'l (from oil, the northern word for “yes”), and greatly reduced the use of the Occitan language of southern France, known as langue d’oc (from oc, Occitan for “yes”). Regional dialects survive mostly in uneducated rural speech. French grammar has been greatly simplified from Latin. Nouns do not have cases, and masculine and feminine gender are marked not in the noun but in its article or adjective. The verb is conjugated for

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French Polynesia ► Freon I 711

three persons and for singular and plural; though spelled differently, sev¬ eral of these forms are pronounced identically.

French Polynesia formerly French Oceania \,o-she-'a-ne-3\ French overseas territory (pop., 2005 est.: 255,000), south-central Pacific Ocean. French Polynesia has an area of some 1,550 sq mi (4,000 sq km), comprising 130 islands in five archipelagoes: the Society Islands, the Tua- motu Archipelago, the Gambier Islands, the Marquesas Islands, and the Aus¬ tral Islands. Tahiti, in the Society group, is the largest island and the site of the capital, Papeete. More than two-thirds of the population of French Polynesia lives on Tahiti. The islands became French protectorates in the 1840s, and in the 1880s the French colony of Oceania was established. It became an overseas territory of France after World War II and was granted partial autonomy in 1977.

French republican calendar Dating system adopted in 1793 dur¬ ing the French Revolution. It sought to replace the Gregorian calendar with a scientific and rational system that avoided Christian associations. The 12 months each contained three decades (instead of weeks) of 10 days each, and the year ended with five (six in leap years) supplementary days. The year began with the autumnal equinox and the day on which the National Convention had proclaimed France a republic, 1 Vendemiaire, Year I (Sept. 22, 1792). The other autumn months were named Brumaire and Frimaire; they were followed by the winter months Nivose, Pluviose, and Ventose, the spring months Germinal, Floreal, and Prairial, and the summer months Messidor, Thermidor, and Fructidor. (All the names were derived from words for natural phenomena.) On Jan. 1, 1806, the Grego¬ rian calendar was reestablished by the Napoleonic regime.

French Revolution Movement that shook France between 1787 and 1799, reaching its first climax in 1789, and ended the ancien regime. Causes included the loss of peasant support for the feudal system, broad accep¬ tance of the reformist writings of the philosophes, an expanding bourgeoi¬ sie that was excluded from political power, a fiscal crisis worsened by participation in the American Revolution, and crop failures in 1788. The efforts of the regime in 1787 to increase taxes levied on the privileged classes initiated a crisis. In response, Louis XVI convened the Estates- General, made up of clergy, nobility, and the Third Estate (commoners), in 1789. Trying to pass reforms, it swore the Tennis Court Oath not to dis¬ perse until France had a new constitution. The king grudgingly concurred in the formation of the National Assembly, but rumours of an “aristocratic conspiracy” led to the Great Fear of July 1789, and Parisians seized the Bastille on July 14. The assembly drafted a new constitution that intro¬ duced the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, proclaiming liberty, equality, and fraternity. The Constitution of 1791 also established a short-lived constitutional monarchy. The assembly nationalized church lands to pay off the public debt and reorganized the church (see Civil Con¬ stitution of the Clergy). The king tried to flee the country but was appre¬ hended at Varennes. France, newly nationalistic, declared war on Austria and Prussia in 1792, beginning the French Revolutionary Wars. Revolu¬ tionaries imprisoned the royal family and massacred nobles and clergy at the Tuileries in 1792. A new assembly, the National Convention —divided between Girondins and the extremist Montagnards —abolished the mon¬ archy and established the First Republic in September 1792. Louis XVI was judged by the National Convention and executed for treason on Jan. 21, 1793. The Montagnards seized power and adopted radical economic and social policies that provoked violent reactions, including the Wars of the Vendee and citizen revolts. Opposition was broken by the Reign of Ter¬ ror. Military victories in 1794 brought a change in the public mood, and Maximilien Robespierre was overthrown in the Convention on 9 Thermidor, year II (in 1794 in the French republican calendar), and executed the next day (see Thermidorian Reaction). Royalists tried to seize power in Paris but were crushed by Napoleon on 13 Vendemaire, year IV (in 1795). A new constitution placed executive power in a Directory of five members. The war and schisms in the Directory led to disputes that were settled by coups d’etat, chiefly those of 18 Fructidor, Year V (in 1797), and 18-19 Bru¬ maire, Year VIII (in 1799), in which Napoleon abolished the Directory and declared himself leader of France. See also Committee of Public Safety; Constitution of 1795; Constitution of the Year VIII; Charlotte Corday; Cordeliers Club; Georges J. Danton; Feuillants Club; Jacobin Club; J.-P. Marat; Marie-Antoinette; Louis de Saint-Just; E.-J. Sieyes.

French Revolutionary Wars (1792-99) Series of wars undertaken to defend and then to spread the ideas of the French Revolution. After the National Assembly established its ascendancy over Louis XVI, in 1791 Austria and Prussia called on European rulers to assist Louis in reestab¬

lishing power. France declared war in 1792 and soon had occupied all of Belgium. The First Coalition (Prussia, Spain, the United Provinces, and Britain) was formed against France in 1793, and in response the French declared a levy on all Frenchmen, creating a massive army. By 1795 France had defeated the allies on every front; Prussia signed a peace treaty, and the Netherlands became the French-influenced Batavian Republic. Napoleon took over as commander of the Italian campaign in 1796 and by the Treaty of Campo Formio (1797) forced Austria to cede the Austrian Netherlands and recognize the French-organized Cisalpine and Ligurian republics in northern Italy. He then sailed an army to Egypt to conquer the Ottoman empire, but was defeated by Britain in the Battle of the Nile (1798). Meanwhile, other French forces had occupied new territories and established republican regimes in Rome, Switzerland (the Helvetic Republic), and Italy (the Parthenopean Republic). The Second Coalition, comprising Britain, Russia, the Ottoman empire, Naples, Portugal, and Austria, was short-lived. By the time Napoleon became first consul of France in 1799, the danger of foreign intervention was over. Conflict between France and other European powers continued in the Napoleonic Wars.

French Shore Area, coast of Newfoundland, Canada. French fisher¬ men were allowed by the English to fish and to dry their catch in the region after France gave up all other claims to Newfoundland in 1713. As defined by the Treaty of Paris (1783), the French Shore extended west around the island from Cape St. John in the north to Cape Ray in the southwest. In the 1880s Newfoundland began to develop a lobster fishery, and the treaty came under dispute. France sold its claims to the territory in 1904.

French Socialist Party originally (1905-69) French Section of the Workers' International Political party, founded in 1905, that supported far-reaching nationalization of the economy. Socialism in France evolved from such 19th-century theorists as Henri de Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, Louis Auguste Blanqui, and Louis Blanc and from the activi¬ ties of French Marxists. Led by Jean Jaures, the party grew quickly, though it suffered a setback with the separation of the left wing into the French Communist Party (1920). In the 1930s the French Socialist Party was cen¬ tral to Leon Blum’s Popular Front government. In World War II the party participated in the Resistance and cooperated with Charles de Gaulle, emerging after the war as France’s second largest party. It soon lost strength; in 1969 it won only 5% of the vote. Renamed the Socialist Party in 1969, it was revived by Francois Mitterrand and adopted more mod¬ erate policies, but it lost its dominant position in the 1990s. The 2002 elections proved disastrous for the Socialists, who won less than one- fourth of the seats in the National Assembly.

French Somaliland See Djibouti

French Union Political entity created by the constitution of 1946 of the Fourth Republic. It replaced the French colonial empire with a semifederal entity that absorbed the colonies (overseas departments and territories) and gave former protectorates limited local autonomy, with some voice in decision making in Paris. By the constitution of 1958, the French Union was replaced by the French Community.

French West Africa Former federation of French dependencies, west¬ ern Africa. It consisted of what are now the independent republics of Benin, Burkina Faso, Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, and Senegal. The capital was at Dakar. The federation was established in 1895 and dissolved 1958-59. By 1960 the former colonial territories had become independent republics.

Freneau \fre-'no\, Philip (Morin) (b. Jan. 2, 1752, New York, N.Y.—d. Dec. 18, 1832, Monmouth county, N.J., U.S.) U.S. poet, essay¬ ist, and editor, known as the “poet of the American Revolution.” After the outbreak of the revolution he began to write anti-British satire. Not until his return from two years in the Caribbean, during which he wrote such poems as “The Beauties of Santa Cruz” and “The House of Night,” did he become an active participant in the war. He was captured and impris¬ oned by the British, an experience he bitterly recounted in the poem “The British Prison-Ship” (1781).

Freon Trademark for any of several organic compounds containing fluo¬ rine (fluorocarbons) and sometimes chlorine (chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs). Nonflammable, nontoxic, and noncorrosive, they have low boil¬ ing points, which makes them useful as refrigerants. By the mid-1970s they were in wide use in refrigeration and air conditioning systems, as blowing agents for plastic foams, as fire-extinguishing agents, and in

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712 I frequency ► Freyr

aerosol sprays. Evidence has accumulated that decomposition of CFCs in the stratosphere destroys ozone there (see ozone layer), so most of their uses have been banned. International agreements signed by most of the industrialized countries have called for the phasing out of CFC use.

frequency Number of waves that pass a fixed point per unit time; also, the number of cycles or vibrations undergone in unit time by a body in periodic motion. Frequency /is the reciprocal of the time T taken to com¬ plete one cycle (the period), or 1 IT. The frequency with which earth rotates is once per 24 hours. Frequency is usually expressed in units called hertz (Hz). One hertz is equal to one cycle per second; one kilohertz (kHz) is 1,000 Hz, and one megahertz (MHz) is 1,000,000 Hz. The musical pitch A above middle C (the A string of a violin) has been widely standardized as 440 Hz.

frequency distribution In statistics, a graph or data set organized to show the frequency of occurrence of each possible outcome of a repeat- able event observed many times. Simple examples are election returns and test scores listed by percentile. A frequency distribution can be graphed as a histogram or pie chart. For large data sets, the stepped graph of a histogram is often approximated by the smooth curve of a distribu¬ tion function (called a density function when normalized so that the area under the curve is 1). The famed bell curve or normal distribution is the graph of one such function. Frequency distributions are particularly use¬ ful in summarizing large data sets and assigning probabilities.

frequency modulation See FM

fresco painting Method of wall painting in which water-based pig¬ ments are applied to wet, freshly laid lime plaster. The dry-powder colours, when mixed with water, penetrate the surface and become a per¬ manent part of the wall. This technique is also known as buon fresco, or “true fresco,” to distinguish it from fresco secco, or “dry fresco” (paint¬ ing on dry plaster). Early Minoan, Greek, and Roman wall paintings were frescoes. The Italian Renaissance was the greatest period of fresco paint¬ ing, as seen in the works of Cimabue, Giotto, Masaccio, Fra Angelico, Correggio, and others. Michelangelo’s frescoes in the Sistine Chapel and Raphael’s in the Vatican are the most famous of all. By the 18th century, fresco had been largely replaced by oil painting. In the early 20th cen¬ tury it was revived by Diego Rivera and others, often as a medium for political art. Fresco painting is also found in China and India.

Frescobaldi \,fres-k3-'bal-de\, Girolamo (b. September 1583, Fer¬ rara, Papal States—d. March 1, 1643, Rome) Italian composer and organ¬ ist. In 1608 he became organist at St. Peter’s, where, except for a six-year sojourn at the Florentine court, he would remain the rest of his life. He was highly celebrated for both his playing and his diverse and ingenious compositions. He wrote numerous toccatas, ricercars, and canzones for organ and harpsichord, along with many sacred vocal works and secular songs. His most famous work is Fiori musicali (1635), a large collection of organ music for the mass.

Fresnel lens \fr3-'nel\ Series of concentric rings, each consisting of a thin part of a simple lens, assembled on a flat surface. G.-L.-L. Buffon (1748) first had the idea of dividing a lens surface into concentric rings to reduce the weight. In 1820 his idea was adopted by Augustin-Jean Fresnel (1788-1827) for the construction of lighthouse lenses. Fresnel lenses have the optical properties of much thicker and heavier lenses. They are used in spotlights, floodlights, railroad and traffic signals, and deco¬ rative lights. Some thin Fresnel lenses are molded in plastic, the width of the rings being only a few thousandths of an inch; such lenses are used in cameras and small projectors.

Fresno Vfrez-no\ City (pop., 2000: 427,652), central California, U.S. Located in the San Joaquin River valley, it was settled in 1872 as a sta¬ tion on the Central Pacific Railroad and became an agricultural commu¬ nity in the 1880s. A marketing and shipping centre, it processes cotton, grain, fruits, wines, and dairy products. It is headquarters of the Sierra National Forest and a gateway to resort areas of the Sierra Nevadas. It is the home of California State University, Fresno (1911).

Freud \'froid\, Anna (b. Dec. 3, 1895, Vienna, Austria—d. Oct. 9, 1982, London, Eng.) Austrian-born British psychiatrist, founder of the field of child psychiatry. Daughter of Sigmund Freud, she pioneered in developing psychoanalytic theory and practice. In The Ego and Defense Mechanisms (1936), Freud called repression the principal human defense mechanism. This gave a strong, new impetus to the role of ego in psy¬ chology. She and her terminally ill father escaped Nazi-dominated Aus¬

tria for London in 1938. She co-wrote three books on the effects of war on children. A summation of her thoughts is found in Normality and Pathology in Childhood (1968).

Freud, Lucian (b. Dec. 8, 1922,

Berlin, Ger.) German-born British painter. Grandson of Sigmund Freud, he moved with his family to London when he was 10. He is known for sombre, realistic figure paintings that represent his subjects’ raw physical characteristics and inner tensions; his highly individualistic, coarse style makes no attempt to idealize its usually nude subjects. His work has been internationally influential in reviving a representational style. In 1993 he was awarded the Order of Merit.

Freud, Sigmund (b. May 6, 1856, Freiberg, Moravia, Austrian Empire—d. Sept. 23, 1939, London, Eng.) Austrian neuropsychologist, founder of psychoanalysis, and one of the major intellectual figures of the 20th century. Trained in Vienna as a neurologist, Freud went to Paris in 1885 to study with Jean-Martin Charcot, whose work on hysteria led Freud to conclude that mental disorders might be caused purely by psy¬ chological rather than organic factors. Returning to Vienna (1886), Freud collaborated with the physician Josef Breuer (1842-1925) in further stud¬ ies on hysteria, resulting in the development of some key psychoanalytic concepts and techniques, including free association, the unconscious, resistance (later defense mechanisms), and neurosis. In 1899 he published The Interpretation of Dreams, in which he analyzed the complex sym¬ bolic processes underlying dream formation: he proposed that dreams are the disguised expression of unconscious wishes. In his controversial Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905), he delineated the complicated stages of psychosexual development (oral, anal, and phallic) and the for¬ mation of the Oedipus complex. During World War I, he wrote papers that clarified his understanding of the relations between the unconscious and conscious portions of the mind and the workings of the id, ego, and superego. Freud eventually applied his psychoanalytic insights to such diverse phenomena as jokes and slips of the tongue, ethnographic data, religion and mythology, and modern civilization. Works of note include Totem and Taboo (1913), Beyond the Pleasure Principle (1920), The Future of an Illusion (1927), and Civilization and Its Discontents (1930). Freud fled to England when the Nazis annexed Austria in 1938; he died shortly thereafter. Despite the relentless and often compelling challenges mounted against virtually all of his ideas, both in his lifetime and after, Freud has remained one of the most influential figures in contemporary thought.

Freyberg Vfri-.borgN (of Wellington and of Munstead), Ber¬ nard Cyril Freyberg, 1st Baron (b. March 21, 1889, Richmond, Surrey, Eng.—d. July 4, 1963, Windsor, Berkshire) New Zealand military leader. He emigrated from Britain to New Zealand with his parents in 1891. He fought in many of the fiercest battles of World War I and at age 27 became the youngest brigadier general in the British army. He was commander in chief of New Zealand forces in World War II. After the war he served as governor-general of New Zealand (1946-52). In 1951 he was created a baron.

Freyja \'fra-yo\ Most important Norse goddess, one of a group of fer¬ tility deities called Vanir. Her father was the sea god Njord, and her brother and male counterpart was Freyr. She was the goddess of battle and death as well as love and fertility. Half the heroes slain in battle went to her domain, Folkvangr, the other half to Odin’s Valhalla. She taught a powerful magic to the Aesir, probably involving sexuality.

Freyr \'frar\ or Frey Vfra\ Norse god of peace, fertility, rain, and sun, one of a group of fertility deities called Vanir. The son of Njord and brother of Freyja, he was especially venerated in pre-Christian Sweden, where he was considered the progenitor of the royal line. The best-known story about him told of his love and lust for the giantess Gerd, who was wooed and won for him by his servant. His worship was believed to bring good weather and great wealth.

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Frick ► frigate I 713

Frick, Henry Clay (b. Dec. 19,1849, West Overton, Pa., U.S.—d. Dec. 2, 1919, New York, N.Y.) U.S. industrialist. He began building and oper¬ ating coke ovens in 1870 and organized his own company in 1871. From 1889 he served as chairman of Carnegie Steel Co., the world’s largest manufacturer of steel and coke. His role in the violent steel strike of 1892 in Homestead, Pa., provoked an anarchist to shoot and stab him, but he survived. He was instrumental in the formation of the U.S. Steel Corp. in 1901. A noted art collector and philanthropist, he bequeathed the Frick Collection to New York City. See also Andrew Carnegie.

friction Force that resists sliding or rolling of one solid object over another. Some friction is beneficial, such as the traction used to walk without slipping. Most friction, though, is undesirable opposition to motion, such as between moving parts of machines. For example, about 20% of the work done by an automobile engine is needed to overcome friction between moving parts. Friction is a result of attractive forces between the contact regions of two bodies, and the amount of friction is almost independent of the area of contact. Kinetic friction arises between surfaces in relative motion, static friction acts between surfaces at rest with respect to each other, and rolling friction occurs when an object rolls over a surface.

Friedan \fri-'dan\, Betty orig. Bettye Naomi Goldstein (b. Feb. 4, 1921, Peoria, Ill., U.S.—d. Feb. 4, 2006, Washington, D.C.) U.S. femi¬ nist. She attended Smith College and worked in New York before mar¬ rying and having children. Her dissatisfaction with her role as housewife prompted her to write The Feminine Mystique (1963), the work that sparked the modern American feminist movement. In 1966 she cofounded the National Organization for Women. Her later books include The Sec¬ ond Stage (1981), The Fountain of Age (1993), and the memoir Life So Far (2000).

Friedland Vfret-.lantV, Battle of (June 14, 1807) Victory against Rus¬ sia for Napoleon in the Napoleonic Wars that led to the Peace of Tilsit. Near Friedland in eastern Prussia (modern Pravdinsk, Russia), an isolated French corps, greatly outnumbered, held off Russian attacks for nine hours while Napoleon concentrated his forces. He then attacked with 65,000 men, pushing half the Russian army into the village of Friedland, where they were killed or captured. A Prussian ally withdrew his forces from Konigsberg, which the French then occupied.

Friedman Vfred-monV Milton (b. July 31, 1912, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. economist. Friedman studied at Rutgers and Columbia before join¬ ing the faculty of the University of Chicago in 1946. There he became the leading U.S. advocate of monetarism. He oversaw the economic tran¬ sition in Chile after the overthrow of Salvador Allende. In the 1980s his ideas were taken up by Pres. Ronald Reagan and Britain’s Margaret Thatcher. His many books include A Theory of the Consumption Function (1957) and Capitalism and Freedom (1962), both with his wife. Rose Friedman, and A Monetary History of the United States, 1867-1960 (1963) and Monetary Trends of the United States and the United King¬ dom (1981), with economist Anna Schwartz. He received the Nobel Prize in 1976.

Friedmann Vfret-man\ universe Model universe developed in 1922 by the Russian meteorologist and mathematician Aleksandr Friedmann (1888-1925). He believed that Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity required a theory of the universe in motion, as opposed to the static uni¬ verse that scientists until then had proposed. He hypothesized a big bang followed by expansion, then contraction and an eventual big crunch. His model supposes a closed universe, but similar solutions involve an open universe (which expands infinitely) or a flat universe (in which expansion continues infinitely but gradually approaches a rate of zero). See also Edwin P. Hubble.

Friedrich Vfre-drik\, Caspar David (b. Sept. 5, 1774, Greifswald, Pomerania—d. May 7, 1840, Dresden, Saxony) German painter. He stud¬ ied at the Copenhagen Academy. After 1798 he settled in Dresden and began his career as a topographical draftsman in pencil and sepia wash. His first important oil painting. The Cross in the Mountains (1807-08), achieves an overwhelming sense of isolation. In 1824 he was appointed professor at the Dresden Academy. His vast, mysterious landscapes and seascapes, proclaiming human helplessness against the forces of nature, did much to establish the sublime as a primary focus of Romanticism. Interest in his work revived with the rise of Symbolism at the beginning of the 20th century.

Friel Vfrel\, Brian (b. Jan. 9, 1929, near Omagh, County Tyrone, N.Ire.) Irish dramatist and short-story writer. Friel taught school in Londonderry before settling in County Donegal, Ireland. After The New Yorker began publishing his stories, he turned to writing full time. His first dramatic success was Philadelphia, Here 1 Come! (1963). Later he wrote about the dilemmas of Irish life and the troubles in Northern Ireland in such plays as The Freedom of the City (1973) and Making History (1988). Many of his plays—notably Translations (1980) and Dancing at Lughnasa (1990, Tony Award; film, 1998)—deal with family relationships and their con¬ nection to language, customs, and the land. His short-story collections include The Diviner (1983).

Friendly, Fred W. orig. Ferdinand Friendly Wachenheimer

(b. Oct. 30, 1915, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. March 3, 1998, New York City) U.S. broadcast producer and journalist. He began his career in radio in 1938 and later joined CBS. In the 1950s he collaborated with Edward R. Murrow to produce the radio news series Hear It Now and the televi¬ sion series See It Now. Friendly also produced CBS Reports (1961-71) and many special programs. He served as president of CBS News (1964- 66), then taught at Columbia University’s school of journalism. An out¬ spoken critic of the quality of most TV programming, he became a communications adviser for the Ford Foundation (1966-80) and was instrumental in establishing the PBS network.

friendly society Mutual aid organization formed voluntarily by indi¬ viduals to protect members against debts incurred through illness, death, or old age. Friendly societies arose in 17th- and 18th-century Europe and England and became most numerous in the 19th century. They trace their roots to the burial societies of Greek and Roman artisans and the guilds of medieval Europe. In attempting to define the magnitude of the risk against which they guarded and to determine how much members should contribute to meet that risk, friendly societies used what is now the basic principle of insurance.

Friends, Sociefy of known as Quakers Protestant denomination that arose in England in the mid-17th century. The movement began with radical English Puritans called Seekers, who rejected the Anglican church and other existing Protestant sects. They took their faith from itinerant preachers such as George Fox, who emphasized “inward light,” or inward apprehension of God, as the source of religious authority. Quaker meet¬ ings are characterized by patient silence in which members wait for inspi¬ ration to speak. The movement grew rapidly after 1650 (when a judge gave them their name because “we bid them tremble at the word of God”), but its members were often persecuted or imprisoned for rejecting the state church and refusing to pay tithes or swear oaths. Some emigrated to America, where they were persecuted in Massachusetts Bay Colony but found toleration in Rhode Island and in the Quaker colony of Pennsyl¬ vania, which was chartered by Charles II under the sponsorship of Wil¬ liam Penn in 1681. Other marks that became characteristic of Quakerism were plain speech and dress, pacifism, and opposition to slavery. The group also emphasizes philanthropy, especially aid to refugees and fam¬ ine victims; the American Friends Service Committee and (British) Friends Service Council shared the 1947 Nobel Peace Prize.

Fries's Rebellion Vfrez\ (1799) Uprising, in opposition to a federal property tax, by farmers in eastern Pennsylvania. To raise money for an anticipated war with France, in 1798 the U.S. Congress voted a direct tax on real property. The tax was widely resented, and an armed group of German farmers, led by John Fries (c. 1750-1818), forced the release of tax resisters held by federal marshals. Pres. John Adams sent federal troops to arrest the rebels, who were tried for treason. Fries was convicted and sentenced to be hanged, but Adams pardoned him in 1800.

frieze Yfrez\ Any long, narrow, horizontal panel or ornamental band used for decorative purposes around the walls of a room or exterior walls of a building. In Greco-Roman architecture it is a horizontal band, often decorated with relief sculpture, between the architrave and cornice of a building. The most famous decorative frieze is on the outer wall of the Parthenon in Athens, a 525-ft (160-m) representation of the ritual pro¬ cession of the Panathenaic festival.

frigate Vfri-g3t\ Either of two different types of warships, of the 17th- 19th centuries and of World War II and after. The sailing ship known as a frigate was a three-masted, fully rigged vessel, often carrying 30^-0 guns in all. Smaller and faster than ships of the line, frigates served as scouts or as escorts protecting merchant convoys; they also cruised the seas as merchant raiders themselves. With the transition to steam, the term gradu-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

714 i frigate bird ► fritillary

ally gave way to cruiser. In World War II, Britain revived the term frigate to describe escort ships equipped with sonar and depth charges and used to guard convoys from submarines. In the postwar decades frigates also adopted an antiaircraft role, adding radar and surface-to-air missiles. Modern frigates may displace more than 3,000 tons (2,700 metric tons), sail at a speed of 30 knots, and carry a crew of 200.

Battle between the frigates HMS Shannon and USS Chesapeake off Boston during the War of 1812; detail of a lithograph by J.C. Schetky.

THE NATIONAL MARITIME MUSEUM, LONDON

frigate bird or man-o'-war bird Any member of five species of large seabirds constituting the family Fregatidae, found worldwide along tropical and semitropical coasts and islands. About the size of a hen, frig¬ ate birds have extremely long, slen¬ der wings, which span up to about 8 ft (2.3 m), and long, deeply forked tails. Most adult males are all black; most females are marked with white below. Both sexes have a bare¬ skinned throat pouch, tiny feet, and a long hooked bill that is used to attack and rob other seabirds of their fish. The courting male’s throat pouch becomes bright red and is inflated to the size of a person’s head. Perhaps the most aerial of all birds except the swifts, frigate birds land only to sleep or tend the nest.

Frigg \'frig\ or Friia Vfre-sN Norse goddess, the wife of Odin and mother of Balder. She was considered the patron of marriage and fertility. Some Icelandic stories depict her as a devoted mother, while others stress her loose morals. Frigg was also known to other Germanic peoples, and her name survives in the word Friday (“Friia’s day”).

Friml Vfri-molV (Charles) Rudolf (b. Dec. 7, 1879, Prague —d. Nov. 12, 1972, Hollywood, Calif., U.S.) Czech-born U.S. composer. He stud¬ ied under Antonin Dvorak, and he immigrated to the U.S. in 1906. In 1912, replacing Victor Herbert, he composed the highly successful oper¬ etta The Firefly (with Otto Harbach). The next major success of his approximately 30 operettas, Rose Marie (1924; with “Indian Love Call”), was followed by The Vagabond King (1925; with “Song of the Vaga¬ bonds” and “Some Day”) and The Three Musketeers (1928), among the last operettas to enjoy popular success.

fringe benefit Any nonwage payment or benefit granted to employ¬ ees by employers. Examples include pension plans, profit-sharing pro¬ grams, vacation pay, and company-paid life, health, and unemployment insurance. Employers’ payments for fringe benefits are included in employee-compensation costs and therefore are not usually taxed. If the

cost of fringe benefits were paid directly as wages, the worker would pay taxes on this amount and therefore have less to spend when purchasing equivalent benefits independently.

Frisch \'frish\, Karl von (b. Nov. 20, 1886, Vienna, Austria—d. June 12, 1982, Munich, W.Ger.) Zoologist, a pioneer of behavioral physiology. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Munich, where he subse¬ quently taught. Best known for his studies of bees, he found that bees communicate the distance and direction of a food supply to other mem¬ bers of the colony by two types of rhythmic movement, or dance. Cir¬ cling indicates that food is within about 250 ft (75 m) of the hive; wagging indicates a greater distance. In 1949 he established that bees, through their perception of polarized light, use the sun as a compass even when it is not visible. He also established that fish can hear and distinguish colours. He shared a 1973 Nobel Prize with Konrad Lorenz and Nikolaas Tinber¬ gen.

Frisch, Max (Rudolf) (b. May 15, 1911, Zurich, Switz.—d. April 4, 1991, Zurich) Swiss dramatist and novelist. Originally a journalist, he later worked as an architect, a career he abandoned for writing in 1955. He is noted for his Expressionist depictions of the moral dilemmas of 20th-century life. His early drama Santa Cruz (1947) established the cen¬ tral theme of his subsequent works: the predicament of the complicated, skeptical individual in modem society. Other plays include The Chinese Wall (1947), The Fire Raisers (1958), and Andorra (1961). Among his novels are Fm Not Stiller (1954), Homo Faber (1957), A Wilderness of Mirrors (1964), and Man in the Holocene (1979).

Frisch \'frish\, Ragnar (Anton Kittil) (b. March 1895, Oslo, Nor.—d. Jan. 31, 1973, Oslo) Norwegian economist. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Oslo and taught there from 1931 to 1965. He was a pioneer of econometrics and one of the founders of the Econo¬ metric Society. He is famous for the development of large-scale econo¬ metric modeling linked to economic planning and national income accounting. In 1969 he shared the first Nobel Prize in Economics with Jan Tinbergen.

Frisian Vfri-zhonX Islands Chain of islands. North Sea. They extend 3 to 20 mi (5 to 32 km) off the northern European mainland, along the Dutch and German coasts and the southern part of Denmark’s Jutland peninsula. Although they form a single physical feature, it is customary to subdivide them into the West Frisian Islands (held by The Netherlands), East Fri¬ sian Islands (Germany), and North Frisian Islands (Germany and Den¬ mark). After the North Sea established a southwestern outlet to the Atlantic about 7,000-5,000 bc, its southeasterly shore probably coincided with the present curve of the Frisians. Periodic subsidence, storms, and flooding have since produced this long chain of islands separated from the mainland by a narrow belt of shallow waters and tidal mud flats. The Dutch and German governments have spent large sums to protect the islands’ seaward coasts and reclaim the land for farming. The beaches and resorts attract many tourists.

Frisian Vfri-zhsnV language West Germanic language most closely related to English. Formerly spoken from the province of North Holland in The Netherlands to the province of Schleswig in northern Germany, Frisian is now spoken only in three small areas, each with its own dia¬ lect. West Frisian is spoken in the province of Friesland in The Nether¬ lands, East Frisian in the Saterland west of Oldenburg, Ger., and North Frisian along the western coast of Schleswig on the Frisian Islands. Writ¬ ten records in Old Frisian date from the end of the 13th century. From the late 16th century to the late 19th century, written Frisian was seldom used. In modern times there has been a revival of West Frisian, and it is considered an official language by the Dutch government.

fritillary \'fri-t 3 l-,er-e\ Any of the approximately 80 species of bulbous, mostly perennial, ornamental herbaceous plants that make up the genus Fritillaria, in the uly family, native primarily to the northern temperate zone. Members have bell-shaped, nodding, usually solitary flowers. In many species the flower has a checkered appearance. The fruit, a capsule, contains many seeds. Snake’s head, or toad lily ( F. meleagris), a species with poisonous bulbs, and crown imperial ( F. imperialis ), a strong¬ smelling plant, are commonly cultivated as garden flowers.

fritillary \'fri-t 3 l-,er-e\ Name applied to butterflies in several genera (fam¬ ily Nymphalidae). Large fritillaries, or silverspots, belong to the genus Speyeria and usually have silver markings on the undersides of their

Great frigate bird (Fregata minor)

JEN AND DES BARTLETT-BRUCE COLEMAN INC./EB INC.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Friuli-Venezia Giulia ► Fronde I 715

wings. Many of the smaller fritillar- ies are members of the genus Bolo- ria. Many fritillary larvae are nocturnal and feed on violet leaves.

Friuli-Venezia Giulia \fre-'ii- le-va-'net-se-a-'jiil-yaV Autonomous region (pop., 2001 prelim.:

1,180,375), northeastern Italy. It covers 3,029 sq mi (7,845 sq km), and it borders Austria, Slovenia, and the Adriatic Sea. Its capital is Trieste.

Known in Roman times as the Julian region, it was divided after the bar¬ barian invasions into a coastal part dominated by the Byzantines and an inland zone ruled by the dukes of Friuli and the counts of Gorizia.

From the 15th century it was con¬ trolled by Austria and Venice, and after 1815 it came under Habsburg rule. Divided after World War II between Yugoslavia and the free territory of Trieste, the region was restored to Italy in 1954. One of Italy’s most seis¬ mic areas, it suffered a severe earthquake in 1976. It is known for its ham and dairy products. Its larger cities, including Udine, Pordenone, Gorizia, and Trieste, have all experienced considerable industrial development. Trieste is one of Italy’s most important ports.

Frizzell \fri-'zel\ / Lefty orig. William Orville Frizzell (b. March 31, 1928, Corsicana, Texas, U.S.—d. July 19, 1975, Nashville, Tenn.) U.S. singer and songwriter. He was a fan of Jimmie Rodgers from childhood. Also a semiprofessional boxer (the source of his nickname), Frizzell sang in honky-tonks and on radio in the Southwest and had his first hit with “If You’ve Got the Money, I’ve Got the Time” (1950). He had several hits over the next two years, including “Always Late (with Your Kisses),” but his last and biggest hit was “Saginaw, Michigan” (1963).

Froben \'fro-bon\, Johann or Johannes Frobenius (b. c. 1460, Hammelburg, Franconia—d. October 1527, Basel, Switz.) German-born Swiss scholar and printer active in Basel. His first publication was a Latin Bible (1491). By 1515 he and three partners owned four presses, and later seven. His contributions to printing in Basel included popularizing roman type, introducing italic and Greek fonts, experimenting with cheaper and smaller books, and employing talented artists, such as Hans Holbein, the Younger, as illustrators. About 250 of his publications are known.

Frobisher, Sir Martin (b. c. 1535, Yorkshire, Eng.—d. Nov. 22, 1594, Plymouth, Devon) English navigator and early explorer of Canada’s northeastern coast. Searching for the Northwest Passage to the Pacific Ocean, he crossed the Atlantic in 1576 and reached Labrador and Baffin Island, discovering Frobisher Bay. Returning to England with reports of possible gold mines, he obtained royal backing for further expeditions in 1577 and 1578; when he brought back nothing of value, his backing col¬ lapsed. In 1585 he sailed as vice admiral of Sir Francis Drake’s expedi¬ tion to the West Indies, and in 1588 he played a prominent part in the campaign against the Spanish Armada.

Frobisher Bay Vfro-bi-shoiA Inlet of the North Atlantic Ocean. Extend¬ ing northwest from the southeastern tip of Baffin Island, Can., it is about 150 mi (240 km) long and 20^40 mi (32-64 km) wide and has a maxi¬ mum depth of 400 ft (120 m). It was discovered in 1576 by Martin Fro¬ bisher. The town of Iqaluit at the head of the bay is the capital of Nunavut.

Frobisher Bay See Iqaluit

Froebel Vfrce-bslX, Friedrich (Wilhelm August) or Friedrich Wilhelm Frobel (b. April 21, 1782, Oberweissbach, Thuringia, Ernes¬ tine Saxony—d. June 21, 1852, Marienthal, near Bad Liebenstein, Thu¬ ringia) German educator and founder of the kindergarten. Influenced by the theories of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, he founded an infant school in 1837 that he later called the Kindergarten, or “garden of children.” He believed in “self-activity” and play as essential factors in child education, the teacher’s role being not to drill or indoctrinate but rather to encour¬ age self-expression through play. He greatly influenced modern tech¬ niques in preschool education, including the ideas of John Dewey.

frog Any of various tailless amphibians in the order Anura. The name may be limited to any member of the family Ranidae (true frogs); more broadly, it often distinguishes smooth-skinned, leaping anurans from

squat, warty, hopping ones (toads).

Frogs generally have protruding eyes, strong, webbed hind feet adapted for leaping and swimming, and smooth, moist skin. Most are predominantly aquatic, but some live on land. They range in length (snout to anus) from 0.4 to 12 in. (9.8 mm-30 cm). Though frogs have poi¬ sonous skin glands, they rely on camouflage for protection from predators. Most eat insects and other small arthropods or worms, but sev¬ eral also eat other frogs, rodents, and reptiles. They usually breed in fresh¬ water, where they lay eggs that hatch into tadpoles. Since 1989 researchers have become increasingly alarmed by striking declines in frog populations worldwide, suspected to be linked to climatic factors or a fungal disease.

frog hopper See spittlebug

Froissart\frwa-'sar\, Jean (b. 1333?, Valenciennes, Brabant—d. 1400/ 01, Chimay, Hainaut) French court historian and poet. As a scholar Frois¬ sart traveled widely and lived among the nobility of several European courts. His Chronicles, a firsthand narrative covering the Hundred Years' War from 1325 to 1400, including events in Flanders, Spain, Portugal, France, and England, is the most important and detailed document of feu¬ dal times and the best contemporary exposition of chivalric and courtly ideals. He also wrote ballades, rondeaux, and allegorical poetry celebrat¬ ing courtly love.

A.

Jean Froissart (seated), writing his Chroniques, miniature from a mid-15th-century manuscript; in the Bibliotheque de I'Arsenal, Paris (Ms. 5190).

COURTESY OF THE BIBLIOTHEQUE DE L'ARSENAL, PARIS; PHOTOGRAPH, STUDIO STA PHOTO

Fromm, Erich (b. March 23, 1900, Frankfurt am Main, Ger.—d. March 18, 1980, Muralto, Switz.) German-born U.S. psychoanalyst and social philosopher. A disciple of Sigmund Freud, Fromm joined the Frankfurt school in the 1920s and left Nazi Germany for the U.S in 1933. Taking issue with Freud, he came to believe in the interaction of psychology and society and argued that psychoanalytic principles could be applied to cure cultural ills. He taught at various institutions, including the National Uni¬ versity of Mexico (1951-67) and New York University (from 1962). His many books, which had popular as well as academic success, included Escape from Freedom (1941), The Sane Society (1955), and The Crisis of Psychoanalysis (1970); The Art of Loving (1956) became a durable best-seller.

Fronde Vfro n d\, the (1648-53) Series of civil wars in France during the minority of Louis XIV. The Fronde (named for the “sling” of a chil-

Snake's head (Fritillaria meleagris)

INGMAR HOLMASEN

Costa Rican flying tree frog (Agalych- nis spurrelli).

HEATHER ANGEL

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

716 i front ► fructose

dren’s game played in the streets of Paris in defiance of authorities) was in part an attempt to check the growing power of royal government, but its failure paved the way for the absolutism of Louis XIV’s reign. The first phase, the Fronde of the Parlement (1648-49), was an attempt to place constitutional limits on the queen regent, Anne of Austria, and her chief minister, Jules Mazarin. Uprisings forced the government to concede to the Parlement’s demands. The more serious second phase, the Fronde of the Princes (1650-53), sprang from aristocratic opposition to Mazarin. The military leader the Great Conde was arrested, causing his friends to rebel (in the so-called first war of the princes). His supporters joined the Parisian party (the Old Fronde) in successfully calling for Conde’s release and Mazarin’s resignation. Conde lost his position when Anne joined with the Old Fronde against him, precipitating the second war of the princes (1651-53). After losses in battle, he fled. The king entered Paris in tri¬ umph in 1652, followed by Mazarin in 1653. The Fronde was the last serious challenge to the monarchy until the French Revolution.

front In meteorology, the interface or transition zone between two air masses of different density and temperature. Frontal zones are frequently accompanied by low barometric pressure, marked changes in wind direc¬ tion and relative humidity, and considerable cloudiness and precipitation.

Front Islamique du Salut (FIS) See Islamic Salvation Front

Frontenac \fro n -to- , nak\ / Louis de Buade, count de Palluau

and de (b. May 22, 1622, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, near Paris, France—d. Nov. 28, 1698, Quebec, New France) French courtier and governor of New France (1672-82, 1689-98). Despite a record of mis- govemment, he encouraged exploration that led to the expansion of the French empire in Canada. He established fur-trading posts that brought him into conflict with the Montreal fur traders and later expanded the posts west. He engaged in disputes with the officials and clergy of New France. The Iroquois Confederacy, which had remained on good terms with the French until 1675, turned against the French, and the colony was left defenseless. Louis XIV recalled Frontenac in 1682. Reappointed when the French and Indian War started (1689), he distinguished himself by repuls¬ ing British attacks on Quebec.

Frontinus \fran-'tl-n3s\, Sextus Julius (b. ad 35—d. 103) Roman governor of Britain and author of a work on the waters of the city of Rome. He was praetor in Rome in 70; later made governor of Britain, he sub¬ dued the Silures in southeastern Wales (75) and held other tribes in check. In 97 he took charge of the aqueducts at Rome and compiled a history full of technical details and regulations governing their use and other matters of importance in the history of civil engineering.

frost Atmospheric moisture that crystallizes directly on the ground and on exposed objects. The term also refers to the occurrence of subfreez¬ ing temperatures that affect plants and crops. Frost crystals, sometimes called hoarfrost in the aggregate, form when water vapour in the atmo¬ sphere passes into the ice-crystal phase without going through the inter¬ mediate liquid phase. Frost forms under conditions that would form dew if the temperature were above freezing. In agriculture, frost refers to the freezing of the water in plant cells, which causes the cells to burst and thereby destroys the plant.

Frost, Sir David (Paradine) (b. April 7, 1939, Tenterden, Kent, Eng.) British television producer. He worked in television from 1961 and hosted several programs in the U.S. and Britain, including That Was the Week That Was (1962-63) and The Frost Reports (1966-67). He con¬ ducted interviews with world leaders on The David Frost Show (1969- 72), winning two Emmy Awards. He was a cofounder of London Weekend Television and in 1983 of Britain’s TV-AM.

Frost, Robert (Lee) (b. March 26, 1874, San Francisco, Calif., U.S.—d. Jan. 29, 1963, Boston, Mass.) U.S. poet. Frost’s family moved to New England early in his life. After stints at Dartmouth College and Har¬ vard University and a difficult period as a teacher and farmer, he moved to England and published his first collections, A Boy’s Will (1913) and North of Boston (1914). At the outbreak of war he returned to New England. He closely observed rural life and in his poetry endowed it with universal, even metaphysical, meaning, using colloquial language, familiar rhythms, and common symbols to express both its pastoral ideals and its dark com¬ plexities. His collections include New Hampshire (1923, Pulitzer Prize), Collected Poems (1930, Pulitzer Prize), A Further Range (1936, Pulitzer Prize), and A Witness Tree (1942, Pulitzer Prize). He was unique among American poets of the 20th century in simultaneously achieving wide

popularity and deep critical admira¬ tion. Many of his poems, including “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening,” “Birches,” “The Death of the Hired Man,” “Dust of Snow,”

“Fire and Ice,” and “Home Burial,” are widely anthologized.

frostbite Freezing of living tissue, when it loses enough heat in below- freezing weather for ice to form.

High winds, wet skin, tight clothes, and alcohol use increase the risk of frostbite. Cell damage, tissue dehy¬ dration, and oxygen depletion caused by freezing and thawing can lead to blood-cell disruption, clotting in cap¬ illaries, and gangrene. The toes, fin¬ gers, ears, and nose are usually affected first, becoming cold, hard, white, or bloodless. The lack of pain is dangerous. Core temperature should be brought to near normal before rapid thawing in warm (under 115 °F [46 °C]) water. Toxoid booster injections are recommended. The outlook is best when freezing is short-term, thawing is by rapid rewarming, and large blisters extending to the end of the part develop early. Tissue that is refro¬ zen after thawing must almost always be amputated. Affected parts become more susceptible to recurrence. Frostbite is best prevented by wearing dry, layered, loose clothing and remaining alert. See also hypothermia.

froth flotation See flotation

frottage \fro-'tazh\ French "rubbing" Technique of obtaining an impression of a raised, incised, or textured surface by placing a piece of paper over it and rubbing it with a soft pencil or crayon. Brass rubbings taken from gravestones and funerary monuments are obtained in this way. Max Ernst pioneered the technique in the 20th century. It was much favoured by the Surrealists, since it provided a point of departure for a painting or collage expressing the imagery of the subconscious.

Froude Vfriid\, James Anthony (b. April 23, 1818, Dartington, Devon, Eng.—d. Oct. 20, 1894, Kingsbridge, Devon) English historian and biographer. He was influenced by the Oxford Movement, which sought a renewal of Roman Catholic practices within the Church of England, but later broke with it. Among his historical works, which display both care¬ lessness and his anti-Catholic bias, the best known is History of England from the Fall ofWolsey to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada (1856—70), which fundamentally altered the direction of Tudor studies. Immensely prolific, he was attacked by reviewers but was popular with the reading public. He later produced a biography (1882-84) of his friend Thomas Carlyle.

Froude, William (b. Nov. 28, 1810, Dartington, Devon, Eng.—d. May 4, 1879, Simonstown, S.Af.) British engineer and naval architect. He was the brother of James Anthony Froude. In 1837 he became an assistant to I.K. Brunel, for whom he oversaw railway construction. For the British Admiralty he conducted experiments using scale models of ships to deter¬ mine the physical laws governing full-sized ships, using a testing tank he built at his home. The Froude number, expressed as the ratio of a vessel’s velocity to the square root of the product of its waterline length and the acceleration of gravity, is still used by marine architects to predict the behaviour of ships from scale models.

Fructidor \fnBk-te-'dor,\ English Vfrsk-ti-.dorX, Coup of 1 8 (Sept. 4, 1799) Purge of conservatives during the French Directory period. Fearing it was losing popularity, the government sent Gen. Pierre F.C. Augereau to command troops guarding the legislative assembly at the Tuileries. On 18 Fructidor, Year V, in the republican calendar (Sept. 4, 1799), Augereau purged more than 130 royalists and counterrevolutionaries from the leg¬ islative body; many others, including journalists and the director, were deported to French Guiana. The republican constitution was also fatally weakened, which confirmed the new power of the army and led to the Coup of 18-19 Brumaire, Year VII (Nov. 9-10, 1799), and Napoleon’s military despotism.

fructose Vfrsk-.tos, 'friik-.tosV or levulose \1ev-ya-,los\ or fruit sugar Organic compound, one of the simple sugars (monosaccharides), chemical formula C 6 H 12 0 6 . It occurs in fruits, honey, syrups (especially com syrup), and certain vegetables, usually along with its isomer glucose.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

fruit ► fuel injection I 717

Fructose and glucose are the components of the disaccharide sucrose (table sugar); hydrolysis of sucrose yields invert sugar, a 50:50 mixture of fructose and glucose. The sweetest of the common sugars, fructose is used in foods and medicines.

fruit In its strict botanical sense, the fleshy or dry ripened ovary (enlarged portion of the pistil) of a flowering plant, enclosing the seed or seeds. Apri¬ cots, bananas, and grapes, as well as bean pods, corn grains, tomatoes, cucumbers, and (in their shells) acorns and almonds, are all technically fruits. Popularly, the term is restricted to the ripened ovaries that are sweet and either succulent or pulpy. The principal botanical purpose of the fruit is to protect and spread the seed. There are two broad categories of fruit: fleshy and dry. Fleshy fruits include berries, such as tomatoes, oranges, and cherries, which consist entirely of succulent tissue; aggregate fruits, including blackberries and strawberries, which form from a single flower with many pistils, each of which develops into fruitlets; and multiple fruits, such as pineapples and mulberries, which develop from the mature ovaries of an entire inflorescence. Dry fruits include the legumes, cereal grains, cap¬ sules, and nuts. Fruits are important sources of dietary fiber and vitamins (especially vitamin C). They can be eaten fresh; processed into juices, jams, and jellies; or preserved by dehydration, canning, fermentation, and pickling.

fruit bat Any of numerous tropical Old World bats in the family Pteropo- didae as well as several species of herbivorous New World bats. Old World fruit bats are widely distributed from Africa to South Asia and Australasia. Most species rely on vision rather than on echolocation to avoid obstacles. Some species are solitary, some gregarious; most roost in the open in trees, though some inhabit caves, rocks, or buildings. Some are red or yellow, and some are striped or spotted. They eat fruit or flow¬ ers (including pollen and nectar). The smallest species in the family, the long-tongued fruit bats, reach a head and body length of about 2.5 in. (6-7 cm) and a wingspan of about 10 in. (25 cm). The same family con¬ tains the largest of all bats, the flying foxes, which attain lengths up to 16 in. (40 cm) and a wingspan of 5 ft (1.5 m). New World fruit bats are generally smaller and make use of echolocation. They are found in the tropics, with many species belonging to the genera Artibeus and Sturnira.

fruit fly Any dipteran species of two families: large fruit flies (Try- petidae) and small fruit flies, or vin¬ egar flies (family Drosophilidae; see drosophila). The larvae feed on fruit or other vegetation. The adults’ wings are banded or spotted with brown. Many species attack culti¬ vated fruits, sometimes causing enough damage to create significant economic loss. Some species are leaf miners; others burrow in plant stems.

Well-known fruit-fly pests include the Mediterranean fruit fly and the apple maggot of the U.S., the Mexi¬ can and Oriental fruit flies, and the olive fruit fly of the Mediterranean region.

fruit sugar See fructose Frunze See Bishkek

Frunze Vfrim-zyoV, Mikhail (Vasilyevich) (b. Jan. 21, 1885, Pish- pek, Kirgiziya, Russian Empire—d. Oct. 31, 1925, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Soviet army officer and military theorist. An active revolution¬ ary from 1905, he became an outstanding commander in the Russian Civil War. With the support of Joseph Stalin, Frunze replaced Leon Trotsky as commissar for war in 1925. His “unitary military doctrine” asserted that the army should be trained to offensive action, united by its determina¬ tion to carry out the Communist Party’s task of promoting world revo¬ lution. He introduced peacetime compulsory military service and standardized military formations, drills, and uniforms. Frunze is regarded as one of the fathers of the Red Army.

Fry, Christopher orig. Christopher Harris (b. Dec. 18, 1907, Bris¬ tol, Gloucestershire, Eng.—d. June 30, 2005, Chichester, West Sussex) British playwright. He worked as an actor, director, and playwright before achieving success with The Lady’s Not for Burning (1948), an ironic comedy in verse set in medieval times. Noted for his wit and his religious

preoccupations, he wrote other verse plays, including Venus Observed (1950), A Sleep of Prisoners (1951), The Dark Is Light Enough (1954), and A Yard of Sun (1970). He also wrote several television plays and col¬ laborated on the screenplays of Ben Hur (1959) and Barabbas (1962).

Fry, Roger (Eliot) (b. Dec. 14, 1866, London, Eng.—d. Sept. 9, 1934, London) British art critic and artist. He gave up a career in science to study art in Italy. As a curator at the Metropolitan Museum of Art (1906- 10), he discovered the work of the Post-Impressionists, and in 1910 he introduced Post-Impressionism to Britain by organizing the first of two highly significant exhibitions. With Clive Bell, Fry preached the importance of “significant form” over content in the artwork. Associated with the Bloomsbury group, he and several group members cofounded the Omega Workshops for arts and crafts in 1913. He was known as a brilliant lec¬ turer and the author of numerous books.

Frye, (Herman) Northrop (b. July 14, 1912, Sherbrooke, Que., Can.—d. Jan. 23, 1991, Toronto, Ont.) Canadian literary critic. He was educated in Canada and Britain and from 1939 taught at Victoria College. In Anatomy of Criticism (1957), his most influential work, he analyzed various modes of literary criticism and stressed the recurring importance of archetypal symbols in literature. His other critical works include the influential Fearful Symmetry: A Study of William Blake (1947), The Well- Tempered Critic (1963), The Secular Scripture (1976), The Great Code: The Bible and Literature (1982), and Northrop Frye on Shakespeare

(1986).

FTP in full file transfer protocol Internet protocol that allows a com¬ puter to send files to or receive files from another computer. Like many Internet resources, FTP works by means of a client-server architecture; the user runs client software to connect to a server on the Internet. On the FTP server, a program called a daemon allows the user to download and upload files. Before the World Wide Web was introduced, FTP was one of the most popular methods of exchanging information over the Internet and many Web sites still use it to disseminate their larger files.

Fu-chien See Fujian Fuchau See Fuzhou

Fuchs \'fuks\, (Emil) Klaus (Julius) (b. Dec. 29, 1911, Rtisselsheim, Ger.—d. Jan. 28, 1988, E.Ger.) German physicist and spy. He joined the German Communist Party in 1930 but fled Germany after the Nazi take¬ over in 1933. He settled in Britain, earned a doctorate at the University of Edinburgh, and became a British citizen in 1942. He worked on the atomic bomb in Britain and the U.S. In 1943 he began passing scientific secrets to the Soviet Union, which accelerated Soviet development of the atomic bomb by at least a year. His activities were detected in 1950, and he was imprisoned until 1959. After his release, he moved to East Ger¬ many, where he was appointed deputy director of the Central Institute for Nuclear Research.

fuchsia \'fyu-sho\ Any of about 100 species of flowering shrubs and trees in the genus Fuchsia (family Onagraceae), native to tropical and subtropical regions of Central and South America and to New Zealand and Tahiti. Several species are grown in gardens as bedding plants, small shrubs, or miniature treelike specimens; others are grown as potted plants or in hanging baskets for indoor or greenhouse cultivation. Fuchsias are valued for their showy pendulous flowers, tubular to bell-shaped, in shades of red and purple to white.

fuel cell Device that converts chemical energy of a fuel directly into elec¬ tricity (see electrochemistry). Fuel cells are intrinsically more efficient than most other energy-conversion devices. Electrolytic chemical reactions cause electrons to be released on one electrode and flow through an exter¬ nal circuit to a second electrode. Whereas in batteries the electrodes are the source of the active ingredients, which are altered and depleted dur¬ ing the reaction, in fuel cells the gas or liquid fuel (often hydrogen, methyl alcohol, hydrazine, or a simple hydrocarbon) is supplied continuously to one electrode and oxygen or air to the other from an external source. So, as long as fuel and oxidant are supplied, the fuel cell will not run down or require recharging. Fuel cells can be used in place of virtually any other source of electricity. They are especially being developed for use in elec¬ tric automobiles, in the hope of achieving enormous reductions in pollu¬ tion.

fuel injection In an internal-combustion engine, introduction of fuel into the cylinders by a pump rather than by the suction created by the move-

Fruit fly (Trypetidae)

E.S. ROSS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

718 I Fuentes ► Fukuoka

ment of the pistons (see piston and cylinder). On diesel engines, which lack spark plugs, the heat created by compressing air in the cylinders ignites the fuel, which has been pumped in as a spray. In engines with spark igni¬ tion, fuel-injection pumps are often used instead of conventional carbu¬ retors. Fuel injection distributes the fuel more evenly to the cylinders than does a carburetor; more power can be developed and undesirable emis¬ sions are reduced. In engines with continuous combustion, such as gas turbines and liquid-fueled rockets, which have no pistons to create suction, fuel-injection systems are necessary.

Fuentes \fu-'en-tas\, Carlos (b. Nov. 11, 1928, Mexico City, Mex.) Mexican writer and diplomat. The son of a career diplomat, he traveled widely before studying law and entering the diplomatic service. He is best known for his experimental novels. His first. Where the Air Is Clear (1958), a bitter indictment of Mexican society, won him national prestige. The Death of Artemio Cruz (1962), about the final hours of an unscrupu¬ lous former revolutionary, made his international reputation. Among his later novels are Terra Nostra (1975), The Hydra Head (1978), The Old Gringo (1985), and The Years with Laura Diaz (1999). “The Buried Mir¬ ror” (1992) is a long essay on Hispanic cultures.

Fugard \fii-'gard\, Athol (Harold Lannigan) (b. June 11, 1932, Middleburg, S.Af.) South African playwright, director, and actor. He wrote two plays before The Blood Knot (1961), a penetrating analysis of apartheid, established his international reputation. He resumed the theme in Hello and Goodbye (1965) and Boesman and Lena (1969; film, 1973, with Fugard as Boesman). He experimented with an imagist approach to drama in Orestes (1971) and three other works, then returned to more traditionally structured plays. His “ Master Harold”...and the Boys (1982), The Road to Mecca (1984), and My Children! My Africa! (1989) were acclaimed in London and New York City. Fugard acted in the films Marigolds in August (1980), Gandhi (1982), and The Killing Fields

(1984).

Fugger Yfu-gar\ family German mercantile and banking dynasty that dominated European business in the 15th-16th centuries. The family busi¬ ness traces its origins to Hans (Johannes) Fugger (1348-1409), a weaver in Augsburg. Under his grandsons Ulrich (1441-1510), Georg (1453— 1506), and especially Jakob (1459-1525), the company became estab¬ lished in international trade, including the lucrative spice and slave trades, and built a fortune in copper and silver mining. Their loans to various kings and emperors and involvement with the sale of papal indulgences made family members highly influential in European politics and earned them the criticism of Martin Luther. The family’s influence declined after the 16th century, but three titled lines survived into the 20th century.

Fugitive Slave Acts U.S. laws of 1793 and 1850 (repealed in 1864) that provided for the seizure and return of runaway slaves. The 1793 law authorized a judge alone to decide the status of an alleged fugitive slave. Northern opposition led to enactment of state personal-liberty laws that entitled slaves to a jury trial and as early as 1810 prompted individuals to aid the Underground Railroad. Increased pressure from the South brought passage of the second statute in 1850, as part of the Compromise of 1 850. It imposed penalties on federal marshals who refused to enforce the law and on individuals who helped slaves to escape; fugitives could not testify on their own behalf, nor were they permitted a jury trial. Its severity led to increased interest in the abolition movement. Additional personal-liberty laws enacted by northern states to thwart the act were cited by South Carolina as justification for its secession in 1860.

fugue \'fyiig\ Musical composition characterized by systematic imita¬ tion of one or more themes in counterpoint. Fugues vary greatly in their actual form. The principal theme (subject) is imitated—i.e., repeated suc¬ cessively in similar form at different pitch levels by different parts or voices—in the so-called exposition. The countersubject is the continua¬ tion of the subject that accompanies the subject theme’s subsequent entries in the other voices. Episodes using modified themes often sepa¬ rate the subject’s entries. The fugue emerged gradually from the imitative polyphony of the 13th century. Johann Sebastian Bach’s keyboard fugues are the most famous of all. The works of Bach and George Frideric Han¬ del inspired the later fugues of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, and others, many of whom commonly included fugues in the final movements of symphonies, string quartets, and sonatas.

Fuji, Mount or Fujiyama Japanese Fuji-san Mountain, central Japan. The highest mountain in Japan, it rises to 12,388 ft (3,776 m) near the Pacific coast in central Honshu. Mount Fuji, with its graceful volca¬

nic cone (dormant since 1707), has become famous internationally. It is considered a sacred symbol of Japan, and thousands of Japanese climb to the shrine on its peak every summer. The mountain is the major feature of Fuji-Hakone-Izu National Park, created in 1936.

Fujian \'fu-'jyen\ or Fu-chien conventional Fukien Vfii-'kyenV Prov¬ ince (pop., 2002 est.: 34,660,000), southeastern China. Located on the southeastern coast, it is bounded by the East China Sea and Taiwan Strait and Guangdong, Jiangxi, and Zhejiang provinces. It has an area of 47,500 sq mi (123,100 sq km), and its capital is Fuzhou. The province’s bound¬ aries were established during the Song dynasty (1127-1279), when it became an important shipbuilding and commercial centre for overseas and coastal trade. It declined when the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) banned maritime commerce. Its coastal cities were occupied by the Japanese in World War II, and the 3rd Field Army took control of the province in 1949. In addition to being an important agricultural region, it is an area of special economic zones established in 1979 to attract foreign invest¬ ment to China.

Fujimori \,fu-je-'m6-re\, Alberto (Kenyo) (b. July 28, 1938, Lima, Peru) President of Peru (1990-2000). The son of Japanese immigrants, he graduated from Agrarian National University in 1961. He first entered politics in 1989 as the head of the new political party Cambio 90 (“Change 90”). He won a surprise victory in the 1990 presidential election and in 1992 he dissolved the National Congress and took other steps to concen¬ trate power in the presidency. He claimed credit for the capture of the leader of the Shining Path rebel movement later that year and, in 1997, the successful storming of the Japanese ambassador’s residence in Lima, where Tupac Amaru guerrillas had held dozens of hostages. He was reelected in 1995 and asserted victory, despite charges of fraud, in the 2000 election, but scandal involving his secret-police chief caused him to flee to Japan.

Fujiwara Vfu-je-'wa-ra\ family Dynastic family that dominated Japa¬ nese court government in the 9th-12th centuries. The family maintained a close relationship to the imperial family by marrying its daughters to emperors so that their grandsons and nephews became emperors. The Fujiwara acted as regents for child emperors and later created the post of kampaku, or chancellor, essentially a regent for an adult emperor. Fuji¬ wara Michinaga (966-1028), who married three daughters to emperors and a fourth to an heir apparent, epitomized Fujiwara power and glory; his ascendancy marked the height of the Heian period, during which Murasaki Shikibu wrote The Tale ofGenji. The family’s power at court waned after Michinaga and was eliminated in the 12th century.

See also Sugawara Michizane.

Fujiwara style Japanese sculp¬ tural style of the late Heian period (897-1185). The style of the princi¬ pal icons accorded with the emo¬ tional appeal of Pure Land Buddhism, introduced to counter the older eso¬ teric sects. The sculpted figures, though still full and fleshy, were more elegant and heavily poly- chromed, with elaborate cut-gold (kirikane) patterns in the drapery.

The facial type was aristocratic.

Delicacy of expression was achieved by a joined-wood technique invented by Jocho. Interest in decorative effects can be seen in the applied jewelry, which in earlier periods had been painted or modeled on the sculpture’s surface.

Fukien See Fujian

Fukuoka \,fu-ku-'o-ka\ City (pop.,

2000 prelim.: 1,341,489) and port,

Japan. It incorporates the former city of Hakata and is located on the

Kichijo-ten (Sanskrit Mahasri; the god¬ dess of good luck), polychrome wood sculpture, Fujiwara style, late Heian period, late 12th century; at Joruri Temple, near Nara, Japan.

ASUKA-EN, JAPAN

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Fulani ► Fullerton I 719

southern coast of Hakata Bay. An ancient port, it was the scene of attempted invasions by Kublai Khan in the 13th century. It is now a regional commercial, industrial, administrative, and cultural centre. It contains an active fishing port and is the site of Kyushu University (1911). Hakata ningyo, elaborately costumed ceramic figurines found in most Japanese homes, are made there.

Fulani Vfii-,la-ne\ Primarily Muslim people, numbering about 18 mil¬ lion, found in many parts of West Africa, from Lake Chad west to the Atlantic coast. Their language is Fula, an Atlantic language of the Niger-Congo family. Originally they were herders, but interaction with other groups produced marked cul¬ tural changes. In the 1790s the Fulani priest Usman dan Fodio led a holy war (jihad) that created a large empire. Its decay in the 19th century aided the establishment of British rule over northern Nigeria. Many Fulani of northern Nigeria have adopted the Hausa language and cul¬ ture and established themselves as an urban aristocracy.

Fulbright, J(ames) William (b.

April 9, 1905, Sumner, Mo.,

U.S.—d. Feb. 9, 1995, Washington,

D.C.) U.S. politician. After earning degrees from the Universities of Arkansas and Oxford, he taught law at Arkansas; he later served as its president (1939—41). In 1942 he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, where in 1943 he introduced a resolution supporting U.S. participation in what would become the UN. In the U.S. Senate (1945-75), he initiated the international exchange pro¬ gram known as the Fulbright scholarship. As chairman of the Senate For¬ eign Relations Committee (1959-74), he presided over televised hearings in 1966 on U.S. policy in the Vietnam War, from which he emerged as a leading advocate of ending the bombing of North Vietnam and opening peace talks. In 1974 he lost his bid for reelection.

Fulbright scholarship Educational grant under an international exchange program created to increase understanding between the U.S. and other countries. The program was conceived by U.S. Sen. J. William Ful¬ bright and instituted by the Fulbright Act of 1946. A complementary pro¬ gram for seminars abroad was established through the Fulbright-Hays Act of 1961. Most Fulbright Program participants are graduate students, but teachers, advanced researchers, trainees, and observers may also qualify. The program is administered by the U.S. Department of State.

Fulda River River, central Germany. Rising in the Rhon Mountains, it flows north to unite with the Werra River at Miinden and form the Weser River. It is 135 mi (218 km) long. The river valley served as a trade route between northern and southern Germany during the Middle Ages. The Fulda basin has many recreational areas.

Fuller, J(ohn) F(rederick) C(harles) (b. Sept. 1, 1878, Chichester, Sussex, Eng.—d. Feb. 10, 1966, Falmouth, Cornwall) British military theoretician and historian. He served as chief of staff of the British tank corps in World War I. He planned the surprise attack of 381 tanks at the Battle of Cambrai (Nov. 20, 1917), the first massed tank assault in his¬ tory. After the war he launched a crusade for the mechanization and mod¬ ernization of the British army. His emphasis on the armoured offensive met with resistance among English military tacticians, but his teachings were largely vindicated in World War II. His works include Tanks in the Great War (1920), Machine Warfare (1942), and A Military History of the Western World (1954-56).

Fuller, Loie orig. Marie Louise Fuller (b. Jan. 15, 1862, Fullers- burg, Ill., U.S.—d. Jan. 1, 1928, Paris, Fr.) U.S. improvisational dance performer and pioneer of modern dance. She began acting at age four, appearing with stock companies and vaudeville shows. From 1892 in Paris she gained attention with her “serpentine dance,” in which she used yards of flowing silk illuminated by theatrical lighting. She added a “fire dance”

(dancing on an illuminated pane of glass) and other acts, attracting criti¬ cal and public adulation, especially in Europe.

Fuller, (Sarah) Margaret mar¬ ried name Marchesa Ossoli (b.

May 23, 1810, Cambridgeport,

Mass., U.S.—d. July 19, 1850, at sea off Fire Island, N.Y.) U.S. critic, teacher, and woman of letters. She became part of the Transcendentalist circle (see Transcendentalism), was a close friend of Ralph Waldo Emerson, and eventually became the founding editor of the Trancendentalist maga¬ zine The Dial (1840-42). Her Sum¬ mer on the Lakes, in 1843 (1844), a study of frontier life, was followed by Woman in the Nineteenth Century (1845), a demand for women’s political equality and a plea for women’s intellectual and spiritual fulfillment. She traveled to Europe in 1846 as a correspondent for the New York Tribune. In Italy she married a revolutionary marquis; forced into exile, they perished in a shipwreck while returning to the U.S.

Fuller, Melville (Weston) (b. Feb. 11, 1833, Augusta, Me., U.S.—d. July 4, 1910, Sorrento) U.S. jurist. After graduating from Bowdoin Col¬ lege and Harvard Law School, he built a major legal practice in Chicago (from 1856), where he became prominent in Democratic Party politics. Although unknown nationally, he was appointed chief justice of the Supreme Court of the United States in 1888 by Pres. Grover Cleveland; he would remain on the Court until his death. His colleagues included Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., and John Marshall Harlan. He wrote the Court’s opin¬ ion in Pollock v. Farmers' Loan and Trust Co., which declared a federal income tax unconstitutional. He also served on the Hague Court of Inter¬ national Arbitration (1900-10).

Fuller, R(ichard) Buckminster (b. July 12, 1895, Milton, Mass., U.S.—d. July 1, 1983, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. inventor, futurist, archi¬ tect, and author. The grandnephew of Melville Fuller, he was expelled twice from Harvard University and never completed his college education. Fail¬ ure in a prefab construction business led him to search for design patterns that would most efficiently use Earth’s resources for humanity’s greatest good. His innovations included the inexpensive, lightweight, factory- assembled Dymaxion House and the energy-efficient, omnidirectional Dymaxion Car. He developed a vectorial system of geometry that he called “Energetic-Synergetic geometry”; its basic unit is the tetrahedron, which, when combined with octahedrons, forms the most economic space¬ filling structures. This led Fuller to design the geodesic dome, the only large dome that can be set directly on the ground as a complete structure, and the only practical kind of building that has no limiting dimensions (i.e., beyond which the structural strength must be insufficient).

fullerene Any of a class of all-carbon molecules whose atoms are arranged in closed hollow shells. Allotropes of carbon first identified in 1985, they have varying (but even) numbers of atoms bonded into struc¬ tures having 12 pentagonal and 2 or more hexagonal faces. Fullerenes comprising dozens to hundreds of carbon atoms have been prepared. The best known and most stable fullerene, buckminsterfullerene (C 60 , nick¬ named buckyball), has 60 carbon atoms arranged in a pattern like that on a standard soccer ball. It is named for R. Buckminster Fuller, whose geo¬ desic dome designs its structure resembles. Chemists have made fullerene derivatives (e.g., with attached hydrogen or halogen atoms or organic groups; see functional group) and have prepared doped fullerenes (e.g., with alkali metal atoms such as potassium; see dopant) that show supercon¬ ductivity at relatively high temperatures. One or more metal or noble-gas atoms can be trapped in the molecule’s hollow interior, resulting in unique complexes called endohedral fullerenes.

Fullerton City (pop., 2000: 126,003), southern California, U.S. Laid out in 1887, it developed as a citrus centre after the arrival of the Santa Fe Railroad in 1888. Residential and industrial growth has been rapid since World War II. The city produces transportation equipment, aircraft parts, and oil.

Fulani chieftain riding up to salute the emir of Katsina at the end of the Mus¬ lim festival of Ramadan in northern Nigeria.

KEN HEYMAN—RAPHO/PHOTO RESEARCHERS

Loie Fuller.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

720 I fulling ► fundamental theorem

fulling Process that increases the thickness and compactness of woven or knitted wool by subjecting it to moisture, heat, friction, and pressure until shrinkage of 10-25% is achieved. Shrinkage occurs in both the warp and weft see weaving), producing a smooth, tightly finished fabric that is light, warm, and relatively weather proof. A common example is loden cloth, first produced in Austria in the 16th century. See also felting.

fulmar Vful-mor, 'ful-.marN Any of several species of gull-like oceanic birds in the family Procellariidae. The northern fulmar (Fulmaris glacia- lis) ranges from temperate to Arctic waters, and the southern fulmar ( F. glacialoides ) from temperate to Antarctic waters. The much larger giant fulmar, or giant petrel (.Macronectes giganteus), is 3 ft (90 cm) long and has a wingspan of more than 6.5 ft (200 cm). It nests around the Antarc¬ tic Circle. Fulmars eat almost anything; their natural foods are small fish, squid, and crustaceans, but they often take ships’ garbage and will come ashore for carrion. They fly low over the waves of the open ocean, thus resembling their narrower-winged relatives, the shearwaters, in flight.

Fulton, Robert (b. Nov. 14, 1765, Lancaster county, Pa., U.S.—d. Feb. 24, 1815, New York, N.Y.) U.S. inventor and engineer. Bom to Irish immigrant parents, he studied painting with Benjamin West in London but soon turned to engineering. After designing a system of inland waterways, he tried unsuccessfully to interest the French and British governments in his prototypes of submarines (see Nautilus) and torpedoes. In 1801 he was commissioned by Robert R. Livingston to build a steamboat, and in 1807 Fulton’s Clermont made the 150-mi (240-km) journey up the Hudson River from New York City to Albany in 32 hours, cutting 64 hours off the usual sailing time. It became the first commercially successful steam¬ boat in the U.S. He later designed several other steamboats, including the world’s first steam warship (1812). He was a member of the commission that recommended building the Erie Canal.

fumarole \ , fyu-m3- l rol\ Volcanic vent from which steam and volcanic gases issue. The major source of the steam emitted by fumaroles is groundwater heated by magma. Carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and hydro¬ gen sulfide are usually emitted directly from the magma. A fumarole rich in sulfur gases is called a solfatara; a fumarole rich in carbon dioxide is called a mofette.

Funafuti \,fu-na-'fu-te\ Coral atoll (pop., 2000 est.: 4,590), Tuvalu, west- central Pacific Ocean. It is the location of Fongafale, the capital of Tuvalu. Funafuti comprises some 30 islets and has a total land area of 0.9 sq mi (2.4 sq km). It encircles a lagoon that affords good anchorage. A U.S. military base was established there in 1943; the U.S. dropped its claim to the atoll in 1983. Fongafale village has a hotel, a hospital, and an airstrip.

Funchal \fun-'shal\ City (pop., 2001: 102,521), capital of the autono¬ mous region of Madeira, Portugal. It lies on the southern coast of Madeira Island in the North Atlantic Ocean, and it is the centre of industry, com¬ merce, and communications for Madeira. Funchal was founded in 1421 by the Portuguese navigator Joao Gonsalves Zarco and later came under Spanish (1580-1640) and British (1807-14) control. The city’s scenery and mild year-round climate attract many tourists.

function In mathematics, an expression, rule, or law that defines a rela¬ tionship between one variable (the independent variable) and another (the dependent variable), which changes along with it. Most functions are numerical; that is, a numerical input value is associated with a single numerical output value. The formula A = nr 2 , for example, assigns to each positive real number r the area A of a circle with a radius of that length. The symbols f(x) and g(x) are typically used for functions of the inde¬ pendent variable x. A multivariable function such as w = f(x, y) is a rule for deriving a single numerical value from more than one input value. A periodic function repeats values over fixed intervals. If f{x + k) =f{x) for any value of x, f is a periodic function with a period of length k (a con¬ stant). The trigonometric FUNCTIONS are periodic. See also density function; EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION; HYPERBOLIC FUNCTION; INVERSE FUNCTION; TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTION.

functional analysis Branch of mathematical analysis dealing with functionals, or functions of functions. It emerged as a distinct field in the 20th century, when it was realized that diverse mathematical processes, from arithmetic to calculus procedures, exhibit very similar properties. A functional, like a function, is a relationship between objects, but the objects may be numbers, vectors, or functions. Groupings of such objects are called spaces. Differentiation is an example of a functional because it defines a relationship between a function and another function (its deriva¬

tive). Integration is also a functional. Functional analysis focuses on classes of functions, such as those that can be differentiated or integrated.

functional group In molecules, any of numerous combinations of atoms that undergo characteristic chemical reactions themselves and in many cases influence the reactivity of the rest of the molecule. Organic compounds are often classified according to the functional groups they contain. Common functional groups include hydroxyl (—OH), in alco¬ hols and phenols; carboxyl (—COOH), in carboxylic acids; carbonyl

(—C=0), in ALDEHYDES, KETONES, AMIDES, CARBOXYLIC ACIDS, ESTERS, and QUINO¬ NES; and nitro (—N0 2 ) and amino (—NH 2 ), in certain organic nitrogen compounds.

functionalism In the social sciences, a theory that stresses the inter¬ dependence of the patterns and institutions of a society and their interac¬ tion in maintaining cultural and social unity. In sociology, functionalism emerged from the work of Emile Durkheim, who viewed society as a kind of “organism” that carried with it certain “needs” that must be fulfilled. Similar views were adopted in anthropology by A.R. Radcliffe-Brown, who attempted to explain social structures as enduring systems of adap¬ tation, fusion, and integration; and by Bronislaw Malinowski, who viewed culture as the expression of the totality of individual and collective achievement, where “every custom, material object, idea, and belief ful¬ fills some vital function.” The U.S. sociologist Talcott Parsons analyzed large-scale societies in terms of their social, psychological, and cultural components and focused on problems of social order, integration, and equilibrium. Later writers argued that functionalism was too rigid to account for the breadth, depth, and contingencies of human social life and that it ignored the role of history in shaping society.

functionalism In psychology, a broad school of thought that originated in the U.S. in the late 19th century and emphasized the total organism in its endeavours to adjust to the environment. Reacting against the school of structuralism led by Edward Bradford Titchener, functionalists such as William James, George Herbert Mead, and John Dewey stressed the impor¬ tance of empirical, rational thought over an experimental trial-and-error philosophy. The movement concerned itself primarily with the practical applications of research (see applied psychology) and was critical of early forms of behaviourism.

Functionalism In architecture, the doctrine that a building’s form should be determined by practical considerations of use, material, and structure and not by a preconceived picture in the designer’s mind. Though not an exclusively modern conception, it is closely associated with the Modernist architecture of the second quarter of the 20th century. The fight for an “honest” form of expression by architects such as Louis Sullivan and Le Corbusier came about as a result of changes in building techniques, needs for new types of buildings, and discontent with histori¬ cal revivalism, which had been paramount in the 19th and early 20th cen¬ turies.

fundamental interaction In physics, the effect of any of the four fundamental forces—gravitational, electromagnetic, strong, and weak. All known natural forces can be traced to these fundamental interactions. Gravitation is the attractive force between any two objects that have mass; it causes objects to fall to the ground and maintains the orbits of planets around the Sun. Electromagnetic force is responsible for the attraction and repulsion between electric charges and explains the chemical behaviour of atoms and the properties of light. The strong force binds quarks together in protons, neutrons, and other hadrons and also holds the protons and neutrons of an atomic nucleus together, overcoming the repulsion of the positively charged protons for each other. The weak force is observed in certain forms of radioactive decay (see radioactivity) and in reactions that fuel the Sun and other stars.

fundamental theorem of algebra Theorem of equations proved by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1799. It states that every polynomial equation of degree n with complex number coefficients has n roots, or solutions, in the complex numbers.

fundamental theorem of arithmetic Fundamental principle of number theory proved by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1801. It states that any integer greater than 1 can be expressed as the product of prime numbers in only one way.

fundamental theorem of calculus Basic principle of calculus. It relates the derivative to the integral and provides the principal method for evaluating definite integrals (see differential calculus; integral calculus). In

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

fundamentalism ► furniture I 721

brief, it states that any function that is continuous (see continuity) over an interval has an antiderivative (a function whose rate of change, or deriva¬ tive, equals the function) on that interval. Further, the definite integral of such a function over an interval a < x < b is the difference F(b) - F(a), where F is an antiderivative of the function. This particularly elegant theorem shows the inverse function relationship of the derivative and the integral and serves as the backbone of the physical sciences. It was articu¬ lated independently by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.

fundamentalism, Christian Conservative Protestant movement that arose out of 19th-century millennialism in the U.S. It emphasized as fundamental the literal truth of the Bible, the imminent physical Second Coming of Jesus, the virgin birth, resurrection, and atonement. It spread in the 1880s and ’90s among Protestants dismayed by labour unrest, Catholic immigration, and biblical criticism. Scholars at Princeton Theo¬ logical Seminary provided intellectual arguments, published as 12 pam¬ phlets (1910-15). Displeasure over the teaching of evolution, which many believed could not be reconciled with the Bible, and over biblical criti¬ cism gave fundamentalism momentum in the 1920s. In the 1930s and ’40s, many fundamentalist Bible institutes and colleges were established, and fundamentalist groups within some Baptist and Presbyterian denomi¬ nations broke away to form new churches. In the later 20th century, fun¬ damentalists made use of television as a medium for evangelizing and became vocal in politics as the “Christian right.” See also evangelicalism; Pentecostalism.

fundamentalism, Islamic Conservative religious movement that seeks a return to Islamic values and Islamic law (see Sharia) in the face of Western modernism, which is seen as corrupt and atheistic. Though popularly associated in the West with Middle Eastern terrorists, only a few Islamic fundamentalists are terrorists, and not all Arab terrorists are fundamentalists. The Iranian revolution of 1979 established an Islamic fundamentalist state, and the Taliban has established its version of the same in much of Afghanistan. Islamic fundamentalist movements have varying degrees of support in North Africa, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Muslim S.East Asia, but Islamic fundamentalism represents a minority viewpoint in the context of world Islam.

Fundy, Bay of Inlet of the Atlantic Ocean, southeastern Canada Located between the provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, it extends 94 mi (151 km) inland and is 32 mi (52 km) wide at its entrance. It is noted for its fast-running tides, which may produce rises as great as 70 ft (21 m), the highest in the world. Noted also for the spectacular rock formations and forests of its shorelines, it has several deepwater harbours, including one at St. John, N.B. In 1948 a 51,000-acre (20,700-hectare) section of the bay’s New Brunswick coast was set aside as Fundy National Park.

Funen Danish Fyn \'fuen\ Island and county (pop., 2001: 472,064) of Denmark. It covers an an area of 1,346 sq mi (3,486 sq km), and it is located between Sjaelland and the Jutland Peninsula. Its administrative centre and largest city is Odense. The island is a fertile agricultural region. Road and rail bridges and femes connect the island with the rest of Den¬ mark.

fungal diseases or mycoses Diseases caused by any fungus that invades the tissues. Superficial fungal infections (e.g., athlete’s foot) are confined to the skin. Subcutaneous infections, which extend into tissues and sometimes adjacent structures such as bone and organs, are rare and often chronic. In systemic infections, fungi spread through the body of a normal (or, more often, an immunosuppressed) host. Some fungal diseases (e.g., yeast infections) may be either superficial or systemic, affecting cer¬ tain target organs.

fungicide Vfon-jo-.sld, 'foq-go-.sIdN Any toxin used to kill or inhibit growth of fungi (see fungus) that cause economic damage to crop or orna¬ mental plants (including rusts in cereals, blight in potatoes, mildew in fruits) or endanger the health of domestic animals or humans. Most are applied as sprays or dusts; seed fungicides are applied as a protective coat¬ ing to seeds before germination. Copper compounds, especially copper sul¬ fate mixed with lime and water (Bordeaux mixture), and sulfur have long been used for this purpose, but now synthetic organic compounds are com¬ monly used. Many antifungal substances occur naturally in plant tissues.

fungus Any of about 200,000 species of organisms belonging to the kingdom Fungi, or Mycota, including yeasts, rusts, smuts, molds, mush¬ rooms, and mildews. Though formerly classified as plants, they lack chlo¬

rophyll and the organized plant structures of stems, roots, and leaves.

Fungi contribute to the disintegration of organic matter resulting in the release of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus from dead plants and animals into the soil or the atmo¬ sphere. Fungi can be found in the water, soil, air, plants, and animals of all regions of the world that have suf¬ ficient moisture to enable them to grow. Essential to many food and industrial processes, fungi are also used in the production of enzymes, organic acids, vitamins, and antibiotics. They also can destroy crops, cause such diseases as athlete's foot and ringworm, and ruin clothing and food with mildew and rot. The thallus, or body, of a typical fungus consists of a mycelium through which cyto¬ plasm flows. The mycelium generally reproduces by forming spores, either directly or in special fruiting bodies that are generally the visible part of the fungus. The soil provides an ideal habitat for many species. Lacking chlorophyll, fungi are unable to carry out photosynthesis and must obtain their carbohydrates by secreting enzymes onto the surface on which they are growing to digest the food, which they absorb through the mycelium. Saprophytic fungi live off dead organisms and are partly responsible for the decomposition of organic matter. Parasitic fungi invade living organ¬ isms, often causing disease and death (see parasitism). Fungi establish symbiotic relationships with algae (forming lichens), plants (forming myc- orrhizae; see mycorrhiza), and certain insects.

Funk, l(saac) K(auffman) (b. Sept. 10, 1839, Clifton, Ohio, U.S.—d. April 4, 1912) U.S. publisher. He was ordained a Lutheran min¬ ister in 1861 but resigned the pulpit in 1872 to travel in Europe and the Middle East. In 1877, with Adam Willis Wagnalls (1843-1924), he founded I.K. Funk & Co., later Funk & Wagnalls Co. (1891). The firm became best known for its Standard Dictionary of the English Language (1893), whose successors remained in print through the next century.

fur seal Any of nine species of eared seals valued for their fur, espe¬ cially the chestnut-coloured underfur. Fur seals live in groups and feed on fish and other animals. They were driven nearly to extinction by fur hunt¬ ers, and most species are now protected by law. The northern fur seal (

Furchgott, Robert F(rancis) (b. June 4,1916, Charleston, S.C., U.S.) U.S. pharmacologist. He received his Ph.D. from Northwestern Univer¬ sity. With Louis J. Ignarro and Ferid Murad, he found that nitric oxide acts as a signaling molecule in the cardiovascular system. Furchgott demon¬ strated that cells in the endothelium of blood vessels produce a molecule called endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF), which signals smooth muscle cells in blood vessel walls to relax, dilating the vessels. Ignarro later concluded that EDRF was nitric oxide. The research done by Furch¬ gott, Murad, and Ignarro was key to the development of the drug Viagra, which treats impotence. The three men shared a 1998 Nobel Prize.

Furies Group of Greco-Roman goddesses of vengeance. The Furies lived in the underworld and ascended to earth to pursue the wicked. They were known to the Greeks as the Erinyes, but those who feared to speak their name often called them by euphemisms such as Eumenides (“Kind Ones”). According to Hesiod, they were daughters of Gaea, the earth god¬ dess. Aeschylus made them the terrifying chorus of his tragedy Eumenides , and Euripides was the first to speak of them as three in number.

furniture Household equipment designed for a variety of purposes. It may be made of wood, metal, plastics, stone, glass, fabrics, and related materials. It ranges from the simple pine chest or country chair to the elaborate marquetry-work cabinet or gilded console table. It is usually movable, though it can be built in, as are kitchen cabinets and bookcases. Stylistically it is related to architecture and interior design. Throughout history the functional and decorative aspects of furniture have been influ¬ enced by economics and FASHION. In the 14th—18th century, furniture mak¬ ing flourished with ever-increasing affluence. In the 1920s and ’30s

Bracket fungus (Polyporus) growing on wood.

H.S. KNIGHTON

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

722 I Furtwdngler ► fuzzy logic

architects designed chairs made of modem materials such as tubular steel and plastic. See also bentwood furniture; Early American furniture; Shaker

FURNITURE.

Furtwdngler Vfurt-.veg-larV (Gustav Heinrich Ernst Martin) Wilhelm (b. Jan. 25, 1886, Berlin—d. Nov. 30, 1954, near Baden- Baden, W.Ger.) German conductor and composer. After private compo¬ sition studies with Joseph Rheinberger (1839-1901), he debuted in 1906. His revised Te Denm (1910) established him as a composer, and in 1917 his work as a guest conductor in Berlin earned him high praise. He suc¬ ceeded Richard Strauss at the Berlin State Opera, and Arthur Nikisch (1855-1922) at the Leipzig Gewandhaus and Berlin Philharmonic, becoming especially associated with the music of Ludwig van Beethoven and Richard Wagner. Though criticized for staying in Germany during the Nazi era, he was no friend of the regime, continuing to program modem music and helping Jewish musicians to escape. He was formally exoner¬ ated of complicity with the Nazis, but public hostility dogged his later years.

fuse In electrical engineering, a safety device that protects electric circuits from the effects of excessive electric currents. A fuse commonly consists of a current-conducting strip or wire of easily fusible metal; whenever the circuit is made to carry a current larger than that for which it is intended, the strip melts to interrupt it.

Fuseli \fyu-'zel-e\, Henry orig. Johann Heinrich Fussli (b. Feb. 7, 1741, Zurich, Switz.—d. April 16, 1825, London, Eng.) Swiss-born British painter and writer on art. The son of a portrait painter, he trained in theology as well as in art and art history. He left his native Zurich for London in 1764. Encouraged by Sir Joshua Reynolds, he went to Italy in 1770 and stayed for eight years; on his return to England, his works exhibited at the Royal Academy, such as his most famous work, The Nightmare (1781), secured his reputation. His subject matter was chiefly literary, and his images portrayed macabre fantasies and the grotesque. He was elected a full academician in 1790 and taught painting at the academy (1799-1805).

Fustel de Coulanges \fm-stel-d3-ku-'la n zh\, Numa Denis (b.

March 18, 1830, Paris, France—d. Sept. 12, 1889, Massy) French histo¬ rian. He had a brilliant teaching career at the University of Strasbourg (1860-70) and later received other academic appointments. He champi¬ oned the importance of objectivity and the unreliability of secondary sources, which became important tenets of modern historiography, and his insistence on the use of contemporary documents led to the full use of the French national archives in the 19th century. Most of his work, including La Cite antique (1864) and La Gaule romaine (1891), dealt with Roman Gaul and the Germanic invasions of the Roman Empire.

fusulinid N.fyu-zo-'lI-nadV Any of a large group of extinct foraminifer- ans, single-celled organisms related to amoebas but having complex shells that are easily preserved as fossils. The fusulinids first appeared during the Carboniferous period, perhaps c. 320 million years ago, and persisted until the end of the Permian period, 248 million years ago. They have been extremely useful for correlating different rock units in widely separated regions and for dividing geologic time into smaller units. Petroleum geologists also use them to help locate economically valuable deposits of oil and natural gas.

Futabatei Shimei \fu-'ta-ba-ta-'she-ma\ orig. Hasegawa Tatsun- osuke (b. April 4, 1864, Edo, Japan—d. May 10, 1909, at sea in Bay of Bengal) Japanese novelist and translator. He is best known for Ukigumo (1887-89; “The Drifting Clouds”), his first novel, and for his translations of stories by Ivan Turgenev. In these he used a style called gembun itchi (“unification of spoken and written language”), one of the first attempts at a modern colloquial idiom. His later works include the novels An Adopted Husband (1906) and Mediocrity (1907). He is credited with bringing modern realism to the Japanese novel.

futhark See runic writing

futures Commercial contracts calling for the purchase or sale of speci¬ fied quantities of a good at specified future dates. The good in question may be grain, livestock, precious metals, or financial instruments such as treasury bills. Up until the time the contract calls for the delivery of the good, the contract is subject to speculation. Futures contracts originated in the trade in agricultural commodities; for example, American grain farmers were able to sell their harvest in advance on the Chicago Board of Trade, a commodity exchange.

Futurism Early 20th-century art movement, centred in Italy, that cel¬ ebrated the dynamism, speed, and power of the machine and the vitality and restlessness of modem life. The term was coined by Filippo Marinetti, who in 1909 published a manifesto glorifying the new technology of the automobile and the beauty of its speed and power. In 1910 Umberto Boc- cioni and others published a manifesto on painting. They adopted the Cub¬ ist technique of depicting several views of an object simultaneously with fragmented planes and outlines and used rhythmic spatial repetitions of the object’s outlines in transit to render movement. Their preferred sub¬ jects were speeding cars and trains, racing cyclists, and urban crowds; their palette was more vibrant than the Cubists’. With Boccioni, the most prominent Futurist artists were his teacher, Giacomo Balia (1871-1958), and Gino Severini (1883-1966). Boccioni’s death in 1916 and World War I brought an end to the movement, which had a strong influence in pos¬ trevolutionary Russia and on Dada.

Futurism Literary, artistic, and political movement. Futurism, which began in Italy about 1909, was marked especially by violent rejection of tradition and an effort to give formal expression to the dynamic energy and movement of mechanical processes. Its most significant results were in the visual arts and poetry. Futurism was first announced in a manifesto by Filippo Marinetti. The principal Italian Futurist artists were Giacomo Balia (1871-1958), Umberto Boccioni, Carlo Carra (1881-1966), and Gino Severini (1883-1966). Russian Futurism, founded soon afterward by Vladimir Mayakovsky and Velimir Khlebnikov (1885-1922), went beyond the Italian model in its revolutionary political and social outlook. The movement’s influence had ceased to be felt by 1930.