Britannica Concise 2005

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Greek Civil War (1944-45, 1946-49). Two-stage conflict during which Greek communists unsuccessfully tried to gain control of Greece. The two principal Greek guerrilla forces that had resisted Nazi Germa¬ ny’s occupation—the communist-controlled National Liberation Front- National Popular Liberation Army (EAM-ELAS) and the Greek Democratic National Army (EDES)—came into conflict after EAM- ELAS set up a provisional government that rejected the Greek king and his government-in-exile. When Germany withdrew from Greece in 1944, the communists and royalist guerrillas were brought together by the Brit¬ ish in an uneasy coalition. Because the communist guerrillas refused to disband their forces, a bitter civil war broke out in late 1944 that was put down by British forces. After elections that the communists did not par¬ ticipate in, the Greek king was restored to his throne. In 1946 a full-scale guerrilla war was reopened by the communists. The U.S. government took over the defense of Greece, creating the Truman Doctrine as justification. After fierce skirmishes in the mountains, in 1949 the communists announced the end of open hostilities. An estimated 50,000 Greeks died in the conflict, which left a legacy of bitterness.

Greek fire Any of several flammable mixtures used in ancient and medieval warfare, particularly a petroleum-based mixture invented by the Byzantine Greeks in the 7th century. Flammable materials such as pitch and sulfur had been used in war since ancient times, but true Greek fire was especially deadly. Thrown in pots or discharged from tubes, it appar¬ ently caught fire spontaneously, and water could not put it out. Greek fire launched from tubes mounted on ship prows wrought havoc on the Arab fleet attacking Constantinople in 673. Its effectiveness was a prime rea¬ son for the long survival of the Byzantine Empire. The recipe was so secret that its precise composition remains unknown.

Greek Independence, War of (1821-32) Rebellion of Greeks within the Ottoman empire. The revolt began under the leadership of Alex¬ andras Ypsilanti (1792-1828). He was soon defeated, but in the meantime other rebels in Greece and on several islands gained control of the Peloponnese and declared Greek independence (1822). Three times the Turks attempted invasions. Internal rivalries prevented the Greeks from extending their control and consolidating their position. With Egyptian reinforcements, the Turks successfully invaded the Peloponnese and cap¬ tured several cities, but the intervention of the European powers saved the

Greek cause. A settlement was finally reached at an 1830 London con¬ ference, declaring Greece an independent monarchical state.

Greek language Indo-European language spoken mostly in Greece. Its history can be divided into four phases: Ancient Greek, Koine, Byz¬ antine Greek, and Modern Greek. Ancient Greek is subdivided into Myce¬ naean Greek (14th—13th centuries bc) and Archaic and Classical Greek (8th-4th centuries bc). The language of the latter periods had numerous dialects (e.g., Ionic, Attic). The second phase, Koine (Hellenistic Greek), arose during the reign of Alexander the Great in the 4th century bc. A common language with simplified grammar, it spread throughout the Hel- lenized world. Purists who rejected Koine as a corruption of Attic Greek successfully advocated adoption of the Classical language for all writing. Thus, the written form, Byzantine Greek (5th—15th centuries ad), stayed rooted in the Attic tradition while the spoken language continued to develop. Modern Greek, dating from the 15th century, has many local dialects. Standard Modern Greek, Greece’s official written and spoken language, is largely based on a form called Demotic (used in popular speech) but includes elements of Katharevusa, the written language for¬ merly used in government and public life.

Greek law Legal systems of the ancient Greeks. Each city-state admin¬ istered its own laws, many of which were laid down in written statutes. The harsh law code of Draco and the more humane one of Solon are two of the most famous. Unlike Roman law, Greek law produced little analytical juris¬ prudence, though the philosophers examined abstract concepts of justice. Those who sat in judgment based their verdicts less on notions of equity than on the statutes’ literal meaning. Both private and criminal procedures began with the summoning of the defendant to the magistrate and the filing of a written complaint. A type of arbitration was available in civil suits. Enforcement of a judgment was generally left to the plaintiff.

Greek mythology Oral and literary traditions of the ancient Greeks concerning their gods and heroes and the nature and history of the cos¬ mos. The Greek myths and legends are known today primarily from Greek literature, including such classic works as Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, Hesiod’s Works and Days and Theogony, Ovid’s Metamorphoses, and the dramas of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The myths deal with the creation of the gods and the world, the struggle among the gods for supremacy and the triumph of Zeus, the love affairs and quarrels of the gods, and the effects of their adventures and powers on the mortal world, including their link with natural phenomena such as thunderstorms or the seasons and their connection with cultic sites or rituals. Among the great stories of Greek mythology and legend are those of the Trojan War, the voyage of Odysseus, Jason’s search for the Golden Fleece, the exploits of Heracles, the adventures of Theseus, and the tragedy of Oedipus. See also Greek religion.

Greek Orthodox Church Independent Eastern Orthodox church of Greece. The term is sometimes used erroneously for Eastern Orthodoxy in general. It remained under the patriarch of Constantinople until 1833, when it became independent. It is governed by 67 metropolitan bishops, presided over by an archbishop.

Greek pottery Pottery made in ancient Greece. Its painted decoration has become the primary source of information about the development of Greek pictorial art. It was made in a variety of sizes and shapes, accord¬ ing to its intended use; large vessels were used for storage and transpor¬ tation of liquids (wine, olive oil, water), smaller pots for perfumes and unguents. The earliest style, known as the Geometric style (c. 1000-700 bc), features geometric patterns and, eventually, narrative scenes with stylized figures. From the late 8th to the early 7th century bc, a growing Eastern influence resulted in the “Orientalizing” of motifs (e.g., sphinx, griffin), notably in pieces made in Corinth (c. 700 bc), where the painters developed black-figure pottery. Athenians adopted the black-figure style and from 600 bc on became the dominant manufacturers of Greek pot¬ tery. They invented red-figure pottery c. 530 bc. By the 4th century bc the figured decoration of pottery had declined, and by the end of the century it had died out in Athens.

Greek religion Beliefs, rituals, and mythology of the ancient Greeks. Though the worship of the sky god Zeus began as early as the 2nd mil¬ lennium bc, Greek religion in the established sense began c. 750 bc and lasted for over a thousand years, extending its influence throughout the Mediterranean world and beyond. The Greeks had numerous gods who controlled various natural or social forces (e.g., Poseidon the sea, Demeter the harvest, Hera marriage). Different deities were worshiped in different

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Greek Revival ► Green Mountains I 799

localities, but Homer’s epics helped create a unified religion, in which the major gods were believed to live on Mount Olympus under the rule of Zeus. The Greeks also worshiped various gods of the countryside: Pan, nymphs, naiads, dryads, Nereids, and satyrs (see satyr and silenus), along with the Furies and the Fates. Heroes from the past, such as Heracles and Asclepius, were also venerated. Animal sacrifices were of great importance, usually made at a temple on the altar of the god. Other cultic activities included prayers, libations, processions, athletic contests, and divination, particu¬ larly through oracles and birds. Great religious festivals included the City Dionysia at Athens and the festival of Zeus in the western Peloponnese that included the Olympic Games. Death was seen as a hateful state; the dead lived in the realm of Hades, and only heroes enjoyed Elysium. Great wrongdoers suffered in Tartarus. Mystery religions emerged to satisfy the desire for personal guidance, salvation, and immortality. Greek religion faded with the rise of Christianity and lost its last great advocate with the death of Julian in ad 363. See also Greek mythology.

Greek Gods and Goddesses

Aeolus

god of the winds

Helios

god of the sun

Aphrodite

goddess of love, beauty,

Hephaestus

god of fire and metal-

and procreation

working

Apollo

god of sunlight, prophecy,

Hera

queen of heaven, goddess

music, and poetry

of marriage and women

Ares

god of war

Hermes

messenger god and god

Artemis

goddess of the animals,

of commerce, fertility, and

hunting, and fertility

dreams

Athena

goddess of wisdom

Hestia

goddess of the hearth

Boreas

god of the north wind

Iris

goddess of the rainbow,

Cybele

mother of the gods,

messenger of the gods

humans, and animals

Morpheus

god of dreams

Demeter

goddess of fruit, crops,

Nemesis

goddess of vengeance

and vegetation

Nike

goddess of victory

Dionysus

god of wine

Pan

god of pastures, forests,

Eos

goddess of the dawn

and herds

Eros

god of love

Persephone

goddess of the under-

Gaea

goddess of the earth

world

Hades or

god of the underworld

Poseidon

god of the sea

Pluto

Rhea

mother of the gods

Hebe

goddess of youth

Selene

goddess of the moon

Hecate

qoddess of maqic, qhosts,

Uranus

god of the sky

and witchcraft

Zeus

lord of heaven

Greek Revival Architectural style based on 5th-century-BC Greek temples that spread throughout Europe and the U.S. in the early 19th cen¬ tury. The revival was symptomatic of the public’s preoccupation with Greek culture at the time. Architects often tacked majestic facades with Grecian columns onto existing buildings; banks and institutions became imitation Doric temples; and homes in the Greek Revival style often had large PORTicoes made up of heavy pilasters and reinterpreted pediments.

The British Museum (1847), utilizing the Greek Ionic order on a massive scale, is the most powerful English example of the style. In the U.S., where the style was adopted on a large scale, many strange distortions found acceptance. See also Neoclas¬ sical ARCHITECTURE.

Greeley, Horace (b. Feb. 3,

1811, Amherst, N.H., U.S.—d. Nov.

29, 1872, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. newspaper editor and political leader. Greeley was a printer’s apprentice in Vermont before mov¬ ing to New York City, where he edited a literary magazine and week¬ lies for the Whig Party. In 1841 he founded the highly influential New York Tribune , a daily paper dedicated to reforms, economic progress, and Horace Greeley, the elevation of the masses. He ©archivephotos

edited it for the rest of his life, becoming known especially for his articu¬ lation of antislavery sentiments in the 1850s. After the onset of the Ameri¬ can Civil War in 1861, he pursued a politically erratic course. His unrealized lifelong ambitions for public office culminated in 1872 in an unsuccessful run for president on the Liberal Republican Party ticket.

Green, Adolph See Betty Comden

Green, Hetty orig. Henrietta Howland Robinson (b. Nov. 21, 1834, New Bedford, Mass., U.S.—d.

July 3, 1916, New York, N.Y.) U.S. financier, reputedly the wealthiest American woman of her time. In 1865 her father and aunt both died, leaving her an estate valued at $10 million. By shrewd management she increased it to more than $100 mil¬ lion at her death.

Green, Julian (Hartridge) or Julien Green (b. Sept. 6, 1900,

Paris, France—d. Aug. 13, 1998,

Paris) French-born American writer.

Born in France of American parents,

Green lived mostly in France, though he taught for a few years in the U.S.

Green’s novels are written in French and are usually set in French provin¬ cial towns or in the American South.

In the intense, claustrophobic atmo¬ sphere of these novels, neurotic char¬ acters engage in obsessive relationships marked by secrecy, guilt, betrayal, sexual passion, and violence. In 1970 the Academie Fran^aise awarded him its grand prize for literature in appreciation of his masterful French prose style, which is marked by clarity, precision, and simplicity. Green’s works were collected in Complete Works, 10 vol. (1954-65).

Green, William (b. March 3, 1873, Coshocton, Ohio, U.S.—d. Nov. 21, 1952, Coshocton) U.S. labour leader, president of the American Fed¬ eration of Labor (AFL). He was a coal miner from age 16. He worked his way up through the union hierarchy and was elected president of the AFL in 1924, a post he kept until his death. The formation in 1935 of the Committee for Industrial Organization (CIO), headed by John L. Lewis, led to bitter public disputes between the two men, ending in the expulsion of the CIO from the AFL in 1936. See also AFL-CIO; labour union.

Green Bank equation See Drake equation

Green Bay City (pop., 2000: 102,313), northeastern Wisconsin, U.S. Located on the Fox River at Green Bay, an inlet of Lake Michigan, it was the site of French trading posts from 1634 until the War of 1812. The U.S. took possession when the army built Fort Howard there in 1816. With the decline of the fur trade and the opening of the Erie Canal, it devel¬ oped as a lumbering and agricultural centre. A Great Lakes port of entry with heavy shipping, it has a large wholesale and distributing business. The city is famous for its professional football team, the Green Bay Pack¬ ers, which it has supported since 1919. It is the site of a University of Wisconsin branch and a technical college.

Green Berets \bo-'raz\ or Special Forces Elite unit of the U.S. Army specializing in counterinsurgency. The Green Berets (whose berets can be colours other than green) came into being in 1952. They were active in the Vietnam War, and they have been sent to U.S.-supported governments around the world to help combat guerrilla insurgencies.

green manure Crop grown and plowed under for its beneficial effects to the soil and subsequent crops, though during its growth it may be grazed. These crops are usually annuals, either grasses or legumes. They add nitrogen to the soil, increase the general fertility level, reduce ero¬ sion, improve the physical condition of the soil, and reduce nutrient loss from leaching. They are usually planted in the fall and turned under in the spring before the summer crop is sown. See also cover crop.

Green Mountains Part of the Appalachian Mountains in the U.S. It extends for 250 mi (402 km) through the centre of Vermont and has a maxi¬ mum width of 30 mi (50 km). Many peaks rise to more than 3,000 ft (900 m); the highest is Mount Mansfield at 4,393 ft (1,339 m). Known for their skiing facilities, the mountains are traversed by the Long Trail (part of the

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800 i green revolution ► greenhouse

Appalachian National Scenic Trail). Green Mountains National Forest, which covers 214,000 acres (86,600 hectares), was established in 1932.

green revolution Great increase in production of food grains (espe¬ cially wheat and rice) that resulted in large part from the introduction into developing countries of new, high-yielding varieties, beginning in the mid-20th century. Its early dramatic successes were in Mexico and the Indian subcontinent. The new varieties require large amounts of chemi¬ cal fertilizers and pesticides to produce their high yields, raising concerns about cost and potentially harmful environmental effects. Poor farmers, unable to afford the fertilizers and pesticides, have often reaped even lower yields with these grains than with the older strains, which were bet¬ ter adapted to local conditions and had some resistance to pests and dis¬ eases. See also Norman Borlaug.

Green River River, western U.S. It flows from western Wyoming south into Utah, where it turns east to make a loop through the northwestern comer of Colorado. Turning south in Utah, it enters the Colorado River in Canyonlands National Park after a course of 730 mi (1,175 km). Origi¬ nally known as the Spanish River, it was renamed in 1824, probably for its colour, derived in places from green soapstone banks along its course.

Greenaway, Kate orig. Catherine Greenaway (b. March 17, 1846, London, Eng.—d. Nov. 6,

1901, London) British artist and children’s-book illustrator. The daughter of a draftsman and wood engraver, she studied art in London.

In 1868 she began to exhibit draw¬ ings, contribute illustrations to magazines, and design Christmas and Valentine cards. Her first book.

Under the Window (1878), was fol¬ lowed by The Birthday Book (1880),

Mother Goose (1881), and many oth¬ ers that were enormously successful; the beauty of these books created a revolution in book illustration, and her work was praised by leading art critics around the world. Her yearly almanacs (1888-97) also became very popular.

Greenback movement (1868-88) Campaign mainly by U.S. farm¬ ers to maintain or increase the amount of paper money in circulation. To finance the American Civil War the U.S. government issued paper money not backed by gold and printed in green ink, called greenbacks. After the war fiscal conservatives called for an end to greenbacks, but farmers and others who wanted to maintain high prices opposed the move. In 1868 the Democrats endorsed a plan to redeem some war bonds with new green¬ backs. The depression after the panic of 1873 intensified the demand for more greenbacks or unlimited silver coinage. After passage of the Resumption Act (1875), which provided for redemption of greenbacks in gold, the newly formed Greenback-Labor Party sought its repeal. In 1878 it elected 14 members of Congress, but support waned after 1884. See also Free Silver Movement, Popuust movement.

Greenberg, Clement (b. Jan. 16, 1909, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. May 7, 1994, New York City) U.S. art critic. After graduating from Syra¬ cuse University, he returned to his native New York City and began writ¬ ing for such publications as Partisan Review and The Nation , promoting an approach to looking at art that became known as “Greenbergian for¬ malism.” The chief arbiter of art in the U.S. from the late 1940s through the 1950s, he exerted extraordinary influence as a champion of Abstract Expressionism and its leading exponent, Jackson Pollock. He routinely vis¬ ited galleries and artists’ studios and promoted the work of many, includ¬ ing Helen Frankenthaler, Mark Rothko, and David Smith. He disavowed such later movements as Pop art and conceptual art and wrote little after the 1960s.

Greenberg, Hank orig. Henry Benjamin Greenberg (b. Jan.l, 1911, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Sept. 4, 1986, Beverly Hills, Calif.) U.S. baseball player. Greenberg began his professional career at first base with the Detroit Tigers in 1933. He twice helped the Tigers win the World Series (1935, 1940) and was named the American League’s Most Valu¬ able Player both years. In 1938 he hit 58 home runs (2 home runs short of Babe Ruth’s then-record). He often encountered prejudice on the field,

but his refusal to play on Jewish holidays won him praise. He served four years in the military in World War II then returned to the Tigers; traded to the Pittsburgh Pirates in 1947, he retired in 1948. He was part owner and general manager of the Cleveland Indians until 1957 and general manager of the Chicago White Sox from 1959 to 1963. The first Jewish star player in the major leagues, Greenberg was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1956.

Greenberg, Joseph H(arold) (b. May 28, 1915, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. May 7, 2001, Stanford, Calif.) U.S. anthropologist and linguist. He received his Ph.D. from Northwestern University. He eschewed more orthodox methods of historical linguistics for the approach he termed “mass” or “multilateral” comparison, which involved looking for phonetic resemblances among words in many languages simultaneously. His 1963 classification of African languages into four families (Afroasiatic, Niger- Congo, Nilo-Saharan, and Khoisan) was widely accepted. However, his 1987 classification of all American Indian languages into just two families, Amerind and Na-Dene (see Athabaskan languages) provoked a rancorous denunciation by specialists, who faulted both his data and his method.

Greene, Charles Sumner and Henry Mather (respectively b. Oct. 12, 1868, Brighton, Ohio, U.S.—d. June 11, 1957, Carmel, Calif.; b. Jan. 23, 1870, Brighton, Ohio—d. Oct. 2, 1954, Pasadena, Calif.) U.S. architects. The Greene brothers established a partnership in Pasadena, Calif., in 1894. Using a Modernist approach, they pushed the older Stick style further than it had ever gone. In the years 1904-11 they pioneered the influential California bungalow, a single-storied house with a low- pitched roof. Their bungalows feature wide, low volumes, the use of bal¬ conies and verandas to achieve a melding of indoor and outdoor space, and frank utilization of wood members (sticks), exquisitely worked and extending gracefully beyond the edges of the spreading gables.

Greene, (Henry) Graham (b. Oct. 2, 1904, Berkhamsted, Hertford¬ shire, Eng.—d. April 3, 1991, Vevey, Switz.) British author. After study¬ ing at the University of Oxford, he converted to Roman Catholicism in 1926. Beginning c. 1930 he worked principally as a freelance journalist for several decades, during which he traveled widely. Stamboul Train (1932; also titled Orient Express ; film, 1934) was the first of his “enter¬ tainments,” thrillers with considerable moral complexity and depth; oth¬ ers included A Gun for Sale (1936; also titled This Gun for Hire\ film, 1942), The Confidential Agent (1939; film, 1945), and The Third Man (1949; film, 1949). His finest novels— Brighton Rock (1938; film, 1948), The Power and the Glory (1940; film, 1962), The Heart of the Matter (1948; film, 1954), and The End of the Affair (1951; film, 1999)—all have distinctly religious themes. Several of his novels set in “third-world” nations on the brink of political upheaval were also adapted as films.

Greene, Nathanael (b. Aug. 7, 1742, Potowumut, R.I.—d. June 19, 1786, Mulberry Grove, Ga., U.S.) American general. He served in the colonial legislature and as commander of the colonial militia (1775). He led troops in the Continental Army at Boston and New York, then fought in the battles at Trenton, Brandywine, and Germantown. He succeeded Gen. Horatio Gates as commander in chief of the southern army (1778), and his strategy so weakened the British troops that Gen. Charles Corn¬ wallis abandoned plans to conquer North Carolina (1781). Greene began the reconquest of inner South Carolina, and by late June 1781 he had forced the British back to Charleston. He presided at the court-martial of John Andre in the Benedict Arnold affair (1780).

Greengard, Paul (b. Dec. 11, 1925, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. molecular and cellular biologist. He received his Ph.D. from Johns Hop¬ kins University. Greengard discovered how dopamine and other neu¬ rotransmitters work in the nervous system. He showed that slow synaptic transmission involves protein phosphorylation, a chemical reaction in which a phosphate molecule is linked to a protein, thus changing the pro¬ tein’s function. Along with Eric Kandel and Arvid Carlsson, he was awarded a Nobel Prize in 2000. The findings of these three men resulted in the development of new drugs for parkinsonism and other disorders.

greenhouse Building designed for the protection of tender or out-of¬ season plants against excessive cold or heat. Usually a glass- or plastic- enclosed structure with a framing of aluminum, galvanized steel, or such woods as redwood, cedar, or cypress, it is used for the production of fruits, vegetables, flowers, and any other plants requiring special temperature conditions. It is heated partly by the sun and partly by artificial means. This controlled environment can be adapted to the needs of particular plants.

Illustration for "When We Went Out with Grandmamma" by Kate Green¬ away for Marigold Garden, 1885.

MARY EVANS PICTURE LIBRARY, LONDON

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

greenhouse effect ► Greens I 801

greenhouse effect Warming of the Earth’s surface and lower atmo¬ sphere caused by water vapour, carbon dioxide, and other trace gases in the atmosphere. Visible light from the Sun heats the Earth’s surface. Part of this energy is radiated back into the atmosphere in the form of infrared radiation, much of which is absorbed by molecules of carbon dioxide and water vapour in the atmosphere and reradiated toward the surface as more heat. (Despite the name, the greenhouse effect is different from the warm¬ ing in a greenhouse, where panes of glass allow the passage of visible light but hold heat inside the building by trapping warmed air.) The absorption of infrared radiation causes the Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere to warm more than they otherwise would, making the Earth’s surface habitable. An increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide caused by widespread combustion of fossil fuels may intensify the greenhouse effect and cause long-term climatic changes. Likewise, an increase in atmo¬ spheric concentrations of other trace greenhouse gases such as chloro- fluorocarbons, nitrous oxide, and methane resulting from human activities may also intensify the greenhouse effect. From the beginning of the Indus¬ trial Revolution through the end of the 20th century, the amount of car¬ bon dioxide in the atmosphere increased 30% and the amount of methane more than doubled. It is also estimated that the U.S. is responsible for about one-fifth of all human-produced greenhouse-gas emissions. See also GLOBAL WARMING.

Some incoming sunlight is reflected by the Earth's atmosphere and surface, but most is absorbed by the surface, which is warmed. Infrared (IR) radiation is then emitted from the surface. Some IR radiation escapes to space, but some is absorbed by the atmosphere's greenhouse gases (especially carbon dioxide, water vapour, and methane) and reradiated in all directions, some to space and some back toward the surface, where it further warms the surface and lower atmosphere.

© MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

Greenland Self-governing island dependency of Denmark, in the North Atlantic Ocean. The world’s largest island (excluding Australia), it covers 836,330 sq mi (2,166,086 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 57,100. Capital: Nuuk. Two-thirds of the island lies within the Arctic Circle. It is dominated by the massive Greenland Ice Sheet. Fishing is central to the economy; there are also commercial mineral deposits, including a large gold deposit dis¬ covered in 1989, as well as offshore oil exploration. About four-fifths of the population are native Greenlanders, principally of Inuit (see Eskimo) descent, residing in coastal areas. The Inuit probably crossed to northwest¬ ern Greenland from mainland North America, along the islands of the Canadian Arctic, from 4000 bc to ad 1000. The Norwegian Erik the Red vis¬ ited Greenland in 982; his son, Leif Eriksson, introduced Christianity in the 11th century. Greenland came under joint Danish-Norwegian rule in the late 14th century. The original Norse settlements became extinct in the 15th century, but Greenland was recolonized by Denmark in 1721. In 1776 Den¬ mark closed the Greenland coast to foreign trade; it was not reopened until 1950. Greenland became part of the Kingdom of Denmark in 1953. Home rule was established in 1979. At the beginning of the 21st century, the movement for full independence began to gain support, as did the belief among many scientists that global warming was responsible for the accel¬ erated melting of the ice sheet. See map above.

Greenland Ice Sheet Single ice cap, Greenland. Covering about 80% of the island of Greenland, it is the largest ice mass in the Northern Hemi¬ sphere, second only to the Antarctic. It extends 1,570 mi (2,530 km) north to south, has a maximum width of 680 mi (1,094 km) near its northern mar¬ gin, and an average thickness of about 5,000 ft (1,500 m). The ice sheet

melted, the sea level would rise 20 ft (6 m).

Greenpeace International environmental organization. Founded in Canada in 1971 to oppose U.S. nuclear testing in Alaska, it later expanded its goals to include saving endangered species, stopping environmental abuses, and increasing public awareness of environmental problems. It has specialized in “direct, nonviolent action” in protests often designed to gar¬ ner wide publicity. Its members have frequently steered small inflatable craft between the harpoon guns of whalers and their prey. In 1985 the Rain¬ bow Warrior, a Greenpeace ship being used to obstruct French nuclear test¬ ing in the South Pacific, was sunk by French agents, resulting in the death of a photographer. Greenpeace has offices in some 40 countries.

Greens, the German die Grunen Environmentalist political party founded in West Germany in 1979. Initially, it arose out of protests against nuclear power in Germany in the 1970s, and later it embraced all forms of environmentalism. In 1979 about 250 ecologist and environmentalist groups merged, and the first “green” representative was elected to the state parlia¬ ment in Bremen. The following year, the organization officially formed itself as a federal party. It called for the dismantling of the Warsaw Pact and NATO and the demilitarization of Europe. It first won representation in the Bundestag in 1983. It experienced almost constant ideological tensions between its left wing and a more pragmatic faction. In 1990 the eastern German Greens joined with Alliance 90, a coalition of various grassroots organizations, and won representation in the German national legislature, though the western German Greens failed to win representation. In 1993 the two parties agreed to merge as Alliance 90/The Greens, and in 1998 the Greens assumed national political power as a junior coalition partner in the government headed by Social Democratic Party leader Gerhard Schroder.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

802 i Greensboro ► Gregory IX

Greensboro City (pop., 2000: 223,891), north-central North Carolina, U.S. Established in 1808 as the county seat, it was named for Gen. Natha¬ nael Greene. Toward the end of the American Civil War, Greensboro was the temporary capital of both the Confederacy and North Carolina. It is a large wholesale distribution point and an important insurance centre. Tex¬ tiles dominate its diversified industries. It is the site of several colleges and universities.

greenschist facies Vgren-.shist-'fa-shezV One of the major divisions of the mineral facies classification of metamorphic rocks, encompassing the rocks that formed under fairly low temperatures (480-660 °F, or 250- 350 °C) and pressure conditions and usually produced by regional meta¬ morphism. The minerals commonly found in such rocks include quartz, orthoclase, muscovite, chlorite, serpentine, talc, and epidote; carbonate minerals and amphibole (actinolite) may also be present.

Greenspan, Alan (b. March 6, 1926, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. economist and chairman of the board of the Federal Reserve System from August 1987 to January 2006. He received a doctorate from New York University in 1977. Having become a private economic consultant, Greenspan served as chairman of the president’s Council of Economic Advisers under Pres. Gerald Ford. From 1981 to 1983 he chaired the bipartisan National Commission on Social Security Reform. In 1987 Pres. Ronald Reagan appointed him chairman of the Federal Reserve Board, a position he continued to hold under Presidents George Bush, Bill Clin¬ ton, and George W. Bush. As Federal Reserve chairman, he became known for his decisive use of monetary policy in steering the economy between the hazards of inflation and recession.

Greenwich Vgre-nich, 'gri-nij\ Outer borough (pop., 2001: 214,403), Greater London, on the southern bank of the River Thames. The meridian that passes through the borough serves as the basis for standard time as well as for reckonings of longitude throughout the world. Greenwich Park was enclosed by the duke of Gloucester in 1433; it was the site of the Royal Observatory (founded 1675). Other historic buildings include the Queen’s House, now part of the National Maritime Museum, and the Royal Naval College (1873-1998). These and other historic places were designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1997. The Millennium Dome, constructed in the 1990s, was used for millennial celebrations to usher in the year 2000.

Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Former name for mean solar time of the longitude (0°) of the former Royal Observatory at Greenwich, England, or Greenwich meridian. GMT was used to avoid potentially confusing references to local time systems (zones). In accord with tradi¬ tion, 0000 GMT (denoting the start of a solar day) occurred at noon. In 1925 the numbering system for GMT was changed so that the day (like the civil day) began at midnight. Some confusion resulted, and in 1928 the International Astronomical Union changed the designation of the stan¬ dard time of the zero meridian to Universal Time, which remains in gen¬ eral use. The term GMT is still used for some purposes (including navigation) in English-speaking countries.

Greenwich Village Residential section, Lower Manhattan, New York, New York, U.S. A village settlement during colonial times, it became in successive stages an exclusive residential area, a tenement district, and, after 1910, a rendezvous for writers, artists, students, bohemians, and intellectuals. The quaintness of its old townhouses led to rising rents in the 1980s and ’90s. Washington Square, in its centre, is dominated by Washington Arch and New York University.

Gregoire \gra-'gwar\, Henri (b. Dec. 4, 1750, Veho, Lorraine, France—d. May 20, 1831, Paris) French prelate who defended of the Constitutional Church in the French Revolution as well as the rights of Jews and blacks. Elected to the National Assembly (1789), he worked to unite the clergy with the Third Estate. Initially opposed to the Civil Con¬ stitution of the Clergy, he later became the Constitutional bishop of Loir- et-Cher (1790). In the de-Christianizing campaign of 1793-94, he continued to wear clerical dress and profess his faith openly. After the collapse of the Jacobin regime, he was a leader in restoring freedom of worship and reorganizing the church. He opposed Napoleon’s regime and the Concordat of 1801 that ended the Constitutional Church. He sup¬ ported the independent republic of Haiti created in 1804. He served as adviser to the Jewish council convened by Napoleon in 1807.

Gregorian calendar Solar dating system now in general use. It was proclaimed in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII as a reform of the Julian cal¬

endar. By the Julian reckoning, the solar year comprised 36514 days. The addition of a “leap day” every four years was intended to maintain cor¬ respondence between the calendar and the seasons; however, a slight inaccuracy in the measurement of the solar year caused the calendar dates of the seasons to regress almost one day per century. By Pope Gregory’s time, the Julian calendar was 10 days out of sync with the seasons; in 1582, to bring the vernal equinox (and thus Easter) back to its proper date, 10 days were dropped (October 5 became October 15). Most of Catholic Europe soon adopted the new calendar; Great Britain and its colonies (1752) and Russia (1918) followed much later. The Gregorian calendar differs from the Julian only in that no century year is a leap year unless it is exactly divisible by 400 (e.g., 1600, 2000). A further refinement, the designation of years evenly divisible by 4,000 as common (not leap) years, will keep the calendar accurate to within one day in 20,000 years.

Gregorian chant Liturgical music of the Roman Catholic church con¬ sisting of unaccompanied melody sung in unison to Latin words. It is named for Pope Gregory I, who may have contributed to its collection and codification and who was traditionally represented as having received all the melodies directly from the Holy Spirit. Of the five bodies of medi¬ eval Latin liturgical music, it is the dominant repertoire, and the name is often used broadly to include them all. Gregorian chant apparently derived principally from Jewish cantillation, with other elements entering from the Eastern Church (see Byzantine chant) and elsewhere. Chant has tradi¬ tionally been performed at the mass and the canonical hours (the eight prayer services traditionally held daily in monasteries). Its texts come pri¬ marily from the biblical psalms, metrical hymns, and texts specific to the mass and the hours. The melodies are classified as belonging to one or another of the eight church modes. Chant rhythm is not strictly metrical, and its notation does not indicate rhythm. Since the Second Vatican Coun¬ cil, the performance of chant has diminished greatly. See also cantus fir- MUS.

Gregory I, Saint known as Gregory the Great (b. c. 540, Rome—d. March 12, 604, Rome) Pope (590-604) and doctor of the church. A Roman patrician, by age 32 he had attained the office of urban prefect. He then felt called to the religious life. He built several monas¬ teries and served as a papal representative before being elected pope in 590, to which he only reluctantly assented. He became the architect of the medieval papacy, seeking, among other things, to curb corruption by cen¬ tralizing the papal administration. In 598 he won temporary peace with the Lombards, and he allowed the Byzantine usurper Phocas to make per¬ manent peace with them in 602. Eager to convert pagan peoples, Gregory sent Augustine of Canterbury on a mission to England (596). Under Gre¬ gory, Gothic Arian Spain see Arianism) became reconciled with Rome. He laid the basis for the Papal States. He was a strong opponent of slavery, and he extended tolerance to Jews. He wrote the Pastoral Rule, a guide for church government, and other works. His extensive recodification of the liturgy and chant led to his name being given to Gregorian chant. He is remembered as one of the greatest of all the medieval popes.

Gregory VII, Saint orig. Hildebrand (b. 1020, near Soana, Papal States—d. May 25, 1085, Salerno, Principality of Salerno; canonized 1606; feast day May 25) Pope (1073-85). Educated in a monastery in Rome where his uncle was abbot, he rose to become a cardinal and arch¬ deacon of Rome and was finally chosen pope in 1073. One of the great medieval reformers, Gregory attacked simony and clerical marriage and insisted that his papal legates had authority over local bishops. He is remembered chiefly for his conflict with Emperor Henry IV in the Inves¬ titure Controversy. Gregory’s excommunication of the emperor gave rise to a bitter quarrel that ended when Henry begged for forgiveness in a memorable scene at Canossa, Italy, in 1077. A renewed quarrel led Gre¬ gory to excommunicate the emperor again in 1080, and Henry’s forces took Rome in 1084. Gregory was rescued by Robert Guiscard, but the devastation of Rome forced the pope to withdraw to Salerno, where he died.

Gregory IX orig. Ugo di Segni (b. before 1170—d. Aug. 22, 1241, Rome) Pope (1227—41) who founded the papal Inquisition. In 1227 he excommunicated Frederick II when the emperor delayed in keeping his pledge to lead a Crusade. Gregory ordered an attack on the kingdom of Sicily in the emperor’s absence, but his forces were defeated. In 1234 he published the Decretals, a code of canon law that remained fundamental to Catholicism until World War I. Attacking heresy in southern France and northern Italy, he strengthened the Inquisition. Frederick’s invasion

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Gregory X ► Grenadines I 803

of Sardinia, a papal fief, led Gregory to renew his excommunication (1239); he sought support in northern Italy but died before the struggle was resolved.

Gregory X orig. Tebaldo Visconti (b. c. 1210, Piacenza, Lombardy [Italy]—d. Jan. 10, 1276, Arezzo, Tuscany) Pope (1271-76). He kept the Holy Roman Empire from disintegrating, by securing the election of Rudolf I as emperor. Rudolf in return promised to lead a new Crusade and renounced claims in Rome and the papal territories. In 1274 Gregory issued a new constitution reforming the assembly of cardinals that elects a new pope. He also initiated a Crusade and worked to unify the Greek and Roman churches. He was beatified Sept. 12, 1713. His feast days are January 28 and February 4.

Gregory XIII orig. Ugo Buoncompagni (b. June 7, 1502, Bolo¬ gna, Romagna—d. April 10, 1585, Rome, Papal States) Pope (1572-85) who promulgated the Gregorian calendar. After teaching at the Univer¬ sity of Bologna, he served as a delegate to the Council of Trent, became a cardinal in 1565, and was elected pope in 1572. A promoter of the Counter-Reformation, he sought to execute the reform decrees of the coun¬ cil. He compiled the Index librorum prohibitorum and founded several col¬ leges and seminaries, delegating their direction to the Jesuits. Aided by an astronomer and a mathematician, he corrected the errors in the Julian calendar and issued the Gregorian calendar (1582), which was later adopted worldwide.

Gregory, Augusta, Lady orig. Isabella Augusta Persse (b.

March 5, 1852, Roxborough, County Galway, Ire.—d. May 22, 1932, Coole) Irish playwright and theatre manager, an important figure in the Irish Literary Renaissance. With William Butler Yeats, she helped found the Irish Literary Theatre (1898) and the Abbey Theatre (1904). She wrote many dialect comedies based on Irish peasant life, including those col¬ lected in Seven Short Plays (1909). She also translated plays by Moliere and others into an Anglo-Irish dialect that she called “Kiltartan” and translated and arranged Irish sagas into continuous narratives, published as Cuchulain of Muirthemne (1902) and Gods and Fighting Men (1904).

Gregory of Nazianzus \,na-ze-'an-z9s. Saint (b. c. 330, Arianzus, near Nazianzus, in Cappadocia, Asia Minor—d. c. 389, Arianzus; East¬ ern feast day January 25 and 30; Western feast day February 2) One of the Church Fathers of Eastern Orthodoxy. He was ordained a priest in Nazianzus in 362. He helped his friend Basil the Great combat Arianism. Though consecrated bishop of Sasima in 372, he did not take possession of the bishopric, instead retiring to a life of contemplation and study. He was noted for his defense of the doctrine of the Holy Trinity and of the Nicene Creed. In 380 he took over the Great Church of Constantinople, but, after being denied acknowledgment as bishop, he once again retired.

Gregory of Nyssa \'nis-o. Saint (b. c. 335, Caesarea, Cappadocia, Asia Minor—d. c. 394; feast day March 9) Eastern Orthodox theologian and mystic. Initially a teacher of rhetoric, he turned to religion under the influence of his brother, Basil the Great, and was consecrated bishop of Nyssa in 372. Deposed by Arian opposition in 376, he was restored to office in 378 after the death of the Arian emperor Valens. An associate of Gregory of Nazianzus, he became a leading defender of the doctrine of the Holy Trinity. His writings include The Great Catechesis, a classic out¬ line of Orthodox theology that examines the place of the sacraments in the church. A Christian Platonist, he shared Origen’s hope for ultimate universal salvation.

Gregory of Tours \'tur. Saint orig. Georgius Florentius (b.

Nov. 30?, 538/539, Clermont, Aquitaine?—d. Nov. 17, 594?, Tours, Neus- tria) Frankish bishop and writer. Born into an aristocratic family that had produced several bishops of what is today central France, Gregory suc¬ ceeded his cousin as bishop of Tours in 573. He was involved in numer¬ ous political events and in open dispute with the king, Chilperic I. His fame rests on his History of the Franks , a chief source for knowledge of the 6th-century Franco-Roman kingdom. His other writings, including Lives of the Fathers, on the lives of saints, and seven books of miracles, afford unique evidence of religious and social life in Merovingian France.

Gregory the Great See Saint Gregory I

Grenada Ngrs-'na-doX Island country. Lesser Antilles, Caribbean Sea. Area: 133 sq mi (344 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 103,000. Capital: St. George's. Most Grenadans are of African or mixed (primarily African- European) ancestry; many of the rest are of South Asian descent. Lan¬ guage: English (official). Religions: Christianity (mostly Roman Catholic;

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also Protestant); also Rastafarianism. Cur¬ rency: East Caribbean dollar. Grenada is the most southerly of the Lesser Antilles, lying about 100 mi (160 km) north of Ven¬ ezuela; its territory includes the southern

Grenadines. Volcanic in origin, it is dominated by a thickly forested moun¬ tain ridge rising to 2,757 ft (840 m) at Mount St. Catherine. The south¬ ern coast is indented with beaches and natural harbours. The tropical maritime climate supports rich vegetation. Often called the Isle of Spice, Grenada is known for its nutmeg, cinnamon, and vanilla as well as for cocoa. It has a developing market economy dependent on agricultural exports and tourism. The chief of state is the British sovereign, repre¬ sented by the governor-general; the head of government is the prime min¬ ister. The warlike Carib Indians dominated Grenada when Christopher Columbus sighted the island in 1498 and named it Concepcion; the Car- ibs ruled it for the next 150 years. In the early 1670s it became subject to the French crown and remained so until 1762, when British forces cap¬ tured it. In 1833 the island’s black slaves were freed. Grenada was the headquarters of the government of the British Windward Islands (1885— 1958) and a member of the West Indies Federation (1958-62). It became a self-governing state in association with Britain in 1967 and gained its independence in 1974. In 1979 a left-wing government took control in a bloodless coup. Relations with its U.S.-oriented Latin American neigh¬ bours became strained as Grenada leaned toward Cuba and the Soviet bloc. In order to counter this trend, the U.S. invaded the island in 1983; democratic self-government was reestablished in 1984. Grenada’s rela¬ tions with Cuba, once suspended, were restored in 1997.

grenade Small explosive, chemical, or gas bomb used at short range. Invented in the 15th century, it became so important that 17th-century European armies had specially trained grenade throwers, or grenadiers. After c. 1750 grenades were largely abandoned because the increasing range and accuracy of firearms had lessened opportunities for close com¬ bat. They returned to widespread use in the 20th century, when their effectiveness in World War I trench warfare made them a standard part of the combat infantryman’s equipment, which they have remained. Most common is the explosive grenade, with a core of TNT or another high explosive encased in an iron jacket and a fuse that detonates it either on impact or after a brief (usually four-second) delay. Chemical and gas gre¬ nades generally burn rather than explode.

Grenadines \,gre-n3-'denz\, The Chain of about 600 islands and islets, southeastern Lesser Antilles, West Indies. The islands span over 60 mi (100 km) at the eastern end of the Caribbean Sea. The northern Grenadines are administratively part of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, while the south¬ ern islands are a dependency of Grenada. The Saint Vincent group con-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

804 i Grenfell ► Grey

sists of Bequia, Canouan, Mayreau, Mustique, Union Island, and associated islets. Carriacou Island, the largest of the Grenada group, has an area of 13 sq mi (34 sq km). Rainfall is low, and few of the islands are inhabited.

Grenfell, Sir Wilfred (Thomason) (b. Feb. 28, 1865, Parkgate, Cheshire, Eng.—d. Oct. 9, 1940, Charlotte, Vt., U.S.) English medical missionary. Having joined the Royal National Mission to Deep Sea Fish¬ ermen, he initiated missionary service to the fishermen of Labrador and became absorbed in improving conditions there. He raised funds through speaking tours and books. When the Mission withdrew its support, he founded the International Grenfell Association, which helped found 6 hospitals, 4 hospital ships, 7 nursing stations, 2 orphanages, 2 large schools, 14 industrial centres, and a cooperative lumber mill in Labrador.

Grenoble \gr9-'nobl 3 ,\ English Xgro-'no-boA City (pop., 1999: 153,317), southeastern France. It lies along the Isere River, which divides the city into two parts. The old town occupies the cramped right bank, while the newer part of the town spreads out into the plain on the left bank. Greno¬ ble was the capital of the Dauphine. It was a centre of the French Resis¬ tance during World War II. Sites of interest include a 13th-century cathedral, the 15th-century Palais de Justice, and the University of Greno¬ ble (founded 1339).

Grenville, George (b. Oct. 14,1712—d. Nov. 13,1770, London, Eng.) English politician. He entered Parliament in 1741, held a number of min¬ isterial appointments, then served as prime minister (1763-65). His policy of taxing the American colonies, initiated by his Revenue Act of 1764 and the Stamp Act of 1765, started the train of events leading to the American Revolution. He was unpopular for the prosecution of John Wilkes for sedi¬ tious libel and his clumsy handling of the Regency Act of 1765, alienating George III and leading to the fall of his ministry. In opposition thereafter, Grenville helped bring about the passage of the Townshend Acts (1767).

Gresham's law Observation that “bad money drives out good.” It is named for Sir Thomas Gresham (1519-1579), financial agent of Queen Elizabeth I, who was one of the first to elucidate it (he had been preceded by Copernicus). The meaning expressed is that, if two coins have the same face value but are made from metals of unequal value, the cheaper will tend to drive the other out of circulation; the more valuable coin will be hoarded or used for foreign exchange instead of for domestic transactions.

Grettis saga Latest of the Icelanders' sagas, written c. 1320. It tells of the brave and wellborn Grettir, who at 14 kills a man and is outlawed. He spends his years of exile performing brave deeds. Returning to Iceland, he saves the people from a ghost that is ravaging the countryside, which in dying curses him with a growing fear of the dark. Outlawed again, his increasing fear keeps him from hiding himself, and he is finally over¬ whelmed with the aid of witchcraft. The saga’s distinction rests on its hero’s complex character and its skillful incorporation of folklore motifs.

Gretzky, Wayne (Douglas) (b. Jan. 26, 1961, Brantford, Ont., Can.) Canadian ice-hockey player, considered the greatest in the history of the game. As centre and captain for the Edmonton Oilers (1979-88), he led his team to four Stanley Cup victories, becoming the first player to aver¬ age more than two points a game. He was traded successively to the Los Angeles Kings (1988), the St. Louis Blues (1996), and the New York Rangers (1996). When he ended his career in 1999, he held 61 National Hockey League (NHL) records. He holds the all-time NHL records for goals (894), assists (1,963), and points (2,857), as well as corresponding seasonal records (92 goals, 163 assists, 215 points). He is the only player to have led the league in scoring for seven consecutive years (1980-87) and the only one named most valuable player for eight consecutive sea¬ sons (1979-87).

Greuze Vgrcez,\ English Vgr3(r)z\, Jean-Baptiste (b. Aug. 21, 1725, Tournus, Fr.—d. March 21, 1805, Paris) French painter. He studied at the Royal Academy in Paris. His first exhibited painting, The Father Reading the Bible to His Children, won him immediate success at the Salon of 1755. Throughout the 1760s he won acclaim with such sentimental works as The Village Betrothal (1761) and Prodigal Son (c. 1765). Hoping to gain admis¬ sion to the academy as a history painter, he submitted a large historical work; when it was rejected, he refused to exhibit anywhere but his own studio for 30 years. He earned a living with morality pictures and images of young women in innocent disarray, but in time his popularity waned. The reaction against his sentimental genre paintings resulted in critical neglect of his drawings and portraits, which display great technical gifts.

Grevy \gra-'ve\, (Francois-Paul-) Jules (b. Aug. 15, 1807, Mont- sous-Vaudrey, France—d. Sept. 19, 1891, Mont-sous-Vaudrey) French politician who served as president (1879-87) in the Third Republic. A law¬ yer, he was a leader of the liberal opposition in the legislature, then became president of the National Assembly (1871-73) and of the Cham¬ ber of Deputies (1876). In 1879 he was elected to the presidency and sought to minimize presidential powers, preferring a strong legislature. He resisted nationalist demands for revenge against Germany after the Franco-Prussian War and opposed colonial expansion. He was forced to resign in 1887 by scandals affecting his son-in-law, though he himself was not implicated.

Grew, Nehemiah (baptized Sept. 26, 1641, Mancetter Parish, War¬ wickshire, Eng.—d. March 25, 1712, London) British botanist. A physi¬ cian and professor, Grew’s training in animal anatomy led to his interest in that of plants. His writings noted the existence of cells and coined such terms as radicle (for the embryonic root), plume (for the primary bud of a plant embryo; now called plumule), and parenchyma (for unspecialized cells). His Anatomy of Plants (1682) contained the first thorough account of plant anatomy; its many excellent wood engravings represented the three-dimensional, microscopic structure of plant tissue. He presented, among other fundamental discoveries, the suggestion that the stamen (with its pollen) is the male sex organ and the pistil corresponds to the female sex organ. With Marcello Malpighi, Grew is considered a founder of the science of plant anatomy.

Grey, Charles Grey, 2nd Earl (b. March 13, 1764, Falloden, Northumberland, Eng.—d. July 17, 1845, Howick, Northumberland) Brit¬ ish politician, leader of the Whig Party, and prime minister (1830-34). Grey entered Parliament in 1786 and soon became prominent among the aristocratic Whigs, led by Charles James Fox, in opposition to William Pin’s conservative government. In 1806 Grey became first lord of the Admi¬ ralty in Lord Grenville’s government, and, when Fox died the same year. Grey became foreign secretary and leader of the Foxite Whigs. In 1807 the dismissal of the ministry and the loss of his seat for Northumberland because of his Catholic sympathies left Grey with a distaste for office. From 1815 to 1830 he was more patron than leader of the divided Whig opposition. In 1830 he became prime minister with popular backing for parliamentary reform. After considerable debate and conflict, he won adoption of the Reform Bill of 1832.

Grey, Sir Edward, 3rd Baronet (b. April 25, 1862, London, Eng.—d. Sept. 7, 1933, Fallodon, near Embleton, Northumberland) Brit¬ ish statesman. A relative of Earl Grey, he entered Parliament as a Liberal (1885) and became foreign secretary in 1905. During the Moroccan cri¬ ses (1905, 1911), he supported France against Germany, but with equivo¬ cations that caused diplomatic confusion. After the assassination of Francis Ferdinand (1914), Grey pro¬ posed that Austria-Hungary obtain satisfaction from Serbia by occupy¬ ing Belgrade. When all peace moves failed, he maneuvered a divided Brit¬ ish cabinet into World War I, about which he commented, “The lamps are going out all over Europe; we shall not see them lit again in our lifetime.” He was responsible for the secret Treaty of London (1915).

Grey, Lady Jane (b. October 1537, Bradgate, Leicestershire,

Eng.—d. Feb. 12, 1554, London)

Titular queen of England for nine days in 1553. The great- granddaughter of Henry VII, she was married in May 1553 to the son of the duke of Northumberland.

Northumberland persuaded the dying Edward VI to set aside his half sisters as successors in favour of the Protestant Lady Jane. She was pro¬ claimed queen on July 10, despite popular support for Edward’s half sister Mary Tudor (see Mary I). Mary was proclaimed queen on July 19

Lady Jane Grey, detail of a panel attributed to Master John, c. 1545; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, LONDON

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Grey ► Grijalva I 805

after Lady Jane gladly relinquished the crown. Committed to the Tower of London, Lady Jane and her husband were sentenced to death in 1554. The sentence was initially suspended, but her father’s participation in Wyat’s rebellion sealed her fate, and she was beheaded.

Grey, Zone orig. Pearl Grey (b. Jan. 31, 1872, Zanesville, Ohio, U.S.—~d. Oct. 23,1939, Altadena, Calif.) U.S. novelist. He began his career as a dentist. He first visited the American West in 1906, setting his first novel, The Heritage of the Desert (1910), there. His second novel. Riders of the Purple Sage (1912), was also set in the West and became the most popular of all his books; it helped launch a new literary genre, the western. Grey subsequently wrote more than 80 westerns, including Code of the West (1934). He remains one of the best-selling authors of all time.

greyhound or gray hound Fastest dog, one of the oldest breeds (dating from about 3000 bc in Egypt), and long symbolic of the aristocracy. It has a narrow head; long neck; deep chest; long, muscu¬ lar hindquarters; a long, slim tail; and a short, smooth coat, of various colors. It stands 25-27 in. (64-69 cm) high and weighs 60-70 lbs (27-32 kg). Streamlined and slender, it can reach a speed of about 45 mph (72 kph). Greyhounds hunt by sight and may be used to hunt hares, deer, foxes, and small game. They are fre¬ quently raced for sport.

Greyhound Lines, Inc. U.S. corporation that has provided the major intercity bus transportation in the U.S. and Canada. It was founded in 1926 as Motor Transit Manage¬ ment. Backed by the railroads, the company soon had a network of lines spreading across the country. It adopted its current name in 1930. By 1933 Greyhound’s routes covered 40,000 mi (65,000 km). In the early 1980s deregulation of the bus-transit industry led Greyhound to drop many local bus lines. In 1987 Greyhound Corp. sold its bus operations, and Grey¬ hound Lines, Inc., became an independent corporation devoted to inter¬ city bus transportation. It was purchased in 1999 by Canada’s Laidlaw Inc., a waste-management company.

greylag Most common Eurasian representative ( Anser anser ) of the so-called gray goose, and ancestor of all Occidental domestic geese. It nests in temperate regions and winters from Britain to North Africa, India, and China. It is pale gray with pink legs; the bill is pink in the eastern race and orange in the western race.

Grieg \'grig\, Edvard (Hagerup) (b. June 15, 1843, Bergen, Nor.—d. Sept. 4, 1907, Bergen) Norwegian composer. His parents were persuaded by violinist Ole Bull to send Grieg to Leipzig for music study, and he later studied with Niels Gade and others in Copenhagen, where he became inspired with the ideal of a Norwegian national music. He fre¬ quently performed as a pianist and often accompanied his wife in recitals of his songs. His incidental music to Henrik Ibsen’s play Peer Gynt (1875) became, with his piano concerto (1868), perhaps his best-known work. Highly popular in his time, he is still regarded as Norway’s greatest com¬ poser. His other works include Symphonic Dances (1897), Lyric Suite (1904), more than 150 songs, and many works for piano, including 66 Lyric Pieces (1867-1901) and From Holberg’s Time (1884).

Grien, Hans Baldung See Hans Baldung

Grierson Vgrir-S3n\, Sir George Abraham (b. Jan. 7,1851, County Dublin, Ire.—d. March 9,1941, Camberley, Surrey, Eng.) Anglo-Irish civil servant and linguist. While holding a succession of British government posts in Bengal (1873-98), Grierson carried out pioneering research on South Asian, particularly Indo-Aryan, languages. In 1898 he began work on the 19-volume Linguistic Survey of India and spent the next 30 years publishing data on hundreds of languages and dialects. His work was of enormous value; nevertheless, his hypothetical linguistic constructs such as “Rajasthani,” “Bihari,” and “Lahnda” misled most nonspecialists.

Griffes Vgrif-3s\, Charles T(omlinson) (b. Sept. 17, 1884, Elmira, N.Y., U.S.—d. April 8, 1920, New York City) U.S. composer. He studied music in Berlin with Engelbert Humperdinck and others, then returned and taught at a boys’ school in Tarry town, N.Y., for the rest of his short life.

His early works reflect German Romanticism, but his mature style com¬ bined Impressionism and orientalism. His principal works are for piano, though some were later orchestrated: The Pleasure-Dome of Kubla Khan (1912), a piano sonata (c. 1912), and Roman Sketches (including “The White Peacock”) (1915).

Griffey, Ken orig. George Kenneth Griffey, Jr. (b. Nov. 21, 1969, Donora, Pa., U.S.) U.S. baseball player. Griffey began his profes¬ sional career in 1987. As a left-handed centre fielder for the Seattle Mari¬ ners from 1989, he averaged .300 or better in hitting in seven of his first nine seasons and hit 40 or more home runs in four of those seasons, reaching 56 in 1997 and 1998. His father, Ken Griffey, Sr. (b. April 10, 1950, Donora), was also an outstanding professional baseball player.

Griffin, Merv (Edward) (b. July 6, 1925, San Mateo, Calif., U.S.) U.S. television producer and entrepreneur. He hosted a radio show (1945- 48) and sang with Freddy Martin’s Orchestra (1948-52) before creating and hosting the popular Merv Griffin Show on television (1962-63, 1965- 86). He also created the successful game shows Jeopardy! and Wheel of Fortune. He later owned hotels, resorts, and casinos.

Griffith Joyner, (Delorez) Florence orig. Delorez Florence Griffith (b. Dec. 21, 1959, Los Angeles, Calif., U.S.—d. Sept. 21, 1998, Mission Viejo, Calif.) U.S. sprinter. At the 1984 Olympics she won a sil¬ ver medal in the 200-m race and became a celebrity with her long, deco¬ rated fingernails and eye-catching racing suits. At the 1988 Olympic trials, she set a world record in the 100-m sprint (10.49 sec); at the games them¬ selves, “FloJo” captured three gold medals (in the 100 m, 200 m, and 4 x 100-m relay) and one silver (4 x 400-m relay). Her world-record time in the 200 m (21.34 sec) and her earlier 100-m record still stood at the time of her death, which was attributed to a brain seizure.

Griffith, Andy orig. Andrew Samuel Griffith (b. June 1, 1926, Mount Airy, N.C., U.S.) U.S. actor. He made his Broadway debut in No Time for Sergeants (1955). He also starred in its screen version (1958) after making a strong film debut in A Face in the Crowd (1957). He starred in many television shows, using his native Blue Ridge drawl to portray homespun characters such as the sheriff in the popular comedy series The Andy Griffith Show (1960-68). He later starred in the dramatic series Matlock (1986-91).

Griffith, Arthur (b. March 31, 1871, Dublin, Ire.—d. Aug. 12, 1922, Dublin) Irish journalist and nationalist, principal founder of Sinn Fein. As a young man, he edited political newspapers and urged passive resistance to British rule. He lost influence with the extreme nationalists when he did not participate in the Easter Rising (1916) but regained it when the British jailed him with other Sinn Fein members. In 1918 the Irish members of the House of Commons declared a republic and chose Eamon de Valera as president and Griffith as vice president. In 1921 Griffith led the Irish delegation to the self-government treaty conference and was the first Irish delegate to accept partition, embodied in the Anglo-Irish Treaty (1921). When the Dail nar¬ rowly approved it in 1922, de Valera resigned and Griffith was elected president. Exhausted from overwork, he died soon after.

Griffith, D(avid) W(ark) (b. Jan. 22, 1875, Floydsfork, Ky„ U.S.—d. July 23, 1948, Hollywood, Calif.) U.S. film director. After acting in tour¬ ing stage companies, he sold film scenarios to the Biograph Co., which hired him as a director (1908-13). In over 400 films for Biograph he developed filmmaking as an art form with techniques such as the close- up, the scenic long shot, and crosscutting, and he collaborated with cin¬ ematographer Billy Bitzer to create fade-out, fade-in, and soft-focus shots. He nurtured the careers of future stars such as Mary Pickford, Lillian Gish, Mack Sennett, and Lionel Barrymore. His epic dramas The Birth of a Nation (1915) and Intolerance (1916) greatly influenced later filmmak¬ ers. After cofounding United Artists Corp. in 1919, he directed Broken Blossoms (1919), Way Down East (1920), and Orphans of the Storm (1921). His last films were Abraham Lincoln (1930) and The Struggle (1931). He is regarded as one of the seminal figures in the history of motion pictures.

Griffith, Emile (Alphonse) (b. Feb. 3, 1938, U.S. Virgin Islands) U.S. boxer. Griffith began his professional career in 1958. He won three world championships as a welterweight (1961, 1962, 1963) and two as a middleweight (1966, 1967), an achievement surpassed only by Sugar Ray Robinson’s total of six. He retired in 1977 with a record of 85-24-2.

Grijalva \gre-'hal-v3\ River River, southeastern Mexico. Its head- streams rise in the Sierra Madre of Guatemala and the Sierra de Soco-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

806 i Grillparzer ► grizzly bear

nusco of Mexico. It flows northwest through Chiapas state (where it is known locally as the Chiapa River) and then roughly parallels the border of Chiapas and Tabasco states. The river turns northward at Villahermosa and empties into the Bay of Campeche after some 400 mi (640 km). It is navigable by shallow-draft vessels for about 60 mi (95 km) upstream from its mouth and for several stretches along its middle and upper course.

Grillparzer Vgril-.part-sorV Franz (b. Jan. 15, 1791, Vienna—d. Jan. 21, 1872, Vienna) Austrian dramatist. He spent much of his life in gov¬ ernment service. His early tragedies include The Ancestress (1817), Sap¬ pho (1818), and the pessimistic The Golden Fleece (1821). The Waves of Sea and Love (1831) is often considered his greatest tragedy; another masterpiece is A Dream Is Life (1834), an Austrian Faust. Three other tragedies were found among his papers after his death. His works were belatedly recognized to be among the greatest works of the Austrian stage.

Grimke \'grim-ke\, Sarah (Moore); and Grimke, Angelina (Emily) (respectively b. Nov. 26, 1792, Charleston, S.C., U.S.—d. Dec. 23, 1873, Hyde Park, Mass.; b. Feb. 20, 1805, Charleston—d. Oct. 26, 1879, Hyde Park) U.S. antislavery crusaders and women’s rights advo¬ cates. Though bom to a wealthy slaveholding family, the sisters devel¬ oped an early dislike of slavery. In the mid-1820s they became Quakers and moved to the North. From 1835 they wrote letters and pamphlets urg¬ ing Southern women to use moral force against slavery, and they freed the slaves they had persuaded their mother to apportion to them as their inheritance. They lectured on antislavery throughout New England as the first female agents of the American Anti-Slavery Society, enlisting women in the abolitionist cause and becoming pioneers in the women’s rights movement. In 1838 Angelina married Theodore Weld, and the sisters col¬ laborated with him.

Grimm, Jacob (Ludwig Carl) and Wilhelm (Carl) known the Brothers Grimm (respec¬ tively b. Jan. 4, 1785, Hanau, Hesse- Kassel—d. Sept. 20, 1863, Berlin; b.

Feb. 24, 1786, Hanau—d. Dec. 16,

1859, Berlin) German folklorists and philologists. They spent most of their lives in literary research as librarians and professors at the Universities of Gottingen and Berlin. They are most famous for Kinder- und Haus- marchen (1812-15), known in English as Grimm’s Fairy Tales, a collection of 200 tales taken mostly from oral sources, which helped establish the science of folklore.

Together and separately, they also produced many other scholarly stud¬ ies and editions. Wilhelm’s chief solo work was The German Heroic Tale (1829); Jacob’s German Mythology (1835) was a highly influential study of pre-Christian German faith and superstition. Jacob’s extensive Deutsche Grammatik (1819-37), on the grammars of all Germanic languages, elaborates the important linguistic principle now known as Grimm’s law. In the 1840s the brothers began work on the Deutsches Worterbuch, a vast historical dictionary of the German language that required several generations to complete and remains the standard work of its kind.

Jacob (right) and Wilhelm Grimm, oil portrait by Elisabeth Jerichau- Baumann, 1855; in the National- Galerie, Berlin

COURTESY OF THE STAATUCHE MUSEEN ZU BERLIN

grinding machine Machine tool that uses a rotating abrasive grind¬ ing wheel to change the shape or dimensions of a hard, usually metallic, workpiece. Grinding is the most accurate of all the basic machining pro¬ cesses. All grinding machines use a wheel made from one of the manu¬ factured abrasives, silicon carbide or aluminum oxide. To grind a cylindrical form, the workpiece rotates as it is fed against the grinding wheel. To grind an internal surface, a small wheel moves inside the hol¬ low of the workpiece, which is gripped in a rotating chuck. On a surface grinder, the workpiece is held in place on a table that moves under the rotating abrasive wheel.

griot \'gre-,6\ African tribal storyteller. The griot’s role was to preserve the genealogies and oral traditions of the tribe. Griots were usually among the oldest men. In places where written language is the prerogative of the few, the place of the griot as cultural guardian is still maintained. In Sene¬

gal, for example, the griot—without resorting to fantasy—recites poems or tells stories of warriors, drawing on his own sources of inspiration.

grippe See influenza

Griqua People of mixed Khoekhoe and European ancestry who occu¬ pied central South Africa just north of the Orange River in the 19th cen¬ tury. In 1861, having been forced to sell their land rights to Orange Free State, one group of Griqua moved to the southern hills of the Drakens¬ berg. This new home became Griqualand East. Other Griqua living around Kimberley met no serious challenge to their land rights until diamonds were discovered there. With the aid of the British, this group resisted absorption into the Orange Free State. Griqualand West was annexed to the British crown in 1871, and the Griqua were recognized as British sub¬ jects.

Gris \'gres\, Juan orig. Jose Victoriano Gonzalez Perez (b.

March 23, 1887, Madrid, Spain—d. May 11, 1927, Boulogne-sur-Seine, Fr.) Spanish painter active in Paris. He studied engineering at the Madrid School of Arts and Manufactures (1902-04). In 1906 he moved to Paris and began producing drawings in the Art Nouveau style for newspapers. He became involved with the Cubist artists, notably Pablo Picasso, and soon developed his own version of Synthetic Cubism, a style more severe and calculated than that of other Cubists. His works, typically still lifes, are characterized by rigorously geometric compositions. His technique included the use of paper collage. He also produced sculpture, book illus¬ trations, and sets and costumes for Sergey Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes.

grisaille \gre-'zl, gro-'zalX Painting technique by which an image is executed entirely in shades of gray and usually modeled to produce the illusion of sculpture or relief. It was used especially by 15th-century Flemish painters (e.g., Jan van Eyck’s Ghent Altarpiece, 1432) and in the late 18th century to imitate Classical sculpture in wall and ceiling decora¬ tion. It is sometimes used to produce monotone underpainting for translu¬ cent oil colours. In the 16th century grisaille enamels were developed in Limoges, France; the technique achieves a dramatic effect of light and shade and a pronounced sense of three-dimensionality.

Grisi, Carlotta orig. Caronne Adele Josephine Marie Grisi

(b. June 28, 1819, Visinada, Istria,

Austrian Empire—d. May 20, 1899,

Geneva, Switz.) Italian ballerina of the Romantic era. She trained at the ballet school of La Scala in Milan. In 1834 she became the protege of the dancer and ballet master Jules Perrot. She was engaged at the Paris Opera, where her first creation was Giselle (1841). Grisi remained the undisputed principal ballerina of the Opera until 1849 and was praised for her seem¬ ingly spontaneous and effortless style. She retired in 1853.

grizzly bear Large North American brown bear whose forms, includ¬ ing the Alaskan brown bears, are usu¬ ally considered races or subspecies of a single species ( Ursus arctos ).

The more than 80 forms once ranged over open regions of western North America from Mexico to Alaska, but their numbers have dwindled. Griz¬ zlies have humped shoulders, an elevated forehead, and brownish to buff fur. They may grow to about 8 ft (2.5 m) long and weigh 900 lbs (410 kg). One variety, the Kodiak bear, is the largest living land carni¬ vore, reaching lengths of more than 10 ft (3 m) and a weight of 1,700 lbs (750 kg). Grizzlies feed on game, fish, berries, and occasionally grass. They have been known to attack humans and are prized as big game.

Grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis).

STEPHEN J. KRASEMANN/PETER ARNOLD, INC.

Grisaille stained glass, detail of the Five Sisters Window, 13th century, Cathedral of St. Peter, York, North Yorkshire, Eng.

COPYRIGHT SONIA HALUDAY AND LAURA LUSHINGTON

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Gromyko ► Grotius I 807

Gromyko Vgro-'me-koV, Andrey (Andreyevich) (b. July 18, 1909, Starye Gromyki, Belorussia, Russian Empire—d. July 2, 1989, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Soviet foreign minister (1957—85) and president (1985— 88) of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet. Though never strongly iden¬ tified with any political faction, he served dependably as a skilled emissary and spokesman. He was ambassador to the U.S. (1943^46), Soviet representative to the UN Security Council (1946-48), and ambas¬ sador to Britain (1952-53). In 1957 he began his long tenure as foreign minister and became renowned for his negotiating skills. In 1985 he was promoted to the presidency, with great prestige but little power, after Mikhail Gorbachev came to power.

Gropius \'gro-pe-3s\, Walter (Adolph) (b. May 18, 1883, Berlin, Ger.—d. July 5, 1969, Boston, Mass., U.S.) German-U.S. architect and educator. The son of an architect, he studied in Munich and Berlin and in 1907 joined the office of Peter Behrens. In 1919 he became director of the Staatliches Bauhaus Weimar. He designed a new school building and housing for the Bauhaus when it moved to Dessau (1925); with its dynamic International Style composition, asymmetrical plan, smooth white walls set with horizontal windows, and flat roof, the building became a monu¬ ment of the Modernist movement. In 1934 Gropius fled Germany for Britain, and in 1937 he arrived in the U.S, taking a position at Harvard University. At the Bauhaus and as chair (1938-52) of Harvard’s archi¬ tecture department, he established a new prototype of design education, which ended the 200-year supremacy of the French Ecole des Beaux-Arts. Among his most important ideas was his belief that all design—whether of a chair, a building, or a city—should be approached in essentially the same way: through a systematic study of the particular needs and prob¬ lems involved, taking into account modem construction materials and techniques without reference to previous forms or styles.

Gros Vgro\, Antoine-Jean (b. March 16, 1771, Paris, Fr.—d. June 26, 1835, Paris) French painter. He was trained by his father, a painter of miniatures, and later byjACQUES- Louis David in Paris. In the 1790s he accompanied Napoleon on his campaigns as his official battle painter. The dramatic power of such paintings as Napoleon Visiting the Pesthouse at Jaffa (1804) influenced Theodore Gericault and Eugene Delacroix. When David went into exile after Napoleon’s defeat, Gros took over his studio and tried to work in the Neoclassical style. His best works after 1815 were portraits. Haunted by a sense of failure, he drowned himself in the Seine. He was a leading figure in the development of Romanticism.

Gros Morne \gr6-'m6rn\ National Park National park, Newfound¬ land, Canada. Covering 458,000 acres (185,500 hectares) and established as a national park in 1973, it includes mountains of the Long Range and takes its name from Gros Mome Peak, which rises to 2,644 ft (806 m). The park also includes beaches, forests, shifting dunes, and a tidal inlet.

Gros Ventres Vgr6-,vant\ French "Big Bellies" North American Indian group living in north-central Montana, U.S. Known to the Black- foot as Atsina, they call themselves Ah-ah-nee-nin, meaning “White Clay People.” The Gros Ventres are an offshoot of the Algonquian-speaking Arapaho tribe, from which they may have separated as early as 1700; they were living in what is now northern Montana and adjacent regions of Canada in late historic times and were culturally similar to other Plains Indians. Together with the Assiniboin, they were settled on Fort Belknap Reservation, Mont. Some 2,900 people claimed sole Gros Ventres descent in the 2000 U.S. census. The name Gros Ventres has also been applied to the Hidatsa.

grosbeak Vgros-,bek\ Any of sev¬ eral songbird species in the family Fringillidae that have an exception¬ ally large, conical bill. Most eat seeds. Species are found in North America (e.g., rose-breasted, black¬ headed, blue, and evening grosbeaks) and northern Eurasia (pine gros¬ beak). See also cardinal.

Gross, Michael (b. June 17,

1964, Frankfurt am Main, W.Ger.)

German swimmer. With a height of 6 ft 7 in. (2 m), Gross acquired the nickname “the Albatross” because of his wide arm span. He won six Olympic medals (two gold and two

silver in 1984, one gold and one bronze in 1988) and set world records in the 200-m freestyle and 100-m butterfly.

Gross, Samuel David (b. July 8, 1805, Easton, Pa., U.S.—d. May 6, 1884, Philadelphia) U.S. surgeon, teacher of medicine, and author. He was apprenticed to a local country doctor before receiving formal medical train¬ ing. His most celebrated work. Elements of Pathological Anatomy (1839), was a pioneering effort that organized knowledge on the subject in English, and his System of Surgery (2 vol., 1859) had a profound effect on surgical thought worldwide. His Manual of Military Surgery (1861) was written at the government’s request. Gross also invented many surgical tools. He was memorably portrayed in Thomas Eakins’s masterpiece, The Gross Clinic.

gross domestic product (GDP) Total market value of the goods and services produced by a nation’s economy during a specific period of time. GDP is customarily reported on an annual basis. It is defined to include all final goods and services—that is, those that are produced by the eco¬ nomic resources located in that nation regardless of their ownership and are not resold in any form. GDP differs from gross national product (GNP), which is defined to include all final goods and services produced by resources owned by that nation’s residents, whether located in the nation or elsewhere.

Grosseteste \'gros-,test\, Robert (b. c. 1175, Suffolk, Eng.—d. Oct. 9, 1253, Buckden, Buckinghamshire) English bishop and scholar. He introduced Latin translations of Greek and Arabic writings in philosophy and science to Europe. After serving as chancellor of the University of Oxford (c. 1215-21), he served as first lecturer in theology to the Fran¬ ciscans, whom he greatly influenced. As bishop of Lincoln from 1235, he promoted a belief in the importance of the cure of souls, a centralized, hierarchical view of the church, and a belief in the superiority of the church over the state.

Grossglockner Vgros-.glok-noiA Highest peak in Austria, in the Hohe Tauern range. It reaches an elevation of 12,457 ft (3,797 m) and was first climbed in 1800. A noted glacier on the mountain is the Pasterze Glacier, 5 mi (8 km) long and 3 mi (5 km) wide. Winter sports, mountain climb¬ ing, and beautiful scenery have made Grossglockner a tourist attraction.

Grosvenor Vgrov-norV Gilbert H(ovey) (b. Oct. 28, 1875, Con¬ stantinople, Ottoman Empire—d. Feb. 4, 1966, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Can.) U.S. geographer, writer, and editor. Grosvenor attended Amherst College and was hired by Alexander Graham Bell, president of the National Geographic Society, as an editorial assistant for its magazine. As editor in chief of National Geographic Magazine (1903-54), he trans¬ formed it from a small scholarly journal into an interesting and superbly illustrated magazine with a large circulation. In 1920 he was elected presi¬ dent of the society. He contributed many articles and photographs to the magazine, wrote a history of the society and other books, and was long a leader in conservation and wildlife protection.

Grosz VgrosV George orig. Georg Grosz (b. July 26, 1893, Ber¬ lin, W.Ger.—d. July 6, 1959, West Berlin) German-born U.S. painter, draftsman, and illustrator. After studying art in Dresden and Berlin, he began selling caricatures to magazines. During World War I he served in the German army; discharged as unfit in 1917, he moved into a garret studio in Berlin, and by the end of the war he had developed a graphic style that combined a highly expressive use of line with ferocious social satire. His depictions of war and depravity provided some of the most vitriolic social criticism of his time. From 1918 to 1920 he was a promi¬ nent member of the Dada group in Berlin. His Face of the Ruling Class (1921) and Ecce Homo (1922), collections of drawings featuring greedy capitalists, war profiteering, and social decadence, earned him an inter¬ national reputation. In 1932 he immigrated to the U.S., where he taught at New York’s Art Students League while continuing to produce maga¬ zine cartoons, nudes, and landscapes.

grotesque In architecture and decorative art, a mural or sculptural decoration combining animal, human, and plant forms. The word derives from the Italian grottesco , in reference to the grottolike underground rooms ( grotte ) where such ornaments were found during the excavation of Roman buildings c. 1500. The grotesque was revived in the Renais¬ sance, and a fashion for it in 16th-century Italy quickly spread to the rest of Europe; it was used most frequently in fresco decoration (painted, carved, or molded) until the 19th century.

Grotius Vgro-she-osN, Hugo orig. Huigh de Groot (b. April 10, 1583, Delft, Neth.—d. Aug. 28, 1645, Rostock, Mecklinburg-Schwerin)

Evening grosbeak (Hesperiphona ves- pertina)

KARL H. MASLOWSKI

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

808 I Grotowski ► Grove

Dutch jurist, humanist, and poet. He enrolled at Leiden University at age 11 and as a teenager accompanied Johan van Oldenbarnevelt on a mis¬ sion to France, where he remained to study law and publish a book on poli¬ tics (1598). Appointed the official historiographer of Holland, he wrote the history of the Dutch revolt against Spain. Increasingly involved in poli¬ tics, he wrote a defense of Dutch trad¬ ing rights for the Dutch East India Company and called for free access to the ocean for all nations. He became attorney general of Holland in 1607.

Imprisoned in 1618 when his patron Oldenbarnevelt was executed by Prince Maurice, he escaped to Paris in 1621 (by hiding in a trunk of books) and returned 10 years later, having achieved great international prestige. His legal works advance the idea that nations are bound by natural law; his masterpiece, On the Law of War and Peace (1625), one of the first great contributions to modern inter¬ national law, prescribes rules for the conduct of war. He also published many translations and works of classical scholarship.

Grotowski \gr6-'tov-ske\, Jerzy (b. Aug. 11,1933, Rzeszow, Pol.—d. Jan. 14, 1999, Pontedera, Italy) Polish-born U.S. stage director. He joined the Polish Laboratory Theatre of Wroclaw in 1959 and founded a perma¬ nent company in 1965. The Laboratory Theatre made its U.S. debut with Akropolis (1969); it was followed by Undertaking Mountain (1977) and Undertaking Earth (1977-78), by which time Grotowski was living mostly in the U.S. Known as an avant-garde theorist, he sought to create dramatic tension by setting up emotional confrontations between audience and actors. His book Towards a Poor Theater (1968) emphasized the cen¬ trality of the actor and advocated minimal stage sets. He influenced U.S. experimental theatre movements, notably the Living Theatre.

ground squirrel Any of numerous relatively short-legged, terrestrial rodents of the squirrel family (Sciu- ridae), found in North America,

Mexico, Africa, Europe, and Asia.

The name is often applied to chip¬ munks. Ground squirrels belong to the genera Ammospermophilus, Xerus,

Atlantoxerus , and Spermophilus.

They live in burrows, sometimes in colonies. Though primarily herbi¬ vores, some feed on insects and other small animals and on carrion. Many species collect food, carrying it in their cheek pouches, and store it in their burrows. Those in cold areas may hibernate in winter; those in dry areas may become dormant in summer. Species range from about 7 to 20 in. (17-52 cm) in length, including the tail.

groundhog See woodchuck

Groundhog Day (February 2) In the U.S., the day that the ground¬ hog predicts whether spring will be coming soon. If, on emerging from his hole, he sees his shadow, there will be six more weeks of winter; if not, spring is imminent. The tradition stems from English beliefs about seeing shadows on Candlemas (also February 2).

groundnut Any of several plants that bear edible fruit or other nutlike parts. Three are legumes: Arachis hypogaea, the peanut, the fruit of which is a legume or pod rather than a true nut; Apois americana, also called wild bean and potato bean, the tubers of which are edible; and Lathyrus tuberosa, also called earth-nut pea. Cyperus esculentus, nut sedge or yel¬ low nut grass, is a papyrus relative (sedge family) that also bears edible tubers, especially in the variety called chufa or earth almond.

groundwater or subsurface water Water that occurs below the surface of the Earth, where it occupies spaces in soils or geologic strata. Most groundwater comes from precipitation, which gradually percolates into the Earth. Typically, 10-20% of precipitation eventually enters aqui¬

fers. Most groundwater is free of pathogenic organisms, and purification for domestic or industrial use is not necessary. Furthermore, groundwa¬ ter supplies are not seriously affected by short droughts and are available in many areas that do not have dependable surface water supplies.

groundwater table See water table Group of Seven See Group of Seven

Group Theatre New York theatre company (1931—41) founded by Harold Clurman, Cheryl Crawford, and Lee Strasberg to present U.S. plays of social significance. Embracing the acting principles of the Stanislavsky method, the company—which also included actors and directors such as Elia Kazan, Lee J. Cobb, and Stella Adler—staged John Howard Lawson’s Success Story (1932), Sidney Kingsley’s Men in White (1933), Clifford Odets’s Waiting for Lefty (1935) and Golden Boy (1937), Irwin Shaw’s Bury the Dead (1936), and William Saroyan’s My Heart’s in the High¬ lands (1939), among many other plays.

group theory In modern algebra, a system consisting of a set of ele¬ ments and an operation for combining the elements, which together sat¬ isfy certain axioms. These require that the group be closed under the operation (the combination of any two elements produces another element of the group), that it obey the associative law, that it contain an identity element (which, combined with any other element, leaves the latter unchanged), and that each element have an inverse (which combines with an element to produce the identity element). If the group also satisfies the commutative law, it is called a commutative, or abelian, group. The set of integers under addition, where the identity element is 0 and the inverse is the negative of a positive number or vice versa, is an abelian group. See also field theory.

group therapy Form of psychotherapy in which several patients or cli¬ ents discuss their personal problems, usually in the presence of a therapist or counselor. In one approach to group therapy, the chief aim is to raise members’ awareness and morale and combat feelings of isolation by cul¬ tivating a sense of belonging to the group; a notable example is Alcoholics Anonymous. The other principal approach strives to foster free discussion and uninhibited self-revelation; members are helped to self-understanding and more successful behaviour through mutual examination of their reac¬ tions to people in their lives, including one another.

Groupe Islamique Armee (GIA) See Armed Islamic Group

grouper Any of numerous species of fishes (family Serranidae) widely distributed in warm seas, especially members of the genera Epinephelus and Mycteroperca. Groupers are characteristically large-mouthed, heavy¬ bodied fishes. Some species grow larger than 6 ft (about 2 m) long and heavier than 500 lb (225 kg). Groupers are usually dull green or brown; some species can change their colour pattern, and deepwater individuals may be much redder than nearshore ones. They are prime food fishes, though a few species carry a toxic substance in their flesh and can cause poisoning when consumed, and they provide sport for anglers and spearfishermen. See also jewfish; sea bass.

grouse Any of various game birds in the family Tetraonidae (order Gal- liformes), including the prairie chicken and ptarmigan, or the sandgrouse (order Columbiformes). The best- known Old World species is the black grouse ( Lyrurus tetrix ) of Wales, Scotland, Scandinavia, and northern central Europe. The male, iridescent blue-black with white wing bars, may be 22 in. (55 cm) long and weigh about 4 lbs (almost 2 kg); the smaller female is mottled brown and barred with black. Grouse are noted for the male’s communal courtship dances. The best-known North American species is the ruffed grouse.

Grove, Andrew S. (b. Sept. 2, 1936, Budapest, Hung.) Hungarian- born U.S. businessman. He studied at CCNY before earning his Ph.D. from UC-Berkeley in 1963. After working for Fairchild Semiconductor (1963-67), he helped found Intel Corp. in 1968. At Intel he has served as president (1979-97), CEO (1987-97), and chairman of the board (from 1997) and is widely credited with the company’s enormous success. He has lectured at Stanford University from 1991. He holds several patents

Hugo Grotius, detail of a portrait by Michiel Janszoon van Mierevelt; in the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.

COURTESY OF THE RUKSMUSEUM, AMSTERDAM

California ground squirrel (Spermophi¬ lus beecheyi) .

KENNETH W. FINK FROM ROOT RESOURCES-EB INC.

Blackcock (Lyrurus tetrix)

INGMAR HOLMASEN

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Grove ► Guadeloupe I 809

on semiconductor devices and technology and is the author of several books. In 1997 he was named Time magazine’s “Man of the Year.”

Grove, Sir George (b. Aug. 13, 1820, London, Eng.—d. May 28, 1900, London) British musicologist. He was trained as a civil engineer, and he erected lighthouses in Jamaica and Bermuda. He became secre¬ tary of the Crystal Palace in 1852, and he would write program notes for its concerts for 40 years. His extensive contributions to William Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible led to his establishing the Palestine Exploration Fund in 1865. He served as editor of Macmillan’s Magazine (1868-83). In 1873 he began work on his four-volume Dictionary of Music and Musicians ; expanded to 20 volumes in subsequent editions, it is today the world’s foremost music encyclopedia. He served as first director of the Royal College of Music (1883—92), an institution he was largely respon¬ sible for placing on a firm professional and physical foundation.

growing season Period of the year, also called frost-free season, dur¬ ing which growing conditions for native vegetation and cultivated crops are the most favourable. It usually becomes shorter as distance from the equator increases. In equatorial and tropical regions the growing season ordinarily lasts all year; at higher latitudes (e.g., the tundra), it may last as little as two months or less. It also varies according to elevation above sea level: higher elevations tend to have shorter growing seasons.

growth hormone (GH) or somatotropin Xso-.ma-to-'tro-ponV Pep¬ tide hormone secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. It pro¬ motes growth of bone and other body tissues by stimulating protein synthesis and fat breakdown (for energy). Excessive production causes gigantism, acromegaly, or other malformations; deficient production results in dwarfism, dramatically relieved if GH is given before puberty. Genetic engineering techniques now permit large-scale production of adequate amounts of GH for that purpose.

growth ring In a cross section of the stem of a woody plant, the amount of wood added during a single growth period. In temperate regions this period is usually one year, in which case the growth ring may be called an annual ring. In tropical regions growth rings may not be discernible or are not annual. Even in temperate regions growth rings are occasion¬ ally missing; and sometimes a second, or “false,” ring may be deposited during a single year (e.g., following defoliation by insects). Nevertheless, annual rings have been used in dating ancient wooden structures, espe¬ cially those of American Indians in the dry U.S. Southwest. Changes in ring width are a source of information about ancient climates.

Gruen, David See David Ben-Gurion

Grunewald YgriE-na-.valtA English Vgrti-no-.woldV, Matthias orig. Mathis Gothardt Neithardt or Mathis Gothart Nithart (b. c.

1480, Wurzburg, bishopric of Wurzburg—d. August 1528, Halle, arch¬ bishopric of Magdeburg) German painter. Details of his early life are vague. By c. 1509 he was court painter to the archbishop of Mainz and had established a successful career, concentrating on religious themes. Around 1511 he was commissioned to add two wings to the Assumption of the Virgin altarpiece recently completed by Albrecht Durer. In 1515 he completed his most important commission, the wings of the Isenheim Altarpiece in the Antonite monastery in southern Alsace (now in the museum in Colmar, Fr.). Considered his masterpiece, it features distorted figures, extreme emotional intensity, brooding colour, and draperies that expand and contract in accordion pleats, a hallmark of his style. About 10 paintings and 35 drawings survive. He had no known pupils and, unlike his contemporaries, did not produce woodcuts or engravings, but his painterly achievement remains one of the most striking in the history of northern European art.

grunion Vgron-yonN Edible Pacific fish (Leuresthes tenuis ) found along the western coast of the U.S. In the warm months, it lays its eggs in beach sand during a full or new moon when the tide cycle is at its peak. The young hatch and enter the ocean on the next spring tide, two weeks later. Grunion reach a length of about 8 in. (20 cm).

GTE Corp. formerly (1959-82) General Telephone and Elec¬ tronics Corp. Former U.S. holding company for several U.S. and inter¬ national telephone companies. It specialized in providing telephone service to rural areas. The company, founded in 1926 as Associated Tele¬ phone Utilities to unite various independent phone companies, went bank¬ rupt in the Great Depression and was later reorganized as General Telephone. In the 1950s it became a manufacturer of electronic phone

equipment, merging with Sylvania Electronics in 1958. GTE and Bell Atlantic (one of the “Baby Bells”) merged to become Verizon Commu¬ nications in 2000.

Gtsang dynasty Vtsaq\ (15657-1642) Last secular native ruling house in Tibet. The Gtsang kings allied themselves with the Karma-pa order of Buddhists against the new reformed Dge-lugs-pa order. The Dge-lugs-pa gained the support of the Mongol Altan Khan, and although the Gtsang attacked their headquarters in Lhasa, the dynasty was finally dethroned in 1642, when temporal authority was given to the Mongol-backed Dalai Lama.

Guacanayabo V.gwa-ka-na-'ya-boV Gulf of Inlet of the Caribbean Sea, southeastern Cuba. It stretches in a broad horseshoe from the south¬ ern coast of Camagiiey province about 70 mi (110 km) to the southwest¬ ern shore of Granma province. It is shallow and dotted with coral reefs; its chief port is Manzanillo.

Guadalajara \,gwa-d 3 l-9-'ha-r3\ City (pop., 2000: city, 1,646,183; metro, area, 3,677,531), capital of Jalisco state, west-central Mexico. Mexico’s second largest city, it lies near the Rio Grande de Santiago at an elevation of about 5,100 ft (1,550 m). Founded by the Spanish in 1531, it was relocated several times under pressure from Indians. In 1810 it was occupied briefly by the independence leader Miguel Hidalgo. Since 1940 it has become a major industrial producer while retaining a rich agricul¬ tural trade. The governor’s palace, begun in 1743, is a noted example of Spanish Mexican architecture. Guadalajara is the site of two universities.

Guadalcanal \ l gwa-d s l-k3- , nal\ Island (pop., 1999: 109,382), Solomon Islands, west-central South Pacific Ocean. The largest of the Solomon Islands, Guadalcanal has an area of 2,069 sq mi (5,358 sq km); the national capital, Honiara, lies on the northern coast. The economy is based mainly on fishing and agriculture, with some gold mining. The island was visited by the Spanish in the 16th century and by the British in the late 18th century; it was annexed in 1893 as part of the British Solomon Islands Protectorate. During World War II it was the scene of prolonged fighting between U.S. and Japanese forces (1942^-3), which resulted in the Allied capture of a Japanese air base there. Several naval battles were also fought in the region. Ethnic tensions between Guadalcanal islanders and migrants from the nearby island of Malaita worsened after World War II. After the islands achieved independence from Great Britain in 1978, ethnically based disputes simmered on the island, sparking violence and rioting in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.

Guadalquivir \,gwa-d 3 l-ki-'vir\ River Arabic Wadi al-Kabir

Vwa-de-.al-ko-'bhA ancient Baetis River, southern Spain. Rising in the mountains of Jaen province, it flows west 408 mi (657 km) to empty into the Gulf of Cadiz. Spain’s second longest river, its natural environment is one of the most varied in Europe, containing representatives of half of the continent’s plant species and nearly all those of the North African region. Its fauna also includes a great variety of European and North African spe¬ cies.

Guadalupe X.gwa-tha-'lii-paA English Ygwa-dd-,lup\ City (pop., 2000: 669,842), central Nuevo Leon state, northeastern Mexico. It lies about 670 ft (200 m) above sea level on the Santa Catarina River just east of Monter¬ rey. It serves as the commercial centre of an agricultural area.

Guadalupe Hidalgo V.gwa-d^-'ii-pa-e-'thal-goV Treaty of (Feb. 2, 1848) Treaty between the U.S. and Mexico that ended the Mexican War, named for the Mexico City neighbourhood where it was signed. It drew the U.S.-Mexico boundary at the Rio Grande and the Gila River. For $15 million the U.S. received more than 525,000 sq mi (1.36 million sq km) of land and agreed to settle the more than $3 million in claims made by U.S. citizens against Mexico. By leaving Mexicans unsure of their coun¬ try’s future and reopening the question of the expansion of slavery in the vast territory ceded to the U.S., the treaty was a factor in the civil wars that followed in both countries.

Guadalupe V.gwa-do-'lii-paV Mountains National Park National park, western Texas, U.S. Established in 1972, it occupies an area of 86,416 acres (34,998 hectares) east of El Paso. It is centred on two peaks: Guadalupe Peak, which reaches 8,751 ft (2,667 m), and El Capitan, which rises to 8,078 ft (2,462 m). The park is an area of great geologic interest, with a major Permian limestone fossil reef.

Guadeloupe Ygwa-do-Jup, .gwa-do-'liipN Overseas department of France (pop., 2005 est.: 448,000), eastern West Indies. Consisting of the

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

810 i Guadiana ► guanine

islands of Basse-Terre and Grande-Terre and several smaller islands, its land area is 658 sq mi (1,705 sq km). The capital is Basse-Terre city (founded 1643); the largest urban area, chief port, and economic hub is Pointe-a-Pitre on Grande-Terre. Saint-Barthelemy and the northern two- thirds of Saint-Martin are dependencies, lying 150 mi (240 km) northwest. Forests and tree crops such as coffee abound on the mountains of Basse- Terre, while sugarcane is cultivated on the generally low-lying Grande- Terre. The Carib Indians held off the Spanish and French for a number of years before the islands became part of France in 1674. The British occu¬ pied Guadeloupe for short periods in the 18th—19th century; the islands became officially French in 1816. In 1946 they were made a department of France. Tourism has benefited the economy in recent decades.

Guadiana \,gwa-de-'a-n3\ River River, Spain and Portugal. One of the longest in the Iberian Peninsula, it flows 483 mi (778 km) through south-central Spain and southeastern Portugal, forming parts of the coun¬ tries’ borders, to the Gulf of Cadiz. Its headwaters rise in the mountains of Spain’s Cuenca province; west of Daimiel they form marshy lakes, known as Ojos del Guadiana (“Eyes of the Guadiana”), a noted wildfowl sanctuary. As the river continues west, it cuts a series of gorges through the Toledo Mountains, now the site of several dams that provide hydro¬ electric power.

Guainia, Rio See Rio Negro

Guam \'gwam\ Island (pop., 2005 est.: 170,000), largest and southern¬ most of the Mariana Islands, Micronesia, western Pacific Ocean. Guam is an unincorporated U.S. territory; its capital is Agana. With an area of 217 sq mi (561 sq km), it is divided into a northern plateau and a southern chain of volcanic hills. The indigenous population is Chamorro, Malayo- Indonesian with a considerable admixture of Spanish, Filipino, and Mexi¬ can ancestry. They speak Chamorro in addition to English, both official languages. Possibly visited by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521, Guam was formally claimed by Spain in 1565 and remained Spanish until it was ceded to the U.S. in 1898 after the Spanish-American War. During World War II the Japanese occupied the island (1941-44). It subsequently became a major U.S. air and naval base. In 1950 it was made a U.S. ter¬ ritory and placed under the Department of the Interior. The military bases and tourism are the island’s economic mainstays.

Guan Hanqing Vgwan-'han-'chiqV or Kuan Han-ch'ing (b. 1241?, Dadu, China—d. 1320?, China) Chinese dramatist. He belonged to a writ¬ ers’ guild that provided plays for performing groups. His plays often dealt with everyday events and sympathetically portrayed women of low social standing. He wrote over 60 plays, 14 of which survive, including Injus¬ tice to Dou E, Butterfly Dream, and Saving a Prostitute. Guan is often considered the greatest playwright of the Chinese classical theatre.

Guan Yu Vgwan-'yu\ or Kuan Yu or Guan Di (d. 219) Military hero of the Three Kingdoms era (3rd century ad) who started his career as the bodyguard of Liu Bei, the founder of one of the three kingdoms. He was captured and executed but his fame and popularity continued to grow. China’s rulers conferred ever greater titles on him until in 1594 he was canonized as Guan Di, god of war and protector of China. Thousands of temples were constructed in his honor. His cult spread to Korea in the 17th century, where it was believed that he saved the country from Japa¬ nese invasion.

guanaco \gwo-'na-ko\ Slender-bodied South American lamoid ( Lama guanacoe; see alpaca). The guanaco has long legs and neck, a short tail, and large, pointed ears. It lives in small bands of females, usually led by a male, and grazes on grass and other plants, ranging from the snow line to sea level throughout the Andes Mountains from Peru and Bolivia to Tierra del Fuego. The adult stands 43 in. (110 cm) tall at the shoulder and is pale brown above and white below, with a grayish head. The downy fibre covering the young is valued for textiles, and guanaco pelts are used by the fur industry.

Guanajuato \,gwa-na-'hwa-to\ State (pop., 2000: 4,663,032), central Mexico. It covers 11,773 sq mi (30,491 sq km), and its capital is Gua¬ najuato city. It lies on the interior plateau. The north is mountainous, while the south, consisting of fertile plains, is largely devoted to agriculture. The state is drained by several rivers, including the Lerma. The first Spanish settlement was at San Miguel de Allende (1542). During colo¬ nial times it was an important silver-mining area. The region became a state in 1824. Mining (silver, gold, tin, lead, and opals) remains the prin¬ cipal economic activity.

Guanajuato City (pop., 2000: 74,874), capital of Guanajuato state, Mexico. It lies about 6,700 ft (2,000 m) above sea level. Founded in 1554, it is an outstanding example of a Spanish colonial city. One of the great¬ est silver-mining centres of the 16th century, the city’s wealth was mani¬ fest in its richly endowed churches, several of which date to the 17th century. In 1810 it was the first major city to fall to the independence leader Miguel Hidalgo. It later declined until increased tourist trade and federal support of mining and agriculture in the 1930s brought recovery. It is the site of the University of Guanajuato (1945).

Guandi See Guan Yu

Guangdong \'gwaq-'duq\ or Kuang-tung conventional Kwang- tung Southernmost mainland province (pop., 2000 est.: 86,420,000), China. It is bounded by the South China Sea to the south, and along its coast are Hong Kong and Macao; also bordering it are Fujian, Jiangxi, and Hunan provinces and Guangxi autonomous region. It has an area of 76,100 sq mi (197,100 sq km). The capital is Guangzhou (Canton). It was first incorporated into the Chinese empire in 222 bc. Overseas trade through Guangzhou swelled the population of the province in the 16th-17th cen¬ turies. It was the site of illicit opium importation by the British, which led to the First Opium War in 1841. Kowloon was ceded to Britain in 1860 and Macao to Portugal in 1887; both were restored to China in the late 1990s. Guangdong was a base for the Nationalists under Sun Yat-sen from 1912. Japanese forces occupied the province in 1938—45. Its centuries of foreign contact have given it a degree of self-sufficiency that sets it apart from the rest of China; more recently it has developed several special economic zones.

Guangwudi \ , gwaq- , wu- , de\ or Kuang-wu ti orig. Liu Xiu (b. c.

5 bc— d. ad 57, Luoyang, China) Chinese emperor who restored the Han dynasty after the interlude of the Xin dynasty (ad 9-25) created by the usurper Wang Mang. The restored Han dynasty is often called the Later, or Eastern, Han. Guangwudi’s reign was spent consolidating his rule and subduing numerous domestic rebellions, including the Red Eyebrows revolt.

Guangxi \'gwaq-'she\ or Kuang-hsi conventional Kwangsi in full Zhuang Autonomous Region of Guangxi Autonomous region (pop., 2000 est.: 44,890,000), southeastern China. Lying on the Gulf of Tonkin, it is bordered by Vietnam and by Guangdong, Hunan, Guizhou, and Yunnan provinces. It has an area of 85,100 sq mi (220,400 sq km) and is largely hilly, with river valleys where rice is grown. Its capital is Nanning. Its recorded history dates from 45 bc, and it was given its present name during the Yuan dynasty in ad 1279. With Guangdong, it became the base of the Nationalists under Sun Yat-sen in the early 20th century. Local leaders later formed the Guangxi Clique in opposition to Chiang Kai-shek, who crushed their revolt in 1929. Guangxi was declared a prov¬ ince of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, and in 1958 it became an autonomous region. Noted for its agricultural production, it is also an important source for forest products.

Guangzhou Vgwaq-'joX or Kuang-chou conventional Canton City (pop., 2003 est.: 4,653,131), capital of Guangdong province, China. Located on the Zhu (Pearl) River about 80 mi (130 km) from the sea, it is southern China’s chief port. Incorporated in the Chinese empire in the 3rd century bc, it later became an important city under the Ming dynasty. The first Chinese seaport opened to foreigners, it was regularly visited by Arab and Hindu traders and, in the 16th century, by the Portuguese. The English arrived in the late 17th century, followed by the French and Dutch. Guangzhou’s resistance to the English opium trade led to war (1839-42), and it was occupied by the British and French in 1856-61. In the late 19th century it was the seat of revolutionary political ideas promoted by the Nationalist Party. It was bombed and then occupied by the Japanese in 1938-45. Its industrial growth subsequently expanded, and, with China’s renewed ties to the West, it was designated as one of several economic investment areas for foreigners in 1984. One of China’s largest cities, its expanding economy added to the region’s growth.

guanine \'gwa-,nen\ Organic compound of the purine family, often called a base, consisting of two rings, each containing both nitrogen and carbon atoms, and an amino group. It occurs in combined form in many important biological molecules, particularly nucleic acids, and free or com¬ bined in various natural sources, including guano, sugar beets, yeast, and fish scales. In DNA its complementary base is cytosine. It or its corre¬ sponding nucleoside or nucleotide may be prepared from nucleic acids by selective techniques of hydrolysis.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

guano ► Guatemala I 811

guano Vgwa-no\ Accumulated excrement and remains of birds, bats, and seals, valued as fertilizer. Bird guano comes mainly from islands off the coasts of Peru, Baja California, and Africa that are heavily populated by cormorants, pelicans, and gannets. Bat guano is found in caves through¬ out the world, and seal guano has accumulated to great depths on islands off northwestern Peru; both are lower in fertilizer value than bird guano.

Guantanamo Xgwan-'ta-no-.moN City (pop., 1994 est.: 207,796), capi¬ tal of Guantanamo province, eastern Cuba. Lying in the mountains 21 mi (34 km) north of strategic Guantanamo Bay, it was founded in 1819. French refugees from Haiti aided in colonizing the area, and many cul¬ tural characteristics, including the architecture, show their influence. Cat¬ alans were also among the early settlers. It is the centre of an agricultural region producing sugarcane and coffee.

Guantanamo Bay Inlet of the Caribbean Sea, southeastern Cuba. It is one of the largest bays in the world: its harbour is about 6 mi (9 km) wide and 12 mi (19 km) long. Its strategic importance was recognized during the Spanish-American War, when U.S. marines landed there in 1898. A U.S. naval base, established in 1903, remained there even after hostilities erupted between the two countries in 1959; the base served as an internment facility for suspected Islamic militants beginning in 2002.

Guanyin See Avalokitesvara

Guapore \,gwa-p6-'ra\ River or Itenez \e-'ta-nes\ River, west-central South America. Rising in southwestern Brazil (where it is known as the Itenez), it flows northwest past Mato Grosso city. It continues northwest, forming the border between Bolivia and Brazil, and empties into the Mamore River above the town of Guajara-Mirim, Braz. It is navigable along its entire 1,087-mi (1,749-km) course. In contrast with the brown, silt-laden Mamore, the Guapore has unusually clear water; for several miles below their juncture, the two colours remain distinct.

Guarani \,gwar-3-'ne\ South American Indian group that has tradition¬ ally inhabited eastern Paraguay and adjacent areas of Brazil and Argen¬ tina. Aboriginal Guarani were formerly warlike and took captives to be sacrificed (and allegedly eaten). Their shifting cultivation required them to move their settlements every few years. The descendants of Guarani women and Spanish ranchers are modem Paraguay’s rural population. Only a few scattered communities of true Guarani remain, but Paraguay still claims a strong Guarani heritage, and most of the million peasants living along the Paraguay River near Asuncion speak a version of the aboriginal Guarani language.

Guardi \'gwar-de\, Francesco (b. 1712, Venice—d. 1793, Venice) Italian landscape painter. He and his two brothers collaborated in a flour¬ ishing studio-workshop in Venice; their sister was married to Giovanni Battista Tiepolo. By the 1750s Francesco was producing vedute (view paintings) of Venice. His many romantic impressions of the city never achieved the popularity of Canaletto’s near-photographic records of its architecture, and his work came to be appreciated only after the rise of Impressionism.

guardian In law, one who has, or is legally appointed to, the care and management of another, usually a minor. A natural guardian is a guard¬ ian by natural relationship (usually the father or mother). A guardian may be appointed by the court when it decides that a child needs one (usu¬ ally when the parents have died or disappeared).

Guardian, The formerly The Manchester Guardian Influential newspaper published in London and Manchester, Eng., considered one of Britain’s best papers. Founded in 1821 as the weekly Manchester Guard¬ ian, it became a daily in 1855; 100 years later “Manchester” was dropped from the name, as it had become a national daily with an international reputation. In 1936 one of the newspapers most influential editors, C.R Scott, created the Scott Trust as a means of assuring independent own-

. 1712, Venice—d. 1793, Venice)

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Rio dei Mendicanti, oil on canvas by Francesco Guardi; in the Accademia Carrara, Bergamo, Italy.

SCALA-ART RESOURCE/EB INC.

ership for the newspaper. Still owned by the trust, the paper takes an inde¬ pendent liberal stance in its editorials while maintaining great breadth and depth of news coverage.

Guare Vgwar\, John (b. Feb. 5, 1938, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. dra¬ matist. After studying at the Yale School of Drama he began staging short plays in New York City. In 1971 he earned critical acclaim for his farci¬ cal play The House of Blue Leaves. Two Gentlemen of Verona (1972, with Mel Shapiro), a rock-musical version of William Shakespeare’s comedy, won him Tony and New York Drama Critics Circle awards. His later works include Six Degrees of Separation (1990; film, 1993) and Four Baboons Adoring the Sun (1992).

Guarini \gwa-'re-ne\, (Giovanni) Battista (b. Dec. 10, 1538, Ferrara—d. Oct. 7, 1612, Venice) Italian poet. In 1567 he entered the ser¬ vice of Alfonso II, duke of Ferrara, as courtier and diplomat. In 1579 he replaced his friend Torquato Tasso as court poet. With Tasso, he is cred¬ ited with developing the genre of pastoral drama. Guarini retired in 1582 and wrote his best-known work, The Faithful Shepherd (1590), a pasto¬ ral tragicomedy that became one of the most famous and widely trans¬ lated works of the age.

Guarneri \gwar-'ner-e\, Andrea Italian musical-instrument maker. He apprenticed with Nicolo Amati from 1641 to 1654 (see Amati family). Setting up his own shop in Cremona, he made violas and cellos as well as violins. His sons Pietro (1655-1720) and Giuseppe (1666-1740?) worked with their father; by 1683 Pietro had moved to Mantua and set up his own business, though he made few instruments. Giuseppe inher¬ ited the Cremona business from his father in 1698. During his lifetime, Andrea Guarneri’s name was obscured by Antonio Stradivari’s, but his violins and cellos are today highly prized. His sons Pietro (1695-1762) and Bartolomeo (1698-1744) were also instrument makers; Bartolomeo, called Guarneri del Gesu, was one of the finest in history; his violins show the influence of both his father and Stradivari and are known for their full sound.

Guatemala \ l gwa-t3-'ma-b\ officially Republic of Guatemala

Country, Central America. Area: 42,130 sq mi (109,117 sq km). Popula¬ tion (2005 est.): 12,599,000. Capital: Guatemala City. Mestizos make up

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3 2002 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

about three-fifths of the population; most of the rest are American Indians. Language:

Spanish (official). Religion: Christianity (predominantly Roman Catholic; also Prot¬ estant). Currency: quetzal. Guatemala has

extensive lowlands in the Peten portion of the Yucatan Peninsula and along the littoral of the Caribbean Sea in the north. Mountains occupy much of the country and cut across its midsection. The northern tropical rainfor-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

812 i Guatemala City ► Guernsey

ests of the Peten produce fine woods and rubber. Guatemala has a devel¬ oping market economy based largely on agriculture; coffee is its leading export, along with sugar and bananas. It is a republic with one legislative body; its head of state and government is the president. From simple farming villages dating to 2500 bc, the Maya of Guatemala and the Yucatan developed a sophisticated civilization. Its heart was the northern Peten, where the oldest Mayan stelae and the ceremonial centre of Tikal are found. Mayan civilization declined after ad 900, and the Spanish began subjugating the descendants of the Maya in 1523. Independence from Spain was declared by the Central American colonies in Guatemala City in 1821, and Guatemala was incorporated into the Mexican Empire until its collapse in 1823. In 1839 Guatemala became independent under the first of a series of dictators who held power almost continuously for the next century. In 1945 a liberal-democratic coalition came to power and instituted sweeping reforms. Attempts to expropriate land belonging to U.S. business interests (see United Fruit Co.) prompted the U.S. gov¬ ernment in 1954 to sponsor an invasion by exiled Guatemalans. In the following years Guatemala’s social revolution came to an end, and most of the reforms were reversed. Chronic political instability and violence henceforth marked Guatemalan politics; most of some 200,000 deaths that resulted from subsequent political violence were blamed on government forces. Thousands more died in 1976 when a powerful earthquake dev¬ astated the country. In 1991 Guatemala abandoned its long-standing claims of sovereignty over Belize, and the two countries established dip¬ lomatic relations. It continued to experience violence as guerrillas sought to seize power. A peace treaty was signed in 1996, but labour discontent, widespread crime and poverty, and violations of human rights continued into the 21st century.

Guatemala City City (pop., 1994: city, 823,301; 1999 est.: metro area, 3,119,000), capital of Guatemala. The largest city in Central America, it lies in the central highlands at an elevation of about 4,900 ft (1,490 m). Founded in 1776, it replaced earthquake-damaged Antigua Guatemala as the capital of the captaincy general of Guatemala. After independence from Spain, it served as capital of the province of Central America under the Mexican Empire of Agustin de Iturbide and later of the Republic of Guatemala. It is the country’s political, social, cultural, and economic centre and the site of San Carlos University of Guatemala (1676); its museums include the National Archaeological Museum, which houses a collection of rare Mayan artifacts. The modern city was largely rebuilt after a series of earthquakes in 1917-18; it was severely damaged again in 1976.

Guatimozin See Cuauhtemoc

guava Any of many trees and shrubs of the genus Psidium (myrtle fam¬ ily), native to the New World tropics. The two important species are com¬ mon guava (P. guajava ) and cattley, or strawberry, guava (P. littorale or P. cattleianum). The sweet pulp of the common guava fruit has a musky, sometimes pungent odour. The pulp of the strawberry guava fruit has a strawberry-like flavour. Guavas are processed into jams, jellies, and pre¬ serves. Fresh guavas are rich in vitamins A, B, and C; they are eaten raw or sliced and are served as desserts.

Guaviare \gwav-'ya-ra\ River River, central and eastern Colombia. It rises in the Andes Mountains in south-central Colombia and is known as the Guayabero in its upper course. It meanders northeast before joining the Orinoco River on the border of Colombia and Venezuela after a course of 963 mi (1,549 km). Frequent rapids obstruct navigation.

Guayaquil \,gwl-a-'kel\ in full Santiago de Guayaquil Largest city (pop., 2001 prelim.: 1,952,029) and chief port, Ecuador. It is situated on the Guayas River 45 mi (72 km) from the Pacific Ocean. Founded by the Spanish in 1537, it was frequently attacked by buccaneers. In 1822 it was the scene of a historic conference between revolutionary leaders Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin, after which Bolivar emerged as sole leader of the South American liberation movement. As the focus of Ecua¬ dor’s international trade and domestic commerce, it has become a major Pacific port. It is the site of three universities.

Guayas Vgwl-as\ River River, western Ecuador. Its two principal tribu¬ taries, the Daule and Babahoyo rivers, rise on the western slopes of the Andes Mountains and unite just above the city of Guayaquil. Below the city it flows through a low-lying delta and enters the Gulf of Guayaquil. Its length to the end of the longest tributary is about 200 mi (320 km). Its floodplain is Ecuador’s most fertile region and the source of almost all of its banana crop.

Guchkov Xgiich-'koA, Aleksandr (Ivanovich) (b. Oct. 26, 1862, Moscow, Russia—d. Feb. 14, 1936, Paris, France) Russian politician. After Nicholas II issued the October Manifesto (1905), Guchkov helped found the Octobrist Party. As a member of the Duma, he attempted to enact more reforms but became increasingly critical of the government for its disdain for the constitution and for the influence of Grigory Ras¬ putin. When the Russian Revolution of 1917 broke out, he was sent to receive Nicholas’s abdication, and later he served briefly as minister of war and the navy. After the Bolsheviks seized power in October, he emi¬ grated to Paris.

Gudbrands Valley Norwegian Gudbrandsdalen

Vgud-.brans-.da-lonV Valley, south-central Norway. It extends about 140 mi (225 km) above Lake Miosa and Lillehammer. It was the scene of severe fighting in World War II in which the Norwegians and British attempted to hold off a German invasion. It is the setting for Henrik Ibs¬ en’s play Peer Gynt.

Guderian \gu-'da-re-an\, Heinz (Wilhelm) (b. June 17, 1888, Kulm, Ger.—d. May 14, 1954, Schwangau bei Fiissen, W.Ger.) German general and tank expert. His book Attention!

Tanks! (1937) incorporated theories by the British general J.F.C. Fuller and by Charles de Gaulle. As a prin¬ cipal architect of armoured warfare and the blitzkrieg, he contributed deci¬ sively to Germany’s victories early in World War II in Poland, France, and the Soviet Union. In 1943, as inspector general of armoured troops, he simplified and accelerated tank production. After the July Plot against Adolf Hitler, he became act¬ ing chief of staff (1944-45).

Gudrun See Kriemhild

Guelph Vgwelf\, University of

Public university in Guelph, Ont.,

Can. It is an important centre for research in scientific agriculture, having been established (1964) through the merger of Ontario Agricultural College (1874), Ontario Veterinary College (1862), and a newly created liberal arts college. Facilities include the headquarters of the Canadian Network of Toxicology Centres, a cen¬ tre for the study of livestock genetics, and a gerontology research centre.

Guelphs and Ghibellines Vgwelfs... , gi-b3- l lenz\ Opposing factions in German and Italian politics during the Middle Ages. The terms Guelph (see Welf dynasty) and Ghibelline (from Waiblingen, the castle of the Welfs’ Hohenstaufen opponents) first acquired significance in Italy dur¬ ing the reign of the Hohenstaufen emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, who tried to assert imperial authority over northern Italy and was opposed by Pope Alexander III. The split between the Guelphs, who sided with the papacy, and the Ghibellines, who were sympathetic to the Holy Roman emperors, contributed to chronic strife in the cities of northern Italy in the 13th—14th century, reflected in Dante’s Divine Comedy.

Guercino \gwar-'che-no\, II (Italian: "The Squinter") orig. Gio¬ vanni Francesco Barbieri (b. Feb. 8, 1591, Cento, Papal States—d. Dec. 22, 1666, Bologna) Italian painter. Strongly influenced by the Bolognese school, he was called to Rome in 1621 by the Bolognese pope Gregory XV and, among other commissions, decorated the Villa Ludovisi; the ceiling fresco Aurora is painted to appear as if there were no ceiling, so that Aurora’s chariot is seen to float directly over the building. He returned to his native town of Cento in 1623. In 1642, upon the death of Guido Reni, he moved to Bologna and was its leading painter until his death. One of the outstanding draftsmen of his age, he had a profound impact on the development of 17th-century Baroque decoration.

Guernsey Vgom-zeX Second largest of the Channel Islands. Area: 30.2 sq mi (78.1 sq km). Population (2002 est.): 63,000. Guernsey is situated in the English Channel just west of Normandy, France. With Alderney and Sark, Herm, Jethou, and other islets, it forms the bailiwick of Guernsey; its capital is St. Peter Port (pop., 2001: 16,448). The island was known as Sarnia to the Romans. It was home to Victor Hugo (1855-70). The Guernsey breed of cattle originated there.