Britannica Concise 2005

sodium bicarbonate See bicarbonate of soda

sodium chloride or table salt Inorganic compound of sodium and chlorine, a salt in which ionic bonds hold the two components in the famil¬ ial' white crystals. Salt is essential to health as a source of sodium; blood and all other physiological fluids are dilute salt solutions. One of the most widely employed materials of the chemical industry, it is used in manu¬ facturing CHLORINE, CAUSTIC SODA, Sodium CARBONATE, BICARBONATE OF SODA, soap, and chlorine bleach, as well as in ceramic glazes, metallurgy, food preservation, curing of hides, road de-icing, water softening, photogra¬ phy, and many consumer products, including mineral waters, mouth¬ washes, and table salt itself. It is mined, extracted from seawater, and obtained from dry salt lakes called pans. See also haute.

Sodom and Gomorrah \ , sa-d9m...g9- , m6r-o\ Legendary cities of ancient Palestine. According to the Old Testament book of Genesis, the notorious cities were destroyed by “brimstone and fire” because of their wickedness. The site of the cities is unknown but may have beeen in an area now beneath the waters of the Dead Sea. Archaeological evidence shows that the area may once have been fertile and could have drawn the biblical Lot to graze his flock. The cities’ legendary wickedness has inspired many writers, including Jean Giraudoux and Nikos Kazantzakis.

sodomy Noncoital carnal copulation. Sodomy is a crime in some juris¬ dictions. Some sodomy laws, particularly in Middle Eastern countries and those jurisdictions observing Shariah law, provide penalties as severe as life imprisonment for homosexual intercourse, even if the relations are between legally consenting adults. Other sodomy laws proscribe a vari¬ ety of other forms of sexual contact and apply even to married couples. No such regulations are found in the law codes of Denmark, France, Italy, Sweden, The Netherlands, or Switzerland, among other countries.The Wolfenden committee in Britain and the American Law Institute recom¬ mended abolition of criminal penalties for sodomy, except in cases involv¬ ing violence, children, or public solicitation. This position was adopted in England in 1967 and has been adopted in many U.S. states as well.

sofer or sopher \so-'fer, 'so-forV In Judaism, a scholar-teacher of the 5th- 2nd centuries bc who transcribed, edited, and interpreted the Bible. The first sofer was Ezra, who, with his disciples, initiated a tradition of rabbinical scholarship that is still central in Judaism. This tradition of scholarship arose to meet the specific need of applying the idealistic aspirations of the

Torah and oral tradition to everyday life, thus in effect codifying Mosaic law. The soferim were important historically for having fixed the canon of the Hebrew scriptures. Later the term sofer came to refer to one who taught the Bible to children or who was qualified to write Torah scrolls.

Sofia Vso-fe-s, so-'fe-3,\ ancient Serdica City (pop., 2001: 1,096,389), capital of Bulgaria. Established as a Thracian settlement c. 8th century bc, it flourished under the Romans. Plundered by the Huns in the 5th century ad, it was rebuilt under the Byzantine Empire. In 809 it became a Bul¬ garian town but reverted to Byzantine rule from 1018 to 1185, when the second Bulgarian empire was established. The Turks held it from 1382 until it was liberated by the Russians in 1878. In 1879 it was made the Bulgarian capital. It is the country’s principal transportation and cultural centre and the site of many industries. Among its educational institutions is the University of Sofia (1888), Bulgaria’s oldest university. Its histori¬ cal monuments include the 6th-century church of St. Sofia.

soft coal See bituminous coal

soft drink Nonalcoholic beverage, usually carbonated, consisting of water (soda water), flavouring, and a sweet syrup or artificial sweetener. Attempts to reproduce the natural effervescence of certain spring waters for presumed health benefits began before 1700. Joseph Priestley’s experi¬ ments with “fixed air” (carbon dioxide) led in the late 1790s to the suc¬ cessful preparation of carbonated “mineral water” by Jacob Schweppe of Geneva; by the early 1800s it was being bottled and sold commercially. Today there are hundreds of varieties of flavoured soft drinks. Some of the world’s largest corporations (including Coca-Cola Co. and PepsiCo) founded their businesses on soft-drink manufacturing.

soft money In the U.S., paper money as contrasted with coins, or hard money; also, unregulated monetary donations to political parties or can¬ didates. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, advocates of soft money favoured governmental deficit spending to stimulate consumption and employment. Fiscal conservatives, who put their trust in hard money, maintained that government should not spend beyond its resources. In the late 20th century, strict regulations governed the source, amount, and use of donations to particular candidates (hard money), but few such laws applied to contributions for the general promotion of a political party’s message (soft money). In 2002 the U.S. Congress passed legislation that prohibited soft money contributions to the national political parties and strictly limited such contributions to state and local parties.

softball Game resembling baseball but played on a smaller diamond with a larger ball (12 in. [30.5 cm] in circumference), which is pitched under¬ hand. Since the first standard set of rules was published in the 1920s, the game has been popular as an amateur sport in the U.S., and since the 1960s it has grown considerably in popularity outside of North America. In U.S. high schools and colleges it is a popular women’s sport; a women’s soft- ball competition was added to the Olympic Games in 1996.

softshell turtle Any of more than 20 species (family Trionychidae) of swift-moving, carnivorous turtles found in North American, African, and Asian freshwaters with soft, muddy bottoms. They have a pan¬ cakelike, leathery shell; webbed feet; a long neck; and an elongated snout.

They often lie buried in mud or sand and occasionally emerge to bask in the sun. Aggressive when captured, they can deliver rapid, vicious bites.

The two North American species have a grayish or brown shell, 14-18 in. (35-45 cm) long. Two Old World species grow to 24 in. (60 cm) or more.

software Instructions that tell a computer what to do. Software is the entire set of programs, procedures, and routines associated with the opera¬ tion of a computer system, including the operating system. The term dif¬ ferentiates these features from hardware, the physical components of a computer system. Two main types of software are system software, which controls a computer’s internal functioning, and application software, which directs the computer to execute commands that solve practical problems. A third category is network software, which coordinates com¬ munication between computers linked in a network. Software is written

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softwood ► solar heating I 1779

by programmers in any number of programming languages. This informa¬ tion, the source code, must then be translated by means of a compiler into machine language, which the computer can understand and act on.

softwood Timber obtained from coniferous trees (mainly of the pine and fir families). With the exception of bald cypress, tamarack, and larch, softwood trees are evergreens. Softwood is mostly obtained from the Bal¬ tic, Scandinavia, and North America and is the source of about 80% of the world’s production of timber. The term sometimes imprecisely means all soft and hard woods used as construction wood in temperate regions. Softwoods of longleaf pine, Douglas fir, and yew are much harder in the mechanical sense than several hardwoods.

Soga family Japanese aristocratic family preeminent in the 7th cen¬ tury and instrumental in introducing Buddhism to Japan. Soga Umako (d. 626) overcame the powerful Mononobe and Nakatomi clans, who sup¬ ported the native Shinto religion over Buddhism, and contrived to have his niece proclaimed empress, selecting one of his nephews to be her regent (see Shotoku). The next generation alienated other aristocratic families with their high-handed ways, and after many intrigues and assas¬ sinations Soga power was crushed in 645 by Prince Nakano Oe, who was to become the emperor Tenji, aided by Fujiwara Kamatari, founder of the Fujiwara family. See also Nara period.

Sogdiana \,sag-de-'a-n3\ Ancient country of Central Asia. It was cen¬ tred in the fertile valley of the Zeravshan River, in present-day Uzbekistan. It became a satrapy of the Achaemenian dynasty under Darius I in the 6th century bc and was conquered by Alexander the Great in the 4th century. It asserted its independence from the Seleucid dynasty c. 250 bc as part of the kingdom of Bactria and fell to invading northern tribes in the 2nd cen¬ tury bc. It prospered as a centre of Islamic civilization, especially under the Samanid dynasty (9th-10th centuries ad), until the Mongol invasion of the 13th century. See also Bukhara.

Sogne Fjord Ysoq-ndX or Sognef jorden Vsog-no-.fyor-donV Longest and deepest fjord in Norway. It extends 127 mi (204 km) inland from the Norwegian Sea and has a maximum depth of 4,291 ft (1,308 m). The fjord and its branches provide some of the most picturesque scenery in Norway.

soil The biologically active, porous medium that has developed in the uppermost layer of the Earth’s crust. Soil serves as a natural reservoir of water and nutrients, as a medium for the filtration and breakdown of inju¬ rious wastes, and as a participant in the cycling of carbon and other ele¬ ments through the global ecosystem. It has evolved through the weathering of solid materials such as consolidated rocks, sediments, glacial tills, vol¬ canic ash, and organic matter. The bulk of soil consists of mineral par¬ ticles composed of silicate ions combined with various metal ions. Organic soil content consists of undecomposed or partially decomposed biomass as well as humus, an array of organic compounds derived from broken down biomass.

soil mechanics Study of soils and their utilization, especially in plan¬ ning foundations for structures and highways. How the soil of a given site will support the weight of structures or respond to movement in the course of construction depends on a number of properties (e.g., compressibility, elasticity, and permeability). Examination techniques include trench¬ digging, boring, and pumping samples to the surface with water. Seismic testing and measurement of electrical resistance also yield helpful infor¬ mation. In road construction, soil mechanics helps determine which type of pavement (rigid or flexible) will last longer. The study of soil charac¬ teristics is also used to choose the most suitable method for excavating underground tunnels. See also foundation, settling.

soil science Scientific discipline that investigates soils as primary natu¬ ral resources at the surface of the Earth. It includes the subdisciplines of pedology (study of soil formation and classification), soil biology (study of soil organisms), soil chemistry, and soil physics.

Soka-gakkai Vso-ka-'gak-klV Lay religious and political group asso¬ ciated with the Buddhist sect Nichiren-sho-shu (see Nichiren Buddhism). The most successful of Japan’s new religious movements of the 20th cen¬ tury, it draws on the 13th-century teachings of Nichiren. Like other move¬ ments in Nichiren Buddhism, it takes the Lotus Sutra as its chief scripture. Founded in 1930, Soka-gakkai came to prominence in the later 20th cen¬ tury, eventually developing a membership of over 6 million. In 1964 it established the Komeito (Clean Government Party), which by the 1980s was Japan’s third-largest political party. It also conducts educational and cultural activities.

Sokhumi formerly Sukhumi \su-'kii-me\ ancient Dioscurias. Sea¬ port (pop., 1991 est.: 120,000), Republic of Georgia. Located on the Black Sea, it was the site of an ancient Greek colony that was later held suc¬ cessively by the Romans, Byzantines, Ottomans, and Russians. It became a popular resort. After Georgia’s independence (1991), it was the centre of a rebellion for Abkhazian independence. It is the capital of the autono¬ mous republic of Abkhazia.

Sokolow \'s6-ko-16vV Anna (b. Feb. 9, 1910, Hartford, Conn., U.S.—d. March 29, 2000, New York, N.Y.) U.S. modern dancer, chore¬ ographer, and teacher. She studied with Martha Graham and danced with Graham’s company (1930-38). In the early 1930s she also formed her own dance group, the Dance Unit. From 1939 to 1949 she spent part of each year as a teacher and choreographer in Mexico City, where she formed Mexico’s first modem-dance group. Throughout her career and into the 1990s, she continued to form various companies and for them she often choreographed works on subjects of social concern.

Sokoto \so-'ko-to\ City (pop., 1996 est.: 204,900), northwestern Nige¬ ria. It lies along the Sokoto River on a traditional caravan route that leads north across the Sahara. It was the capital of the Fulani empire. Modem Sokoto is a major trade centre for agriculture and leather crafts. A pil¬ grimage centre, it is the site of mosques, a sultan’s palace, and Usman dan Fodio’s tomb and other holy shrines. Usman dan Fodio University was founded in 1975.

Sol Vsal\ In Roman religion, the name of two distinct sun gods at Rome. The original Sol, or Sol Indiges, had an annual sacrifice and shrines on the Quirinal and in the Circus Maximus. After the importation of various Syrian sun cults, Elagabalus built a temple to Sol Invictus on the Palatine and attempted to make his worship the principal religion at Rome. Aure- lian later reestablished the worship and erected a temple to Sol in the Campus Agrippae. The worship of Sol remained the chief imperial cult until the rise of Christianity.

solar cell Any device that directly converts the energy in light into elec¬ trical energy through the process of photovoltaics (see photovoltaic effect). Solar cells do not use chemical reactions to produce electric power, and they have no moving parts. Most solar cells are designed for converting sunlight into electricity. In large arrays, which may contain many thousands of individual cells, they can function as central electric power stations analogous to nuclear, coal-, or oil-fired power plants. Much smaller assem¬ blies of solar cells are used to provide electric power in remote locations including space satellites; because they have no moving parts that could require service or fuels that would require replenishment, solar cells are ideal for providing power in space. See illustration on following page.

solar cycle Period in which several important kinds of solar activity repeat, discovered in 1843 by Samuel Heinrich Schwabe (1789-1875). Lasting about 22 years on average, it includes two 11 -year cycles of sun¬ spots, whose magnetic polarities alternate between the Sun’s northern and southern hemispheres, and two peaks and two declines in the phenomena (e.g., solar prominences, auroras) that vary in the same period. Attempts have been made to connect the solar cycle to various other phenomena, including possible slight variations in the diameter of the Sun, sequences of annual growth rings in trees, and even the stock market’s rise and fall.

solar energy Radiation from the Sun that can produce heat, generate electricity, or cause chemical reactions. Solar collectors collect solar radiation and transfer it as heat to a carrier fluid. It can then be used for heating. Solar cells convert solar radiation directly into electricity by means of the photovoltaic effect. Solar energy is inexhaustible and non¬ polluting, but converting solar radiation to electricity is not yet commer¬ cially competitive, because of the high cost of producing large-scale solar cell arrays and the inherent inefficiency in converting light to electricity.

solar flare Sudden intense brightening of a small part of the Sun’s sur¬ face, often near a sunspot group. Flares develop in a few minutes and may last several hours, releasing intense X rays and streams of energetic par¬ ticles. They appear to be connected with changes in the Sun’s magnetic fields during the solar cycle. The ejected particles take a day or two to reach the vicinity of Earth, where they can disrupt radio communications and cause auroras, and may pose a radiation hazard to astronauts.

solar heating Use of solar radiation to heat water or air in buildings. There are two types: passive and active. Passive heating relies on archi¬ tectural design; the building’s siting, orientation, layout, materials, and construction are utilized to maximize the heating effect of sunlight fall-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

] 780 I solar nebula ► Soleri

light

When sunlight strikes a solar cell, an electron is freed by the photoelectric effect. The two dissimilar semiconductors possess a natural difference in electric potential (voltage), which causes the electrons to flow through the external circuit, supplying power to the load. The flow of electricity results from the characteristics of the semi¬ conductors, and is powered entirely by light striking the cell.

© MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

ing on it. A well-insulated building with a large south-facing window, for instance, can trap heat on sunny days and reduce reliance on gas, oil, or electricity. Brick, stone, or tile capacity walls are often incorporated to absorb the sun’s energy and radiate it into the interior, usually after a time lag of several hours. In active solar heating, mechanical means are used to collect, store, and distribute solar energy. In liquid-based systems, a blackened metal plate on the exterior absorbs sunlight and traps heat, which is transferred to a carrier fluid. Alternatively, fluid may be pumped through a glass tube or volume of space onto which sunlight has been focused by mirrors. After picking up heat from the collector, the warm fluid is pumped to an insulated storage tank. The system can supply a home with hot water from the tank or provide space heating with the warmed water flowing through tubes in floors and ceilings.

solar nebula Gaseous cloud from which, in the nebular hypothesis of the origin of the solar system, the Sun and planets formed by condensa¬ tion. In 1755 Immanuel Kant suggested that a nebula gradually pulled together by its own gravity developed into the Sun and planets. Pierre- Simon, marquis de Laplace, in 1796 proposed a similar model, in which a rotating and contracting cloud of gas—the young Sun—shed concentric rings of matter that condensed into the planets. But James Clerk Maxwell showed that, if all the matter in the known planets had once been distrib¬ uted this way, shearing forces would have prevented such condensation. Another objection was that the Sun has less anguar momentum than the theory seems to require. In the early 20th century most astronomers pre¬ ferred the collision theory: that the planets formed as a result of a close approach to the Sun by another star. Eventually, however, stronger objec¬ tions were mounted to the collision theory than to the nebular hypothesis, and a modified version of the latter—in which a rotating disk of matter gave rise to the planets through successively larger agglomerations, from dust grains through panetesimals and protoplanets—became the prevailing theory of the solar system’s origin.

solar neutrino problem See neutrino problem, soar

solar prominence Arched stream of hot gas projecting from the Sun’s surface into the chromosphere or corona. Prominences can be hundreds of thousands of miles long and can be seen with the unaided eye during a total eclipse. They appear to lie along and are supported by loops in the Sun’s magnetic field, where they may remain for days to months.

solar system The Sun, its panets, and the small bodies (see asteroid, Centaur object, comet, Kuiper belt, meteorite, and Oort cloud) interplanetary dust and gas under the Sun’s gravitational control. Another component of the solar system is the soar wind. The Sun contains more than 99% of the mass of the solar system; most of the rest is distributed among the nine planets, with Jupiter containing about 70%. According to the prevail¬ ing theory, the solar system originated from the soar nebua. See also Earth, Mars, Mercury, Neptune, Pluto, Saturn, Uranus, Venus.

solar wind Flux of particles, chiefly protons, electrons, and helium nuclei accelerated by the hot solar corona’s high temperatures to speeds high enough to allow them to escape the Sun. Soar fares increase its intensity. The solar wind deflects planets’ magnetospheres and the ion tails of comets away from the Sun. The uninterrupted portion of the solar wind continues to travel to a distance of about 20 astronomical units, where it cools and eventually diffuses into interstellar space. See also heliopause.

soldering \'sa-d3r-iq\ Process that uses metal alloys with low melting points to join metallic surfaces without melting them. Tin-lead solders, once widely used in the electrical and plumbing industries, are now replaced by lead-free alloys. Such alloys are also used to solder brass and copper automobile radiators. Solders are supplied in wire, bar, or premixed-paste form, depending on the application. Soldering can be car¬ ried out using a torch, a soldering iron, a flame heater, or an induction heater. See also brazing, flux.

sole Any of several fatfishes, especially about 100 species in the family Soleidae. Those found from Europe to Australia and Japan are marine; some New World species live in freshwater. The eyes are on the right side of the head. The Dover sole (Solea soled), found from estuaries to offshore waters in the eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean, grows to 20 in. (50 cm) long. The hogchoker (Trinectes maculatus), seldom over 10 in. (25 cm) long, is found in shallow coastal waters from New England to Central America and far inland in habitats associated with large rivers.

Solemn League and Covenant (1643) Agreement between the English and Scots in which the Scots agreed to support the English Parlia¬ mentarians in their disputes with the Royalists, and both countries agreed to work for a civil and religious union of England, Scotland, and Ireland under a presbyterian-parliamentary system. The Scots sent an army to England in 1644, and Charles I surrendered to them in 1646. He later agreed to the covenant and received Scottish military assistance (1647). Neither Oliver Cromwell’s Commonwealth nor Charles II (after the 1660 Restora¬ tion) honoured the covenant, and it was not renewed. See also Covenanter.

Solent Vso-lontV The Strait of the English Channel. It extends 15 mi (24 km) between mainland England and the Isle of Wight and varies in width from 2 to 5 mi (3 to 8 km). The submerged valley of a former eastward¬ flowing river, it is the scene of yacht races and is famous for the naval reviews off Spithead.

Soleri \so-'ler-e\, Paolo (b. June 21, 1919, Turin, Italy) Italian-born U.S. architect. After receiving a doctorate from Turin Polytechnic, he worked under Frank Lloyd Wright in Arizona (1947-49). In 1959 he began to draw up plans for a series of compact urban centres that would extend vertically into space rather than horizontally along the ground. These megastructures were designed to conserve energy and resources (partly through reliance on solar energy and elimination of automobile use within the city), preserve natural surroundings, and condense human activities within integrated total environments. Soleri coined the term arcology (from “architecture” and “ecology”) to describe his utopian constructions, which he delineated in drawings of great beauty and imagination. In 1970 he began constructing a prototype town called Arcosanti, for a population of 5,000, between Phoenix and Flagstaff, Ariz. The work, by students and volunteers, is still in progress.

Dover sole (Solea solea)

JACQUES SIX

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solfeggio ► Solomon's seal I 1781

solfeggio See solmization

Solferino X.sal-fs-'re-noX, Battle of (June 24, 1859) Engagement fought in Lombardy between Austria and an allied French and Piedmon¬ tese army. After its defeat at the Battle of Magenta, the Austrian army retreated eastward, where it unexpectedly met the allied army commanded by Napoleon III and Victor Emmanuel II. The battle developed in a confused fashion until the French eventually broke the Austrian centre line, but vigorous delaying actions left the allied army too exhausted to pursue the defeated Austrians. The battle left 14,000 Austrians and 15,000 French and Piedmontese killed or wounded. The costly battle influenced Napo¬ leon III to seek a truce (the Peace of Villafranca), which contributed to the unification of Italy.

Soli Vso-,li\ Ancient seaport, Anatolia. Located in what is now south- central Turkey, it was founded by Greek colonists from Rhodes and was a principle city of Cilicia. It was later conquered by Alexander the Great (333 bc). Destroyed in the 1st century bc by Tigranes II of Armenia, it was rebuilt by the Roman general Pompey the Great. Traces of the port’s artificial harbour and a portion of a long colonnade remain.

solicitation In criminal law, the act of asking, inducing, or directing someone to commit a crime. The person soliciting another becomes an accomplice to the crime. The term also refers to the act of obtaining bribes, as well as to the crime of a prostitute who offers sexual relations in exchange for money.

solicitor British lawyer who advises clients, represents them in the lower courts, and prepares cases for barristers to try in higher courts. The edu¬ cation required of a solicitor includes a law school course and five years of apprenticeship with a practicing solicitor. In the U.S. the solicitor gen¬ eral represents the federal government in court, especially the Supreme Court of the United States.

solid One of the three basic states of matter. A solid forms from either a liquid or a gas (the other two states of matter) because, as the energy of the atoms decreases, they coalesce in the relatively ordered, three- dimensional structure of a solid. All solids have the ability to support loads applied either perpendicular (normal) or parallel (shear) to a surface. Sol¬ ids can be crystalline (as in metals), amorphous (as in glass), or quasi¬ crystalline (as in certain metal alloys), depending on the degree of order in the arrangement of the atoms.

solid solution Solid form of a liquid solution. As with liquids, a ten¬ dency for mutual solubility exists between any two coexisting solids (i.e., each can mix with the other); depending on the chemical similarities of the solids, mutual solubility of two substances may be 100% (as between silver and gold), or it may be near 0 (as between copper and bismuth).

solid-state device Electronic device that operates on the basis of the electric, magnetic, or optical properties of a solid material, especially one that uses a solid crystal in which an orderly three-dimensional arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules is repeated throughout the entire crystal. Syn¬ thetic crystals of elements such as silicon, gallium arsenide, and germanium are used in transistors, rectifiers, and integrated circuits. The first solid-state device was the “cat’s whisker” (1906), in which a fine wire was moved across a solid crystal to detect a radio signal. See also semiconductor.

solid-state physics Branch of physics concerned with the physical properties of solid materials. It deals with the properties of crystal-lattice arrangements of atoms, and dislocations and defects in the arrangements. These structures are especially important in the study of the conductance of heat and electricity through solid materials.

Solidarity Polish Solidarnosc Polish trade union. A workers’ strike in 1980 at the Lenin Shipyards in Gdansk inspired other labour strikes in Poland and compelled the government to agree to the workers’ demands for independent unions. Solidarity was founded to unite the regional trade unions, and Lech Walesa was elected chairman. The movement won eco¬ nomic reforms and free elections before pressure from the Soviet Union forced the Polish government to suppress the union in 1981. The focus of worldwide attention, it continued as an underground organization until 1989, when the government recognized its legality. In the free elections of 1989, Solidarity candidates won most of the contested seats in the assembly and formed a coalition government. In the 1990s the union’s role diminished as new political parties emerged in a free Poland.

soliloquy \so- , li-l9- l kwe\ Dramatic monologue that gives the illusion of being a series of unspoken reflections. An accepted dramatic convention

in the 16th— 17th centuries, it was used artfully by William Shakespeare to reveal the minds of his characters. Pierre Corneille emphasized its lyricism, while Jean Racine favoured it for dramatic effect. Overused in English Restoration plays (1660-85), it fell into disfavour. Rejected by prose dra¬ matists such as Henrik Ibsen, it was seldom used in late 19th-century natu¬ ralist drama. Many 20th-century dramatists also avoided the soliloquy as artificial, though Tennessee Williams and Arthur Miller, among others, adapted it by introducing narrators who alternately mused on the action and took part in it. It has been used by contemporary playwrights such as John Guare and Brian Friel, and the illusion that the characters are con¬ fiding in the audience has proved acceptable to a culture accustomed to the interview and the documentary film.

solmization V.sal-ms-'za-shonN or solfeggio \sal-'fe-je-o\ System of designating musical notes by syllable names. It may have been invented by the 1 lth-century Italian monk Guido d’Arezzo when training his cathedral singers. The syllables— ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la —were derived from the first syllables of the lines of a hymn, each phrase of which began one note higher than the previous phrase. This six-note series, or hexachord, facilitated the sight-reading of music by allowing the singer always to associate a given musical interval with any two syllables. The syllables are still in use, though ut is usually replaced by the more singable do, and ti or si has been added for the seventh scale degree. Compare shape-note singing.

Solo River Longest river in Java, Indonesia. It rises on the slope of Mount Lawu volcano and flows 335 mi (539 km) north and east to dis¬ charge into the Java Sea. It is navigable for small craft in much of its upper course; its marshy delta is used for fish ponds.

Solomon (fl. 10th century bc) Son and successor of David. Nearly all that is known about him comes from the Bible (1 Kings 1-11 and 2 Chronicles 1-9). Through the efforts of his mother, Bathsheba, and the prophet Nathan, Solomon was anointed king while David was still alive. On accession to the throne, he liquidated his opponents ruthlessly and installed friends in key posts. He established Israelite colonies outside his kingdom’s borders, cooperating with such friendly rulers as the Queen of Sheba to increase commerce. Fortification of his far-flung empire neces¬ sitated a vast building program, the crowning achievement of which was the Temple of Jerusalem. He reorganized the nation into 12 tribes with 12 administrative districts. He is said to have had a harem of 700 wives and 300 concubines. After the ascension to the throne of his son Rehoboam, the northern tribes seceded and formed their own kingdom of Israel, bring¬ ing an end to Solomon’s empire. His legendary wisdom is recorded in the Book of Proverbs, and he is traditionally named as the author of the bib¬ lical Song of Solomon. He was regarded as the greatest king of Israel.

Solomon Islands Island country, southwestern South Pacific Ocean. (Another island group named Solomon Islands, which includes Bougain¬ ville, is part of Papua New Guinea.) The country includes the islands of Guadalcanal, Malaita, San Cristobal, Choiseul, Santa Isabel, and Rennell; the Russell, Florida, Shortland, Santa Cruz, and New Georgia island groups; and small islands and reefs. Area: 10,954 sq mi (28,370 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 471,000. Capital: Honiara. The population is largely Melanesian. Languages: English (official), Pijin (an English-based pidgin), and more than 60 indigenous Melanesian languages. Religions: Christianity (predominantly Protestant; also Roman Catholic); also tradi¬ tional beliefs. Currency: Solomon Islands dollar. The Solomons group comprises numerous volcanic islands arranged in two parallel chains that converge in the southeast. They consist mostly of heavily wooded, moun¬ tainous terrain drained by short, swift-flowing rivers. The climate is tropi¬ cal. The economy is based on agriculture, fishing, and lumbering. Tourism is increasing as cruise ships and visitors to World War II battlefields stop at the islands. The country is a constitutional monarchy with one legislative house; its chief of state is the British monarch represented by the governor- general, and the head of government is the prime minister. The Solomon Islands were probably settled c. 2000 bc by Austronesian people. Visited by the Spanish in 1568, they were subsequently explored and charted by the Dutch, French, and British. They were under British protection from 1893 as the British Solomon Islands. The Japanese invasion of 1942 ignited some of the most bitter fighting in the Pacific during the war, particularly on Guadalcanal. The protectorate became self-governing in 1976 and fully independent in 1978. From 1999 ethnic fighting broke out in the Solomons; New Zealand and Australian armed forces helped restore order.

Solomon's seal Any of about 25 species of herbaceous perennials that make up the genus Polygonatum (lily family), found throughout the North-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1782 I Solon ► Somali

em Hemisphere. Particularly common in the eastern U.S. and Canada, Solomon’s seals flourish in damp, wooded areas and thickets. They have thick, creeping rhizomes and tall, drooping stems, and they bear clusters of white or greenish-white flowers in the axils of leaves, followed by drooping red berries. Similar plants of the genus Smilacina, known as false Solomon’s seal, bear their flower clusters at the tips of the stems.

Solon \'so-bn\ (b. c. 630—d. c. 560 bc) Athenian statesman, reformer, and poet, known as one of the Seven Wise Men of Greece. He was of noble descent but of moderate means. Though he held the office of archon c. 594, he did not gain full power as a reformer and legislator until some

20 years later. He ended aristocratic rule and permitted participation by all citizens who had achieved a measure of wealth, eliminating any blood¬ line requirement. He replaced Draco’s code with more humane laws, freed citizens enslaved for debt and redeemed their land, encouraged profes¬ sions, and reformed coinage and weights and measures. Despite com¬ plaints from all sides, the people abided by the changes. He apparently left Athens for 10 years on a series of travels; on his return, he warned Athens about his relative Peisistratus, who would become tyrant.

Solow Vs6-16\, Robert M(erton) (b. Aug. 23, 1924, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. economist. He received his Ph.D. from Harvard University and began teaching at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1949. Solow developed a mathematical model that could show the relative con¬ tributions of various factors to sustained national economic growth. He demonstrated that, contrary to traditional economic thinking, the rate of technological progress is more important to growth than capital accumu¬ lation or increases in labour. From the 1960s on, his studies were influ¬ ential in persuading governments to invest in technological research and development. In 1987 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economic Sci¬ ences.

solstice \'sol-stis\ Either of the two moments in the year when the Sun’s apparent path is farthest north or south from Earth’s Equator; also, either of the two points along the ecliptic that the Sun passes through at these times. In the Northern Hemisphere the summer solstice occurs on June

21 or 22; the winter solstice on December 21 or 22. In the Southern Hemisphere the seasons are reversed. See also equinox.

Solti \'shol-te. Sir Georg orig. Gyorgy Stern Solti (b. Oct. 21, 1912, Budapest, Hung.—d. Sept. 5, 1997, Antibes, France) Hungarian- born British conductor. After making his piano debut at age 12, he stud¬ ied piano with Bela Bartok and composition with Zoltan Kodaly. He was Arturo Toscanini’s assistant at Salzburg (1936-37). In Switzerland when World War II broke out, he returned to piano, winning the 1942 Geneva International Competition. He led the Bavarian State Opera in Munich (1945-52), and then he moved to Frankfurt (1952-61). As director of Covent Garden (1961-71), he made the first complete recording of Rich¬ ard Wagner’s Ring cycle (1958-65), which remains one of the celebrated recordings of all time. Under Solti (1969-91), the Chicago Symphony Orchestra won extraordinary praise and success.

solubility Degree to which a substance dissolves in a solvent to make a solution (usually expressed as grams of solute per litre of solvent). Solu¬ bility of one fluid (liquid or gas) in another may be complete (totally mis¬ cible; e.g., methanol and water) or partial (oil and water dissolve only slightly). In general, “like dissolves like” (e.g., aromatic hydrocarbons dis¬ solve in each other but not in water). Some separation methods (absorption, extraction) rely on differences in solubility, expressed as the distribution coefficient (ratio of a material’s solubilities in two solvents). Generally, solubilities of solids in liquids increase with temperature and those of gases decrease with temperature and increase with pressure. A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at a given temperature and pressure is said to be saturated (see saturation). See also Joel Hildebrand.

solution In chemistry, a homogeneous mixture of two or more sub¬ stances in relative amounts that can vary continuously up to the limit of solubility (saturation), if any, of one in the other. Most solutions are liq¬ uids, but solutions also can be of GASes or solids —for example, air (com¬ posed primarily of oxygen and nitrogen) or brass (composed chiefly of copper and zinc; see alloy). In solutions comprising a solid dissolved in a liquid, the liquid is the solvent, and the solid is the solute; if both com¬ ponents are liquids, the one present in a smaller amount is usually con¬ sidered the solute. If the saturation point is passed, excess solute separates out. Substances with ionic bonds (e.g., salts) and many with covalent bonds (e.g., acids, bases, alcohols) undergo dissociation into ions on dissolving and are called electrolytes. Their solutions can conduct electricity and have

other properties that differ from those of nonelectrolytes. Solutions are involved in most chemical reactions, refining and purification, industrial processing, and biological processes.

Solutrean \s9-1ii-tre-9n\ industry Short-lived stone-tool industry that flourished 17,000-21,000 years ago in southwestern France (e.g., at La Solutre and Laugerie-Haute) and in nearby areas. The industry is of spe¬ cial interest because of its particularly fine workmanship. In addition to burins (chisel-like tools), scrapers, and borers, the Solutrean industry exhibits blades formed in the shape of laurel or willow leaves and vari¬ ous shouldered points. Some implements are so fine as to be useless as tools and may instead have been luxury items.

Solvay process \'sal-,va\ or ammonia-soda process Modem method of manufacturing sodium carbonate (soda ash), devised and com¬ mercialized in Belgium by Ernest Solvay (1838-1922). Common salt (sodium chloride) is treated with ammonia and then carbon dioxide, under carefully controlled conditions, to form sodium bicarbonate and ammo¬ nium chloride. When heated, the bicarbonate yields sodium carbonate, the desired product; the ammonium chloride is treated with lime to produce ammonia (for reuse) and calcium chloride. The process proved of great commercial value, since large quantities of soda ash are used in making glass, detergents, and cleansers. See also caustic soda.

solvent Substance, ordinarily a liquid, in which other materials dissolve to form a solution. Polar solvents (e.g., water) favour formation of ions; nonpolar ones (e.g., hydrocarbons) do not. Solvents may be predominantly acidic, predominantly basic, amphoteric (both), or aprotic (neither). Organic compounds used as solvents include aromatic compounds and other hydrocarbons, alcohols, esters, ethers, ketones, amines, and nitrated and halogenated hydrocarbons. Their chief uses are as media for chemi¬ cal syntheses, as industrial cleaners, in extractive processes, in pharma¬ ceuticals, in inks, and in paints, varnishes, and lacquers.

Solway Firth Inlet of the Irish Sea. On the border between northwest¬ ern England and southwestern Scotland, it extends inland for 38 mi (61 km). It is a traditional boundary between the two countries. Hadrian's Wall terminates on its southern shore.

Solzhenitsyn V.sol-zhs-'net-sinV Aleksandr (Isayevich) (b. Dec. 11, 1918, Kislovodsk, Russia) Russian novelist and historian. He fought in World War II but was arrested in 1945 for criticizing Joseph Stalin. He spent eight years in prisons and labour camps and three more in enforced exile. With One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (1962), based on his labour-camp experiences, he emerged as an eloquent opponent of gov¬ ernment repression. He was forced to publish later works abroad, includ¬ ing The First Circle (1968), Cancer Ward (1968), and August 1914 (1971). Publication of the first volume of The Gulag Archipelago (1973), one of the greatest works in Russian prose, resulted in his being charged with treason. Expelled from the Soviet Union in 1974, he lived in the U.S., enjoying worldwide fame, until 1994, when he returned home. In the late 1980s glasnost brought renewed access to his work in Russia but also a loss of interest in it and in the prophetic role he claimed for himself in Russian history. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1970.

soma In ancient Indian religion, an unidentified plant, the juice of which was an offering of the Vedic sacrifices. Its stalks were pressed, and its juice, filtered through wool, was mixed with water and milk. After being offered as a libation to the gods, the remainder of the soma was consumed by the priests and the sacrificer. It was highly valued for its exhilarating, probably hallucinogenic, effect. The plant was believed to have been delivered to the earth from heaven by an eagle. The personified deity Soma was the master of plants, healer of disease, and bestower of riches. See also Vedic religion.

Somali \s9-'ma-lez\ Any member of a large group of people occupying all of Somalia and parts of Djibouti, Ethiopia, and Kenya. Their language is of the Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic family. Numbering more than seven million, the Somalis are divided into northern, central, and south¬ ern groups. All have been Muslim since at least the 14th century. They are primarily nomadic herdsmen who, because of intense competition for scarce resources, have been extremely individualistic and frequently involved in blood feuds or wars with neighbouring clans or peoples. A second category of Somalis are the townspeople and agriculturalists of the urban centres, especially along the coast of the Horn of Africa, many of whom act as commercial middlemen between the Arab world and the nomads of the interior.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Somalia ► sonar I 1783

Somalia Country, eastern Africa. Located in the Horn of Africa, it stretches from the Equator to the Red Sea. Area: 246,000 sq mi (637,000 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 8,228,000 (excluding an estimated 400,000

cial; predominantly Sunni). Currency:

Somali shilling. Much of Somalia is semidesert. The central and southern regions are flat, while the northern region rises to form rugged mountain ranges. Only a tiny proportion of its land is arable, though more than half is grazeable. Somalia has a developing mixed economy based largely on livestock and agriculture. It is one of the poorest countries in the world. Muslim Arabs and Persians first established trading posts along the coasts in the 7th-10th centuries. By the 10th century Somali nomads occupied the area inland from the Gulf of Aden, and the south and west were inhabited by various groups of pastoral Oromo peoples. Intensive European explo¬ ration began after the British occupation of Aden in 1839, and in the late 19th century Britain and Italy set up protectorates in the region. During World War II the Italians invaded British Somaliland (1940); a year later British troops retook the area. Britain administered the region until 1950, when Italian Somaliland became a UN trust territory. In 1960 it was united with the former British Somaliland, and the two became the independent Republic of Somalia. Since then it has suffered political and civil strife, including military dictatorship, civil wars, drought, and famine. No effec¬ tive central government has existed since the early 1990s. In 1991 a Repub¬ lic of Somaliland was proclaimed by a breakaway group on territory corresponding to the former British Somaliland. It did not receive interna¬ tional recognition, but it operated more smoothly than the area of tradi¬ tional Somalia. A UN peacekeeping force intervened in 1992 to secure food supplies; fighting continued, and the peacekeeping force left in 1995. The country subsequently remained in turmoil.

Somaliland Vso-'ma-le-.landX Historical name for the region of eastern Africa between the Equator and the Gulf of Aden that includes Somalia, Djibouti, and southeastern Ethiopia. It has an area of about 300,000 sq mi (777,000 sq km). The region probably formed part of the “Land of Punt” known to the ancient Egyptians. Between the 7th and 12th centu¬ ries, Muslim traders from Arabia and Iran settled on the coast and formed sultanates. The nomadic Somali, who occupied the northern part of the country between the 10th and 15th centuries, adopted Islam and served in their armies. Gradually the sultanates themselves came under Somali control. In the late 19th century, France, Italy, and Britain partitioned the region among themselves. In 1960 British Somaliland and Italian Somali¬ land were united to form the Republic of Somalia. French Somaliland

became independent as the Republic of Djibouti in 1977. In 1991 British Somaliland announced that it was becoming an independent state, the Republic of Somaliland; it was not internationally recognized.

somatotropin See growth hormone

Somerset Administrative (pop., 2001: 498,093), geographic, and his¬ toric county, southwestern England. Its county seat is Taunton. The remains of prehistoric villages have been found in the region. The Romans mined lead and built villas there; from the 7th century ad, Somerset formed the westernmost part of the kingdom of Wessex. A large part of western Somerset is made up of Exmoor National Park, and long stretches of coastline are protected. It is mainly an agricultural county and is known for its cider. Tourism draws visitors to its Bristol Channel resorts and his¬ toric mansions.

Somerset, Edward Seymour, 1st duke of (b. c. 1500/06—d. Jan. 22, 1552, London, Eng.) English politician. After his sister, Jane Sey¬ mour, married King Henry VIII in 1536, Somerset rose rapidly in royal favour. He commanded the English forces that invaded Scotland and sacked Edinburgh in 1544, and he decisively defeated the French at Bou¬ logne in 1545. After Henry’s death (1547), he was named Protector of England during the minority of Edward VI and acted as king in all but name. When the Scots rejected his appeal for a voluntary union with England, he invaded Scotland and won the Battle of Pinkie (1547). He introduced moderate Protestant reforms, but these provoked Catholic uprisings in western England. His land reforms were opposed by land- owners and the duke of Northumberland, who had Somerset deposed from the protectorate in 1549. He was imprisoned in 1551 on a flimsy charge of treason and executed the next year.

Somerville Vssm-ar-.viR and Ross joint pseudonym of Edith Anna Oenone Somerville and Violet Florence Martin (respectively b. May 2, 1858, Corfu, Greece—d. Oct. 8, 1949, Castlehaven, County Cork, Ire.; b. June 11, 1862, Ross House, County Galway, Ire.—d. Dec. 21, 1915, Cork, County Cork) Irish cousins and writers. Somerville and Martin met in 1886; three years later they published their first novel, An Irish Cousin , under the names E.CE. Somerville and Martin Ross. They cowrote a total of 14 books, including a collection of short stories. Some Experiences of an Irish R.M. (1899), that, with its sequels, was their most popular work. Their works wittily and sympathetically portrayed Irish society in the late 19th century. After Martin’s death, Somerville contin¬ ued to write under the joint name.

Somme Vsom, 'sam, 'sornV Battle of the (July 1-Nov. 13, 1916) Allied offensive in World War I. British and French forces launched a frontal attack against an entrenched German army north of the Somme River in France. A weeklong artillery bombardment was followed by a British infantry assault on the still-impregnable German positions. Nearly 60,000 British casualties (including 20,000 killed) occurred on the first day. The offensive gradually deteriorated into a battle of attrition, hampered by tor¬ rential rains in October that made the muddy battlefield impassable. By the time it was abandoned, the Allies had advanced only 5 mi (8 km). The staggering losses included 650,000 German casualties, 420,000 British, and 195,000 French. The battle became a metaphor for futile and indis¬ criminate slaughter.

Somme River Vs9m\ River, northern France. It rises near St.-Quentin and flows westward 152 mi (245 km) to the English Channel. Canals on its upper valley connect it with navigable waterways that link Paris and Flanders. Its upper basin was the scene of heavy fighting in World War I, particularly that of the Battle of the Somme (1916).

Somoza family \so-'mo-s3\ Family that maintained political control of Nicaragua for more than 40 years. The dynasty’s founder, Anastasio Somoza Garcia (1896-1956), became head of Nicaragua’s army in 1933 and, after deposing the elected president in 1936, ruled the country with a firm and grasping hand until he was assassinated. He was succeeded by his elder son, Luis Somoza Debayle (1922-67), and later by his younger son, Anastasio Somoza Debayle (1925-80), whose corrupt and brutal rule (1963-79) led to his overthrow by the Sandinistas. Somoza looted Nica¬ ragua before fleeing the country; he was assassinated in Paraguay.

sonar Technique for detecting and determining the distance and direc¬ tion of underwater objects by tracking acoustic echoes. The name derives from sound rcovigation ranging. Sound waves emitted by or reflected from an object are detected by sonar apparatus and analyzed for information. In active sonar a sound wave is generated that spreads outward and is

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1784 I sonata ► sonnet

reflected back by a target object. Passive systems consist simply of receiv¬ ing sensors that pick up the noise produced by the target (such as a sub¬ marine or torpedo). A third kind of sonar, used in communication systems, requires a projector and receiver at both ends. Sonar was first used to detect submarines in 1916. Modern nonmilitary uses include fish finding, depth sounding, mapping of the ocean floor, Doppler navigation (see Doppler effect), and searching for wrecks or other objects in the oceans.

sonata Musical form for one or more instruments, usually consisting of three or four movements. The name, Italian for “sounded (on an instru¬ ment),” originally simply indicated nonvocal music and was used for a confusing variety of genres into the late 17th century. In the 1650s two types of ensemble sonatas began to be codified, the sonata da chiesa (church sonata) and sonata da camera (chamber sonata). The former, intended for church performance, was generally in four movements, two of them slow; the latter was usually a suite of dances. The so-called solo sonata (for soloist—usually violin—and continuo) and the trio sonata (for two soloists and continuo) became standard. In the 1740s solo keyboard sonatas began to be written. C.P.E. Bach established the three-movement keyboard sonata as the norm, a status it would retain through the classi¬ cal era. Duo sonatas in the same form, usually for violin and keyboard, simultaneously became highly popular. Keyboard and duo sonatas have remained the standard types to the present day. From Bach’s time onward, the first movement was generally in allegro tempo and in sonata form. The second movement was usually slow. The last movement was gener¬ ally a minuet, rondo, or theme and variations. In a four-movement sonata, the third was usually a minuet or scherzo. In these respects the sonata paralleled genres such as the symphony and the string quartet.

sonata form or sonata-aNegro form Form of most first move¬ ments and often other movements in musical genres such as the symphony, concerto, string quartet, and sonata. The three parts of sonata form evolved from the binary, or two-part, form prominent in the music of the 17th and early 18th centuries. In sonata form the first part, or exposition, presents the basic thematic material of the movement, which is often divided into two thematic groups, the second being in the dominant key or—if the movement is in a minor key—in the relative major key. The sec¬ ond section, or development, generally treats the earlier themes freely, often moving to various different keys. It leads to the final section, or reca¬ pitulation, when the tonic key returns and all the thematic material is repeated in the tonic. Sonata form was the most common form for instru¬ mental works in Western art music from c. 1760 to the early 20th century.

Sonderbund Vzon-dor-.buntX German "Separatist League"

League formed in 1845 by the seven Roman Catholic Swiss cantons. After the Protestant cantons sought to prevent the Jesuits’ takeover of religious education in Lucerne, the Catholic cantons formed the Sonderbund, which further angered the liberal cantons. In 1847 a reformist majority in the Swiss Diet voted to dissolve the Sonderbund and expel the Jesuits. In November 1847 the league took up arms, but its forces were quickly sub¬ dued. The new Swiss constitution adopted in 1848 strengthened the cen¬ tral government.

Sondheim Vsand- 1 hlm\ / Stephen (Joshua) (b. March 22, 1930, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. composer and lyricist. He studied piano and organ and at age 15 wrote his first musical under the tutelage of the musical comedy author Oscar Hammerstein II, a family friend. After studies with composer Milton Babbitt, he made his first mark on Broadway as lyricist for West Side Story (1957) and later Gypsy (1959). He wrote both music and lyrics for A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (1962, Tony Award), A Little Night Music (1973, Tony Award), Sweeney Todd (1979, Tony Award), Sunday in the Park with George (1984, Pulitzer Prize), and Into the Woods (1987), among other works. His stage works are known for their intellectuality, musical complexity, and frequently dark tone.

song Short and usually simple piece of music for voice, with or with¬ out instrumental accompaniment. Folk songs—traditional songs without a known composer transmitted orally rather than in written form—have existed for millennia but have left few traces in ancient sources. Virtually all known preliterate societies have a repertory of songs. Folk songs often accompany religious ceremonies, dancing, labour, or courting; they may tell stories or express emotions; the music follows obvious conventions and is often repetitive. Songs written by a particular composer or poet generally are more sophisticated and are not attached to activities. In the West the continuous tradition of secular art songs began with the trouba¬ dours, trouveres, and minnesingers of the 12th—13th centuries. Polyphonic

songs, originating in the motet, began to appear in the 13th century. Com¬ posers of the 14th century produced a great body of polyphonic songs in the formes fixes. Later the Italian madrigal became the most distinguished genre. Notated accompaniments to solo songs appeared in the 16th cen¬ tury. The Romantic movement made the 19th century a golden age for the art song, notably the German lied. In the 20th century the popular song displaced the more cultivated art song, and popular music is today syn¬ onymous with popular song.

Song dynasty or Sung \'suq\ dynasty (960-1279) Chinese dynasty that united the entire country until 1127 and the southern portion until 1279, during which time northern China was controlled by the Juchen tribes. During the Song, commerce flourished, paper currency came into increasing use, and several cities boasted populations exceeding one mil¬ lion people. Wang Anshi worked for more equitable taxation and state- centred solutions for China’s problems. Widespread printing brought increased literacy and a broader elite, and private academies and state schools sent increasing numbers of candidates through the Chinese exami¬ nation system. In the 12th century, Zhu Xi systemized Neo-Confucianism. The Song was also an era of scholarship: groundbreaking treatises on architecture and botany were published, as was the famous history Zizhi tongjian (“Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Government”) of Sima Guang. Landscape painting is said to have reached its peak during the Northern Song, which was also famous for its magnificent architecture. See also Taizu.

Song Hong See Red River

Song Huizong See Huizong

songbird Any oscine passerine (suborder Passere), all of which have a complex vocal organ, the syrinx. Some species (e.g., thrushes) produce melodious songs; others (e.g., crows) have a harsh voice; and some do little or no singing. See also birdsong.

Songhai \ , soq- 1 hI\ Ethnolinguistic group chiefly inhabiting the area of the great bend in the Niger River in Mali, centred on the site of the old Songhai empire. Numbering some 1.5 million, the Songhai speak a Nilo- Saharan language. Songhai society traditionally was highly structured, comprising a nobility, free commoners, artisans, griots (bards and chroni¬ clers), and (formerly) slaves. They cultivate cereals in the rainy season (June to November) and also engage in cattle raising and fishing. The Songhai have traditionally prospered from caravan trade. Many young Songhai leave home for the coast, especially Ghana.

Songhai \'s6q-,hl\ empire or Songhay empire Ancient Muslim state. West Africa. Centred on the middle Niger River in what is now cen¬ tral Mali, it eventually extended to the Atlantic coast and into Niger and Nigeria. Established by the Songhai people c. ad 800, it reached its great¬ est extent in the 16th century before falling to Moroccan forces in 1591. Its important cities were Gao and Timbuktu.

Songhua Jiang See Sungari River

Songjiang \'suq-'jyaq\ or Sung-chiang Town (population 1998 est.: 490,300), Shanghai municipality, eastern China. It was a superior prefec¬ ture under the Ming and Qing dynasties. Originally a major rice-growing centre, by the 18th century it had gained an international reputation for cotton textiles. During the Taiping Rebellion (1850-64) it was badly dam¬ aged in the fighting to defend Shanghai; it is the burial place of the U.S. adventurer Frederick T. Ward, who commanded Western troops who fought the rebellion. Shanghai’s phenomenal 19th-century growth took away the town’s role as a commercial centre; although it remains domi¬ nated by Shanghai, it has some industry and is a tourist destination for Shanghai residents.

sonnet Fixed verse form having 14 lines that are typically five-foot iambics rhyming according to a prescribed scheme. The sonnet is unique among poetic forms in Western literature in that it has retained its appeal for major poets for five centuries. It seems to have originated in the 13th century among the Sicilian school of court poets. In the 14th century Petrarch established the most widely used sonnet form. The Petrarchan (or Italian) sonnet characteristically consists of an eight-line octave, rhym¬ ing abbaabba, that states a problem, asks a question, or expresses an emotional tension, followed by a six-line sestet, of varying rhyme schemes, that resolves the problem, answers the question, or resolves the tension. In adapting the Italian form, Elizabethan poets gradually devel¬ oped the other major sonnet form, the Shakespearean (or English) son-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Sonni ‘All ► Sorby I 1785

net. It consists of three quatrains, each with an independent rhyme scheme, and ends with a rhymed couplet.

Sonni ‘All \s6n-'e-a-'le\ (d. 1492) West African monarch who initiated the imperial expansion of the Songhai empire. His first major conquest (1468) was the city of Timbuktu, one of the chief anchors of the declining Mali empire. A seven-year siege of the city of Jenne (now Djenne) resulted in its conquest in 1473. He spent most of his reign repulsing attacks on his empire by the Dendi, the Fulani, the Mossi, and the Tuareg. Little is known about his administration, but Arab chroniclers characterized him as a cruel and capricious tyrant.

Sonora \so-'nor-9\ State (pop., 2000: 2,216,969), northwestern Mexico. Bordering the U.S. and the Gulf of California, it covers 70,291 sq mi (182,052 sq km); its capital is Hermosillo. Explored by Spaniards in the 1530s, it became an important colonial mining district for copper, gold, and silver. It became a state in 1830, but the Yaqui Indian peoples were not finally subdued until the 20th century. It is generally arid and semi- arid, and irrigation is used to grow winter vegetables, cereals, cotton, tobacco, and com (maize).

Sonoran Desert Arid region, western North America. Covering 120,000 sq mi (310,000 sq km), the Sonoran Desert is located in south¬ western Arizona and southeastern California, U.S., and northern Baja California and western Sonora state, Mex. The desert’s subdivisions include the Colorado and Yuma deserts. Irrigation has produced many fertile agricultural areas, notably the Coachella and Imperial valleys. Warm winters in the Sonoran Desert attract tourists to resorts such as Palm Springs, Tucson, and Phoenix. Indian reservations (see Papago; Pima) are located there.

Sontag Vsan-.tagV, Susan orig. Susan Rosenblatt (b. Jan. 16, 1933, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Dec. 28, 2004, New York) U.S. writer. She studied at the University of Chicago and Harvard University and taught philosophy at several institutions. In the early 1960s she began contributing to such periodicals as the New York Review of Books, Com¬ mentary, and Partisan Review, her French-influenced essays being char¬ acterized by a serious philosophical approach to aspects of modem culture rarely taken seriously at the time, including films, popular music, and “camp” sensibility. Collections of her essays include the influential Against Interpretation, and Other Essays (1966) and Styles of Radical Will (1969). Her later critical works include On Photography (1977), Illness as Metaphor (1978), and AIDS and Its Metaphors (1989). She also wrote screenplays and novels, including The Volcano Lover (1992) and In America (2000).

Sony Corp. Major Japanese manufacturer of consumer electronics. Founded by Ibuka Masaru and Morita Akio in 1946 as Tokyo Telecom¬ munications Engineering Corp., it adopted its present name in 1958. It began by making voltmeters, sound generators, and similar devices. Its first major consumer item was an audio tape recorder, introduced in 1950. Since then it has pioneered new technology for consumer products mar¬ keted worldwide, including the first pocket-sized transistor radio (1957), a colour videocassette recorder (1969), and the Walkman portable tape player (1979). In 1994 Sony released the PlayStation video game con¬ sole. Its entertainment divisions include motion-picture firms Columbia TriStar and Sony Pictures and recording labels Epic and Columbia.

Soong Vsiir)\ family Influential 20th-century Chinese family. Charlie Soong (1866-1918) trained in the U.S. to become a missionary. In China he made his fortune as a publisher, initially of Bibles, and became a supporter of Sun Yat-sen, whose Nationalist Party he helped finance. His first daughter married a businessman who also provided financial support to the Nation¬ alists; his second daughter, Soong Ch’ing-ling (Song Qingling; 1893— 1981), married Sun Yat-sen; and his third daughter, Soong Mei-ling (1897- 2003), became Chiang Kai-shek’s second wife. A son, T.V. Soong (1894- 1971), established the Central Bank of China and acted as finance minister for the Nationalist government in the 1920s and foreign minister in the 1930s. The 1949 communist takeover divided the family: Ch’ing-ling, who had earlier denounced the Nationalists for betraying Sun Yat-sen’s ideals, remained on the mainland and was named honorary chairman of the Peo¬ ple’s Republic shortly before her death. Mei-ling accompanied Chiang Kai-shek to Taiwan and publicized his cause in the West; as Madam Chiang, she became extremely popular in the U.S. T.V. Soong, once reputed to be the wealthiest man in the world, moved to the U.S.

sopher See sofer

Sophia Vso-fyoV Russian Sofya Alekseyevna (b. Sept. 27, 1657, Moscow, Russia—d. July 14, 1704, Moscow) Regent of Russia (1682— 89). Daughter of Tsai - Alexis, she objected to the succession of her half brother Peter I (the Great) as tsar (1682) and instigated an uprising by the streltsy (household troops). She arranged to have her brother Ivan V pro¬ claimed coruler with Peter and assumed the role of regent. With help from her chief adviser and lover, Vasily Golitsyn, she promoted the develop¬ ment of industry and concluded peace treaties with Poland (1686) and China (1689). After sponsoring two disastrous military campaigns against the Crimean Tatars (1687, 1689), she tried to regain her influence by inciting the streltsy to oust Peter and his advisers. She was instead over¬ thrown by Peter in 1689 and forced to enter a convent.

sophists Vsa-fists\ Group of itinerant professional teachers, lecturers, and writers prominent in Greece in the later 5th century bc. The sophis¬ tic movement arose at a time when there was much questioning of the absolute nature of familiar values and ways of life. An antithesis arose between nature and custom, tradition, or law, in which custom could be regarded either as artificial trammels on the freedom of the natural state or as beneficial and civilizing restraints on natural anarchy. Both views were represented among the sophists, though the former was the more common. Their first and most eminent representative was Protagoras; other notable sophists include Gorgias of Leontini, Prodicus, Hippias, Antiphon, Thrasymachus, and Critias. A later “second sophistic school” existed in the 2nd century ad.

Sophocles Vsa-fo-.klezV (b. c. 496, Colonus, near Athens—d. 406 bc, Athens) Greek playwright. With Aeschylus and Euripides, he was one of the three great tragic playwrights of Classical Athens. A distinguished public figure in Athens, he served successively in important posts as a treasurer, commander, and adviser. He competed in dramatic festivals, where he defeated Aeschylus to win his first victory in 468 bc. He went on to achieve unparalleled success, writing 123 dramas for dramatic competi¬ tions and achieving more than 20 victories. Only seven tragedies survive in their entirety: Antigone, Ajax, Electra, The Trachinian Women, Philoc- tetes, Oedipus at Colonus, and Oedipus the King, his best-known work. He increased the size of the chorus and was the first to introduce a third actor onstage. For their supple language, vivid characterization, and for¬ mal perfection, his works are regarded as the epitome of Greek drama.

soprano Highest vocal register, ranging from about middle C to the second A above it. Sopranos are normally female but may also include boy sopranos and (previously) castrati (see castrato). Soprano voices are traditionally classified as dramatic (rich and powerful), lyric (lighter), and coloratura (high and very agile). The mezzo-soprano range is about a third lower.

Sopwith, Sir Thomas (Octave Murdoch) (b. Jan. 18, 1888, Lon¬ don, Eng.—d. Jan. 27, 1989, Compton Manor, near Winchester, Hamp¬ shire) British aircraft designer. He taught himself to fly in 1910 and won a prize for the longest flight to the European continent. In 1912 he founded Sopwith Aviation Company, Ltd., which in World War I built such planes as the Camel, the Pup, and the Triplane. His Hawker Aircraft Company produced the Hurricane fighter of World War II and later the Harrier, a vertical-takeoff jet fighter. He was chairman of the Hawker Siddeley Group, successor to his earlier company, until 1963.

Soranus of Ephesus \s6- , ra-n3s... , e-f3-sos\ (fl. 2nd century ad, Alex¬ andria and Rome) Greek gynecologist, obstetrician, and pediatrician. A keen observer and unusually competent practitioner, he wrote works that influenced medical opinion for 1,500 years. His On Midwifery and the Diseases of Women describes contraceptive methods, obstetric techniques that were thought to be new in the 15th century, and what is now recog¬ nized as rickets. His suggested treatments for nervous disorders resemble aspects of modern psychotherapy. Soranus also wrote the first known biography of Hippocrates.

Sorb See Wend

Sorby, Henry Clifton (b. May 10, 1826, Woodbourne, near Sheffield, Yorkshire, Eng.—d. March 9, 1908, Sheffield) British amateur scientist. Convinced of the value of the microscope to geology, Sorby began in 1849 to prepare thin sections of rocks, about 0.001 in. (0.025 mm) thick, for microscopic study. He developed a new type of spectrum microscope for analyzing the light of organic pigments (1865). His research on meteors led to studies of iron and steel, and his later studies included the origin of layered rocks, weathering, and marine biology. He published works

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1786 I sorcery ► soul

dealing with the physical geography of geologic periods, rock breakdown and buildup, and the formation of river terraces. Sorby is considered the father of microscopical petrography and metallography.

sorcery See witchcraft and sorcery

Sorel \so-'rel\, Georges (-Eugene) (b. Nov. 2, 1847, Cherbourg, France—d. Aug. 30, 1922, Boulogne-sur-Seine) French author and revo¬ lutionary. Trained as a civil engineer, he was 40 before he became inter¬ ested in social issues. He discovered Marxism in 1893 but was disgusted by what he saw as the left’s exploitation of the Alfred Dreyfus affair. By 1902 he was an enthusiastic supporter of revolutionary syndicalism. Sorel’s thought is characterized by a moralistic hatred of social decadence and res¬ ignation. He held that human nature was not innately good; he therefore concluded that a satisfactory society was not likely to evolve but would have to be brought about by revolutionary action. After 1909 Sorel became disenchanted with syndicalism, and with some hesitation he joined the monarchist movement, which sought to reestablish a traditional morality. After the outbreak of the Russian Revolution of 1917, Sorel declared him¬ self for the Bolsheviks, who he thought might be capable of precipitating the moral regeneration of mankind. His most important work, Reflections on Violence (1908), develops his notion of violence as the revolutionary denial of the existing social order. Sorel’s ideas were appropriated (and perverted) by Benito Mussolini, who used them in support of fascism.

sorghum Vsor-gamV Cereal grain plant of the family Poaceae (or Gramineae), probably native to Africa, and its edible starchy seeds. All types raised chiefly for grain belong to the species Sorghum vulgare, which includes varieties of grain sorghums and grass sorghums (grown for hay and fodder), and broomcom (used in making brooms and brushes). The strong grass usually grows 2-8 ft (0.5-2.5 m) or higher. The seeds are smaller than those of wheat. Though high in carbohydrates, sorghum is of lower feed quality than com. Resistant to drought and heat, sorghum is one of Africa’s major cereal grains. It is also grown in the U.S., India, Pakistan, and northern and northeastern China. Substantial quantities are also grown in Iran, the Arabian Peninsula, Argentina, Australia, and south¬ ern Europe. The grain is usually ground into meal for porridge, flatbreads, and cakes.

sorites \s9-'ri-tez\ In philosophy, a chain of successive syllogisms in the first figure so related that either the conclusion of each is the minor premise of the next or the conclusion of each is the major premise of the next. If the conclusions of all the successive syllogisms (except the last) are suppressed and only the remaining premises and the final conclusion are stated, the resulting argument is a valid inference from the stated pre¬ mises. (For example: Some enthusiasts show poor judgment; all who show poor judgment make frequent mistakes; none who makes frequent mis¬ takes deserves implicit trust; therefore, some enthusiasts do not deserve implicit trust.) In general, there may be n + 1 premises, and analysis then yields a chain of n successive syllogisms.

sorites problem Paradox presented by the following reasoning: One grain of sand does not constitute a heap; if n grains of sand do not con¬ stitute a heap, then neither do n + 1 grains of sand; therefore, no matter how many grains of sand are put together, they never constitute a heap. The problem is apt to arise in connection with any vague term.

Sorokin Vs6r-3-kin\, P(itirim) A(lexandrovitch) (b. Jan. 21, 1889, Turya, Russia—d. Feb. 10, 1968, Winchester, Mass., U.S.) Russian-born U.S. sociologist. Appointed the first professor of sociology at the Uni¬ versity of Petrograd in 1919, he was exiled in 1922 for anti-Bolshevism. He immigrated to the U.S., where he founded the sociology department at Harvard University. He distinguished two kinds of society, the sensate (empirical, supportive of natural sciences) and the ideational (mystical, anti-intellectual, dependent on authority), and believed that the study of altruistic love as a science was necessary to avert worldwide chaos.

sororate See levirate and sororate

Soros \'sor-os\, George (b. Aug. 12, 1930, Budapest, Hung.) Hungarian-U.S. financier. He left his native Hungary in 1944 and settled in London in 1947, where he studied and joined a merchant bank. He moved to New York City in 1956 and initially worked as an analyst of European securities. By 1979 his daring investments and currency specu¬ lation brought large profits, some of which he used to found Soros Foun¬ dations, dedicated to creating open societies in many eastern European countries and Russia. Other Soros programs have been dedicated to enlarging public debate on a wide range of controversial issues. In 1992

he reached new heights of wealth, making a profit of about $1 billion when Britain devalued the pound sterling, but in 1998 he suffered large losses from currency speculation in Russia.

sorrel Any of several hardy perennial herbs of the buckwheat family, widespread in temperate regions. Sheep sorrel ( Rumex acetosella), a weed native to Europe and widespread in North America, is an attractive but troublesome invader in lawns, gardens, meadows, and grassy slopes. It has slender, triangular leaves and tiny yellow or reddish flowers. The pungent, sour leaves are used as a vegetable, as a flavouring in omelets and sauces, in soups, and, when young, in salads. Two related species are garden sorrel ( R. acetosa ) and French sorrel (R. scutatus), both found throughout Europe and Asia. Wood sorrels, unrelated plants, belong to the genus Oxalis (see oxalis).

Sosa, Sammy orig. Samuel Sosa Peralta (b. Nov. 12, 1968, San Pedro de Macoris, Dorn.Rep.) Dominican-born U.S. baseball player. Sosa came to the U.S. as a child and began playing organized baseball at age 14. In 1985 he signed with the Texas Rangers, with whom he made his professional debut in 1989; he was soon traded to the Chicago White Sox and then in 1992 to the Chicago Cubs. In 1993 the right fielder became the Cubs’ first player to hit 30 home runs and steal 30 bases in one sea¬ son, a feat he repeated in 1994. In 1998 he dramatically battled Mark McGwire for the season home-run record (later broken by Barry Bonds); Sosa finished the year with 66 home runs, earning him the National League’s Most Valuable Player award. In 1999 he became the first player to hit more than 60 home runs in each of two seasons. Before the start of the 2005 season, he was traded to the Baltimore Orioles.

Soseki See Natsume Soseki

Sotheby's Vso-tho-bezV Art auction firm. Founded in London by the bookseller Samuel Baker in 1744, it was later managed after his death by his nephew, John Sotheby, and by his successors until 1861. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Sotheby’s concentrated on books, manuscripts, and prints. After World War I it specialized in 19th- and 20th-century works, particularly Impressionist paintings. It opened an office in New York City in 1955, and in 1964 it acquired Parke-Bemet, the premier U.S. art auction house. A. Alfred Taubman purchased a controlling share of the company in 1983 and renamed it Sotheby’s Holdings, Inc. In 2002 Taub¬ man was convicted of price-fixing with rival auction house Christie’s, sentenced to a one-year jail term, and fined $7.5 million.

Sotho \ , s6- 1 to\ Cluster of Bantu-speaking peoples (numbering 10 mil¬ lion) occupying the high grasslands of southern Africa, mainly parts of South Africa, Botswana, and Lesotho. They are culturally and historically distinct from the Nguni peoples. The main Sotho groups are the Pedi and Lovedu in the north, the Tswana in the west, and the Basuto of Lesotho. Most farm and raise livestock, though Christian missionary activity and urbanization have resulted in a breakdown of traditional culture patterns.

Soto, Hernando de (b. c. 1496/97, Jerez de los Caballeros, Badajoz, Spain—d. May 21, 1542, along the Mississippi River) Spanish explorer and conquistador. He joined the 1514 expedition of Pedro Arias Davila (1440-1531) to the West Indies, and in Panama he quickly made his mark as a trader and explorer. By 1520 he had accumulated a small fortune through his slave trading in Nicaragua and on the Isthmus of Panama. He joined Francisco Pizarro on an expedition to conquer Peru in 1532, return¬ ing to Spain in 1536 with great wealth. Commissioned by the Spanish crown to conquer what is now Florida, he departed in 1538 in command of 10 ships and 700 men. On that expedition he explored the extensive region that was to become the southeastern U.S. and discovered the Mis¬ sissippi River for Europeans. Overcome by fever, he died in Louisiana and was buried in the Mississippi River.

soul Immaterial aspect or essence of a person, conjoined with the body during life and separable at death. The concept of a soul is found in nearly all cultures and religions, though the interpretations of its nature vary considerably. The ancient Egyptians conceived of a dual soul, one sur¬ viving death but remaining near the body, while the other proceeded to the realm of the dead. The early Hebrews did not consider the soul as distinct from the body, but later Jewish writers perceived the two as sepa¬ rate. Christian theology adopted the Greek concept of an immortal soul, adding the notion that God created the soul and infused it into the body at conception. In Islam the soul is believed to come into existence at the same time as the body but is everlasting and subject to eternal bliss or torment after the death of the body. In Hinduism each soul, or atman, was

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

soul music ► South Africa I 1787

created at the beginning of time and imprisoned in an earthly body; at death the soul is said to pass to a new body according to the laws of karma. Buddhism negates the idea of a soul, asserting that any sense of an indi¬ vidual self is illusory.

soul music Style of U.S. popular music sung and performed primarily by African American musicians, having its roots in gospel music and rhythm and blues. The term was first used in the 1960s to describe music that combined rhythm and blues, gospel, jazz, and rock music and that was characterized by intensity of feeling and earthiness. In its earliest stages, soul music was found most commonly in the South, but many of the young singers who were to popularize it migrated to cities in the North. The founding of Motown in Detroit, Mich., and Stax-Volt in Memphis, Tenn., did much to encourage the style. Its most popular performers include James Brown, Ray Charles, Sam Cooke, and Aretha Franklin.

sound Mechanical disturbance that propagates as a longitudinal wave through a solid, liquid, or gas. A sound wave is generated by a vibrating object. The vibrations cause alternating compressions (regions of crowd¬ ing) and rarefactions (regions of scarcity) in the particles of the medium. The particles move back and forth in the direction of propagation of the wave. The speed of sound through a medium depends on the medium’s elasticity, density, and temperature. In dry air at 32 °F (0 °C), the speed of sound is 1,086 feet (331 metres) per second. The frequency of a sound wave, perceived as pitch, is the number of compressions (or rarefactions) that pass a fixed point per unit time. The frequencies audible to the human ear range from approximately 20 hertz to 20 kilohertz. Intensity is the average flow of energy per unit time through a given area of the medium and is related to loudness. See also acoustics; ear; hearing; ultrasonics.

Sound, The See 0resund

sound barrier Sharp rise in aerodynamic drag that occurs as an air¬ craft approaches the speed of sound. At sea level the speed of sound is about 750 miles (1,200 km) per hour, and at 36,000 feet (11,000 metres) it is about 650 miles (1,050 km) per hour. The sound barrier was formerly an obstacle to supersonic flight. If an aircraft flies at somewhat less than sonic speed, the pressure waves (sound waves) it creates outspeed their sources and spread out ahead of it. Once the aircraft reaches sonic speed the waves are unable to get out of its way. Strong local shock waves form on the wings and body; airflow around the craft becomes unsteady, and severe buffeting may result, with serious stability difficulties and loss of control over flight characteristics. Generally, aircraft properly designed for supersonic flight have little difficulty in passing through the sound barrier, but the effect on those designed for efficient operation at subsonic speeds may become extremely dangerous. The first pilot to break the sound barrier was Chuck Yeager (1947), in the experimental X-l aircraft.

sound card or audio card Integrated circuit that generates an audio signal and sends it to a computer’s speakers. The sound card can accept an analog sound (as from a microphone or audio tape) and convert it to digital data that can be stored in an audio file, or accept digitized audio signals (as from an audio file) and convert them to analog signals that can be played on the computer’s speakers. On a personal computer, the sound card is usually a separate circuit board that is plugged into the motherboard.

sound effect Artificial imitation of sound to accompany action and supply realism in a dramatic production. Sound effects were first used in the theatre, where they can represent a range of action too vast or diffi¬ cult to present onstage, from battles and gunshots to trotting horses and rainstorms. Various methods were devised by backstage technicians to reproduce sounds (e.g., rattling sheet metal to create thunder); today most sound effects are reproduced by recordings. An important part of old- fashioned radio dramas, sound effects are still painstakingly added to television and movie soundtracks.

sound reception See hearing

Souphanouvong Vsii-'pa-nu-.voqX (b. July 13, 1909, Luang Prabang, Laos—d. Jan. 9, 1995, Laos) Leader of the revolutionary Pathet Lao movement and president of Laos (1975-86). Half brother of Souvanna Phouma, Souphanouvong was trained in civil engineering and built bridges and roads in Vietnam (1938^-5). He fought the return of French colonial rule to Laos after World War II and broke with the Free Laos govemment- in-exile to ally himself with the Viet Minh, founding the communist- oriented Pathet Lao, which came to power in 1974-75.

sour gum See black gum

Souris Vsur-9s\ River River in Saskatchewan and Manitoba, Canada, and North Dakota, U.S. The Souris rises in southeastern Saskatchewan, then flows southeast into North Dakota, where it turns north to reenter Canada, joining the Assiniboine River in Manitoba after a course of 600 mi (966 km). In North Dakota it is also called the Mouse River.

Sousa Vsti-zoV John Philip (b. Nov. 6, 1854, Washington, D.C., U.S.—d. March 6, 1932, Reading, Pa.) U.S. bandmaster and composer known as “The March King.” As a youth he learned to play the violin and various band instruments. In 1868 he enlisted in the U.S. Marine Corps as an apprentice in the Marine Band, and from 1880 to 1892 he directed the group, building it into a virtuoso ensemble. In 1892 he formed his own band, with which he toured internationally to great acclaim. He com¬ posed 136 military marches, including “Semper Fidelis” (the official march of the Marines), “The Washington Post,” “The Liberty Bell,” and “The Stars and Stripes Forever.” He also wrote successful operettas, including El Capitan (1896), and dozens of other works. In the 1890s he developed a type of bass tuba now known as the sousaphone.

sousaphone or helicon Spiral circular bass or contrabass tuba. Tra¬ ditionally made of brass, it is now often made of fibreglass for lightness. The helicon was probably first developed in Russia but was perfected in Vienna in 1849 by Ignaz Stowasser, who manufactured it in various sizes. John Philip Sousa designed a removable and rotatable bell for the instru¬ ment in 1892, giving the new design his own name. Designed for port¬ ability, the instruments have become standard in marching bands.

Souter Ysu-tsrV David H(ackett) (b. Sept. 17, 1939, Melrose, Mass., U.S.) U.S. jurist. He graduated from Harvard Law School and soon joined the New Hampshire attorney general’s office. He was promoted to state attorney general in 1976, to the state’s Superior Court in 1978, and to its Supreme Court in 1983. In 1990 he was appointed by Pres. George Bush to the First U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals and later that year to the U.S. Supreme Court. Considered a conservative at the outset of his appointment, he gradually emerged as a moderate liberal, particularly on issues of civil rights.

South Africa officially Republic of South Africa formerly Union of South Africa Southernmost country on the African continent. The Kingdom of Lesotho lies within its boundaries. Area: 470,693 sq mi

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§> 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannic

(1,219,090 sq km). Population (2005 est.):

46,888,000. Capitals: PRETORIA/Tshwane (executive), Cape Town (legislative),

BLOEMFONTEIN/Mangaung (judicial). Three- fourths of the population are black Africans, including the Zulu, Xhosa, Sotho, and Tswana; nearly all of the remainder are of European or mixed or South Asian descent. Languages: Afrikaans, English, Ndebele, Pedi (North

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© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1788 I South African War ► South Asian arts

Sotho), Sotho (South Sotho), Swati (Swazi), Tsonga, Tswana, Venda, Xhosa, Zulu (all official). Religions: Christianity (other [mostly indepen¬ dent] Christians, Protestant, Roman Catholic); also traditional beliefs, Hin¬ duism, Islam. Currency: rand. South Africa has three major zones: the broad interior plateau, the surrounding mountainous Great Escarpment, and a narrow belt of coastal plain. It has a temperate subtropical climate. It is one of the world’s major producers and exporters of gold, coal, dia¬ monds, platinum, and vanadium. It is a multiparty republic with two leg¬ islative houses; its head of state and government is the president. San and Khoekhoe (Khoisan speakers) roamed the area as hunters and gatherers in the Stone Age, and the latter had developed a pastoralist culture by the time of European contact. By the 14th century, peoples speaking Bantu lan¬ guages had settled in the area and developed gold and copper mining and an active East African trade. In 1652 the Dutch established a colony at the Cape of Good Hope; the Dutch settlers became known as Boers (Dutch: “Farmers”) and later as Afrikaners (for their Afrikaans language). In 1795 British forces captured the cape. In 1836 Dutch settlers seeking new land made the Great Trek northward and established (1838) the independent Boer republics of Orange Free State and the South African Republic (later the Transvaal region), which the British annexed as colonies by 1902 fol¬ lowing the Soutfi African War. In 1910 the British colonies of Cape Colony, Transvaal, Natal, and Orange River were unified into the new Union of South Africa, which became independent and withdrew from the Commonwealth in 1961. Throughout the 20th century, South African poli¬ tics were dominated by the question of maintaining white European supremacy over the country’s black majority, and in 1948 South Africa for¬ mally instituted apartheid. Faced by increasing worldwide condemnation, it began dismantling the apartheid laws in 1990. In free elections in 1994, Nelson Mandela became the country’s first black president. A permanent nonracial constitution was promulgated in 1997.

South African War or Boer War War fought between Great Brit¬ ain and the two Boer (see Afrikaner) republics—the South African Repub¬ lic (Transvaal) and the Orange Free State —from 1899 to 1902. It was precipitated by the refusal of the Boer leader Paul Kruger to grant politi¬ cal rights to Uitlanders (“foreigners,” mostly English) in the interior min¬ ing districts and by the aggressiveness of the British high commissioner, Alfred Milner. Initially the Boers defeated the British in major engage¬ ments and besieged the key towns of Ladysmith, Mafikeng, and Kimber¬ ley; but British reinforcements under H.H. Kitchener and F.S. Roberts relieved the besieged towns, dispersed the Boer armies, and occupied Bloemfontein, Johannesburg, and Pretoria (1900). When Boer commando attacks continued, Kitchener implemented a scorched-earth policy: Boer farms were destroyed and Boer civilians were herded into concentration camps. More than 20,000 men, women, and children (including black Africans) died as a result, causing international outrage. The Boers finally accepted defeat at the Peace of Vereeniging.

South America Continent, Western Hemisphere. The world’s fourth largest continent, it is bounded by the Caribbean Sea to the northwest, the Atlantic Ocean to the northeast, east, and southeast, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It is separated from Antarctica by the Drake Passage and is joined to North America by the Isthmus of Panama. Area: 6,895,210 sq mi (17,858,520sq km). Pop., 2002 est.: 350,977,000. Four main ethnic groups have populated South America: Indians, who were the continent’s pre- Columbian inhabitants; Spanish and Portuguese who dominated the con¬ tinent from the 16th to the early 19th century; Africans imported as slaves; and the postindependence immigrants from overseas, mostly Germans and southern Europeans but also Lebanese, South Asians, and Japanese. Nine- tenths of the people are Christian, the vast majority of whom are Roman Catholic. Spanish is the official language everywhere except in Brazil (Por¬ tuguese), French Guiana (French), Guyana (English), and Suriname (Dutch); some Indian languages are spoken. South America has three major geographic regions. In the west, the Andes Mountains, which are prone to seismic activity, extend the length of the continent; Mount Aconcagua, at 22,834 ft (6,960 m), is the highest peak in the Western Hemisphere. High¬ lands lie in the north and east, bordered by lowland sedimentary basins that include the Amazon River, the world’s largest drainage basin, and the Pampas of eastern Argentina, whose fertile soils constitute one of South America’s most productive agricultural areas. Other important drainage systems include those of the Orinoco and Sao Francisco rivers and the Parana- Paraguay-Rio de la Plata system. Four-fifths of South America lies within the tropics, but it also has temperate, arid, and cold climatic regions. Less than one-tenth of its land is arable, producing mainly com (maize), wheat, and rice, and about one-fourth is under permanent pasture. About half is

covered by forest, mainly the enormous but steadily diminishing rainforest of the Amazon basin. Almost one-fourth of all the world’s known animal species live in the continent’s rainforests, plateaus, rivers, and swamps. South America has one-eighth of the world’s total deposits of iron and one- fourth of its copper reserves. Exploitation of these and numerous other mineral resources are important to the economies of many regions. Com¬ mercial crops include bananas, citrus fruits, sugar, and coffee; fishing is important along the Pacific coast. Trade in illegal narcotics (mostly for export) is a major source of revenue in some countries. Most countries have free-market or mixed (state and private enterprise) economies. Income tends to be unevenly distributed between large numbers of poor people and a small number of wealthy families, with the middle classes, though grow¬ ing, still a minority in most countries. Asiatic hunters and gatherers are thought to have been the first settlers, probably arriving less than 12,000 years ago. The growth of agriculture from c. 2500 bc (it had begun some 6,000 years earlier) initiated a period of rapid cultural evolution whose greatest development occurred in the central Andes region and culminated with the Inca empire. European exploration began when Christopher Colum¬ bus landed in 1498; thereafter Spanish and Portuguese adventurers (see coNQUiSTADORes) opened it for plunder and, later, settlement. According to terms of the Treaty of Tordesillas, Portugal received the eastern part of the continent, while Spain received the rest. The Indian peoples were deci¬ mated by this contact, and most of those who survived were reduced to a form of serfdom. The continent was free of European rule by the early 1800s except for the Guianas. Most of the countries adopted a republican form of government; however, social and economic inequalities or border disputes led to periodic revolutions in many of them, and by the early 20th century most had fallen under some form of autocratic rule. All joined the United Nations after World War II (1938-45), and all joined the Organi¬ zation of American States in 1948. By the second half of the 20th century most countries had begun to integrate their economies into world markets, and by the 1990s most had embraced democratic rule. See map on opposite page.

South Asian arts Literary, performing, and visual arts of India, Paki¬ stan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. Myths of the popular gods, Vishnu and Shiva, in the Puranas (ancient tales) and the Mahabharata and Ramayana epics, supply material for representational and dramatic arts. The Rama¬ yana is often considered the first work in the kavya poetic style; kavya compositions must convey different rasa (sentiments) and also induce the appropriate rasa in the audience. The Dravidian languages of the south, including Tamil and Telegu, provided some enduring works, particularly the devotional poems of the Tamil Alvars and Nayannars from the 7th through the 9th century. The introduction of Persian by Muslim conquer¬ ors led to the development of Urdu. Following in the Persian tradition, Urdu poets particularly favoured the ghazal, a love poem of great metric and rhythmic subtlety. The Nanya-Nastra established the rules for clas¬ sical dance and drama, the most popular form of which was the nanaka, or heroic tale. From the 14th century onward the nanaka lost ground to popular folk theatre, but elements of classical drama persist. Dance tra¬ ditionally requires musical accompaniment, though players and vocalists take their lead from the rhythm of the dancers’ feet and not vice versa. Central to South Asian music is the concept of modes known as raga. Rhythm in South Asian music, like the construction of scales, is additive. The music is basically monodic, consisting essentially of a single melody against a drone, though the drum part may virtually constitute another voice. Music is generally for entertainment, but it is nevertheless closely linked to Hinduism. Northern India’s most characteristic structure, a temple with a heavily decorated tower, reached its stylistic height in the 7th—11th centuries. The extension of Islam into India in the 11th and 12th centuries introduced typical Muslim architectural forms (e.g., the dome and pointed arch) and decoration. Such masterworks as the Taj Mahal resulted from the rule of the Muslim Mughal dynasty in the 16th-18th centuries. Traditionally, visual artists produced works for patrons, and sacred written canons guided their works’ proportions, iconography, and other artistic considerations. Since early in the region’s history, wall paint¬ ings and miniatures painted on palm leaves or paper were prominent, but sculpture was the favoured medium. Sculptures were largely religious and essentially symbolic and abstract. Works displaying Hindu and Buddhist imagery flourished in the Golden Age of India in the 4th-5th centuries. Islamic influences were incorporated into traditional styles after the Mus¬ lim invasions of the 12th century. At the end of the 19th century, rising Indian nationalism led to a conscious revival of native arts traditions, though more recently artists have assimilated elements of European art

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1789

1790 I South Australia ► South West Africa People's Organization

styles. See also bharata natya; Gandhara art; Mathura art; Mughal archi¬ tecture; sitar; tabia; and such individual artists as Satyajit Ray; Salman Rushdie; Ravi Shankar; Rabindranath Tagore.

South Australia State (pop., 2001: 1,514,854), south-central Austra¬ lia. It covers an area of 379,720 sq mi (983,470 sq km), and its capital is Adelaide. The Dutch visited the coast in 1627. British explorers arrived in the early 1800s, and it was colonized as a British province in 1836. Its vast interior, a large part of which is barren, includes Lake Eyre and the Flinders Ranges. A major world source of opals, it also produces most of the wine and brandy consumed in Australia. It has the country’s largest shipyards. It became a state of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901. Its southeastern part has become industrialized since World War II.

South Bend City (pop., 2000: 107,789), northern Indiana, U.S. It is situated on the St. Joseph River. A fur-trading post was established at the site in 1820. The city’s highly industrialized economy has roots in the pioneering companies founded there in the 19th century, including Stude- baker Brothers Manufacturing Co. (later an auto plant) and Singer Co., a sewing machine manufacturer. The city serves as the trade and financial focus of southern Michigan as well as northern Indiana, a region known as Michiana. Nearby is the University of Notre Dame.

South Carolina State (pop., 2000:4,012,012), southeastern U.S. It cov¬ ers 31,113 sq mi (80,583 sq km) and is an original state of the Union; its capital is Columbia. South Carolina is bounded on the north by North Caro¬ lina and on the southwest by Georgia; the Atlantic Ocean is to the southeast. The state comprises a broad coastal plain with a rolling piedmont farther inland. At the time of European contact the area was inhabited by Sioux, Iroquois, and Muskogean Indians. Spanish and French settlements were established and abandoned in the 16th century; the first permanent Euro¬ pean settlement was made by the English in 1670 at Charles Town, moved to the present site of Charleston in 1680. Several military campaigns were fought in South Carolina during the American Revolution. In 1788 South Carolina became the eighth state to ratify the U.S. Constitution, and in 1860 it became the first state to secede from the Union. The initial action of the American Civil War occurred there at Fort Sumter. It was readmitted to the Union in 1868. Constitutional revisions in 1895 disenfranchised almost all of the state’s blacks, and a rigid policy of racial segregation persisted until the mid-1960s, when the national civil rights movement began to have some effect in ameliorating racist policies. South Carolina is a leader in U.S. tex¬ tile manufacturing and has a large industrial base. Tourism is its second largest industry. Agriculture also contributes to the economy; major crops include tobacco, soybeans, and cotton.

South China Sea See China Sea

South Dakota State (pop., 2000: 754,844), north-central U.S. It cov¬ ers 77,116 sq mi (199,730 sq km); its capital is Pierre. South Dakota is bordered on the north by North Dakota, on the east by Minnesota and Iowa, on the south by Nebraska, and on the west by Wyoming and Mon¬ tana. The state has three main regions—the eastern prairie; the central Great Plains, which contain the Badlands; and the Black Hills to the west. The Missouri River bisects it from north to south. The French explored the area in the 18th century and sold it to the U.S. as part of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. The Lewis and Clark Expedition spent about seven weeks there in 1804. The Dakota Territory was created in 1861, but settlement was sparse until the Black Hills gold rush of 1875-76 swelled the popu¬ lation. Intermittent wars between the Indians and immigrant whites occurred until the massacre at Wounded Knee in 1890. South Dakota became the 40th U.S. state in 1889. Farming and related industries form the state’s economic base. It is a leader in cattle and hog production, and its main crops are grains. Tourism is a major industry; attractions include Mount Rushmore, Wind Cave National Park, Badlands National Park, and Jewel Cave National Monument.

South Georgia Mountainous, barren island, southern Atlantic Ocean. It is located about 800 mi (1,300 km) east-southeast of the Falkland (Mal¬ vinas) Islands. Together with the South Sandwich Islands, some 500 mi (800 km) to the southeast, it constitutes a British overseas territory. With an Antarctic climate, it has perpetual snow covering three-fourths of the island. It is home to reindeer, several penguin and seal species, and abun¬ dant marine life. Capt. James Cook claimed it for Britain in 1775, and Ernest Shackleton first crossed it in 1916 while in search of aid for his ill-fated expedition; Shackleton died on the island on a later expedition and was buried there. Formerly a whaling base, it is now the site of an Antarctic research station.

South Indian bronze Any of the cult images that rank among the finest achievements of Indian visual art. Most of the figures represent Hindu divinities, especially various iconographic forms of the god Shiva and Lord Vishnu, with their consorts and attendants. The images were produced in large numbers from the 8th to the 16th century, principally in the Thanjavur and Tiruchchirappalli districts of modern Tamil Nadu, and maintained a high standard of excel¬ lence for almost 1,000 years. The icons range from small household images to almost life-size sculptures intended to be carried in temple pro¬ cessions.

South Island Island (pop., 2001 prelim.: 942,213), larger and south¬ ernmost of the two principal islands of New Zealand. Separated from the North Island by Cook Strait, it has an area of 58,676 sq mi (151,971 sq km). Mountains, including the Southern Alps, occupy almost three- quarters of the island. Its main cities are Christchurch and Dunedin. Fiord¬ land National Park in the southwest contains numerous coastal fjords and high lakes.

South Korea See South Korea

South Orkney Islands Island group, southern Atlantic Ocean. Located southeast of South America, the South Orkneys are composed of two large islands (Coronation and Laurie) and many smaller islands; they form part of the British Antarctic Territory. Barren and uninhabited, the islands have a total area of 240 sq mi (620 sq km). They were part of the Falkland Islands Dependencies until 1962. Signy Island is used as a base for Antarctic exploration.

South Platte River River, Colorado and western Nebraska, U.S. The river rises in central Colorado and flows southeast and then northeast across the Nebraska boundary to join the North Platte River and form the Platte River. The South Platte is 442 mi (711 km) long. Its reservoirs and dams, particularly around Denver, are used for flood control, irrigation, and power generation.

South Pole Southern extremity of the Earth’s axis, located at latitude 90° S. It is the southern point from which all meridians of longitude start. The area around it is a lofty plateau in west-central Antarctica, with ice as much as 8,850 ft (2,700 m) thick. It has six months of complete day¬ light and six months of total darkness each year. It was first reached by the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen in 1911, one month before the expedition led by British explorer Robert Falcon Scott; U.S. explorer Rich¬ ard E. Byrd flew to the pole in 1929. The geographic pole does not coin¬ cide with the magnetic South Pole, which in the early 21st century was located on the Adelie Coast about 64°30' S, 137°50' E; it moves about 8 mi (13 km) to the northwest each year. The geomagnetic South Pole also moves; during the early 1990s it was located about 79°13' S, 108°44' E, in 2000 it was 65°39' S, 140° 01' E, and by 2005 it was back to about 79°45'S, 108°13'E.

South Sea Bubble (1720) Speculation mania that caused financial ruin for many British investors. Parliament’s acceptance of a proposal by the South Sea Co. to take over the British national debt resulted in an imme¬ diate rise in its stock. After soaring from 128V& to over 1,000 in nine months, the bubble of overvalued stock burst and the price per share dropped to 124, dragging other stocks down and leaving many investors ruined. An inquiry by the House of Commons found collusion by several government ministers.

South West Africa See Namibia

South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) Party in South West Africa (now Namibia) that advocated immediate independence from South Africa. Founded in 1960, it used diplomacy to attain its goals

The god Shiva in the garb of a mendi¬ cant, South Indian bronze from Tiru- vengadu, Tamil Nadu, early 11th century; in the Thanjavur Museum and Art Gallery, Tamil Nadu

P. CHANDRA

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

South Yorkshire ► Southern Christian Leadership Conference I 1791

until 1966, when it turned to armed struggle. Led by Sam Nujoma and backed by the Angolan ruling party and the Soviet Union, SWAPO used Angola as a base for launching guerrilla attacks. From 1978 South Africa made periodic retaliatory strikes into Angola. That same year the UN rec¬ ognized SWAPO as the Namibian people’s sole representative. South Africa finally accepted a UN resolution requiring the withdrawal of South African troops in Namibia and the holding of free elections in 1988.

South Yorkshire Metropolitan county (pop., 2001: 1,266,337), north- central England. It lost its administrative functions in 1986 and is now only a geographic and ceremonial county; its administrative seat was Barnsley. South Yorkshire extends from the Pennine moorlands in the west to lowland marshes in the east. The Romans built roads and forts in the area, and Anglian and later Scandinavian settlers cleared woodlands. In the 19th century the region grew as a major industrial area, and the River Don valley became the focus of iron- and steelworks extending east from Sheffield. Today South Yorkshire includes most of England’s coalfields; its industries produce iron, steel, and cutlery.

Southampton City and unitary authority (pop., 2001: 217,478), historic county of Hampshire, England. First settled by Romans, it was chartered (c. 1155) by King Henry II and incorporated in 1445. In the Middle Ages its location on the English Channel helped it to become a major British port. Southampton declined in the 17th—18th centuries but revived in the 19th with the arrival of railways. It is England’s second largest port. Historic buildings include the 11th-century St. Michael’s Church and the 12th- century King John’s Palace, one of Britain’s oldest domestic buildings.

Southampton, Henry Wriothesley, 3rd earl of (b. Oct. 6, 1573, Cowdray, Sussex, Eng.—d. Nov. 10, 1624, Bergen op Zoom, Neth.) English nobleman, patron of William Shakespeare. Grandson of the 1st earl of Southampton, he became a favourite of Elizabeth I. He was a liberal patron of writers, including Thomas Nashe. Shakespeare dedicated two long poems to him (1593, 1594), and he has often been identified as the noble youth addressed in most of Shakespeare’s sonnets. He accompa¬ nied the 2nd earl of Essex on expeditions to Cadiz and the Azores (1596, 1597). For supporting the Essex rebellion (1601), he was imprisoned (1601-03); following James I’s accession, he regained his place at court. He became a privy councillor in 1619, but he lost favour by opposing the 1st duke of Buckingham. He and his son volunteered to fight for the United Provinces against Spain, but, soon after landing in the Netherlands, they both died of fever.

Southampton, Thomas Wriothesley Vrat-sle, 'ri-9th-sle\, 1st earl of (b. Dec. 21, 1505, London, Eng.—d. July 30, 1550, London) English politician. He followed his father, a herald, into royal service and became personal secretary to Thomas Cromwell (1533), whom he suc¬ ceeded as a secretary of state to Henry VIII (1540). Wriothesley became one of Henry’s leading councillors and was appointed lord chancellor of England (1544-47). After Henry’s death, he was created earl of Southampton (1547) by the duke of Somerset, but he was deprived of the chancellorship. He supported Somerset’s overthrow in 1549 but was excluded from the privy council in 1550.

Southampton Island Island, Keewatin region, Nunavut, Canada. Lying at the entrance to Hudson Bay, the island is roughly triangular and has an area of 15,913 sq mi (41,214 sq km). Its plateau in the northeast, with 1,000-ft (300-m) coastal cliffs, gradually slopes to lowlands in the south. Its coastal waters are noted for Arctic char fishing.

Southeast Asia Vast region of Asia lying east of the Indian subcon¬ tinent and south of China. It includes a mainland area (also called Indo¬ china) and a string of archipelagoes to the south and east and is generally taken to include Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei, and the Philippines. For centuries the mainland portion was the site of numerous indigenous dynasties, but in the 19th century all but Thailand (Siam) came under the control of Euro¬ pean powers, notably France (see French Indochina); all areas became independent after 1945.

Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) Regional defense organization (1955-77) comprising Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, Britain, and the U.S. It was founded as part of the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty in order to protect the region from communism. Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos were not considered for membership, and other countries in the region preferred membership in the nonaligned movement. SEATO had no stand¬

ing forces, but its members engaged in combined military exercises. Paki¬ stan withdrew in 1968, and France suspended financial support in 1975. The organization was disbanded officially in 1977.

Southeast Asian arts Literary, performing, and visual arts of Myan¬ mar (Burma), Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, and the Philippines. The “classical” literatures of Southeast Asia can be divided into three major regions: the Sanskrit region of Cambodia and Indonesia; the region of Burma where Pali, a dialect related to Sanskrit, was used as a literary and religious language; and the Chinese region of Vietnam. The Mahabharata, Ramayana, Jatakas, and local legendary tales are expounded in the performing arts of the region. Dance techniques of the region minimize the mudras (gestures) of Indian classicism to emphasize grace of movement over theme. Regional variations of temple and court dance vie with local developments. Numerous theatrical forms are vehicles for social criticism; most remarkable is wayang, or shadow play, in which puppetry has been fused with dance and drama in a unique form of entertainment. Music is generally coordinated with the dramatic arts, resulting in great rhythmic but slight melodic content. The earliest visual arts of the region were wood carvings featuring supernatural and animal imagery developed and shared by the various tribal peoples. A second tradition emerged after Indian artists and artisans followed trad¬ ers to Southeast Asia in the first centuries ad. Within a short time, South¬ east Asians were producing their own distinctive local versions of Indian styles, sometimes rivaling Indian artists with their skill, finesse, and inven¬ tion on a colossal scale. With the introduction of Hinduism and Buddhism, temple building, sculpture, and painting flourished from the 1st through the 13th century. The Indian royal temple, which dominated Southeast Asian culture, typically stood on a terraced plinth, upon which towered shrines could multiply. About ad 800 the Cambodian king Jayavarman II built a brick mountain for a temple group. This plan was furthered when foundations were laid for Angkor, a scheme based on a grid of reservoirs and canals. Successive kings built more temple mountains there, culmi¬ nating in Angkor Wat. Among Southeast Asia’s most impressive sites is the city of Pagan in Burma, with many brick and stucco Buddhist temples and stupas built 1056-1287.

Southeast Indian Any member of the aboriginal North American Indians who inhabited what is now the southeastern U.S. The Southeast was one of the more densely populated areas of native North America, having an aboriginal population conservatively estimated at 120,000. The bulk of this population resided inland, where advantage could be taken of extensive game resources, wild plant foods, and an abundance of arable land. Only the non-horticultural peoples of south Florida appear to have satisfactorily adjusted to a basically maritime way of life. Groups within this region included the Caddo, Catawba, Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, Natchez, and Seminole.

Southend-on-Sea Town and unitary authority (pop., 2001: 160,256), geographic and historic county of Essex, southeastern England. It lies on the Thames estuary and the North Sea. The nearest seaside resort to Lon¬ don, it attracts millions of visitors, and there are many resident commut¬ ers. It is noted for its 1.3-mi (2.2-km) pier as well as its beaches and gardens; yachting is popular. A 12th-century priory houses a museum.

Southern Alps Mountain range, South Island, New Zealand. It extends almost the entire length of the island, and it is the highest range in Aus¬ tralasia. It has elevations from 3,000 ft (900 m) to over 10,000 ft (3,050 m), culminating in Mount Cook at 12,316 ft (3,754 m) high. Glaciers descend from the permanently snow-clad top of the range. The range divides the island climatically: the forested western slopes and narrow coastal plain are much wetter than the eastern slopes and wide Canter¬ bury Plains. Much of the southwest area was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1990.

Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) U.S. non¬ sectarian agency founded by Martin Luther King, Jr., and others in 1957 to assist local organizations working for equal rights for African Ameri¬ cans. Operating primarily in the South, it conducted leadership-training programs, citizen-education projects, and voter-registration drives. It played a major role in the historic March on Washington in 1963 and in the campaigns to urge passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. After King’s assassination in 1968, Ralph Aber¬ nathy became president. In the early 1970s the SCLC was weakened by several schisms, including the departure of Jesse Jackson, who founded Operation PUSH in Chicago.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1792 I Southey ► Soyinka

Southey Vsau-the, 'sa-theV Robert (b. Aug. 12,1774, Bristol, Glouces¬ tershire, Eng.—d. March 21, 1843, Keswick, Cumberland) English poet and prose writer. In youth Southey ardently embraced the ideals of the French Revolution, as did Samuel Taylor Coleridge, with whom he was associated from 1794. Like Coleridge, he gradually became more con¬ servative. About 1799 he devoted himself to writing; later he was obliged to produce unremittingly to support both his and Coleridge’s family. In 1813 he was appointed poet laureate. His poetry is now little read, but his prose style is masterly in its ease and clarity, as seen in such works as Life of Nelson (1813), Life of Wesley (1820), and The Doctor (1834^47), a fantastic, rambling miscellany.

Southwest Indians Any of the American Indians who inhabit what is now the southwestern U.S. Though highly diversified culturally and lin¬ guistically, the Southwest Indians divide roughly into four groupings: the Yuman tribes, the Pima and Papago, the Pueblo, and the Navajo and Apache.

Soutine \sii-'ten\, Chaim (b. 1893/94?, Smilovichi, near Minsk, Rus¬ sian Empire—d. Aug. 9, 1943, Paris, Fr.) Russian-born French painter. After studying art in Vilnius, he went to Paris in 1913 to study at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. An art dealer enabled him to paint for three years in southern France, where his mature style emerged. His highly individu¬ alistic style, stimulated by Expressionism, is characterized by thick impasto, agitated brushwork, convulsive compositional rhythms, and disturbing psychological content. Best known are his studies of choirboys and cooks, his series of page boys, and his paintings of hung poultry and beef car¬ casses, which vividly convey the colour and luminosity of putrescence.

Souvanna Phouma Vsu-'va-na-'pii-maV (b. Oct. 7, 1901, Luang Pra- bang, Laos—d. Jan. 10, 1984, Vientiane) Premier of Laos (1951-54, 1960, 1962, 1974-75). Nephew of King Sisavangvong of Laos, Souvanna did not support his uncle’s decision to welcome back French rule after the end of World War II. With his half brother Souphanouvong, he joined the Free Laos movement and went into exile when the French reoccupied Laos. In 1949, when the French began to concede authority, he returned, and in 1951 he began his first term as premier. Civil war broke out between the communist Pathet Lao and rightist members of the govern¬ ment; Souvanna served as premier sporadically during that period. He tried to maintain Laotian neutrality during the Vietnam War but came to depend on U.S. military aid; Laos stabilized after the U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam. Souvanna remained an adviser to the government until his death.

Sovereign Council Administrative body that governed the colony of New France in Canada (1663-1702). The council consisted of the gover¬ nor and the bishop (who together appointed the other members), five councillors, an attorney general, and a clerk. The council named judges and minor officials, controlled public funds and commerce with France, and regulated the fur trade with the Indians. Decisions were subject to the governor’s veto. In 1675 a royal edict increased the number of council¬ lors to seven, with vacancies to be filled by the king. From 1685 the intendant, a French administrative official, assumed many of the council’s duties. The council was renamed the Superior Council in 1702.

sovereignty In political theory, the ultimate authority in the decision¬ making process of the state and in the maintenance of order. In 16th- century France Jean Bodin used the concept of sovereignty to bolster the power of the king over his feudal lords, heralding the transition from feu¬ dalism to nationalism. By the end of the 18th century, the concept of the social contract led to the idea of popular sovereignty, or sovereignty of the people, through an organized government. The Hague Conventions, the Geneva Conventions, and the United Nations all have restricted the actions of sovereign countries in the international arena, as has interna¬ tional LAW.

soviet Council that constituted the primary unit of government in the Soviet Union. The first soviet was formed in St. Petersburg during the Russian Revolution of 1 905 to coordinate revolutionary activities, but it was suppressed. Socialist leaders formed the second soviet shortly before the abdication of Nicholas II, with one deputy for every 1,000 workers and every military company. After the Russian Revolution of 1917, the Bolsheviks gradually gained a dominant position in soviets across the land. In 1918 a new constitution established soviets as the formal unit of local and regional government. The 1936 constitution created a directly elected bicameral Supreme Soviet, but the single candidate per district was cho¬ sen by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.

Soviet law Law that developed in the Soviet Union after the Russian Revolution of 1917 and that, after World War II, was assimilated by other communist states. Legislative enactments, including the constitution of the U.S.S.R., were the principal sources of law in the Soviet legal sys¬ tem; these were then elaborated in codes of statutes by each union repub¬ lic. No distinction between public and private law existed; all legal matters involved the state. Law was generally thought of as a force for restruc¬ turing society and advancing the nation toward communism. Also known as socialist law, it was based on the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. In addition to criminal and civil offenses, “administrative offenses” constituted a large proportion of cases and were dealt with out¬ side the court system.

Soviet Union See Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

sow \'sau\ bug or wood louse Any of certain terrestrial crustaceans of the order Isopoda, especially members of the genus Oniscus.

Native to Europe, they have been introduced into North America. Sow bugs grow to 0.7 in. (18 mm) long.

The oval, gray body is rather arched and is covered with broad, armour¬ like plates. Two elbowed antennae extend about half the length of the body, and there are seven pairs of limbs. The sow bug lives in moist places, especially under stones, in moist leaf litter, and in cellars. See also PILL BUG.

Soweto \s3-'wa-to\ Urban complex (pop., 2001: 896,995), northeastern Republic of South Africa. It adjoins Johannesburg on the southwest, and its name is an acronym derived from South-Western Townships. It was originally set aside by the South African white government for residence by blacks. The townships constituting Soweto grew out of shantytowns that arose with the arrival of black labourers from rural areas, especially between the World Wars. There is little industrial development; most of Soweto’s residents commute to Johannesburg for employment. It is the country’s largest black urban complex, and its residents were active in the protests that helped bring an end to apartheid by 1991.

Soya Strait See La Perouse Strait

soybean Annual legume (Glycine max, or G. soja ) of the pea family (see legume) and its edible seed. The soybean plant has an erect, branch¬ ing stem, white to purple flowers, and one to four seeds per pod. It was probably derived from a wild plant of East Asia, where it has been cul¬ tivated for some 5,000 years. Intro¬ duced into the U.S. in 1804, it began to be farmed widely as a livestock feed in the 1930s, and the U.S. is now the world’s foremost soybean producer. Economically the world’s most important bean, the soybean provides vegetable protein for mil¬ lions of people and ingredients for hundreds of chemical products, including paints, adhesives, fertiliz¬ ers, insect sprays, and fire-extinguisher fluids. Because soybeans contain no starch, they are a good source of protein for diabetics. Processed for food, soybean oil is made into margarine, shortening, and vegetarian cheeses and meats. Soybean meal serves as a high-protein meat substi¬ tute in many food products, including baby foods. Other food products include soybean milk, tofu, salad sprouts, and soy sauce.

Soyinka Vsho-'yiq-kaV Wole in full Akinwande Oluwole So¬ yinka (b. July 13, 1934, Abeokuta, Nigeria) Nigerian playwright. After studying in Leeds, Eng., he returned to Nigeria to edit literary journals, teach drama and literature at the university level, and found two theatre companies. His plays, written in English and drawing on West African folk traditions, often focus on the tensions between tradition and progress. Symbolism, flashback, and ingenious plotting contribute to a rich dramatic structure. His serious plays reveal his disillusionment with African

Sow bug (Oniscus asellus).

HUGH SPENCER

Soybeans (Glycine max)

J.C. ALLEN AND SON

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Soyuz ► space-time I 1793

authoritarian leadership and with Nigerian society as a whole. His works include A Dance of the For¬ ests (1960), The Lion and the Jewel (1963), Death and the King’s Horse¬ man (1975), and From Zia, with Love (1992). He has written several volumes of poetry; his best-known novel is The Interpreters (1965). A champion of Nigerian democracy, he was repeatedly jailed and exiled. In 1986 he became the first black Afri¬ can to be awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature.

Soyuz \so-'yuz\ Any of several ver¬ sions of Soviet/Russian manned spacecraft launched since 1967.

Originally conceived for the U.S.S.R.’s Moon-landing program, which was canceled in 1974, the modular craft has served mainly as a crew ferry to and from Earth¬ orbiting space stations, specifically the Salyut stations, Mir, and the Inter¬ national Space Station (ISS). The first version accommodated three persons but was later modified for a crew of two to make room for addi¬ tional life-support equipment. Soyuz T, introduced in 1979, restored the third crew seat. Soyuz TM, an upgrade featuring a variety of new sys¬ tems, made its first manned flight in 1987 when it carried Mir’s second crew to the then-embryonic station. The Soyuz TMA debuted in 2002 with a manned flight to the ISS; its design incorporated changes to meet cer¬ tain NASA requirements as an ISS “lifeboat,” including eased height and weight restrictions for crew members.

spa Spring or resort with thermal or mineral water for drinking and bathing. The word derives from a Belgian town whose springs reputedly had curative powers. Mineral springs usually contain various salts, trace minerals, and gases; many are naturally carbonated. Most thermal springs (see hot spring) also contain minerals. Warm-water bathing aids relaxation (see hydrotherapy), and high salt or sulfur content helps some skin con¬ ditions. Drinking mineral water is believed to aid digestion, and waters with specific minerals are used for particular conditions.

Spaak \'spak\, Paul-Henri (b. Jan. 25, 1899, Schaerbeek, near Brus¬ sels, Belg.—d. July 31, 1972, Brussels) Belgian statesman. After practic¬ ing law (1921-31), he became a socialist member of the Chamber of Deputies in 1932. For most of the period from 1936 to 1966 he served as Belgium’s foreign minister, and he twice served as its premier (1938-39, 1947-50). An advocate of European cooperation, he helped form the Benelux Economic Union (1944) and helped draft the UN charter, and in 1946 he served as the UN General Assembly’s first president. He signed the Brussels Treaty, helped form NATO, and served as NATO’s secretary- general (1957-61). He also helped create the European Economic Commu¬ nity and the European Atomic Energy Community.

Spaatz YspatsV Carl (Andrews) known as Tooey Spaatz (b. June 28, 1891, Boyertown, Pa., U.S.—d. July 14,1974, Washington, D.C.) U.S. air-force officer. He flew as a combat pilot during World War I. During World War II he commanded the U.S. Strategic Air Forces in Europe (1944), directing the strategic bombing of Germany. In 1945, though per¬ sonally opposed to using atomic bombs against cities, he directed the atomic bombing of Japan under orders of Pres. Harry Truman. In 1947 he became the first chief of staff of the independent Air Force.

space contraction See Lorentz-FitzGerald contraction

space exploration Investigation of the universe beyond Earth’s atmosphere by means of manned and unmanned spacecraft. Study of the use of rockets for spaceflight began early in the 20th century. Germany’s research on rocket propulsion in the 1930s led to development of the V-2 missile. After World War II, the U.S. and the Soviet Union, with the aid of relocated German scientists, competed in the “space race,” making sub¬ stantial progress in high-altitude rocket technology (see staged rocket). Both launched their first satellites (see Sputnik; Explorer) in the late 1950s (followed by other satellites and unmanned lunar probes) and their first manned space vehicles (see Vostok; Mercury) in 1961. A succession of longer and more complex manned space missions followed, most nota¬

bly the U.S. Apollo program, including the first manned lunar landing in 1969, and the Soviet Soyuz and Salyut missions. Beginning in the 1960s, U.S. and Soviet scientists also launched unmanned deep-space probes for studies of the planets and other solar system objects (see Pioneer; Venera; Viking; Voyager; Galileo), and Earth-orbiting astronomical observatories (see, for example, Hubble Space Telescope), which permitted observation of cosmic objects from above the filtering and distorting effects of Earth’s atmosphere. In the 1970s and ’80s the Soviet Union concentrated on the development of space stations for scientific research and military recon¬ naissance (see Salyut; Mir). After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia continued its space program, but on a reduced basis owing to economic constraints. In 1973 the U.S. launched its own space station (see Skylab), and since the mid 1970s it has devoted much of its manned space efforts to the space shuttle program and, more recently, to develop¬ ing the International Space Station in collaboration with Russia and other countries.

space frame Three-dimensional truss based on the rigidity of the tri¬ angle and composed of linear elements subject only to compression or tension. Its simplest spatial unit is a tetrahedron having four joints and six members. A space frame forms a very strong, thick, flexible structural fabric that can be used horizontally or bent to a variety of shapes. The beauty of its open latticework web of lightweight tubular diagonals is only surpassed by its structural purity. R. Buckminster Fuller used this technol¬ ogy for some of his Dymaxion projects; in his Union Tank Car warehouse. Baton Rouge, La. (1958), a space frame reinforces an enormous geode¬ sic dome.

space shuttle formally Space Transportation System (STS)

Partially reusable rocket-launched vehicle developed by NASA to go into Earth orbit, transport people and cargo between Earth and orbiting space¬ craft, and glide to a runway landing on Earth. The first flight of a space shuttle into orbit took place in 1981. The shuttle consists of a winged orbiter that carries crew and cargo; an expendable external tank of liquid fuel and oxidizer for the orbiter’s three main rocket engines; and two large, reusable solid-propellant booster rockets. The orbiter lifts off ver¬ tically like an expendable launch vehicle but makes an unpowered descent similar to a glider. Each orbiter was designed to be reused up to 100 times. For manipulating cargo and other materials outside the orbiter, astronauts use a remotely controlled robot arm or exit the orbiter wearing space- suits. On some missions, the shuttle carries a European-built pressurized research facility called Spacelab in its cargo bay. Between 1981 and 1985, four shuttle orbiters were put into service: Columbia (the first in orbit), Challenger , Discovery , and Atlantis. Challenger exploded in 1986 during launch, killing all seven astronauts aboard; it was replaced in 1992 by Endeavour. From 1995 to 1998, NASA conducted shuttle missions to the Russian space station Mir to prepare for the construction of the Interna¬ tional Space Station (ISS). Beginning in 1998, the shuttle was used exten¬ sively to ferry components, supplies, and crews to the ISS. In 2003 Columbia disintegrated while returning from a space mission, claiming the lives of its seven-person crew.

space station Manned artificial structure designed to revolve in a fixed orbit as a long-term base for astronomical observations, study of Earth’s resources and environment, military reconnaissance, and investigations of materials and biological systems in weightless conditions. As of 2001, nine space stations have been placed in a low Earth orbit and occupied for varying lengths of time. The Soviet Union orbited the world’s first space station, Salyut 1, designed for scientific studies, in 1971. From 1974 to 1982 five more Salyut stations—two outfitted for military reconnaissance—were successfully placed in orbit and occupied. In 1986 the U.S.S.R. launched the core module of Mir, a scientific station that was expanded with five additional modules over the next decade. The U.S. orbited its first space station in 1973; called Skylab, it was equipped as a solar observatory and medical laboratory. In 1998 the U.S. and Russia began the in-orbit construction of the International Space Station (ISS), a complex of laboratory and habitat modules that would ultimately involve contributions from at least 16 countries. In 2000 the ISS received its first resident crew. See illustration on following page.

space-time Single entity that relates space and time in a four¬ dimensional structure, postulated by Albert Einstein in his theories of rela¬ tivity. In the Newtonian universe it was supposed that there was no connection between space and time. Space was thought to be a flat, three- dimensional arrangement of all possible point locations, which could be expressed by Cartesian coordinates; time was viewed as an independent

Wole Soyinka.

VERNON L SMITH

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1794 I spacecraft ► Spain

Soviet/Russian space station Mir, after completion in 1996. The date shown for each module is its year of launch. Docked to the station are a Soyuz TM manned spacecraft and an unmanned Progress resupply ferry.

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one-dimensional concept. Einstein showed that a complete description of relative motion requires equations that include time as well as the three spatial dimensions. He also showed that space-time is curved, which allowed him to account for gravitation in his general theory of relativity.

spacecraft Vehicle designed to operate, with or without a crew, in a controlled flight pattern above Earth’s lower atmosphere. Since stream¬ lining is not needed in the high vacuum of this environment, a space¬ craft’s shape is designed according to its mission (see space exploration). Most spacecraft are not self-propelled; they are accelerated to the neces¬ sary high velocity by staged rockets, which are jettisoned when their fuel is used up. A major exception, the space shuttle orbiter, uses three onboard liquid-fuel main engines supplied by a disposable external tank and a pair of solid-fuel boosters to reach space. The spacecraft goes into an orbit around Earth or, if given enough velocity, it continues toward another destination in space. The craft may have its own small rocket engines for orienting and maneuvering. For internal power, Earth-orbiting spacecraft use solar cells and storage batteries, fuel cells, or a combination, whereas craft designed for deep-space missions usually carry thermoelectric gen¬ erators heated by a radioactive element. The enormous complexity of design, particularly of manned spacecraft with their millions of compo¬ nents, requires a high degree of miniaturization and reliability. See also LAUNCH VEHICLE.

spadefish Any of about 17 species (order Perciformes) of predomi¬ nantly tropical marine fishes with five or six vertical black bands on the deep, laterally compressed, silvery body. The bands may disappear with

age, and adults may be solid white, black, or silver. The Atlantic spade- fish (Chcietodipterus faber) ranges from New England to Brazil. It feeds primarily on marine invertebrates, particularly crustaceans and cteno- phores.

Spagnuolo, Pietro See Pedro Berruguete

Spahn, Warren (Edward) (b.

April 23, 1921, Buffalo, N.Y., U.S.—d. Nov. 24, 2003, Broken Arrow, Okla.) U.S. baseball pitcher. Spahn spent most of his career with the Boston (later Milwaukee) Braves (1942, 1946-64). He amassed 2,583 career strikeouts, giving him the third highest total in baseball history when he retired. His feat of winning 20 or more games in each of 13 sea¬ sons was also a record, as was his striking out at least 100 batters each year for 17 consecutive seasons (1947-63). His total of 363 wins established a record for left-handers. He was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1973.

Spain officially Kingdom of Spain Country, southwestern Europe. One of Europe’s largest countries, it is located on the Iberian Peninsula and also includes the Bale¬ aric and Canary islands. Area: 195,379 sq mi (506,030 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 44,079,000. Capital: Madrid. The people are pre¬ dominantly Spanish, though there are populations of Basques, Catalans, Galicians, Aragonese, and Roma (Gypsies or Gitanos). Languages: Castilian Spanish (official), Catalan, Galician, Basque. Religion: Chris¬ tianity (predominantly Roman Catholic). Currency: euro. Spain’s large central plateau is surrounded by the Ebro River valley, the moun¬ tainous Catalonia region, the Medi¬ terranean coastal region of Valencia, the Guadalquivir River valley, and the mountainous region extending from the Pyrenees to the Atlantic coast. Spain has a developed market economy based on services, light and heavy industries, and agriculture. Mineral resources include iron ore, mercury, and coal. Agricultural products include grains and livestock. Spain is one of the world’s major producers of wine and olive oil. Tourism is also a major industry, especially along the southern Costa del Sol. Spain is a constitu¬ tional monarchy with two legislative houses; the chief of state is the king, and the head of government is the prime minister.

Remains of Stone Age populations dating back some 35,000 years have been found throughout Spain. Celtic peoples arrived in the 9th century bc, followed by the Romans, who dominated Spain from c. 200 bc until the Visigoth invasion in the early 5th century ad. In the early 8th century most of the peninsula fell to Muslims (Moors) from North Africa, and it remained under their control until it was gradually reconquered by the Christian kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, and Portugal. Spain was reunited in 1479 following the marriage of Ferdinand II (of Aragon) and Isabella I (of Castile). The last Muslim kingdom, Granada, was reconquered in 1492, and about this time Spain established a colonial empire in the Americas. In 1516 the throne passed to the Habsburgs, whose rule ended in 1700 when Philip V became the first Bourbon king of Spain. His ascendancy caused the War of the Spanish Succession, which resulted in the loss of numerous Euro¬ pean possessions and sparked revolution within most of Spain’s American colonies. Spain lost its remaining overseas possessions to the U.S. in the Spanish-American War (1898). (See Cuba; Guam; Philippines; Puerto Rico.)

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Spalatin ► Spanish language I 1795

15 = i

Bay of Biscay f