Britannica Concise 2005

Hongtaiji Vhuq-'ti-'jeV or Abahai or Tiancong \'tyan-'k6q\ (b. Nov. 28, 1592, Manchuria—d. Sept. 21, 1643, Manchuria) Creator of the Qing empire in Manchuria. Under him, Inner Mongolia and Korea became vas¬ sal states of the Manchus. On the counsel of his Chinese advisers, Hong¬ taiji began the conquest of China. He did not live to see its completion a year later, but his reign greatly strengthened the foundations of Manchu rule, and he became the first emperor of the Qing dynasty. See also Dor- gon; Nurhachi.

1114 °

CHINA

• LoWu

Deep Bay

San

TinShui Wai

ShekWuHui Mai Po*

• Marshes . Kai Keung Leng 1,876 ft. „

_Tai-Po'C

Yuen Lor ~

1114° io 1

Yim Tso Ha . Egret S^nctUaty

PING ISLAND

Mirs Bay

Kwai Tau UfngJ 1 DOUBLE ISLAND A 1,594 ft. O 22° 30'

Castle Peak Monastery

Tai Mo Shan /

.139 ft. *

NEW TERRITORIES, TsuenWan Sha Tin* ’

, Kwai Chung Kowlc

Reservoir f£> \ r\

New Kowloon

k Tuen Mun

'iw... t

I'Lam truing

SOUTH CHINA

SEA LANTAU

ISIAN D/Discovery Bay Trappist*

Po Lin Monastery • •

Monastery. Tung -^Wo v

CHEUNG SOKO ISLAND ISLANDS

TAP MUNG ISLAND

Shek UK Shan 1,578 ft. Sharp

/ TaiLang Wan

^jHigh Island ~ fS-Reservoir

Aberdeen ,

LAMMA ISLAND

TUNG LUNG ISLAND

ISLAND GROUP

SOUTH CHINA SEA

D 2002 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Hongwu Vhur)-wu\ emperor or Hung-wu emperor orig. Zhu Yuanzhang (b. Oct. 21, 1328,

Haozhou, China—d. June 24, 1398) Founder of China’s Ming dynasty. A poor peasant orphaned at 16, he entered a monastery to avoid starvation. Later, as a rebel leader, he came in contact with educated gentry from whom he received an education and political guidance. He was advised to present himself not as a popular rebel but as a national leader against the foreign

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

892 I Hongze Lake ► Hooker

Mongols whose Yuan dynasty was on the point of collapse. Defeating rival national leaders, Zhu proclaimed himself emperor in 1368, establishing his capital at Nanjing and adopting Hongwu as his reign title. He drove the last Yuan emperor from China that year and reunified the country by 1382. His rule was despotic: he eliminated the posts of prime minister and central chancellor and had the next level of administration report directly to him. He prohibited eunuchs from participating in government and appointed civilian officials to control military affairs.

Hongze Lake Chinese Hongze Hu or Hung-tse Hu

Vhuq-'dzo-'htiN Lake, eastern China. Located in the Huai River valley between Jiangsu and Anhui provinces, it was smaller in the 7th-10th cen¬ turies ad than its present surface area of 757 sq mi (1,960 sq km). In the 11th century, canals were constructed to make it part of a canal system between Kaifeng and Zhuzhou, joining the lake to the Huai. In 1194 the Huang He (Yellow River) changed course, forcing the waters of the Huai into the lake, which then grew to its present size. In the 19th century, flooding in the area was severe, and in the 1930s a new channel (improved in the 1950s) was dug from the lake’s eastern shore directly to the sea.

Honiara \ l h6-ne- , ar-o\ Town (pop., 1999 est.: 49,107), capital of the Solomon Islands, South Pacific Ocean. Situated at the mouth of the Matan- iko River on the north coast of Guadalcanal, Honiara is a port and com¬ munications centre which trades chiefly in coconuts, timber, fish, and some gold. It developed during World War II around the site of a U.S. military headquarters and became the capital in 1952.

Honnecourt, Villard de See Villard de Honnecourt

Honolulu City (pop., 2000: 371,657), capital, and principal port of Hawaii, U.S. Located on Oahu island, it is the crossroads of trans-Pacific shipping and air routes, the focus of interisland services, and the com¬ mercial and industrial centre of the state. Its area of 597 sq mi (1,545 sq km) includes some outlying islets, which constitute the Hawaiian and Pacific Islands National Wildlife Refuge. Honolulu has about 80% of the state’s population. The area was settled from c. 1100, according to Hawai¬ ian legends. During the 19th century Honolulu flourished as a trade cen¬ tre, especially for whalers. In 1898 it passed with the rest of Hawaii to U.S. control. In December 1941 the city and adjacent Pearl Harbor were bombed by the Japanese. It became a prime staging area for the rest of World War II and later for the Korean and Vietnam wars. The military remains an important source of income. The port serves numerous manu¬ facturing plants. Nearby Waikiki Beach is a prime tourist site.

Honorius \ho-'nor-e-os\ III orig. Cencio Savelli (b. Rome—d. March 18, 1227, Rome) Pope (1216-27). He extended Innocent Ill’s policies on church reform and the recovery of the Holy Land, proclaiming a Crusade to regain Jerusalem in 1216 (see Crusades). He crowned Frederick II as Holy Roman emperor (1220) but threatened to excommunicate him if he failed to join the Crusade. Honorius also undertook a Crusade against the Moors in Spain (1218) and settled the Barons’ War in England (1223). He con¬ tinued the Albigensian Crusade against the heretics of southern France. He approved the Dominican, Franciscan, and Carmelite orders and authorized the first official book of canon law.

Honour, Legion of See Legion of Honour

Honshu \'h6n-,shu\ Island (pop., 2001 est.: 102,681,000), Japan. The largest of the four main islands of Japan, its coastline extends 6,266 mi (10,084 km); it has an area of 87,992 sq mi (227,898 sq km). It is regarded as the Japanese mainland, and much of the country’s early history took place in its southwestern region. Honshu’s Pacific coast is the country’s main economic centre, lined with the metropolitan areas of Tokyo- Yokohama, Nagoya, and Osaka-Kobe. Honshu contains Japan’s tallest mountain, Mount Fuji, and its largest lake, Lake Biwa.

Hontan, Baron de La See Baron de La Hontan

Honthorst Vh6nt-,h6rst\, Gerrit van known as Gherardo delle Notti (Italian: "Gerard of the Night Scenes") (b. Nov. 4,1590, Utrecht, Neth.—d. April 27, 1656, Utrecht) Dutch painter. During 10 years in Italy (c. 1610-20) he enjoyed the patronage of the nobility and assimilated the Baroque style of Caravaggio. The dramatic effects of arti¬ ficial light in his early paintings, as in such nocturnal scenes as Supper Party (1620), earned him his nickname. He was court painter at The Hague from 1637 to 1652. Some of Rembrandt’s early works were inspired by his use of chiaroscuro. With Hendrik Terbrugghen, he was a leader of the Utrecht school.

Hooch Vhok\, Pieter de or Pieter de Hoogh \'hok\ (baptized Dec. 20, 1629, Rotterdam, Neth.—d. c. 1684, Amsterdam?) Dutch genre painter. He trained in Haarlem and was a member of the painters’ guild of Delft (1655-57). In style and subject matter, his work is similar to that of Johannes Vermeer; he was noted for his small interiors and sunny out¬ door scenes, with figures engaged in humble, domestic activities in set¬ tings of serene simplicity. In his best works, he was concerned with the effect of enclosures on light intensity, tonal variations, and linear perspec¬ tive. After he moved to Amsterdam (c. 1661), his paintings increased in quantity but declined in quality. He died in a mental institution.

Hood, Mount Peak, northwestern Oregon, U.S. Located in the Cascade Range at 11,235 ft (3,424 m), it is an extinct volcano that last erupted c. 1865. The snowcapped peak, the highest mountain in the state, is the focal point of Mount Hood National Forest, a popular tourist and recreation area.

Hood, Raymond M(athewson) (b. March 29, 1881, Pawtucket, R.I., U.S.—d. Aug. 14, 1934, Stamford, Conn.) U.S. architect. He stud¬ ied at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge and the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris. He and John Mead Howells (1868-1959) won first prize in the 1922 Chicago Tribune Building competition; their design would be one of their many Neo-Gothic skyscrapers influenced by Cass Gilbert’s Woolworth Building. Later he turned away from the revival of past styles; his Daily News (1930; with Howells) and McGraw-Hill (1930-31; with J.A. Fouilhoux) buildings, both in New York City, have cleaner lines, foreshadowing the Rockefeller Center complex (1929^10), which Hood and Fouilhoux went on to design with a team of architects.

hoof-and-mouth disease See foot-and-mouth disease Hooghly River See Hugli River

Hooke, Robert (b. July 18, 1635, Freshwater, Isle of Wight, Eng.—d. March 3, 1703, London) English physicist. From 1665 he taught at Oxford University. His achievements and theories were bewilderingly diverse. His important law of elasticity, known as Hooke’s law (1660), states that the stretching of a solid is proportional to the force applied to it. He was one of the first to build and use a reflecting telescope. He suggested that Jupiter rotates on its axis, and his detailed sketches of Mars were later used to determine its rate of rotation. He suggested that a pendulum could be used to measure gravitation, and he attempted to show that the Earth and Moon follow an elliptical orbit around the Sun. He discovered dif¬ fraction and proposed the wave theory of light to explain it. He was one of the first proponents of the theory of evolution. He was the first to state in general that all matter expands when heated and that air is made up of particles separated from each other by relatively large distances. He invented a marine barometer, contributed improvements to clocks, the quadrant, and the universal joint, and anticipated the steam engine.

Hooker, Joseph (b. Nov. 13, 1814, Hadley, Mass., U.S.—d. Oct. 31, 1879, Garden City, N.Y.) U.S. Army officer. He attended West Point and served in the Mexican War.

Appointed brigadier general of vol¬ unteers at the outbreak of the Ameri¬ can Civil War, he participated in major campaigns and became known as “Fighting Joe.” He succeeded Ambrose E. Burnside as commander of the Army of the Potomac after the disastrous Battle of Fredericksburg.

He reorganized the army but failed to defeat Robert E. Lee at the Battle of Chancellorsville, incurring heavy Union casualties. He resigned just before the Battle of Gettysburg but later helped secure the Union victory at the Battle of Chattanooga.

Hooker, Richard (b. March 1554?, Heavitree, Exeter, Devon,

Eng.—d. Nov. 2, 1600, Bishops- bourne, near Canterbury, Kent)

English clergyman and theologian. He attended the University of Oxford, became a fellow of Corpus Christi College in 1577, and was ordained in 1581. He served as master of the Temple Church (1585-91) and later was vicar of churches at Drayton Beauchamp, Boscombe, and Bishopsboume.

Joseph Hooker

COURTESY OF THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Hooker ► Hope diamond I 893

He created a distinctive Anglican theology during a time when the Church of England was threatened by both Roman Catholicism and Puritanism. His great work was Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity (1594-97), in which he defended the threefold authority of the Bible, church tradition, and human reason.

Hooker, Thomas (b. probably July 7, 1586, Markfield, Leicestershire, Eng.—d. July 7, 1647, Hartford, Conn.) Anglo-American colonial cler¬ gyman. He held pastorates in England (1620-30), where he was attacked for Puritan leanings. He fled to Holland before emigrating to the Massa¬ chusetts Bay Colony in 1633. As pastor of a company of Puritans, he moved them to Connecticut to settle Hartford in 1636. He helped frame the Fundamental Orders (1639), which later formed the basis of the Con¬ necticut constitution.

Hooper, Franklin Henry (b. Jan. 28, 1862, Worcester, Mass., U.S.—-d. Aug. 14, 1940, near Saranac Lake, N.Y.) U.S. editor. He was the brother of Horace Everett Hooper, publisher of Encyclopaedia Britannica. He joined the Britannica staff in 1899, and over the next 39 years he was connected with five editions of the Britannica, serving as editor in chief

1932-38.

Hooper, Horace Everett (b. Dec. 8, 1859, Worcester, Mass., U.S.—d. June 13, 1922, Bedford Hills, N.Y.) U.S. publisher. Hooper left school at age 16 and became involved in bookselling. With the collabo¬ ration of The Times of London, he produced a highly successful reprint of the Encyclopaedia Britannica' s ninth edition (1875-89). In 1901 he and Walter Jackson purchased Britannica outright; it was sold in 1920. He planned and published the 10th edition (1902-03), of which his brother Franklin Henry Hooper was an editor; the 11th edition (1910-11), famed for its rich, leisurely prose and for being wholly new in concept; and the 12th edition (1922).

Hoorn Islands See Futuna Islands

Hoover, Herbert (Clark) (b. Aug. 10, 1874, West Branch, Iowa, U.S.—d. Oct. 20, 1964, New York, N.Y.) 31st president of the U.S. (1929- 33). After graduating from Stanford University (1895), he became a min¬ ing engineer, administering engineering projects on four continents (1895-1913). He then headed Allied relief operations in England and Belgium. As U.S. national food administrator during World War I, he instituted programs that furnished food to the Allies and to famine- stricken areas of Europe. Appointed U.S. secretary of commerce (1921— 27), he reorganized the department, creating divisions to regulate broadcasting and aviation. He oversaw commissions to build Boulder (later Hoover) Dam and the St. Lawrence Seaway. In 1928, as the Repub¬ lican presidential candidate, he soundly defeated Alfred E. Smith. His hopes for a “New Day” program were quickly overwhelmed by the Great Depres¬ sion. In response, he called business leaders to the White House to urge them not to lay off workers or cut wages, and he urged state and local governments to join private charities in caring for destitute Americans. Believing that a dole would sap the will of Americans to provide for themselves, he adamantly opposed direct federal relief payments to indi¬ viduals, though in 1932 he finally allowed relief to farmers through the Reconstruction Finance Corp. After his electoral defeat in 1932 by Fran¬ klin D. Roosevelt, he regularly spoke out against what he considered the radicalism of the New Deal and Roosevelt’s attempts to involve the U.S. in countering German and Japa¬ nese aggression. After World War II he participated in famine-relief work in Europe and was appointed head of the Hoover Commission.

Hoover, J(ohn) Edgar (b. Jan. 1,

1895, Washington, D.C., U.S.—d.

May 2, 1972, Washington, D.C.)

U.S. director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). He entered the Department of Justice as a file reviewer in 1917; two years later, as special assistant to Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer, he helped in the roundup and deportation of sus¬ pected Bolsheviks. In 1924 he was named director of the Bureau of Investigation, which he remade into

a professional, merit-based organization. In the 1930s he successfully publicized the FBI’s success in tracking down and capturing well-known criminals. During this time, both the FBI’s size and its responsibilities grew steadily. In the late 1930s Hoover received authorization to inves¬ tigate foreign espionage in the U.S. and the activities of communists and fascists alike. When the Cold War began in the late 1940s, the FBI under¬ took intensive surveillance of communists and other left-wing activists in the U.S. Hoover’s animus toward radicals of every kind led him to inves¬ tigate both the Ku Klux Klan and Martin Luther King, Jr., as well as other African American activists in the 1960s. At the same time, he maintained a hands-off policy toward the Mafia, which was allowed to conduct its operations nationwide practically free of FBI scrutiny or interference. Hoover habitually used the FBI’s enormous surveillance and information¬ gathering powers to collect damaging information on politicians through¬ out the country, and apparently he was able to intimidate even sitting presidents by threatening to leak damaging disclosures about them. He retained his post for 48 years, until his death.

Hoover Commission (1947^19, 1953-55) Advisory body headed by former Pres. Herbert Hoover to examine the organization of the U.S. executive branch. The first commission, officially titled the Commission on Organization of the U.S. Executive Branch, was appointed by Pres. Harry Truman to reduce the number of federal government departments. Recommendations from this and a second commission appointed by Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower were largely adopted. Some agencies were consoli¬ dated and new bodies were created, including the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare and the General Services Administration.

Hoover Dam formerly Boulder Dam Highest concrete arch dam in the U.S., built on the Colorado River at the Arizona-Nevada border. It impounds Lake Mead. The dam, completed in 1936, is used for flood and silt control, electric power, irrigation, and domestic and industrial water supplies. It is 726 ft (221 m) high and 1,244 ft (379 m) long (along the crest), has a power capacity of 1,345 megawatts, and a volume of 4.4 million cu yd (3.36 million cu m).

hop In botany, either of two species of the genus Humulus, nonwoody annual or perennial vines in the hemp family, native to temperate North America, Eurasia, and South America. The hops used in the brew¬ ery industry (see beer) are the dried female flower clusters (cones) of the common hop ( H. lupulus), a long- lived perennial with rough twining stems. Hops impart a mellow bitter¬ ness and delicate aroma to brewed beverages and aid in their preserva¬ tion. The Japanese hop ( H. japoni- cus) is a quick-growing annual species used as a screening vine.

hop, step, and jump See triple

JUMP

Hope, Bob orig. Leslie Townes Hope (b. May 29, 1903, Eltham,

Eng.—d. July 27, 2003, Toluca Lake, Calif., U.S.) British-born U.S. actor. His family immigrated to Ohio when he was four years old. He cre¬ ated a song-and-comedy vaudeville act and in 1933 won his first substan¬ tial role in a musical, Roberta. Success in radio led to his first film, The Big Broadcast of 1938, in which he sang his theme song, “Thanks for the Memory.” He hosted the highly rated Bob Hope Show (1938-50) on radio and later hosted and appeared in numerous popular television specials. He costarred with Bing Crosby and Dorothy Lamour in seven popular “Road” pictures, beginning with The Road to Singapore (1940), and won fans in The Paleface (1948), My Favorite Spy (1951), and The Seven Little Foys (1955). For more than 40 years he performed with his variety show for U.S. troops overseas.

Hope diamond Blue diamond from India, one of the largest blue dia¬ monds known. Named for the London banker Thomas Hope, who pur¬ chased it in 1830, the 45.5-carat diamond is on display in the Smithsonian Institution. See photograph on following page.

Hop vine (Humulus lupulus) with female flowers (cones), which are used in brewing.

GRANT HEILMAN

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

894 I Hopeh ► Hopkinson

Hopeh See Hebei

Hopewell culture formerly Mound Builders Most notable ancient Indian culture of east-central North America. It flourished c. 200 bc-ad 500, chiefly in the Illinois and Ohio river valleys. (The name derives from a U.S. farm where the first site was explored.) The Hopewell Indians built earthen mounds for enclosure, burial, reli¬ gious rites, and defense. Hopewell villages lay along rivers and streams. The inhabitants raised corn and pos¬ sibly beans and squash but still relied upon hunting and gathering. They produced pottery and metalwork. Trade routes were evidently well developed. After ad 400 the distinc¬ tive features of the Hopewell culture gradually disappeared. See also Woodland culture.

Hopi Vho-pe\ North American Indian people constituting the west¬ ernmost group of Pueblo Indians. Most live on reservation lands in north¬ eastern Arizona, U.S., surrounded by the Navajo Reservation. The name Hopi means “Peaceful Ones.” They speak a language of the Uto-Aztecan stock. Most of their traditional settlements were on high mesas and con¬ sisted of terraced pueblo structures of stone and adobe. Their precise ori¬ gin is unknown, though they are usually considered descendants of the Anasazi peoples. Matrilineal descent was the rule. They supported them¬ selves by growing corn, beans, squash, and melons and by sheepherding. Hopi life was steeped in religious ceremony and involved secret rites held in semi-underground kivas (pit-houses) and the use of masks and costumes to impersonate kachinas (ancestral spirits). Some 11,100 people claimed sole Hopi descent in the 2000 U.S. census.

Hopkins, Sir Anthony (b. Dec. 31, 1937, Port Talbot, West Gla¬ morgan, Wales) British actor. He joined London’s National Theatre in 1965, where he starred in Shakespearean roles. A subtle actor able to con¬ vey volcanic emotion with a small gesture, he made an acclaimed Broad¬ way debut in Equus (1974). Hopkins stayed on in the U.S. for films such as The Elephant Man (1980) and television productions such as The Bun¬ ker (1981, Emmy Award). At the National Theatre he triumphed in King Lear and Antony and Cleopatra. He won an Oscar for his chilling per¬ formance as Hannibal Lecter in The Silence of the Lambs (1991), a role he played in two sequels. He also starred in Howards End (1992), The Remains of the Day (1993), and Amistad (1997).

Hopkins, Esek (b. April 26, 1718, Providence, R.I.—d. Feb. 26, 1802, Providence, R.I., U.S.) American naval officer. He went to sea at age 20, proving his ability as a seaman and a trader. A marriage into wealth put him at the head of a large merchant fleet prior to the French and Indian War (1754-63); his privateering during that conflict added to both his fortune and his naval reputation. In 1775 he was appointed the first com¬ mander of the Continental Navy. Instructed to attack the British fleet in Chesapeake Bay, he sailed instead for the Bahamas, where he captured the British post at New Providence. He returned to Rhode Island, where the fleet became largely inactive. In 1776 an investigation by Congress led to his censure for disobedience. The fleet’s continuing inactivity led to his suspension from command (1777) and dismissal (1778).

Hopkins, Sir Frederick Gowland (b. June 20, 1861, Eastbourne, East Sussex, Eng.—d. May 16, 1947, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire) Brit¬ ish biochemist. He discovered the amino acid tryptophan (1901) and showed that it and certain others are essential in the diet and cannot be made in the body from other substances. For his discovery of vitamins, he shared a 1929 Nobel Prize with Christiaan Eijkman. He demonstrated that working muscles accumulate lactic acid and isolated the tripeptide (see peptide) glutathione (1922) and showed that it is vital to utilization of oxy¬ gen by cells. He was knighted in 1925.

Hopkins, Gerard Manley (b. July 28, 1844, Stratford, Essex, Eng.—d. June 8, 1889, Dublin, Ire.) British poet. After studies at Oxford, he converted to Roman Catholicism and eventually became a Jesuit priest.

He burned his youthful verses as inappropriate to his profession; he began writing again in 1875 but was increasingly troubled by the tension between his religious vocation and his delight in the sensuous world. One of the most individual of Victorian writers, he is noted for intense language, compressed syntax, and innovations in prosody, including sprung rhythm. His best-known poems include “The Wreck of the Deut¬ schland,” “Pied Beauty,” “God’s Grandeur,” and “The Windhover.” He died of typhoid at age 44. His work, though not published in collected form until 1918 (by his friend Robert Bridges), influenced many 20th- century poets.

Hopkins, Harry L(loyd) (b. Aug. 17, 1890, Sioux City, Iowa, U.S.— d. Jan. 29, 1946, New York, N.Y.) U.S. New Deal official. He was a social worker in New York City through the 1920s. From 1931 to 1933 he directed the state’s emergency relief agency. After Franklin D. Roosevelt became president in 1933, Hopkins was appointed head of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration. In 1935 he created the Works Progress Administration (WPA). After serving as U.S. commerce secretary (1938— 40), he made several trips for Roosevelt to London and later to Moscow to discuss economic assistance and military strategy. In 1941 he was put in charge of the lend-lease program. He was regarded as Roosevelt’s clos¬ est personal adviser during World War II.

Hopkins, Johns (b. May 19, 1795, Anne Arundel county, Md., U.S.—d. Dec. 24, 1873, Baltimore, Md.) U.S. merchant and financier. He worked with an uncle as a wholesale grocer before establishing Hopkins Brothers wholesalers with his brothers in 1819. The firm soon prospered in several states. It freely accepted payment for goods in whiskey, which it then sold as Hopkins’ Best. Hopkins retired in 1847 a wealthy man, though he continued investing in Baltimore real estate and the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. In his will he left $7 million to fund the establishment of Johns Hopkins University and Johns Hopkins Hospital; he also endowed an orphanage for African American children.

Hopkins, Mark (b. Sept. 3, 1814, Richmond County, Va., U.S.—d. March 29, 1878, Yuma, Arizona Territory) U.S. businessman who helped build the Central Pacific (later the Southern Pacific) Railroad and for whom San Francisco’s Mark Hopkins Hotel atop Nob Hill was named. He was brought up in North Carolina. After an unprofitable attempt to mine gold in California in 1851, he began selling groceries and estab¬ lished one of the most prosperous mercantile houses in the state. With three other merchants he planned a transcontinental railroad, and in 1861 they organized the Central Pacific Railroad. In 1869 the main line was completed, meeting the Union Pacific at Promontory, Utah.

Hopkins, Pauline (Elizabeth) (b. 1859, Portland, Maine, U.S.—d. Aug. 13, 1930, Cambridge, Mass.) U.S. novelist and playwright. She per¬ formed with her family’s singing group before writing her first novel, Contending Forces (1900). Later novels include Hagar’s Daughter (1902), Winona (1902), Of One Blood (1903), and Topsy Templeton (1916). The novels reflect the influence of W.E.B. Du Bois and pioneer in using the traditional romance novel to explore racial and social themes.

Hopkins, Sarah Winnemucca or Sarah Hopkins Winne- mucca or Thocmectony (b. c. 1844, Humboldt Sink, Mex.—d. Oct. 16, 1891, Monida, Mont., U.S.) U.S. educator, lecturer, tribal leader, and writer. Born to a Northern Paiute family, she lived as a child with a white family and attended a convent school, and later she served as an army interpreter and scout. Her lecture tours in the East in the 1880s publicized the plight of her tribe and protested government policies. Her writings, of which Life Among the Piutes (1883) is the best known, are valuable for their description of Indian life and their insights into the impact of white settlement, and they are among the few contemporary Native American works.

Hopkinson, Francis (b. Oct. 2, 1737, Philadelphia, Pa.—d. May 9, 1791, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.) U.S. political leader and writer. After a brief business career, he launched a successful legal practice in New Jersey. He was appointed to the governor’s council in 1774, and in 1776 he repre¬ sented New Jersey in the Continental Congress. He signed the Declara¬ tion of Independence, and he later wrote articles that helped win ratification of the U.S. Constitution. He served as judge of the admiralty court for Pennsylvania (1779-89) and as U.S. district judge (1789-91). An accom¬ plished harpsichordist and composer of religious and secular songs, he was also known for his poetry and literary essays and for his design of numerous governmental and organizational seals.

The Hope diamond; in the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

LEE BOLTIN

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

hoplite ► hornbill I 895

hoplite Vhop-.lhA Heavily armed foot soldier of ancient Greece whose function was to fight in close formation. They probably first appeared in the late 8th century bc. They were equipped with new and heavier armour, including a metal helmet, breastplate, and shield; each had a sword and a 6-ft (2-m) spear for thrusting rather than throwing. From then on, battles were won not by individual champions but through the weight of massed hoplite PHALANXes breaking through enemy ranks. Though the phalanx was unwieldy and the equipment cumbersome, Greek hoplites were the best fighters in the Mediterranean world.

Hoppe \'ha-pe\, Willie in full William Frederick Hoppe (b. Oct. 11, 1887, Comwall-on-the-Hudson, N.Y., U.S.—d. Feb. 1, 1959, Miami, Fla.) U.S. billiards player. Hoppe was taught billiards by his hotelkeeper father. A master of carom technique, he became one of the most durable of all sports champions, winning 51 world titles between 1906 and 1952. In the 1940 tournament in Chicago he was undefeated in 20 matches. He retired in 1952.

Hopper, Edward (b. July 22, 1882, Nyack, N.Y., U.S.—d. May 15, 1967, New York, N.Y.) U.S. painter. He was initially trained as an illus¬ trator but later studied painting with Robert Henri. In 1913 he exhibited in the Armory Show but spent much of his time on advertising art and illustrative etchings. In the mid 1920s he turned to watercolours and oil paintings of urban life. His House by the Railroad (1925) and Room in Brooklyn (1932) depict still, anonymous figures within geometric build¬ ing forms, producing the haunting sense of isolation that was to be his hallmark. He used light to isolate figures and objects, as in Early Sunday Morning (1930) and Night hawks (1942). His mature style was already formed in the 1920s; his later development showed constant refinement and an even greater mastery of light.

Hopper, Grace Murray orig. Grace Brewster Murray (b. Dec. 9, 1906, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Jan. 1, 1992, Arlington, Va.) U.S. mathematician and rear admiral. She received a Ph.D. from Yale Univer¬ sity in 1934 and taught at Vassar College in 1931—44. As a U.S. Navy officer (1943-86), she worked on Harvard’s Mark I (1944) and Mark II (1945) computers, and in 1949 she helped design an improved compiler for translating a programmer’s instructions into computer codes. She helped devise UNI VAC I, the first U.S. commercial electronic computer (1951), and wrote naval applications for COBOL. She received the National Medal of Technology in 1991.

Horace orig. Quintus Horatius Flaccus (b. December 65, Venusia—d. Nov. 27, 8 bc, Rome) Latin lyric poet and satirist. The son of a former slave, he was educated in Rome. He fought in Brutus’s army in the upheaval after Julius Caesar’s murder but gained the favour of Octavian (later Augustus) and achieved virtually the status of poet laure¬ ate. His early works include books of Satires and Epodes, but his fame rests chiefly on his books of lyrical Odes and verse Epistles, including the treatise Ars poetica, which sets down rules for the composition of poetry. The Odes and Epistles, frequently on themes of love, friendship, and phi¬ losophy, significantly influenced Western poetry from the Renaissance through the 19th century.

Horbat Qesari See Caesarea Horeb, Mount See Mount Sinai

horizon In pedology, a distinct layer of soil forming part of the vertical sequence in a soil profile. Each horizon differs from the one above or below it in colour, chemical composition, texture, and structure. The hori¬ zons become differentiated during soil development because conditions vary with depth. There are generally three major layers within any given soil profile, and they are designated, from surface downward, as A, B, and C horizons. The A horizon generally contains more organic matter than the others; it is also the most weathered and leached. The B horizon tends to be a zone of accumulation, since all or part of the mineral mat¬ ter removed from the A horizon in solution may be deposited in it. The C horizon consists chiefly of the materials from which the A and B layers were derived; called parent materials, these are only slightly altered, because they are in general not subjected to soil-forming processes.

horizontal bar Event in men’s gymnastics competition in which a steel bar fixed about 8 ft (2.4 m) above the floor is used for swinging exercises. Competitors generally wear hand protectors and perform rou¬ tines that last 15-30 seconds. Exercises include the giant swing and vari¬ ous vaults (such as the straddle vault). It has been an Olympic event since the first modem Olympic Games in 1896.

horizontal integration See vertical integration

Horkheimer, Max (b. Feb. 14, 1895, Stuttgart, Ger.—d. July 7, 1973, Niimberg) German philosopher and social theorist. He received his Ph.D. in philosophy at the University of Frankfurt in 1922. In 1930 he became director of the university’s newly founded Institute for Social Research. Under his leadership, the institute attracted an extraordinarily talented array of philosophers and social scientists, including Theodor Adorno, Erich Fromm, and Herbert Marcuse; collectively (with Horkheimer) they became known as the Frankfurt school. When the Nazis came to power in 1933, Horkheimer moved the institute to New York City, where he directed it until 1941; he reestablished it in Frankfurt in 1950. In his 1937 essay “Traditional and Critical Theory,” he contrasted what he considered the socially conformist orientation of traditional political philosophy and social science to the brand of critical Marxism favoured by the institute, an approach known as critical theory. His collaboration with Adorno, Dia¬ lectic of Enlightenment (1947), is a pessimistic work that traces the ori¬ gins of fascism and other forms of totalitarianism to the Enlightenment concept of “instrumental” reason.

hormone Organic compound (often a steroid or peptide) that is produced in one part of a multicellular organism and travels to another part to exert its action. Hormones regulate physiological activities including growth, reproduction, and homeostasis in vertebrates; molting and maintenance of the larval state (see larva) in insects; and growth, bud dormancy, and leaf shedding in plants. Most vertebrate hormones originate in specialized tis¬ sues (see endocrine system; gland) and are carried to their targets through the circulation. Among the many mammalian hormones are ACTH, sex hormones, thyroxine, insulin, and epinephrine. Insect hormones include ecdysone, thoracotropic hormone, and juvenile hormone. Plant hormones include ethylene, abscisin, auxins, gibberellins, and cytokinins.

Hormoz or Hormuz \hor-'miizV formerly Ormuz \6r-'miiz\ Island and town, Iran. Situated in the Strait of Hormuz, the island is 5 mi (8 km) off the coast of Iran. Hormoz village is its only permanent settlement. After the Arab conquest, it was an important market that by ad 1200 monopolized trade with India and China. Marco Polo twice visited there. Taken by the Portuguese in 1514, it was retaken by Persia in 1622. The town declined with the growth of the port of Bandar 'Abbas on the main¬ land.

Hormuz, Strait of formerly Strait of Ormuz Channel linking the Persian Gulf with the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea. It is 35-60 mi (55-95 km) wide and separates Iran from the Arabian Peninsula. It con¬ tains the islands of Qeshm, Hormoz, and Hengam and is strategically and economically important as a route for oil tankers collecting from various ports on the Persian Gulf.

Horn, Cape Southern extremity of South America. Located on Horn Island in the southern Tierra del Fuego archipelago, it projects south into Drake Passage. It was named Hoom for the birthplace of Dutch navigator Willem Schouten, who rounded it in 1616. Navigation of the rough waters around the cape is hazardous, and the climate is windy and cold year- round.

Horn of Africa Region of eastern Africa. The easternmost African

extension of land between the Indian occupied by Ethiopia, Eritrea, Soma¬ lia, and Djibouti, whose cultures have been linked throughout their long history.

hornbill Any of about 45 species of Old World tropical birds (family Bucerotidae) noted for the bony hel¬ met on the bill of some species. Hombills range from 16 to 63 in. (40-160 cm) long, and typically have a large head, prominent bill, thin neck, broad wings, long tail, and brown or black plumage, usually with bold white markings. They nest in cavities, usually in large trees. The male of most species walls up the female in the nest, closing the hole with mud, except for a small open¬ ing through which he passes food.

Ocean and the Gulf of Aden, it is

Red-billed hornbill (Tockus erythrorhyn- chus)

MARK BOULTON-THE NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCIETY COLLECTION/PHOTO RESEARCHERS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

896 I hornblende ► Horowitz

The female breaks out after the eggs hatch, but the young may be walled up again.

hornblende Any of a subgroup of amphibole minerals that are calcium- iron-magnesium-rich and monoclinic in crystal structure. Hornblende, whose generalized chemical formula is (Ca,Na) 2 (Mg,Fe,Al) 5 (Al,Si) 8 0 2 2(OH) 2 , occurs widely in metamorphic and igneous rocks. Common hornblende is dark green to black in colour and usually found in middle-grade metamorphic rocks (formed under medium conditions of temperature and pressure). Such metamorphic rocks with abundant horn¬ blende are called amphibolites.

Hornblower, Jonathan Carter (b. July 5, 1753, Chacewater, Corn¬ wall, Eng.—d. March 1815, Penryn, Cornwall) British inventor. He and his father, Jonathan (1717-80), worked for James Watt. Seeking to improve on Watt’s steam-engine design, he devised the first reciprocating compound steam engine (patented 1781); his engine had two cylinders (see piston and cylinder), a significant contribution to efficiency. In 1799 it was judged an infringement on Watt’s patent.

Hornbostel Vhom-.bos-UL, Erich (Moritz) von (b. Feb. 25, 1877, Vienna, Austria—d. Nov. 28, 1935, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, Eng.) Austrian ethnomusicologist. Born into a musical family in Vienna, he was by his teens a skilled pianist and composer. After taking a doctorate in chemistry, he became involved in psychological research, and his studies of tonal perception were pioneering research in what would become the field of ethnomusicology. He helped establish the research program for the field and the methods used to carry it out, including field recordings. In 1912 he devised, with Curt Sachs, the cross-cultural system of classifica¬ tion of musical instruments that is still in use.

Horne, Lena (Calhoun) (b. June 30,1917, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. singer and actress. In her youth she was a dancer at Harlem’s Cotton Club, and by age 18 she was singing with popular bands. She starred in many films, including Stormy Weather (1943) and The Wiz (1978). Her album Lena Horne at the Waldorf-Astoria (1957) was a great success, as was her appearance in the musical Jamaica (1957). Her one-woman show, Lena Horne: The Lady and Her Music (1981), was hailed as her masterpiece. She continued to perform and record into the 1990s.

Horne, Marilyn (b. Jan. 16, 1934, Bradford, Pa., U.S.) U.S. mezzo- soprano. Horne studied voice at the University of Southern California and with the soprano Lotte Lehmann (1888-1976). In 1954 Horne dubbed the singing voice of Dorothy Dandridge in the film Carmen Jones , and that same year, she made her opera debut with the Los Angeles Guild Opera. Her long and influential association with the bel canto (a singing style based on an exact control of the intensity of vocal tone) repertoire began in 1962, and she played an important role in the revival of operas by George Frideric Handel and Gioacchino Rossini. Her distinctive voice was even throughout its remarkably wide range, and she had virtuoso control of breath and pitch. She retired in 2000 after a long career.

Africa, India, Myanmar (Burma), and the Indonesian archipelago. They typically prey on rodents.

horned toad or horned lizard Any of about 14 species of lizards of the genus Phrynosoma, family Iguanidae. They usually have dagger¬ like head spines (horns) and a flattened oval body with pointed fringe scales along the sides. Species range from about 3 to 5 in. (8 to 13 cm) long. They are found from British Columbia, Can., south to Guatemala and from the U.S. states of Arkansas and Kansas westward, usually in desert or semidesert sandy country. They eat mainly ants. They hide by changing their colour pattern and wriggling sideways into the sand until all but the head is covered. They may defend themselves by inflating the body quickly and (rarely) spurting blood from the eyes.

Horney \'hor- I ni\, Karen orig. Karen Danielsen (b. Sept. 16, 1885, Blankenese, near Hamburg, Ger.—d. Dec. 4, 1952, New York, N.Y., U.S.) German-U.S. psychoanalyst. After receiving her M.D. degree, she underwent psychoanalytic training with Karl Abraham, and from 1920 to 1932 she conducted a private practice while also teaching at the Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute. Settling in New York City in 1934, she began teaching at the New School for Social Research. She departed from some of Sigmund Freud’s basic principles, rejecting his concept of penis envy and emphasizing the need to help patients identify and cope with the spe¬ cific causes of current anxieties rather than focus on childhood traumas and fantasies. Expelled from the New York Psychoanalytic Institute in 1941, she organized a new group, the Association for the Advancement of Psychoanalysis. Her works include The Neurotic Personality of Out- Time (1937) and New Ways in Psychoanalysis (1939).

Horne \'horn\ Islands or Futuna \fu-'tii-na\ Islands Island group (pop., 2003 prelim.: 4,873), west- central South Pacific Ocean. Lying northeast of Fiji, the islands, Futuna and Alofi, form the southwestern part of the French overseas territory of Wallis and Futuna. Their combined land area is 36 sq mi (93 sq km).

Futuna is the site of Mount Singavi,

2,493 ft (760 m) high. The islands became a French protectorate in 1888 and part of the overseas terri¬ tory in 1961. Both have abundant water supplies, and Alofi is heavily wooded. The main villages are on the southern coast of Futuna. Alofi is uninhabited.

horned owl Any owl of the genus Bubo (family Strigidae), with horn¬ like tufts of feathers, especially the great horned owl. Other horned owls, all birds of prey, are found in Europe, Asia, and northern Africa (the eagle owl, or Eurasian eagle owl) and in

Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus).

E.R. DEGGINGER/VAN CLEVE PHOTOGRAPHY

Hornsby, Rogers (b. April 27, 1896, Winters, Texas, U.S.—d. Jan. 5, 1963, Chicago, Ill.) U.S. baseball player. Playing second base for the St. Louis Cardinals (1915-26),

Hornsby led the National League in batting for six consecutive seasons,

1920-25. In 1928, with the Boston Braves, he again led the league. For five years, 1921-25, he averaged .401, hitting over .400 in three of those seasons. His 1924 average of .424 is the highest attained in the major leagues in the 20th century. In 1926, as the Cardinals’ playing man¬ ager, he led the team to a World Series victory over the New York Yankees. He later managed the Bos¬ ton (1928), Chicago (1930-32), and Cincinnati (1952-53) teams in the National League and the St. Louis Browns (1933-37, 1952) in the American League. His career batting average of .358 is second only to Ty Cobb’s .367.

Hornsby, 1926

UPI COMPIX

horn wort Any member of four to six genera of creeping annual or perennial plants of the class Anthocerotopsida. Hornworts usually grow on damp soils or on rocks in tropical and warm temperate regions. The gametophyte typically is a flattened structure covered with small irregular lobes; the sporophyte forms a tapered cylinder (see alternation of genera¬ tions). Rhizoids (rootlike structures) on the undersurface anchor the plant. Cavities in the gametophyte sometimes contain colonies of the cyanobac¬ terium Nostoc (see cyanobacteria, nostoc). Hornworts have a region of continuous growth at the base of the sporophyte, and a large, irregular foot. The stalk that attaches the foot to the spore-bearing capsule in liv¬ erworts is absent in hornworts.

horoscope Astrological chart showing the positions of the sun, moon, and planets in relation to the signs of the zodiac at a specific time. It is used to analyze the character of individuals bom at that time, providing information about the current state of their life and predicting their future. Basic to a horoscope is the belief that each heavenly body has its own character, which is modified according to its relation to other celestial bodies at a given moment. To cast a horoscope, the heavens are divided into 12 zones called houses; these influence such aspects of human life as health, wealth, marriage, friendships, or death. See also astrology.

Horowitz, Vladimir (b. Oct. 1, 1903, Berdichev, Russia—d. Nov. 5, 1989, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Russian pianist. He attended the Kiev Con-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

horror story ► horseshoe pitching I 897

servatory and made his debut in 1921. His stunning technique gained him a large international reputation, and he became an inveterate touring per¬ former, giving 100 concerts a year in the U.S. alone. In 1933 he married Arturo Toscanini’s daughter, Wanda. Always susceptible to nervous strain, in 1953 he decided to quit public performance; his return to the concert stage in 1965 was attended by great publicity. He favoured the works of Romantics such as Robert Schumann, Frederic Chopin, Franz Liszt, and his friend Sergey Rachmaninoff. He continued to perform into his 80s.

horror story Story intended to elicit a strong feeling of fear. Such tales are of ancient origin and form a substantial part of folk literature. They may feature supernatural elements such as ghosts, witches, or vampires or address more realistic psychological fears. In Western literature, the lit¬ erary cultivation of fear and curiosity for its own sake emerged in the 18th century with the gothic novel. Classic practitioners of the horror and gothic genres include Horace Walpole, Mary Shelley, E.T.A. Hoffmann, Edgar Allan Poe, Sheridan Le Fanu (1814-73), Wilkie Collins, Bram Stoker, Ambrose Bierce, and Stephen King.

horse Equine species (Equus caballus ) long used by humans as a means of transport and as a draft animal. Its earliest ancestor was the dawn horse (see Eohippus). The only living horse not descended from the domestic horse is Przewalski's horse. The horse was apparently first domesticated by nomadic peoples of Central Asia in the 3rd millennium bc. For many cen¬ turies horses were primarily used in warfare. The saddle was introduced in China in the first centuries ad. Horses were reintroduced to the New World, after wild horses had become extinct there some 10,000 years ear¬ lier, by the Spanish in the 16th century. A mature male is called a stallion or, if used for breeding, a stud; mature females are called mares. A cas¬ trated stallion is called a gelding. Young horses (foals) are also known as colts (males) and fillies (females). A horse’s height is measured in 4-in. (10.2-cm) units, or hands, from the highest point of the back (withers) to the ground. Breeds are classified by size and build: draft (heavy) horses (e.g., Belgian, Percheron) are heavy-limbed and up to 20 hands high; ponies (e.g., Shetland, Iceland) are less than 14.2 hands high; and light horses (e.g., Arabian, Thoroughbred) are intermediate, rarely taller than 17 hands.

the mid-18th century as well, as gambling came to be a standard part of horse racing. Pari-mutuel betting was instituted in the 20th century. Thor¬ oughbred racing, conducted on a flat, elliptical, mile-long track, attracts the largest purses, followed by harness racing and quarter-horse racing. The most important U.S. Thoroughbred races are the Kentucky Derby, Preakness Stakes, and Belmont Stakes. See also steeplechase.

horsefly Any member of the dipteran genus Tabanus or, more generally, of the family Tabanidae. These stout flies range from as small as a house¬ fly to as large as a bumblebee. Sometimes called greenheaded monsters, horseflies have metallic or iridescent eyes. Adults are fast, strong fliers usually found around streams, marshes, and wooded areas. They may carry animal diseases, including anthrax, tularemia, and trypanosomiasis. The bites of the bloodsucking females can be painful, and a swarm may suck more than 3 oz (about 90 ml) of blood a day from an animal. Males feed on nectar, honeydew, and plant sap. Horseflies of the genus Chrysops, usually called deerflies, are smaller and have dark markings on the wings.

horsehair worm or hairworm or gordian worm Any of about 250-300 species (class Nematomorpha, or Gordiacea; phylum Aschelm- inthes) of long, thin worms. The young are parasites in arthropods; the adults are free-living in the sea or in freshwater. The hairlike body some¬ times grows to a length of about 39 in. (1 m).

horsemanship Art of training, riding, and handling horses. Good horsemanship requires that a rider control the animal’s direction, gait, and speed with maximum effectiveness and minimum effort. Natural aids are a rider’s balance, hands, voice, and legs; artificial aids include bits, reins, saddles, and spurs. Horsemanship was important to cavalrymen and cow¬ boys, and is the fundamental element of dressage.

horsepower Common unit of power, the rate at which work is done. In the English system, one horsepower equals 33,000 foot-pounds of work per minute—that is, the power necessary to lift a total of 33,000 lbs a distance of one foot in one minute. This value was adopted by James Watt in the late 18th century after experiments with strong dray horses and is actually about 50% more than the rate an average horse can sustain for a working day. The electrical equivalent of one horsepower is 746 watts in the International System of Units; the heat equivalent is 2,545 BTU per hour. The metric horsepower (see metric system) equals 4,500 kg-m per minute (32,549 foot-pounds per minute), or 0.9863 horsepower.

horseradish Hardy perennial plant ( Armoracia lapathifolia ) of the mustard family, native to Mediterranean lands and grown throughout the temperate zones. Its hotly pungent, fleshy root is used as a condiment and is traditionally considered medicinal. In many cool, moist areas it has become a troublesome weed. The plant bears small white flowers, small oblong pods, and large, coarse, glossy-green basal leaves arising on long stems from the crown atop the large white root.

pastern

of hip

croup dock tail flank

•gaskin — hock

forearm

knee

coronet

heel

forehead

cheek

muzzle neck jugular groove shoulder breast —

External features of a horse.

© MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

horse-chestnut family Family Hippocastanaceae, composed of the buckeyes and the horse chestnuts (genus Aesculus), native to the northern temperate zone. The best-known species of horse chestnut is the com¬ mon, or European, horse chestnut ( A. hippocastanum), native to south¬ eastern Europe but widely cultivated as a large shade and street tree. The Champs-Elysees in Paris is lined with rows of horse-chestnut trees.

horse racing Sport of running horses at speed. Typically, Thorough¬ breds are raced with a rider astride and Standardbreds with the horse pull¬ ing a conveyance with a driver. Though racing has an ancient lineage, the first regularly organized national races were established in England under Charles II (r. 1660-85), and the first in North America were held on Long Island in 1665. These early races were match events between two or three horses and were run in heats; a horse had to complete at least two heats to be judged the winner. By the mid-18th century, larger fields of runners and single-race “dash” events were the norm. Handicap racing emerged in

horseshoe pitching Game for two or four players in which a horse¬ shoe is thrown so as to encircle or land as close as possible to a stake. A horseshoe encircling the stake is called a ringer and counts for the high¬ est score. The game may have derived from quoits, and it became espe¬ cially popular in the U.S. and Canada. Regulation games are played to a winning score of 50, informal games to 21.

horseshoe crab Any of four extant species of marine arthropods (order Xiphosura, subphylum Cheli- cerata), found on the eastern coasts of Asia (three species) and North America (one species). Despite the name, horseshoe crabs are not crabs; they are more closely related to scor¬ pions. Fossil relatives date back 505 million years. They are most abun¬ dant in estuarine waters. The North American species, Limulus polyphe- mus, can grow to more than 2 ft (60 cm) long. The body consists of three parts hinged together: a broad, horseshoe-shaped cephalothorax; a much smaller, segmented abdomen;

and a long, sharp tail-spine, or telson. They spawn on sandy beaches in spring and summer. Adults feed on marine worms; larvae feed on small organisms.

Horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus).

RUNK/SCHOENBERGER FROM GRANT HEILMAN

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

898 I horsetail ► hot spot

horsetail also called scouring rush Any of the 30 species of rush- like (see rush), conspicuously segmented, perennial herbaceous plants that make up the genus Equisetum. They grow in moist, rich soils everywhere except Australasia. Some are evergreen; others send up new shoots every year. The stems contain abundant silicate minerals and other minerals. The leaves are merely sheaths that encircle the shoots. An ancient plant, the horsetail’s relatives date to the Carboniferous Period. The common horse¬ tail ( E . arvense) is widespread along streambanks and in meadows in North America and Eurasia. Though poisonous to livestock, horsetails are used in folk medicines. Because of their abrasive stems, some species have been used in polishing tools.

Horta, Victor, Baron (b. Jan. 6, 1861, Ghent, Belg.—d. Sept. 8,1947, Brussels) Belgian architect. From 1892 he designed numerous buildings in Brussels, becoming a leading exponent of the Art Nouveau style. His Hotel Tassel (1892-93) was a pioneering example of the new style. His chief work was the Maison du Peuple (1896-99), the first structure in Belgium to have a largely iron-and-glass facade. From 1912 he directed the Academie des Beaux-Arts, and he designed the Palais des Beaux-Arts

(1922-28).

Horthy \'hor-te\ Miklos (Nagybanyai) (b. June 18, 1868, Ken- deres, Hung., Austria-Hungary—d. Feb. 9, 1957, Estoril, Port.) Hungarian naval officer and regent (1920-44). He served with distinction as a naval commander in World War I and was promoted to admiral in 1918. In 1919 he led an army against the communist regime of Kun Bela . In 1920 the Hungarian parliament voted to restore the monarchy and elected Horthy regent of Hungary, but he thwarted the efforts of Charles IV to recover his throne. He supported Germany in World War II, though his efforts to extri¬ cate Hungary from the war led to his forced abdication and abduction by the Germans in 1944. Released in 1945, he retired to Portugal.

horticulture Branch of agriculture concerned with the cultivation of garden plants—generally fruits, veg¬ etables, flowers, and ornamentals such as plants used for landscaping (see landscape gardening). Propaga¬ tion, the controlled perpetuation of plants, is the most basic horticultural practice. Its objectives are to increase the numbers of a plant and to preserve its essential characteris¬ tics. Propagation may be achieved sexually by use of seeds or asexually by use of techniques such as cutting, grafting (see graft), and tissue culture.

Successful horticulture depends on extensive control of the environ¬ ment, including light, water, tem¬ perature, soil structure and fertility, and pests. Two important horticul¬ tural techniques are training (chang¬ ing a plant’s orientation in space) and pruning (judicious removal of plant parts), used to improve the appearance or usefulness of plants.

See also floriculture.

Horus Ancient Egyptian god with the head of a falcon, whose eyes were the sun and moon. The kings of Egypt were called living incarna¬ tions of Horus. During the 1st dynasty Horus was known princi¬ pally as an opponent of Seth, but after 2350 bc he became associated with the Osiris cult and was identi¬ fied as the son of Osiris. He destroyed Seth, the killer of Osiris, and became ruler of all Egypt. His left eye (the moon) was damaged by Seth but was healed by Thoth. In the Ptolemaic period, the victory of Horus over Seth became a symbol of Egypt triumphing over its occupiers.

Horyu Temple Japanese Horyu-ji Vhor-yu-je\ Buddhist complex near Nara, Japan, comprising the oldest known wood buildings in the world. The temple was founded by Prince Shotoku in 607 during the Asuka period, destroyed by fire in 670, and reconstructed c. 680-708. It retains the chu-mon (middle gate) of the roofed cloister enclosing the rectangular temple precinct, a five-storied pagoda, and a kondd (main hall).

Hosea Mio-'za-o, ho-'ze-3\ (fl. 8th century bc) First of the 12 Minor Prophets in the Hebrew scriptures, traditional author of the book of Hosea. (His prophecy is part of a larger book, The Twelve, in the Jewish canon.) He began to prophesy during the reign of Jeroboam II and continued until near the fall of the northern kingdom of Israel in 721 bc. The book is an allegory in which the prophet is presented as a man married to a harlot or an adulterous wife. This troubled relationship stands for the betrayal of God by Israel, which has “played the harlot” by dallying with Canaan- ite religion.

hosiery Knit or woven coverings for the feet and legs, worn inside shoes. In the 8th century bc, Hesiod referred to linings for shoes; the Romans wrapped their feet, ankles, and legs in long strips of leather or woven cloth. Knitted socks were discovered in Egyptian tombs of the 3rd-6th century ad. The first knitting machine was invented in England in the 16th century. Full-fashioned stockings were knitted flat, then shaped and seamed up the back by hand. In the 19th century, seamless stockings, mostly of cotton, were knitted on circular machines, but they did not fit well; seamless hose did not become popular until the 1940s, when nylon replaced silk for dress hose. Pantyhose were introduced in the 1960s.

hospice Home or hospital for relieving physical and emotional suffer¬ ing of dying persons. In patients expected to live only months or weeks, hospice care offers an alternative to aggressive life-prolonging measures, which often only increase discomfort and isolation. Hospices provide a sympathetic environment in which prevention (not just control) of physi¬ cal pain has top priority, along with patients’ emotional and spiritual needs. Care may be provided in a health facility, on an outpatient basis, or at home.

hospital Institution for diagnosing and treating the sick or injured, hous¬ ing them during treatment, examining patients, and managing childbirth. Outpatients, who can leave after treatment, come in for emergency care or are referred for services not available in a private doctor’s office. Hos¬ pitals may be public (government-owned) or private (profit-making or not-for-profit); in most nations except the U.S., most are public. They may also be general, accepting all types of medical or surgical cases, or spe¬ cial (e.g., children’s hospitals, mental hospitals), limiting service to a single type of patient or illness. However, general hospitals usually also have specialized departments, and special hospitals tend to become affili¬ ated with general hospitals.

Hospitallers See Knights of Malta, Teutonic Order

hosta Vha-sts, 'ho-staN Any of about 40 species of hardy herbaceous perennials, also called plantain lily, of the genus Hosta , in the uly family, native to eastern Asia. They prefer light shade but will grow under a vari¬ ety of conditions. They are frequently grown for their conspicuous foli¬ age, which may be light to dark green, yellow, blue, or variegated. The ribbed leaves grow in a cluster at the base, and stalks bearing clusters of tubular white or bluish-purple flowers emerge from the leaves.

hot rod Automobile rebuilt or modified for high speed, fast accelera¬ tion, or sporty appearance. A wide range of automobiles may be called hot rods, including some of those used in drag racing as well as those used in recreational cruising. They may be composed of used or new parts. Some are intended primarily for exhibition.

hot spot Region of the Earth’s upper mantle that up wells to melt through the crust to form a volcanic feature. Most voLCANOes that cannot be ascribed either to a subduction zone or to seafloor spreading at midocean ridges are attributed to hot spots. The 5% of known world volcanoes not closely related to such plate margins (see plate tectonics) are regarded as hot-spot volcanoes. Hawaiian volcanoes are the best examples of this type, occurring near the centre of the northern portion of the Pacific Plate. A chain of extinct volcanoes or volcanic islands (and seamounts), such as the Hawaiian chain, can form over millions of years where a lithos¬ pheric plate moves over a hot spot. The active volcanoes all lie at one end of the chain or ridge, and the ages of the islands or the ridge increase with their distance from those sites of volcanic activity.

Horus offering a libation, bronze statue, 22nd dynasty (c. 800 bc); in the Louvre, Paris.

GIRAUDON/ART RESOURCE

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

hot spring ► house mouse I 899

hot spring or thermal spring Spring that issues water at tempera¬ tures substantially higher than the air temperature of the surrounding region. Most hot springs result from the interaction of groundwater with magma or with solid but still-hot igneous rocks. Some, however, are not related to volcanic activity. In such cases, deep circulation of water is thought to carry the water to the lower parts of the Earth’s crust, where the temperature of the rocks is high.

Hot Springs National Park National park, central Arkansas, U.S. Established in 1921, it occupies an area of 9 square mi (23 sq km). It is centred on 47 thermal springs, from which more than 850,000 gallons (3,200,000 litres) of water, with an average temperature of 143 °F (62 °C), flow daily. The springs, long used by the Indians and probably vis¬ ited by Hernando de Soto in 1541, drew Spanish and French visitors in search of health benefits in the 1700s. The city of Hot Springs (pop., 2000: 35,750), a health and tourist resort and boyhood home of U.S. Pres. Bill Clinton, was settled in 1807 and incorporated in 1876.

hotel Building that provides lodging, meals, and other services to the traveling public on a commercial basis. Inns have existed since ancient times (e.g., along the Roman road system during the Roman Empire) to serve merchants and other travelers. Medieval European monasteries operated inns to guarantee haven for travelers in dangerous regions. The spread of travel by stagecoach in the 18th century stimulated the devel¬ opment of inns, as did the Industrial Revolution. The modem hotel was largely the result of the railroads; when traveling for pleasure became widely popular, large hotels were often built near railroad stations. In 1889 the Savoy Hotel in London set a new standard, with its own electricity and a host of special services; the Statler Hotel in Buffalo, N.Y. (1908), another landmark, catered to the growing class of business travelers. After World War II, new hotels tended to be larger and were often built near airports. Hotel chains became common, making purchasing, sales, and reservations more efficient. Hotels fall into three categories: transient hotels; resort hotels, intended primarily for vacationers; and residential hotels, essentially apartment buildings offering room and meal service. See also motel.

Hottentot See Khoikhoi

Houdini \hu-'de-ne\, Harry orig. Erik Weisz (b. March 24, 1874, Budapest, Hung.—d. Oct. 31, 1926,

Detroit, Mich., U.S.) U.S. magician.

The son of a rabbi who emigrated from Hungary to the U.S. and settled in Wisconsin, he became a trapeze performer at an early age. In 1882 he moved to New York City, where he played in vaudeville shows without much success. From about 1900 he earned an international reputation for his daring feats of escape from locked boxes, often submerged, while shackled in chains and hand¬ cuffed. His success depended on his great strength and agility and his unusual skill in manipulating locks.

He exhibited his abilities in several __

films (1916-23). In his later years he H Houdini. campaigned against magicians and pictorial parade

mind readers who claimed super- -

natural powers, including Jean-

Eugene Robert-Houdin, from whom Houdini had taken his name.

Houdon \ii-'do n \, Jean-Antoine (b. March 20, 1741, Versailles, Fr.—d. July 15, 1828, Paris) French sculptor. He studied with Jean-Baptiste Pigalle in Paris and in 1761 won the Prix de Rome. In Rome (1764-68) he achieved immediate fame with an anatomical study of a standing man (c. 1767), casts of which were widely used in art academies. He became a member of the Royal Academy in Paris (1777) with his reclining Mor¬ pheus. He produced numerous religious and mythological works that are definitive expressions of the decorative 18th-century Rococo style of sculpture. His greatest strength was in capturing the individuality of his portrait subjects, including such luminaries as Denis Diderot, Catherine II the Great, Benjamin Franklin, the Marquis de Lafayette, and Voltaire. In the U.S. he made a marble statue of George Washington (1788). The vivid¬

ness of physiognomy and character in his busts places him among the greatest portrait sculptors in history.

hound Classification of hunting dogs that is more general than setter, retriever, pointer, or other sporting dog categories. Most hounds were bred and trained to track by scent or sight. Scent hounds (e.g., blood¬ hound, dachshund) are trained to scent in the air or on the ground.

Sight hounds (e.g., saluki, Afghan hound) were developed to chase game by sight over long distances.

Hounds such as beagles, basset hounds, and foxhounds run in packs;

Afghan hounds, borzois, salukis, and others run alone.

Houphouet-Boigny \uf-'we- bwan-'ye\, Felix (b. Oct. 18, 1905?,

Yamoussoukro, French West Africa—d. Dec. 7, 1993, Yamous¬ soukro, Cote d’Ivoire) President of Cote d’Ivoire from independence until his death (1960-93). He worked as a rural doctor and planter before entering politics in the 1940s.

In the late 1950s he was a member of France’s National Assembly and cabinet and simultaneously president of the territorial assembly and mayor of Abidjan. As president he pursued liberal free-enterprise politics and developed a strong cash-crop

economy, cooperating closely with the French. Under his rule Cote d’Ivoire became one of the most prosperous nations in sub-Saharan Africa. His later years were marred by an economic downturn, civil unrest, and criticism of the enormous Roman Catholic basilica that he had built at Yamoussoukro, his birthplace.

"Diana," bronze sculpture by Houdon, c. 1777; in the Louvre, Paris

GIRAUDON-ART RESOURCE/EB INC.

House, Edward M(andell) (b. July 26, 1858, Houston, Texas, U.S.—d. March 28,1938, New York,

N.Y.) U.S. diplomat. An indepen¬ dently wealthy businessman, he served as an adviser to Texas gover¬ nors (1892-1904), one of whom gave him the honorary title of colo¬ nel. He was active in the presidential campaign of Woodrow Wilson, later becoming his adviser (1912-19). He was the president’s chief liaison with the Allies during World War I, and he helped draft the Fourteen Points, which Wilson proposed as the basis for peace at the end of the war. He was a member of the U.S. delegation to the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, and he worked closely with Wilson in drafting the covenant of the League of Nations.

house cat See domestic cat

house mouse Common mouse species (Mus musculus, family Muridae), the mouse most often encountered in buildings. The house mouse has been distributed by humans from Eurasia to all inhabited areas of the world and usually seeks shelter and food in human dwellings. Brown or gray, it grows up to 8 in. (20 cm) long, including a 4-in. (10-cm) tail. It consumes almost anything edible, even sampling soap, paste, and glue. It matures quickly and is ready to mate two to three months after birth. In warm areas or heated buildings, it breeds throughout the year.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

900 I house sparrow ► Houston

house sparrow or English sparrow One of the world’s best- known and most abundant small birds {Passer domesticus, family Passeridae or Ploceidae). It lives in towns and on farms worldwide, hav¬ ing accompanied Europeans from its original home in Eurasia and north¬ ern Africa. Introduced into North America in 1852, it spread across the continent within a century. It is about 6 in. (15 cm) long and buffy-brown; the male has a black bib. House spar¬ rows breed nearly year-round in warm regions. See also sparrow.

House Un-American Activi¬ ties Committee (HUAC) Com¬ mittee of the U.S. House of Representatives, established in 1938 under Martin Dies as chairman, that conducted investigations through the 1940s and ’50s into alleged communist activities. Those investigated included many artists and entertainers, including the Hollywood Ten, Elia Kazan, Pete Seeger, Bertolt Brecht, and Arthur Miller. Richard Nixon was an active member in the late 1940s, and the committee’s most celebrated case was perhaps that of Alger Hiss. Its actions resulted in several contempt-of- Congress convictions and the blacklisting of many who refused to answer its questions. Highly controversial for its tactics, it was criticized for vio¬ lating First Amendment rights. Its influence had waned by the 1960s; in 1969 it was renamed the Internal Security Committee, and in 1975 it was dissolved.

housefly Common dipteran {Musca 90% of all flies in human dwellings.

The adult is dull gray with dirty- yellowish areas on the abdomen.

Body size ranges from 0.2 to 0.3 in.

(5-7 mm), and the conspicuous com¬ pound eyes have some 4,000 facets.

Because it has sponging or lapping mouthparts, it cannot bite. It is a problem wherever decomposing organic waste and garbage are allowed to accumulate. Its feet may carry millions of microorganisms, some of which cause diseases, including cholera, dysentery, and typhoid. Some insecticides are effective, but houseflies have developed resistance to others.

Houseman, John orig. Jacques Haussmann (b. Sept. 22, 1902, Bucharest, Rom.—d. Oct. 31, 1988, Malibu, Calif., U.S.) Romanian-born U.S. producer and actor. Educated in England, in 1924 he immigrated to the U.S. In 1934 he directed the opera Four Saints in Three Acts, and three years later he and Orson Welles founded the Mercury Theatre. After moving to Hollywood in the 1940s he produced 19 films, including Let¬ ter from an Unknown Woman (1948), They Live by Night (1949), and Lust for Life (1956). He also produced and directed Broadway plays and TV specials (winning three Emmy Awards) and directed the American Shakespeare Festival. His most notable acting role was in the film The Paper Chase (1973, Academy Award) and the later TV series of the same name.

houseplant Plant adapted for growing indoors, commonly a member of a species that flourishes naturally only in warm climates. Two factors contribute to the success of the huge number of species grown as house- plants: they must be easy to care for, and they must be able to tolerate the fairly low levels of light and humidity found in most homes. House- plants are selected for their foliage or flowers or both. Aspects of a house- plant’s environment that must be managed include light, temperature and humidity, soil, water, and nutrients.

Housman, A(lfred) E(dward) (b. March 26, 1859, Fockbury, Worcestershire, Eng.—d. April 30, 1936, Cambridge) English scholar and poet. While working as a Patent Office clerk, he studied Latin texts and wrote journal articles that led to his appointment as a professor at Uni¬ versity College, London, and later at Cambridge. His major scholarly effort was an annotated edition (1903-30) of Marcus Manilius (fl.lst cen¬

domestica), accounting for about

Housefly (Musca domestica) on a doughnut

AVRIL RAMAGE-© OXFORD SCIENTIFIC FILMS LTD.

House sparrow (Passer domesticus)

ERIC HOSKING

tury ad). His first poetry volume, A Shropshire Lad (1896)—with its much-anthologized “When I was One-and Twenty”—was based on Classical and traditional models; its lyrics express a Romantic pessimism in a spare, simple style. It gradually grew popular, and his second vol¬ ume, Last Poems (1922), was extremely successful. Other works include the lecture The Name and Nature of Poetry (1933) and the posthumous collection More Poems (1936). His brother is the novelist and playwright Laurence Housman

(1865-1959).

Houston City (pop., 2000:

1,953,631), southern Texas, U.S. An inland port, it is linked by the Hous¬ ton Ship Channel to the Gulf of Mexico and to the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway at Galveston. Founded in 1836, it was named for Sam Houston; it was the capital of the Republic of Texas (1837-39). The state’s largest city and leading port, it is a cen¬ tre for oil, petrochemical, and aerospace research and development (see also NASA). The area is also important for rice, cotton, and cattle. It has several institutions for higher learning, including Rice University and Bay¬ lor College of Medicine. Houston is home to a symphony orchestra and ballet, an opera, and various theatre companies.

Houston, Charles H(amilton) (b. Sept. 3, 1895, Washington, D.C., U.S.—d. April 22, 1950, Washington, D.C.) U.S. lawyer and educator. He graduated from Amherst College and taught for two years at Howard University before serving as an officer in World War I. At Harvard Law School he became the first African American editor of the Harvard Law Review. Houston practiced law with his father (1924-50), also serving as special counsel to the NAACP (1935^40). Before the U.S. Supreme Court, in State ex rel. Gaines v. Canada (1939), he successfully challenged racial segregation in public schools in areas where no “separate but equal” facili¬ ties existed; the decision was a forerunner of Brown v. Board of Educa¬ tion (1954). He was a teacher and mentor of Thurgood Marshall.

A.E. Housman, detail of a drawing by William Rothenstein, 1906; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, LONDON

2, 1793, Rockbridge county, Va.,

Houston, Sam(uel) (b. March U.S.—d. July 26, 1863, Huntsville,

Texas) U.S. politician. After the death of his father in 1807, Houston moved with his family to a farm in rural Tennessee. In his mid-teens he ran away and lived for nearly three years with the Cherokee Indians.

After service in the War of 1812 he practiced law in Nashville and was elected to the U.S. House of Repre¬ sentatives (1823-27). He was elected governor of Tennessee in 1827. After his marriage failed in 1829, he resigned his office and sought refuge among the Cherokee, who formally adopted him into the tribe. He twice traveled to Washington, D.C., to expose fraud perpetrated by govern¬ ment agents against the Indians. In 1832 he was sent by Pres. Andrew Jackson to Texas, then a Mexican province, to negotiate treaties with the Indians there. When U.S. settlers in Texas began an armed rebellion in 1835, the provisional Texas government chose him to command its army, and he defeated the Mexicans at San Jacinto, securing Texan indepen¬ dence. He served as president of the Republic of Texas (1836-38, 1841— 44) and helped it to win statehood (1845); he then served in the U.S. Senate (1846-59). He was elected governor in 1859, but his pro-Union views were opposed by Democratic state leaders, who voted to secede in 1861. After he refused to swear allegiance to the Confederacy, he was deposed. The city of Houston was named in his honour.

Sam Houston, photograph by Mathew Brady

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Hovenweep ► Howe I 901

Hovenweep Vho-v3n-,wep\ National Monument National monu¬ ment, southwestern Colorado and southeastern Utah, U.S. Established in 1923 and covering 785 acres (318 hectares), it consists of six groups of pre-Columbian Indian ruins, whose towers are excellent examples of Pueblo Indian architecture of the period ad 1100-1300. Hovenweep is a Ute Indian word meaning “deserted valley.”

hovercraft See air-cushion vehicle

Hovhaness \ho-'va-n9s\, Alan or Alan Hovaness orig. Alan Vaness Chakmakjian (b. March 8, 1911, Somerville, Mass., U.S.—d. June 21, 2000, Seattle, Wash.) U.S. composer. He started to compose as a child. Studies at the New England Conservatory led him to pursue an interest in non-Western music, which began to influence his own work only after he destroyed his early compositions. Affected by the music of his Armenian heritage and his own lifelong mysticism, he com¬ posed some 500 works in addition to the 1,000 or more early pieces he destroyed in 1943. His compositions included some 60 symphonies and many other orchestral works, often on sacred themes, sometimes incor¬ porating aleatory or natural sounds, as in And God Created Great Whales

(1970).

Howard, Catherine See Catherine Howard Howard, Henry See Earl of Surrey

Howard, John Winston (b. July 26, 1939, Sydney, N.S.W., Austl.) Prime minister of Australia (from 1996) and leader of the Liberal Party. Howard became a solicitor to the New South Wales Supreme Court. In 1974 he was elected to Parliament as a member of the Liberal Party and served under Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser as minister for business and consumer affairs (1975-77) and as federal treasurer (1977-83). Howard became leader of the Liberal Party in 1985, but, after failing to unseat the Labor Party in 1987, he was defeated in his bid to retain leadership in 1989. He regained power in 1995 and engineered the defeat of Labor in the elections of March 1996. He was reelected in 1998, 2001, and 2004.

Howard, Leslie orig. Leslie Howard Steiner (b. April 3, 1893, London, Eng.—d. June 1, 1943, at sea) British actor. He became a popu¬ lar stage actor in London and later on Broadway, where he won acclaim for Her Cardboard Lover (1927), The Petrified Forest (1935), and Ham¬ let (1936). He was noted for his quiet, persuasive English charm. He made his U.S. film debut in Outward Bound (1930) and later starred in Of Human Bondage (1934), Pygmalion (1938), Intermezzo (1939), and Gone with the Wind (1939). He died during World War II (1939-45) when his plane was shot down en route from Lisbon to London.

Howard, Oliver O(tis) (b. Nov. 8,1830, Leeds, Maine, U.S.—d. Oct. 26, 1909, Burlington, Vt.) U.S. Army officer. He graduated from West Point and served in the American Civil War as a major general of Maine volunteers, fighting at Bull Run,

Antietam, Chancellorsville, and Get¬ tysburg. He commanded the Army of the Tennessee (1864) and marched with William T. Sherman through Georgia. During Reconstruction he was named commissioner of the Freedmen's Bureau. He helped found Howard University (1867), which was named in his honour, and served as its president (1869-74). He resigned to return to military service, fighting against the Indians (1877) and later serving as superintendent at West Point (1880-82).

Howard, Ron (b. March 1, 1954,

Duncan, Okla., U.S.) U.S. actor and director. He became a child star of television and films, appearing in The Music Man (1962) and on television’s Andy Griffith Show (1960-68) and Happy Days (1974-80). He returned to movies in American Graffiti (1973), made his directorial debut with Grand Theft Auto (1977), and went on to direct such successful films as Splash (1984), Cocoon (1985), Par¬ enthood (1989), Apollo 13 (1995), and A Beautiful Mind (2001, Academy Award). He heads his own production company.

Howard family Famous English family, founded by William Howard, a lawyer in the county of Norfolk who was summoned to Parliament in 1295. The head of the Howard family, the duke of Norfolk, is the premier duke and hereditary earl marshal of England. The earls of Suffolk, Car¬ lisle, and Effingham and Lord Howard of Glossop and Lord Stafford rep¬ resent the family in its younger lines. Thomas Howard, 3rd duke of Norfolk, held high offices under Henry VIII, who married two of Howard’s nieces, Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard. The 4th duke of Norfolk was executed for intrigues against Elizabeth I, but Charles, 2nd Lord Howard of Effingham (1536-1624), was lord high admiral under Elizabeth and commanded the fleet that defeated the Spanish Armada. The family’s Roman Catholicism kept it from prominence during certain periods.

Howard University University in Washington, D.C., the most promi¬ nent African American educational institution in the U.S. It is financially supported by the U.S. government but is privately controlled. Though open to students of any ethnicity, it was founded (1867) with a special obligation to educate African American students. It has a college of lib¬ eral arts, a graduate school of arts and sciences, and schools or colleges of business and public administration, engineering, human ecology, medi¬ cine, dentistry, and law, among others. Its library is the leading research library on African American history.

Howe, Elias (b. July 9, 1819, Spencer, Mass., U.S.—d. Oct. 3, 1867, Brooklyn, N. Y.) U.S. inventor. A nephew of William Howe, he began work as a mechanic. In 1846 he was granted a patent for the first practical sew¬ ing machine. It attracted little attention, and he moved to England and worked to perfect his machine for use with leather and similar materials. When he returned the next year, he found that sewing machines were being widely made and sold; he finally established his patent rights in 1854. His invention soon revolutionized the garment industry. See also Isaac Merritt Singer.

Howe, Gordie in full Gordon Howe (b. March 31, 1928, Floral, Sask., Can.) Canadian-born U.S. ice- hockey player, regarded as one of the greatest of all time. In 26 seasons (1945—71) in the NHL, in 25 of them playing right wing with the Detroit Red Wings, he set all-time career records for goals (801), assists (1,049), and points (1,850). (His records were later broken by Wayne Gretzky.) Howe went on to play for or manage non-NHL teams before retiring in 1980. A tough-minded competitor, he was known for the “Gordie Howe hat trick”—a goal, an assist, and a fight.

Howe, James Wong orig.

Wong Tung Jim (b. Aug. 28,

1899, Canton, China—d. July 12,

1976, Hollywood, Los Angeles,

Calif., U.S.) U.S. cinematographer.

At age five he emigrated with his family from China to the U.S. He worked in Hollywood from 1917 and became a cameraman for Cecil B.

DeMille. He developed innovations in lighting in the 1920s and pioneered the use of the wide-angle lens, deep focus, and the handheld camera. His low-key cinematography is seen in such films as Kings Row (1942),

Body and Soul (1947), Picnic (1956), The Rose Tattoo (1955,

Academy Award), and Hud (1963,

Academy Award).

Howe, Julia Ward orig. Julia Ward (b. May 27, 1819, New York,

N.Y., U.S.—d. Oct. 17, 1910, New¬ port, R.I.) U.S. abolitionist and social reformer. Bom to a well-to-do family, she was educated privately.

Gordie Howe, 1969

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL HOCKEY LEAGUE

Julia Ward Howe, 1902.

COURTESY OF THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

902 I Howe ► Hsiung-nu

In 1843 she married educator Samuel Gridley Howe and took up resi¬ dence in Boston. For a while she and her husband published the Com¬ monwealth, an abolitionist newspaper. During a visit to an army camp near Washington, D.C., in 1861, she wrote a poem, “Battle Hymn of the Republic,” to be set to an old folk tune also used for “John Brown’s Body.” Published in February 1862 in The Atlantic Monthly, it became the semiofficial Civil War song of the Union Army, and Howe became famous. After the war she involved herself in the woman suffrage move¬ ment, helping to found and serving as president of the New England Woman Suffrage Association (1868-77, 1893-1910). She also wrote travel books, biography, drama, verse, and children’s songs and edited Woman’s Journal (1870-90). In 1908 she became the first woman elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters.

Howe, Richard Howe, Earl (b. March 8, 1726, London, Eng.—d. Aug. 5, 1799) English admiral who commanded the British fleet to vic¬ tory in the Battle of the First of June (1794) in the French Revolutionary Wars. As vice admiral (from 1775), he commanded in North America (1776-78), defeating French attempts to take Newport, R.I. After return¬ ing to England, he commanded the Channel fleet against the French and Spaniards and served as first lord of the Admiralty (1783-88). In 1793 he again commanded the Channel fleet. His victory against the French on June 1, 1794, provided an example of tactical excellence for his succes¬ sors, including Horatio Nelson.

Howe, William Howe, 5th Viscount (b. Aug. 10, 1729—d. July 12, 1814, Plymouth, Devonshire, Eng.) British military commander. The brother of Adm. Richard Howe, he fought in the last French and Indian War (1754-63), in which he earned a reputation as one of the army’s most brilliant young generals. In the American Revolution, he succeeded Thomas Gage as supreme commander of British forces in North America in 1776. He soon captured New York City and the surrounding area, and in 1777 he led British troops to victories at the Battles of the Brandywine and of Germantown. Moving his forces to Philadelphia, he left troops under John Burgoyne vulnerable in New York state, thus contributing to the British defeat at the Battles of Saratoga. He resigned in 1778 and was succeeded by Henry Clinton.

Howe Caverns Cavern system, east-central New York, U.S. Located west of Albany and named for Lester Howe, who discovered them in 1842, the limestone caves have grotesque rock formations and underground channels. Elevators and boat rides are available. A second group. Secret Caverns, with underground waterfalls and fossilized marine life, is nearby.

Howel Dda See Hywel Dda

Howells, William Dean (b. March 1, 1837, Martins Ferry, Ohio, U.S.—d. May 11, 1920, New York, N.Y.) U.S. novelist and critic. He wrote a campaign biography of Abraham Lincoln (1860) and served as consul in Venice during Lincoln’s administration. As editor of the Atlan¬ tic Monthly (1871-81), he became a preeminent figure in late 19th-century American letters. A champion of literary realism, he was one of the first to recognize the genius of Mark Twain and Henry James. His own novels (from 1872) depict America as it changed from a simple, egalitarian soci¬ ety where luck and pluck were rewarded to one in which social and eco¬ nomic gulfs were becoming unbridgeable. His best-known work, The Rise of Silas Lapham (1885), is about a self-made man’s efforts to fit into Bos¬ ton society. Howells risked his livelihood with his plea for clemency for the anarchists involved in the Haymarket Riot, and his deepening disillu¬ sionment with American society is reflected in the late novels Annie Kil- burn (1888) and A Hazard of New Fortunes (1890).

howler monkey Any of several species of slow-moving tropical American monkeys (genus Alouatta) noted for their roaring cries, which carry over a distance of 2-3 mi (3-5 km). Five widely distributed spe¬ cies are the largest New World monkeys, generally reaching lengths of 16-28 in. (40-70 cm), excluding the 20-30-in. (50-75-cm) tail. Howlers are stoutly built and bearded, with a hunched appearance and a thickly furred, prehensile tail. Their hair is long and thick and, depending on the species, black, brown, or red. Howlers live in groups in territories mapped out by howling matches with neighbouring clans. They feed primarily on leaves.

Hoxha \'ho-ja\, Enver (b. Oct. 16, 1908, Gjirokaster, Alb.—d. April 11, 1985, Tirane) Albanian leader, first Albanian communist chief of state (1944-85). A schoolteacher, he opposed the Albanian fascists in World War II and in 1941 helped found the Albanian Communist Party, which

he controlled until his death. He became prime minister (1944-54), and in 1946 he forced King Zog to abdicate. Albania’s economy was revo¬ lutionized under Hoxha’s rule, and he transformed the country from a semifeudal relic of the Ottoman Empire into an industrialized economy. To enforce his radical programs he resorted to brutal Stalinist tactics, making Albania the most tightly controlled society in Europe. An ardent nationalist, he broke with the Soviet Union in 1961 and with China in 1978, declaring that Albania would become a model socialist republic on its own.

Hoyle, Edmond (b. 1671/72—d. Aug. 29, 1769, London, Eng.) Brit¬ ish writer on card games. Hoyle wrote A Short Treatise on the Game of Whist in 1742, and in 1760 he established a set of rules for whist that remained in effect until 1864. His codification of the laws of backgammon (1743) is still largely in force. He is memorialized in the phrase “accord¬ ing to Hoyle” and in various game rule books that contain his name in the title as an indication of authority.

Hoyle, Sir Fred (b. June 24, 1915, Bingley, Yorkshire, Eng.—d. Aug. 20, 2001, Bournemouth, Dorset) British mathematician and astronomer. He was educated at the University of Cambridge, where he became a lec¬ turer in 1945. Within the framework of Albert Einstein’s theory of relativ¬ ity, Hoyle formulated a mathematical basis for the steady-state theory of the universe, making the expansion of the universe and the creation of matter interdependent. Controversy about the theory grew in the late 1950s and early ’60s. New observations of distant galaxies and other phe¬ nomena supported the big-bang model and weakened the steady-state theory, which has since generally fallen out of favour. Though forced to alter some of his conclusions, Hoyle persistently tried to make his theory consistent with new evidence. He is known also for his popular science works and fiction.

Hrabanus Maurus See Rabanus Maurus

Hrosvitha or Roswitha \ros-'ve-ta\ (b. c. 935—d. c. 1000) German writer, regarded as the first German woman poet. Of noble birth, she lived as a nun in a Benedictine convent most of her life. There she wrote six prose comedies in Latin (c. 960), based in form on those of Terence but embodying Christian themes, to edify her fellow nuns. She also wrote narrative poems based on Christian legends and two verse chronicles.

Hrozny \'hroz-ne\, Bedrich (b. May 6, 1879, Lysa nad Labem, Bohe¬ mia, Austria-Hungary—d. Dec. 18,

1952, Prague) Czech archaeologist and linguist. He was the first to deci¬ pher Hittite cuneiform writing, a major advance in the study of the ancient Middle East. In Language of the Hittites (1915), he argued that Hittite (see Anatolian languages) was one of the Indo-European lan¬ guages. He later substantiated his claim by translating a number of Hit¬ tite documents. In 1925 he led an expedition to Turkey that excavated the ancient city of Kanesh.

Hsi-an See Xi'an Hsi Hsia See Xi Xia Hsi-ning See Xining Hsi River See Xi River

Hsi-tsang See Tibet Hsi Wang Mu See Xi Wang Mu Hsia dynasty See Xia dynasty Hsiang-kang See Hong Kong Hsiang River See Xiang River Hsiang Yu See Xiang Yu hsiao See xiao

Hsing-K'ai Hu See Lake Khanka Hsiung-nu See Xiongnu

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Hsuan-hsueh ► Hubble I 903

Hsuan-hsueh See Xuanxue Hsuan-tsang See Xuanzang Hsiian Tsung See Xuanzong Hsiin-tzu See Xunzi

HTML in full HyperText Markup Language Markup language derived from SGML that is used to prepare hypertext documents. Relatively easy for nonprogrammers to master, HTML is the language used for docu¬ ments on the World Wide Web. The text coding consists of commands contained in angle brackets <> that affect the display of elements such as titles, headings, text, font style, colour, and references to other documents, which can be interpreted by an Internet browser according to style rules.

HTTP in full HyperText Transfer Protocol Standard application- level protocol used for exchanging files on the World Wide Web. HTTP runs on top of the TCP/IP protocol. Web browsers are HTTP clients that send file requests to Web servers, which in turn handle the requests via an HTTP service. HTTP was originally proposed in 1989 by Tim Berners- Lee, who was a coauthor of the 1.0 specification. HTTP in its 1.0 version was “stateless”: each new request from a client established a new con¬ nection instead of handling all similar requests through the same connec¬ tion between a specific client and server. Version 1.1 includes persistent connections, decompression of HTML files by client browsers, and mul¬ tiple domain names sharing the same IP address.

Hu, Sia, and Heh Vhii... , se-3... , heh\ In ancient Egyptian religion, the forces of nature responsible for the creation and continuance of the uni¬ verse. They were personified abstractions whose meanings can be trans¬ lated as “creative command,” “intelligence,” and “eternity.” Hu and Sia served as crew members in the solar ship of the sun god Re, and they were also regarded as two of the divine attributes of every king. Heh was the personification of infinite space, portrayed as a squatting man with a sun disk on his head.

Hu-ho-hao-t'e See Hohhot

Hu Jintao or Hu Chin-t'ao (b. Dec. 25, 1942, Taizhou, Jiangsu prov¬ ince, China) General secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP; from 2002) and president of China (from 2003). After studying engineering at Tsinghua University in Beijing, Hu laboured as a construction worker in Gansu province, where he met Song Ping, a party elder who became Hu’s mentor and later introduced him to the CCP general secretary, Hu Yaobang. By the mid-1980s Hu Jintao had risen to general secretary of the Chinese Communist Youth League (CCYL), and in 1985 he was appointed party secretary for Guizhou province, where he helped imple¬ ment educational and economic reforms. Named a member of the CCP Central Committee in 1987, he was sent to Tibet the following year as a provincial party secretary. In 1992 he was appointed a member of the Secretariat of the CCP Central Committee, and in 1998 he was elected vice president of China. Hu succeeded President Jiang Zemin as general secretary of the CCP in 2002 and was elected president the following year. In 2004 he became head of the Central Military Commission after Jiang resigned the post.

Hu Shih Vhii-'shhA or Hu Shi (b. Dec. 17, 1891, Shanghai, China—d. Feb. 24, 1962, Taiwan) Chinese Nationalist scholar and diplomat who helped establish the vernacular as the official written language. Hu stud¬ ied under John Dewey at Columbia University and was profoundly influ¬ enced by Dewey’s philosophy and pragmatic methodology. Back in China, he began writing in vernacular Chinese, the use of which spread rapidly. Because he eschewed dogmas such as Marxism and anarchism as solutions for China’s problems, he found himself opposed by the com¬ munists but also distrusted by the Nationalists. In 1937, when war broke out with Japan, he and the Nationalists were reconciled, and Hu became ambassador to the U.S. He finished his life as president of Taiwan’s Aca¬ demia Sinica.

Hua Hengfang also known as Hua Ruoting (b. 1833, Wuxi, Jiangsu province, China—d. 1902, China) Chinese mathematician and translator of Western mathematical works. Apparently inspired by Li Shanlan, Hua was an early enthusiastic proponent of Western-style mathematics. Hua’s personal struggles to understand mathematical materials resulted in excep¬ tionally lucid translations—particularly his fluent and accessible presen¬ tations of works on algebra and calculus. His translations were widely read and adopted by many of the new Western-style schools founded in China in the 19th century by the government and Christian missionaries.

Huai \'hwi\ River River, eastern China. It flows east for 660 mi (1,100 km) and discharges into Hongze L\ke in Jiangsu province. With its many tributaries, it is subject to extensive flooding; work to control the flood¬ ing is ongoing. River traffic from the Huai joins the Grand Canal, pro¬ viding water transport routes north to the Huang He (Yellow River) and south to the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang).

Huainanzi or Huai-nan-tzu VhwI-'nan-'dzoX Chinese Daoist classic written c. 139 bc under the patronage of the nobleman Huainanzi. The work deals with cosmology, astronomy, and statecraft. It asserts that the DAO (way) originated from vacuity, which produced the universe, which in turn produced material forces. These material forces combined to form yin and YANG, which give rise to the multiplicity of things. Many of the teachings of the Huainanzi are still accepted as orthodox by Daoist phi¬ losophers as well as by Confucianists. See also Daoism.

Huallaga \wa-'ya-ga\ River River, western and northern Peru. It rises in the Andes Mountains and descends north, carving a valley between the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera Azul and joining the Maranon River in the Amazon River basin. The Huallaga is estimated to be 700 mi (1,100 km) long and is mostly unnavigable.

Huang Chao Vhwaq-'chaiA or Huang Ch'ao (d. 884, China) Chi¬ nese rebel leader whose revolt against the Tang dynasty, though ultimately defeated, so weakened the dynasty that it collapsed shortly thereafter. A salt smuggler turned rebel, Huang captured Guangzhou (Canton) in 879 and the Tang capital of Chang'an in 881. There he proclaimed himself emperor but was driven out by an alliance of government troops and Turkish nomads. One of his generals overthrew the Tang (907) and founded the first of the short-lived Five Dynasties.

Huang Hai See Yellow Sea

Huang He or Huang Ho English Yellow River River, northern, central, and eastern China. The second longest river in China and one of the world’s longest, it flows 3,395 mi (5,464 km) from the Plateau of Tibet generally east to the Yellow Sea (Huang Hai). In its lower reaches it has often overflowed its banks, flooding vast areas of rich farmland. Its out¬ let has shifted over the years to enter the Yellow Sea at points as far apart as 500 mi (800 km). Irrigation and flood-control works have been main¬ tained for centuries, and dams, begun in the mid-1950s, exploit the riv¬ er’s hydroelectric potential.

Huang-Lao Vhwaq-'lauX Political ideology based on the tenets attrib¬ uted to the Yellow Emperor Huangdi and on the Daoist teachings of Laozi. This method of governance, which stressed the principles of reconcilia¬ tion and noninterference, became the dominant ideology of the imperial court in the early Western Han (206 bc-ad 25). The Huang-Lao masters believed that Laozi’s Daodejing perfectly described the art of rulership, and they venerated the legendary Yellow Emperor as the founder of a golden age. Their teachings constitute the earliest Daoist movement for which there is clear historical evidence. See also Daoism.

Huangdi or Huang-ti Vhwaq-'de\ Chinese Yellow Emperor Third of ancient China’s mythological emperors and a patron saint of Daoism. According to legend, he was bom in 2704 bc and became emperor in 2697. He is remembered as a paragon of wisdom who established a golden age, seeking to create an ideal kingdom in which his people would live in keeping with natural law. Tradition holds that his reign saw the introduc¬ tion of wooden houses, carts, boats, the bow and arrow, writing, and gov¬ ernmental institutions. His wife was reputed to have taught women how to breed silkworms and weave silk.

Hubble, Edwin P(owell) (b. Nov. 20, 1889, Marshfield, Mo., U.S.—d. Sept. 28, 1953, San Marino, Calif.) U.S. astronomer. He earned a degree in mathematics and astronomy at the University of Chicago, then made a brief foray into law before returning to astronomy. After earning his Ph.D., he began working at Mount Wilson Observatory. In 1922-24 he discovered that certain nebulae contained Cepheid variable stars; he determined that these were several hundred thousand light-years away (outside the Milky Way Galaxy) and that the nebulae they were in were actually other galaxies. In studying those galaxies, he made his second remarkable discovery (1927): that the galaxies were receding from the Milky Way at rates that increased with distance. This implied that the uni¬ verse, long considered unchanging, was expanding (see expanding uni¬ verse); even more remarkable, the ratio of the galaxies’ speed to their distance was a constant (see Hubble's constant). Hubble’s original calcu¬ lation of the constant was incorrect; it made the Milky Way larger than

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

904 I Hubble Space Telescope ► Hudson's Bay Co.

all other galaxies and the entire universe younger than the surmised age of Earth. Later astronomers determined that galaxies were systematically more distant, resolving the discrepancy.

Hubble Space Telescope (HST) Most sophisticated optical obser¬ vatory ever placed into orbit around Earth. Because it is above Earth’s obscuring atmosphere, it can obtain images much brighter, clearer, and more detailed than ground-based telescopes can. Named for Edwin Hub¬ ble, it was built under NASA supervision and deployed on a 1990 space- shuttle mission. The reflector telescope’s mirror optics gather light from celestial objects and direct it to an array of cameras and spectrographs (see spectroscopy). A defect in the primary mirror initially caused it to pro¬ duce fuzzy images; in 1993 another shuttle mission corrected this and other problems. Subsequent missions to the HST have been for mainte¬ nance, repairs, and instrument upgrades.

Hubble's constant Constant used to relate the velocities of remote galaxies to their distances from Earth. Denoted H and named in honour of Edwin Hubble, it expresses the rate of expansion of the universe. Its actual value has been debated for decades; improved measurements have naiTOwed the range in which it falls to about 10.5-14 mi/second (17-23 km/second) per million light-years. The reciprocal of H gives the time, in seconds, since the galaxies began to separate from each other—i.e., the approximate age of the universe. Hubble used the redshifts of distant gal¬ axies measured by Vesto Slipher (1875-1969) and his own distance esti¬ mates of those galaxies to establish the cosmological velocity-distance law (Hubble law): velocity = H x distance, according to which the greater a galaxy’s distance, the faster it is receding. Derived from theoretical considerations and confirmed by observations, the Hubble law has made secure the concept of an expanding universe.

Hubei \'hu-'ba\ or Hu-pei conventional Hupeh Province (pop., 2002 est.: 59,880,000), east-central China. It lies north of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) and is bordered by Shaanxi, Henan, Anhui, Jiangxi, and Hunan provinces and Chongqing municipality. It has an area of 72,400 sq mi (187,500 sq km), and its capital is Wuhan. Part of the kingdom of Chu (3rd century bc), it became part of the Qin dynasty after being sub¬ jugated by Shihuangdi. Until the reign of Kangxi, Hubei and Hunan formed one province; they were divided in the mid-17th century. The area was the scene of battles after the 1850 Taiping Rebellion. The revolution of 1911/12 (see Nationalist Party) began in Hubei. The province was heavily bombed during the Sino-Japanese War of 1937—45. Restoration began after the communist Chinese takeover. In addition to agricultural produc¬ tion, Hubei has important heavy industrial production.

Hubei \'hyu-bol\ / David (Hunter) (b. Feb. 27, 1926, Windsor, Ont., Can.) Canadian-born U.S. neurobiologist. He studied medicine at McGill University and in 1959 joined the faculty of Harvard Medical School. In 1981 he shared a Nobel Prize with Torsten Wiesel and Roger Sperry for investigations of visual perception, one of their achievements being analy¬ sis of the flow of nerve impulses from the retina to the brain’s sensory and motor centres.

Hubertusburg Miu-'ber-tos-.burkV Peace of (1763) Treaty between Prussia and Austria ending the Seven Years' War in Germany. Signed five days after the Treaty of Paris, it guaranteed that Frederick II the Great main¬ tained his possession of Silesia and confirmed Prussia’s stature as a major European power.

huckleberry Small, fruit-bearing, branching shrub of the genus Gay- lussacia, in the heath family, resembling in habit the English bilberry, to which it is closely related. It bears fleshy fruit with 10 nutlike seeds, dif¬ fering in this respect from the blueberry. The common huckleberry of the northern U.S. is G. baccata , also called black, or highbush, huckleberry. The florists’, or evergreen, huckleberry is actually a blueberry. The red huckleberry of the southern U.S. is commonly called the southern cran¬ berry.

Hudson, Henry (b. c. 1565, England—d. after June 22, 1611, in or near Hudson Bay?) English navigator and explorer. Sailing for the Mus¬ covy Company of London in search of the Northeast Passage to the Far East, he was blocked by ice fields. In 1609 he set out in the Half Moon to find a similar passage for the Dutch East India Company, but, when stopped by storms, he instead sought the Northwest Passage, which he had recently heard about from other explorers, and cruised along the Atlantic coast and up the Hudson River. In 1610 he set out again for America, this time on behalf of the Muscovy Company and the English

East India Company, and discovered Hudson Bay. Finding no outlet to the Pacific and in the close confinement of an Arctic winter, Hudson’s crew fell to quarreling, and on the homeward voyage they mutinied and set Hudson adrift in a small boat, never to be found. His discoveries formed the basis for Dutch colonization of the Hudson River and for English claims to much of Canada.

Hudson, Rock orig. Roy Harold Scherer, Jr. (b. Nov. 17, 1925, Winnetka, Ill., U.S.—d. Oct. 2, 1985, Beverly Hills, Calif.) U.S. film actor. He worked at odd jobs before making his film debut in Fighter Squadron (1948). His manly, wholesome good looks made him a popu¬ lar star in Douglas Sirk melodramas such as Magnificent Obsession (1954) and All That Heaven Allows (1955), and he displayed a flair for comedy in a series of films with Doris Day, including Pillow Talk (1959), Come September (1961), and Send Me No Flowers (1964). He later starred in the television series McMillan and Wife (1971-77). His death from AIDS greatly increased awareness of the disease.

Hudson Bay Inland sea, indenting east-central Canada. With an area of 480,000 sq mi (1,243,000 sq km), it is bounded by Nunavut, Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec. It is connected with the Atlantic Ocean via the Hud¬ son Strait and with the Arctic Ocean via the Foxe Channel. Named for Henry Hudson, who navigated its eastern coast in 1610, the bay and the surrounding area, known as Rupert's Land, were controlled by the Hud¬ son's Bay Company (1821-69). Hudson Bay is shallow, with an average depth of 330 ft (100 m); the coast is mainly a marshy lowland. The islands it contains are administratively part of Nunavut. For conservation pur¬ poses, the Canadian government has designated the whole Hudson Bay basin a “mare clausum” (closed sea).

Hudson River River, New York, U.S. Originating in the Adirondack Mountains and flowing for about 315 mi (507 km) to New York City, it was named for Henry Hudson, who explored it in 1609. Dutch settlement of the Hudson valley began in 1629. The river became a strategic water¬ way during the American Revolution and was the scene of many battles. Linked by canals with the Great Lakes and with the Delaware River and lower St. Lawrence River valleys, the Hudson is now a major commercial route; its southern end forms the New York-New Jersey boundary.

Hudson River school U.S. landscape painters of several generations, active c. 1825-70. The first of them were inspired by the natural beauty of New York’s Hudson River valley and Catskill Mountains. The leading figures were Thomas Cole, Asher B. Durand, and Thomas Doughty (1793— 1856). Others, such as Frederic Edwin Church and George Inness, had stud¬ ied in Europe and found inspiration in the grandiose landscapes of J.M.W. Turner. By mid century they were widely admired for their depictions of a common theme, the splendour of the untamed U.S. landscape. The name Hudson River school, applied retrospectively, is extended to artists of the same vision who painted imposing scenes of the Rocky Mountains, Grand Canyon, and Yosemite Valley. The first native school of painting in the U.S., it remained the dominant school of landscape painting throughout the 19th century.

Hudson Strait Arm of the Atlantic Ocean between Baffin Island and northern Quebec, northeastern Canada. Linking Hudson Bay and Foxe Basin with the Labrador Sea, it is about 500 mi (800 km) long and 40-150 mi (65-240 km) wide. It is navigable only during late summer and early autumn, but icebreakers make the passage most of the year. Partly explored in 1578 by English navigator Martin Frobisher, it was fully navi¬ gated by Henry Hudson in 1610 and became a main route for the Hudson's Bay Company’s ships.

Hudson's Bay Co. Corporation prominent in Canadian economic and political history. It was incorporated in England (May 2, 1670) to seek the Northwest Passage to the Pacific, to occupy lands adjacent to Hudson Bay, and to carry on commerce. The lands granted to the company, known as Rupert's Land, extended from Labrador west to the Rocky Mountains and from the headwaters of the Red River on the southern Canadian border north to Chesterfield Inlet on Hudson Bay. The company first engaged in the fur trade and established trading posts around Hudson Bay. By 1783 competitors had formed the North West Co., and armed clashes contin¬ ued until the two companies merged in 1821. The company was given exclusive fur-trade rights until 1858, when the monopoly was not renewed and independent companies entered the fur trade. In 1870 the company sold its territories to the government in exchange for £300,000 and min¬ eral rights to lands around the posts and a fertile portion of western

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Hue ► Hugh River I 905

Canada. It remained a large fur-collecting and marketing agency until 1991, with extensive real-estate interests and many department stores.

Hue \hu-'a, 'wa\ City (pop., 1992 est.: 219,149), central Vietnam. The seat of the Chinese military authority in the kingdom of Nam Viet c. 200 bc, it passed to the Chams c. ad 200. In 1306 it was ceded to Dai Viet (Vietnam). It is the site of the imperial citadel, from which the Nguyen family reigned from the mid-16th to the mid-20th century. It was occu¬ pied by the Japanese (1940—45). It became the seat of a committee of noncommunist Vietnamese in April 1947 but lost this role in 1949, when the newly declared state of Vietnam chose Saigon (see Ho Chi Minh City) as its capital. Hue was largely destroyed during the 1968 Tet Offensive of the Vietnam War; it has since been rebuilt.

Huerta \'wer-ta\, Victoria no (b. Dec. 23, 1854, Colotlan, Mex.—d. Jan. 13, 1916, El Paso, Texas, U.S.) Mexican president (1913-14). Born of Indian parents, he rose through the ranks of the army to become a gen¬ eral during the rule of Porfirio Diaz. He overthrew Diaz’s successor, the liberal Francisco Madero, and established a repressive military dictator¬ ship. Constitutionalist forces united against him and gained the support of U.S. Pres. Woodrow Wilson, who sent troops to assist the rebels. Huerta was defeated in 1914 and fled to Spain; from there he moved to the U.S., where he was arrested for fomenting rebellion in Mexico and died in custody.

Hugenberg Vhii-gon-.berkV, Alfred (b. June 19, 1865, Hannover, Hannover—d. March 12, 1951, Kiikenbruch, W.Ger.) German industrial¬ ist and political leader. As chairman of the Krupp family’s industrial con¬ cern (1909—18), he built a huge newspaper and film empire and greatly influenced German public opinion during the Weimar Republic. As head of the conservative German National People's Party (from 1928), he contrib¬ uted to Adolf Hitler’s rise to power. In 1931 he formed an alliance of nationalist and conservative elements to topple the Weimar government; though his effort failed, large contributions from German industrialists aided the Nazi Party’s growth. In 1933 he briefly served in Hitler’s cabi¬ net, but his party was dissolved that same year.

Huggins, Charles B(renton) (b. Sept. 22, 1901, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Can.—d. Jan. 12, 1997, Chicago, Ill., U.S.) Canadian-born U.S. surgeon and urologist. He studied at the University of Chicago and sub¬ sequently taught there for several decades. He found that using estrogen to block male hormones could slow the growth of prostate cancer. He also showed that removing the ovaries and adrenal glands, which produce estrogen, could reverse tumour growth in some breast cancers. Drugs are now used to block estrogen production in such cases. He shared a 1966 Nobel Prize with Peyton Rous (1879-1970).

Hugh Capet \'ka-pot\ (b. c. 938—d. Oct. 14, 996, Paris, Fr.) King of France (987-996), the founder of the Capetian dynasty. The son of a Frankish duke, he inherited vast estates in the regions of Paris and Orleans, which made him one of the most powerful vassals in France and a serious threat to the Carolingian king, Lothar. By 985 Hugh was the ruler of France in all but name, and two years later he was elected king. He immediately crowned his own son to ensure the line of succession, a practice continued until the time of Louis VII. He mediated disputes among French nobles and survived a conspiracy to betray him to Otto III.

Hugh of Saint-Victor (b. 1096—d. Feb. 11, 1141, Paris, Fr.) Scho¬ lastic theologian who began the tradition of mysticism of the school of St.-Victor, Paris. He was influenced by St. Augustine of Hippo and by Dionysius the Areopagite and contributed to the development of natural theology. His theology anticipated some of the works of St. Thomas Aquinas.

Hughes, Charles Evans (b. April 11, 1862, Glens Falls, N.Y., U.S.—d. Aug. 27, 1948, Osterville, Mass.) U.S. jurist and statesman. He became prominent in 1905 as counsel to New York legislative commit¬ tees investigating abuses in the life insurance and utilities industries. His two terms as governor of New York (1906-10) were marked by exten¬ sive reform. He was appointed to the Supreme Court of the United States in 1910 but resigned in 1916 to run as the Republican presidential can¬ didate. After losing the election to Woodrow Wilson in a close race, he returned to his law practice. As secretary of state (1921-25), he planned and chaired the Washington Conference (1921-22). He served as a mem¬ ber of the Hague Tribunal (1926-30) and the Permanent Court of Inter¬ national Justice (1928-30) before being appointed chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court in 1930 by Pres. Herbert Hoover. He led the court through

the great controversies arising out the New Deal legislation of Pres. Frank¬ lin Roosevelt. Although generally favouring the exercise of government power, he spoke for the court in invalidating (in Schechter Poultry Corp. v. U.S.) a principal New Deal statute, and he attacked Roosevelt’s court¬ packing plan (1937). He wrote the opinion sustaining collective bargain¬ ing under the Wagner Act. He served until 1941.

Hughes, Howard (Robard) (b. Dec. 24, 1905, Houston, Texas, U.S.—d. April 5, 1976, in an airplane over southern Texas) U.S. manu¬ facturer, aviator, and movie producer. He left college at age 17 to take control of his late father’s Hughes Tool Company, which owned the patent to an oil-drilling tool; the company would form the future basis for Hugh¬ es’s vast fortune. In the early 1930s he founded Hughes Aircraft Com¬ pany. In 1935 he set a speed record of 352 mph (567 km/hr) in a plane he designed. In 1938 he flew around the world in a record 91 hours. In 1947 he built and piloted the only flight of a wooden eight-engine flying boat unflatteringly nicknamed “the Spruce Goose.” In the 1930s he pro¬ duced several movies in Hollywood, and he owned RKO Pictures in the early 1950s. He held controlling stock in Trans World Airlines but was forced to sell it in 1966 following legal action. After about 1950 he became a famously eccentric recluse, and after his death his forged mem¬ oirs and his several wills became a source of scandal.

Hughes, (James Mercer) Langston (b. Feb. 1, 1902, Joplin, Mo., U.S.—d. May 22, 1967, New York,

N.Y.) U.S. poet and writer. He pub¬ lished the poem “The Negro Speaks of Rivers” when he was 19, briefly attended Columbia University, and worked on an Africa-bound freighter.

His literary career was launched when Hughes, working as a busboy, presented his poems to Vachel Lind¬ say as he dined. Hughes’s poetry col¬ lections include The Weary Blues (1926) and Montage of a Dream Deferred (1951). His later The Pan¬ ther and the Lash (1967) reflects black anger and militancy. Among his other works are short stories (including “The Ways of White Folks,” 1934), autobiographies, many works for the stage, antholo¬ gies, and translations of poetry by Federico Garcia Lorca and Gabriela Mistral. His well-known comic char¬ acter Jesse B. Semple, called Simple, appeared in his newspaper columns.

Hughes, Sir Samuel (b. Jan. 8, 1853, Darlington, Canada West—d. Aug. 24, 1921, Lindsay, Ont., Can.) Canadian soldier and politician. He was proprietor and editor of an Ontario newspaper from 1885 to 1897. He was elected to the Canadian House of Commons in 1892, sitting until 1921, except during the South African War (1899-1902), in which he served as a lieutenant colonel. In 1911 he became Canadian minister of militia and defense. At the start of World War I, he organized, trained, and equipped the Canadian Expeditionary Force for service in Europe. He was knighted in 1915.

Hughes, Ted orig. Edward James Hughes (b. Aug. 16, 1930, Mytholmroyd, Yorkshire, Eng.—d. Oct. 28, 1998, Devon) British poet. The son of shopkeepers, he studied at Cambridge University. He married the American poet Sylvia Plath in 1956. His first volumes of verse were The Hawk in the Rain (1957) and Lupercal (1960). After Plath’s 1963 suicide he wrote little for three years, then began publishing prolifically, often in collaboration with illustrators or photographers. His collections include Wodwo (1967), Crow (1970), Cave Birds (1975), Gaudete (1977), and Wolf Watching (1989). His most characteristic work emphasizes the cunning and savagery of animal life in harsh, sometimes disjunctive lines. He wrote many volumes for children (including The Iron Man, 1968) and edited the journal Modern Poetry in Translation. In 1984 he became Brit¬ ain’s poet laureate. Birthday Letters (1998), published shortly before his death, consists of revealing poems about his relationship with Plath.

Hugli River or Hooghly River \'hii-gle\ River, northeastern India. The most westerly and commercially the most important arm of the Ganges River, it provides access to Kolkata (Calcutta) from the Bay of

Langston Hughes, photograph by Jack Delano, 1942.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

906 I Hugo ► Hull

Bengal. Formed by the junction of the Bhagirathi and Jalangi rivers, it flows south about 160 miles (260 km) through a heavily industrialized area home to more than half of West Bengal’s population. Above Kolk- ata the river is silted up, but it is navigable to the city by ocean liners. It enters the Bay of Bengal through an estuary 3-20 miles (5-32 km) wide, which is spanned by two bridges.

Hugo, Victor (-Marie) (b. Feb. 26, 1802, Besan^on, France—d. May 22, 1885, Paris) French poet, drama¬ tist, and novelist. The son of a gen¬ eral, he was an accomplished poet before age 20. With his verse drama Cromwell (1827), he emerged as an important figure in Romanticism. The production of his poetic tragedy Her- nani (1830) was a victory for Romantics over traditional classi¬ cists in a well-known literary battle.

His later plays included Le Roi s ’amuse (1832) and Ruy Bias (1838).

His best-known novels are The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1831), an evocation of medieval life, and Les Miserables (1862), the story of the convict Jean Valjean; their huge popularity made him at that time the most successful writer in the world.

In later life he was a politician and political writer. He spent the years 1851-70 in exile for his republican views, producing his most extensive and original works, including Les Chatiments (1853), poems of political satire; Les Contemplations (1856); and the first installment of The Leg¬ end of the Centuries (1859, 1877, 1883). He was made a senator in 1876, and he was buried in the Pantheon as a national hero.

Hugo Award or Science Fiction Achievement Award Any of

several annual awards presented by the World Science Fiction Society (WSFS). The awards are granted for notable achievement in science fic¬ tion or science fantasy. Established in 1953, the Hugo Awards were named in honour of Hugo Gernsback, founder of Amazing Stories, the first maga¬ zine exclusively for science fiction.

Huguenots Vhyii-go-.natsV French Protestants of the 16th—17th century, many of whom suffered severe persecution for their faith. The first French Huguenot community was founded in 1546, and the confession of faith drawn up by the first synod in 1559 was influenced by the ideas of John Calvin. Their numbers increased rapidly and they became a political force, led by Gaspard II de Coligny. Conflicts with the Roman Catholic govern¬ ment and others, including the House of Guise, led to the Wars of Religion (1562-98). A Huguenot political party was formed in 1573 to fight for religious and civil liberties. The powerful anti-Huguenot Holy League was formed in 1576. Henry IV ended the civil wars by abjuring Protestantism in 1593 and converting to Catholicism, but in 1598 he promulgated the Edict of Nantes, granting rights to Protestants. Civil wars occurred again in the 1620s, the Huguenots lost their political power, and they contin¬ ued to be harassed and forcibly converted. In 1685 Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes; over the next several years, more than 400,000 French Protestants left France.

Huhehot See Hohhot

Hui \'hii-e\ Muslim people of western China. They number about nine million. Their ancestors were merchants, soldiers, craftsmen, and schol¬ ars who came to China from Islamic Persia and Central Asia from the 7th to the 13th century and intermarried with the Han Chinese and other local nationalities. Most are farmers and live in rural areas. They speak Chi¬ nese dialects and are distinguishable from their neighbours chiefly by their religion.

Huineng Vhwa-'norjX (b. 638, southwest Kwangtung, China—d. 713, Kwangtung) Chinese religious leader, sixth patriarch of Chan (Son, Zen) Buddhism. As a young and illiterate peddler of firewood, he heard the Diamond Sutra and traveled 500 m (800 km) to northern China to study with the fifth patriarch, Hongren. He returned home to Canton in 676 and was ordained a priest. He asserted that all people are basically pure and possess the Buddha-nature, and he held that, if one seeks one’s own nature

and cultivates tranquillity, enlightenment will come suddenly, without external help. He founded the southern school, which became the domi¬ nant school of Chan Buddhism.

Huitzilopochtli \,wet-se-lo-'pocht-le\ Aztec sun and war god. He was usually portrayed as a hummingbird or as a warrior with a helmet of feathers and a turquoise snake staff. His animal disguise was the eagle. His mother was an earth goddess, his brothers stars in the sky, and his sister a moon goddess. Some myths presented him as the divine leader of the tribe during the long migration that brought the Aztecs to the Val¬ ley of Mexico. The 15th month of the ceremonial year was dedicated to him, and human sacrifices were made in his honour, in keeping with the belief that he needed human blood and hearts as daily nourishment.

Huizinga \'hoei-ziq-a\, Johan (b. Dec. 7, 1872, Groningen, Neth.—d. Feb. 1, 1945, De Steeg) Dutch historian. He was professor of history at Groningen (1905-15) and then at Leiden until 1942, when he was held as a hostage by the Nazis; he remained under open arrest until his death. His first studies dealt with Indian literature and cultures, but he became internationally recognized for The Waning of the Middle Ages (1919), a lively examination of life in France and Holland in the 14th—15th centu¬ ries.

Huizong \'hwe-'dzuq\ or Hui-tsung or Song Huizong orig. Zhao Ji (b. 1082—d. 1135) Penultimate emperor of the Northern Song dynasty in China. A painter and calligrapher, Huizong preferred the arts to gov¬ ernment. He urged the painters in his academy to be extremely literal in their representations; his own paintings of birds and flowers are detailed, accurately coloured, and perfectly composed. While he constructed an extravagant new palace garden, political disputes went unresolved and his favourite eunuchs gained unprecedented power in the government. His alliance with the Juchen tribes of Manchuria against the Liao led to the Juchen invasion that overthrew the Northern Song.

Hukbalahap \'huk-ba-la-'hap\ Rebellion or Huk Rebellion

(1946-54) Peasant uprising in Luzon, Philippines. The rich Luzon plain was farmed by a large tenant-farmer population working on vast estates, a situation that led to periodic peasant revolts. The area became a focal point for communist organizers in the 1930s. One communist organiza¬ tion, the Hukbalahap (or Huks), was a successful anti-Japanese guerrilla group during World War II (1939—45). By the war’s end it had also seized most of the Luzon large estates, established a government, and was col¬ lecting taxes. When the Philippines became independent in 1946, the Huks began a rebellion after they were prevented from taking government seats to which they had been elected. They were successful for four years and in 1950 nearly seized Manila. Defeated by Philippine troops equipped with advanced U.S. weaponry and by the rise of the popular Ramon Mag- saysay, their leader, Luis Taruc, surrendered in 1954.

hula Sinuous Polynesian dance that combines undulating movement of the hips and mimetic hand gestures, often performed to chants and instru¬ ments such as the ukulele. Originally a religious dance performed to praise the chiefs, the hula now tells a story or describe a place and are danced exclusively by women. The typical costume is a raffia skirt and a lei worn around the neck.

Hull, Bobby in full Robert Martin Hull (b. Jan. 3, 1939, Point Anne, Ont., Can.) Canadian ice- hockey player. He played centre and left wing for the Chicago Black- hawks (1957-72) in the National Hockey League (NHL), where his booming slap shot and fast skating made him a dominant figure; he scored 50 or more goals in each of five seasons. Throughout his NHL career he scored 610 goals, 560 assists, and 1,170 points. He also played in the now-defunct World Hockey Association (1972-81).

Hull, Clark L(eonard) (b. May

24, 1884, Akron, N.Y., U.S.—d. May 10, 1952, New Haven, Conn.) U.S. psychologist. He taught at the Uni¬ versity of Wisconsin (1918-29) and

, 1802, Besan^on, France—d. May

Victor Hugo, photograph by Nadar (Gaspard-Felix Tournachon).

ARCHIVES PHOTOGRAPHIQUES

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Hull ► human sacrifice I 907

was a member of Yale University’s Institute of Human Relations (1929- 52). Hull engaged in three distinct research endeavours. His study of psy¬ chometrics culminated in Aptitude Testing (1929). His study of hypnosis resulted in Hypnosis and Suggestibility (1933). His major effort was reserved for an intensive study of learning that produced the dominant learning theory of the 1940s and ’50s—that learning was based on “habit strength.” His important Mathematico-Deductive Theory of Rote Learn¬ ing (1940) was followed by his highly influential Principles of Behavior (1943). Relying on the work of Edward L. Thorndike and John B. Watson, he attempted to develop a rigorous theory of learning that would account for all behaviours, human and animal. He and his followers produced many experiments and theoretical concepts, and their work dominated the experimental literature for more than two decades, but it eventually was replaced by a more cognitive psychology that provided a role for mental events.

Hull, Cordell (b. Oct. 2, 1871, Overton county, Tenn., U.S.—d. July 23, 1955, Bethesda, Md.) U.S. politician and diplomat. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1907-21, 1923-31), where he wrote the first income-tax bill (1913) and the inheritance-tax law (1916). He served briefly in the U.S. Senate (1931-33). As secretary of state under Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933-44), he worked for international agreements to reduce high tariff barriers. He helped to improve U.S. relations with Latin America through what came to be known as the Good Neighbor Policy. In East Asia he rejected a proposed “Japanese Monroe Doctrine” that would have given that country a free hand in China (1934). When the U.S. entered World War II, Hull began to plan an international post¬ war peacekeeping body. For this work, Roosevelt described him as the “father of the United Nations.” He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1945.

Hull, Isaac (b. March 9, 1773, Derby, Conn.—d. Feb. 13, 1843, Phila¬ delphia, Pa., U.S.) U.S. naval officer. A nephew of William Hull, he was master of a ship by age 19. He was commissioned a lieutenant aboard the USS Constitution in 1798, becoming its commander in 1810. He distin¬ guished himself in the undeclared naval war with France at that time and in the Tripolitan War (1801-1805). Early in the War of 1812 he engaged the British frigate Guerriere and, after a fierce battle, rendered it a wreck. He was recognized as one of the navy’s ablest commanders, and his ship became known as “Old Ironsides.” He commanded the U.S. squadrons in the Pacific (1824-27) and in the Mediterranean (1839^-1).

Hull, William (b. June 24, 1753, Derby, Conn.—d. Nov. 29, 1825, Newton, Mass., U.S.) U.S. Army officer. He fought in American Revo¬ lutionary campaigns in Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey. In 1805 he was appointed governor of Michigan Territory. At the outbreak of the War of 1812, he was appointed brigadier general and charged with defending Michigan and attacking Canada. His poorly planned invasion of Canada forced him to retreat to Detroit, where he surrendered without a fight. He was court-martialed and convicted of cowardice and neglect of duty; his death sentence was remitted by Pres. James Madison because of his earlier service.

Hulse, Russell Alan (b. Nov. 28, 1950, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. physicist. He earned a Ph.D. from the University of Massachusetts. With his professor, Joseph H. Taylor, Jr., he discovered dozens of pulsars. One pulsar, PSR 1913+16, proved to be a binary star; the two stars’ enormous interacting gravitational fields provided the first means of detecting gravi¬ tational waves, predicted by Albert Einstein in his general theory of rela¬ tivity. For their discovery of PSR 1913+16, Hulse and Taylor shared a 1993 Nobel Prize.

human being See Homo sapiens

human evolution Evolution of modern human beings from extinct nonhuman and humanlike forms. Genetic evidence points to an evolu¬ tionary divergence between the lineages of humans and the great apes on the African continent 8-5 million years ago (mya). The earliest fossils considered to be remains of hominins (members of the human lineage) date to at least 4 mya in Africa; they are classified as genus Australopithecus. The next major evolutionary stage, Homo habius, inhabited sub-Saharan Africa about 2-1.5 mya. Homo habilis appears to have been supplanted by a taller and more humanlike species, Homo erectus, which lived from c. 1,700,000 to 200,000 years ago, gradually migrating into Asia and parts of Europe. Between c. 600,000 and 200,000 years ago. Homo heidelber- gensis, sometimes called archaic Homo sapiens, lived in Africa, Europe, and perhaps parts of Asia. Having features resembling those of both H.

erectus and modern humans, H. heidelbergensis may have been an ances¬ tor of modem humans and also of the Neanderthals ( H. neanderthalen- sis), who inhabited Europe and western Asia from c. 200,000 to 28,000 years ago. Fully modem humans (H. sapiens) seem to have emerged in Africa only c. 150,000 years ago, perhaps having descended directly from H. erectus or from an intermediate species such as H. heidelbergensis.

human factors engineering See ergonomics

Human Genome Project U.S. research effort initiated in 1990 by the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health to analyze the DNA of human beings. The project, intended to be completed in 15 years, proposed to identify the chromosomal location of every human GENE, to determine each gene’s precise chemical structure in order to show its function in health and disease, and to determine the precise sequence of nucleotides of the entire set of genes (the genome). Another project was to address the ethical, legal, and social implications of the information obtained. The information gathered will be the basic refer¬ ence for research in human biology and will provide fundamental insights into the genetic basis of human disease. The new technologies developed in the course of the project will be applicable in numerous biomedical fields. In 2000 the government and the private corporation Celera Genom¬ ics jointly announced that the project had been virtually completed, five years ahead of schedule.

human growth hormone See growth hormone human immunodeficiency virus See HIV

human nature Fundamental dispositions and traits of humans. Theo¬ ries about the nature of humankind form a part of every culture. In the West, debate has traditionally centred on whether humans are selfish and competitive (see Thomas Hobbes; John Locke) or social and altruistic (Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim). Recent research in genetics, evolutionary biology, and cultural anthropology suggests that humans may be both, and that there is a complex interaction between genetically inherited factors (“nature”) and developmental and social factors (“nurture”). Basic drives shared with other primates include food, sex, security, play, and social sta¬ tus. Gender differences include greater investment in reproduction and child-rearing among females, hence less risk-taking; and concomitantly less investment and greater risk-taking among males. See also behaviour genetics; Homo sapiens-, personality; philosophical anthropology; sociobiol¬ ogy.

human rights Rights that belong to an individual as a consequence of being human. The term came into wide use after World War - II, replacing the earlier phrase “natural rights,” which had been associated with the Greco-Roman concept of natural law since the end of the Middle Ages. As understood today, human rights refer to a wide variety of values and capabilities reflecting the diversity of human circumstances and history. They are conceived of as universal, applying to all human beings every¬ where, and as fundamental, referring to essential or basic human needs. Human rights have been classified historically in terms of the notion of three “generations” of human rights. The first generation of civil and political rights, associated with the Enlightenment and the English, Ameri¬ can, and French revolutions, includes the rights to life and liberty and the rights to freedom of speech and worship. The second generation of eco¬ nomic, social, and cultural rights, associated with revolts against the pre¬ dations of unregulated capitalism from the mid-19th century, includes the right to work and the right to an education. Finally, the third generation of solidarity rights, associated with the political and economic aspirations of developing and newly decolonized countries after World War II, includes the collective rights to political self-determination and economic development. Since the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, many treaties and agreements for the protection of human rights have been concluded through the auspices of the United Nations, and several regional systems of human rights law have been established. In the late 20th century ad hoc international criminal tribunals were con¬ vened to prosecute serious human rights violations and other crimes in the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda. The International Criminal Court, which came into existence in 2002, is empowered to prosecute crimes against humanity, crimes of genocide, and war crimes.

human sacrifice Offering of the life of a human being to a god. In some ancient cultures, the killing of a human being, or the substitution of an animal for a person, was an attempt to commune with the god and to participate in the divine life. It also sometimes served as an attempt to

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

908 I humanism ► Hume

placate the god and expiate the sins of the people. It was especially com¬ mon among agricultural people (e.g., in the ancient Near East), who sought to guarantee the fertility of the soil. The Aztecs sacrificed thou¬ sands of victims (often slaves or prisoners of war) annually to the sun, and the Incas made human sacrifices on the accession of a ruler. In ancient Egypt and elsewhere in Africa, human sacrifice was connected with ances¬ tor worship, and slaves and servants were killed or buried alive along with dead kings in order to provide service in the afterlife. A similar tradition existed in China. The Celts and Germanic peoples are among the Euro¬ pean peoples who practiced human sacrifice.

humanism In Renaissance Europe, a cultural impulse characterized by a revival of classical letters, an individualistic and critical spirit, and a shift of emphasis from religious to secular concerns. It dates to the 14th century and the poet Petrarch, though earlier figures are sometimes described as humanists. Its diffusion was facilitated by the universal use of Latin and the invention of movable type.

humanistic psychology Twentieth-century movement in psychology, developed largely in reaction against behaviourism and psychoanalysis, that emphasizes the importance of values, intentions, and meaning in the com¬ pass of the individual. The concept of the “self’ is a central focus for most humanistic psychologists. Architects of the humanistic approach included Abraham H. Maslow, Carl R. Rogers, and Rollo May (1909-94). Types of humanistic therapies have included sensory awareness, encoun¬ ter groups, existential analysis, Gestalt therapy, logotherapy, and various transpersonal, human-potential, holistic-health, and addiction-recovery schools.

humanities Branches of knowledge that investigate human beings, their culture, and their self-expression. Distinguished from the physical and biological sciences and, sometimes, from the social sciences, the humanities include the study of languages and literatures, the arts, his¬ tory, and philosophy. The modem conception of the humanities has roots in the classical Greek paideia, a course in general education dating from the 5th century bc that prepared young men for citizenship. It also draws on Cicero’s humanitas , a program of training for orators set forth in 55 bc. The Renaissance humanists contrasted studia humanitatis (“studies of humanity”) with studies of the divine; by the 19th century the distinction was instead drawn between the humanities and the sciences.

Humanities, National Endowment for the See National Endowment for the Humanities

Humber, River ancient Abus River, North Sea inlet, on the eastern coast of England. Originating with the confluence of the Rivers Ouse and Trent, it flows generally southward for 75 mi (121 km) over a series of falls and through several lakes and is more than 7 mi (11 km) wide at its mouth. The Humber Bridge, one of the longest suspension bridges in the world (main span 4,626 ft [1,410 m]), was constructed (1981) chiefly to aid the economic development of the river banks, which are lined by sev¬ eral major ports, including Hull.

Humberside Region and former administrative county, eastern

England. It extended along the North Sea coast from Flamborough Head south across the mouth of the River Humber. The Yorkshire Wolds, high rolling plains, rise from white chalk cliffs at Flamborough Head. Prehistoric peoples were followed by Roman settlements, Anglo-Saxons, and Scandinavians. The region’s principal city is Kingston upon Hull.

Humboldt, (Friedrich Wil¬ helm Heinrich) Alexander, Freiherr (baron) von (b. Sept. 14, 1769, Berlin, Prussia—d. May 6, 1859, Berlin) German naturalist and explorer. In 1792 he joined the min¬ ing department of the Prussian gov¬ ernment, where he invented a safety lamp and established a technical school for miners. From 1799 he explored Central and South America, traveling in the Amazon jungles and

l

Alexander von Humboldt, oil painting by Friedrich Georg Weitsch, 1806; in the National Museums in Berlin.

COURTESY OF THE STAATUCHE MUSEEN ZU BERLIN

the Andean highlands. During these journeys he discovered the connection between the Amazon and Orinoco river systems and surmised that altitude sickness was caused by lack of oxygen. He studied the oceanic current off the western coast of South America; it became known as the Humboldt Current (now the Peru Current). He returned to Europe in 1804. His research helped lay the foundation for comparative climatology, drew a connection between a region’s geography and its flora and fauna, and added to an understanding of the development of the Earth’s crust. In Paris he used his financial resources to help Louis Agassiz and others launch careers. In 1829 he traveled to Russia and Siberia and made geographic, geologic, and meteorologic observations of Central Asia. During the 1830s he investigated magnetic storms. The last 25 years of his life were spent writing Kosmos, an account of the structure of the universe as then known.

Humboldt, (Karl) Wilhelm, baron von (b. June 22, 1767, Pots¬ dam, Prussia—d. April 8, 1835, Tegel, near Berlin) German linguist and educational reformer. The elder brother of Alexander von Humboldt, he held a number of government posts. As minister of education (1809), he raised elementary education standards and was instrumental in founding Friedrich Wilhelm University (now Humboldt University, or University of Berlin) in Berlin. Humboldt also contributed greatly to the philosophy of language, contending that its character and structure express the speak¬ er’s culture and individuality and that humans perceive the world through the medium of language. He also carried out research on the Basque lan¬ guage and Kawi (old Javanese).

Humboldt River River, northern Nevada, U.S. Rising in Elko county, it flows west and southwest for 290 mi (467 km) to Humboldt Lake (also called Humboldt Sink). Named by John C. Fremont for Alexander von Humboldt, it was an important route for emigrants going from Salt Lake City to the goldfields in central California.

Humboldt University of Berlin See University of Berlin

Hume, David (b. May 7, 1711, Edinburgh, Scot.—d. Aug. 25, 1776, Edinburgh) Scottish philosopher, historian, and economist. He conceived of philosophy as the inductive, experimental science of human nature. His first major work, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739-40), explains the ori¬ gin of ideas, including the ideas of space, time, and causality, in sense experience; presents an elaborate account of the affective, or emotional, aspects of the mind and assigns a subordinate role to reason in this order (“Reason is, and ought only to be, the slave of the passions”); and describes moral goodness in terms of “feelings” of approval or disap¬ proval that a person has when he considers human behaviour in the light of the agreeable or disagreeable consequences either to himself or to oth¬ ers. The Treatise was poorly received, and late in life Hume repudiated it as juvenile. He revised Book I of the Treatise as An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1758); a revision of Book III was published as An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (1751). His Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (1779), containing a refutation of the argu¬ ment from design and a critique of the notion of miracles, was withheld from publication during his lifetime at the urging of friends. From his account of the origin of ideas Hume concluded that we have no knowl¬ edge of a “self’ as the enduring subject of experience; nor do we have knowledge of any “necessary connection” between causally related events. Immanuel Kant, who developed his critical philosophy in direct reaction to Hume, said that Hume had awakened him from his “dogmatic slumbers.” In Britain, Hume’s moral theory influenced Jeremy Bentham to adopt utilitarianism. With John Locke and George Berkeley, Hume is regarded as one of the great philosophers of empiricism.

Hume, John (b. Jan. 18, 1937, Londonderry, N.Ire.) Leader of the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) in Northern Ireland from 1979 to 2001 and corecipient with David Trimble of the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1998. A schoolteacher, Hume became a Roman Catholic leader in the Northern Ireland civil rights movement in the 1960s. He was elected to the parliaments of Northern Ireland (1969), Europe (1979), and Brit¬ ain (1983). A moderate, he condemned the use of violence by the Irish Republican Army (IRA). In the late 1980s he attempted to persuade the IRA to abandon the armed struggle against Britain and enter democratic poli¬ tics. He risked his personal safety to engage in sometimes secret dialogues with leaders of Sinn Fein, the IRA’s political wing, and he played a lead¬ ing role in negotiating the Good Friday Agreement, the multiparty peace accord between unionists and nationalists reached in April 1998. Elected to the new Northern Ireland Assembly in June, he resigned his seat two years later because of ill health.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

humidity ► Hunan i 909

humidity Amount of water vapour in the air. One of the most variable characteristics of the atmosphere, humidity is an important factor in cli¬ mate and weather: it regulates air temperature by absorbing thermal radia¬ tion both from the Sun and the Earth; it is directly proportional to the latent energy available for the generation of storms; and it is the ultimate source of all forms of condensation and precipitation. Humidity varies because the water-holding capacity of air is determined by temperature. When a volume of air at a given temperature holds the maximum amount of water vapour possible, the air is said to be saturated. Relative humid¬ ity is the water-vapour content of the air relative to its content at satura¬ tion. Saturated air has a relative humidity of 100%; near the Earth the relative humidity rarely falls below 30%.

Hummel Vhum-alV, Johann Nepomuk (b. Nov. 14, 1778, Pozsony, Hung.—d. Oct. 17, 1837, Weimar, Thuringia) Austrian composer, pianist, and conductor. Hummel was a piano prodigy. Moving at age eight to Vienna, where his father was a conductor, he studied for two years with Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. After five years of touring, he returned for further study and gave up public performance. He replaced Joseph Haydn as music director at the Esterhazy palace but actually made his living teaching and composing for the theatre. In 1814 he recommenced per¬ forming with huge success, and he died wealthy. He composed a number of concertos and much chamber music.

hummingbird Any of about 320 species of New World birds (family Trochilidae), many of which have glittering colours and elaborately specialized feathers. They are most abundant in South America, though about 12 species are found in the U.S. and Canada. Hummingbirds range in length from slightly more than 2 in. (5 cm) to 8 in. (20 cm), weigh 0.07-0.7 oz (2-20 g), and have a long, slender bill. The bee hummingbird of Cuba is the small¬ est living bird. Hummingbirds can fly forward, straight up and down, sideways, and backward and can hover in front of flowers to obtain nectar and insects. Smaller species can beat their wings as fast as 80 beats per second.

humour Latin "fluid" In early Western physiological theory, one of the four body fluids thought to determine a person’s temperament and features. As hypothesized by Galen, the four cardinal humours were blood, phlegm, choler (yellow bile), and melancholy (black bile). The variant mixture of these humours in each person determined his “com¬ plexion” or temperament and his mental and physical qualities. The ideal person had the perfectly proportioned mixture of the four fluids; a dis¬ proportionate amount of one humour created a personality dominated by one set of related emotions (e.g., a choleric man was easily angered, proud, ambitious, and vengeful).

humpback whale Long-finned baleen whale (. Megaptera novaean- gliae). They live along all major ocean coasts, sometimes swimming close inshore or even into harbours and up rivers. Humpbacks grow to 40-52 ft (12-16 m) long. They are black above, with some white below, and have large knobs on the head and jaws. The humpback migrates between polar waters in summer and tropical or subtropical breeding grounds in winter. It feeds on shrimplike crustaceans, small fish, and plankton. It is probably the most vocal of all whales (with “songs” of 5-35 minutes) and one of the most acrobatic (capable of turning a somersault). Much reduced in number by overhunting, humpbacks have been protected worldwide since the 1960s, and some populations seem to be increasing.

Humperdinck, Engelbert (b. Sept. 1, 1854, Sieberg, Hanover—d. Sept. 27, 1921, Neustrelitz, Ger.) German composer. He studied piano, organ, cello, and composition with Ferdinand Hiller. His compositions won prizes, and in 1879 he met Richard Wagner in Naples and became a member of his circle. Invited to help prepare Parsifal for its premiere, including copying the score and rehearsing the chorus, he came to be considered Wagner’s chosen successor by some. He is known today for the highly popular opera Hansel and Gretel (1892); his later works include the opera The King’s Children (1897).

Humphrey, Doris (b. Oct. 17, 1895, Oak Park, Ill., U.S.—d. Dec. 29, 1958, New York, N.Y.) U.S. dancer and modern-dance choreographer.

She was a member of the Denishawn troupe from 1917 to 1928, when she left to cofound, with Charles Weidman, a school and performing dance group, which was active until 1944. In her choreography she employed an innovative use of con¬ flict between balance and imbalance, fall and recovery; her works included Water Study (1928), The Shakers (1931), and New Dance (1935). She retired as a performer in 1945 but continued as artistic direc¬ tor for Jose Limon’s company, creat¬ ing works such as Day on Earth (1947) and Ruins and Visions (1953).

Humphrey, Hubert H(oratio)

(b. May 27, 1911, Wallace, S.D., U.S.—d. Jan. 13, 1978, Waverly, Minn.) U.S. politician. He worked as a pharmacist and a teacher before becom¬ ing Minnesota campaign manager for Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1944. During this period he was instrumental in merging the state’s Democratic and Farmer-Labor parties. His public career began when he was elected mayor of Minneapolis (1945-48). In the U.S. Senate (1949-64), he proved to be a skilled parliamentary leader who helped forge bipartisan support for the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty (1963) and the Civil Rights Act (1964). As vice president under Lyndon B. Johnson (1965-69), he was vilified by left-wing opponents for his defense of U.S. participation in the Vietnam War. He won the Democratic presidential nomination in 1968 but narrowly lost the election to Richard Nixon. He served again in the Sen¬ ate from 1971 to 1978.

humus Vhyii-mosV Nonliving, finely divided organic matter in soil, derived from microbial decomposition of plant and animal substances. Ranging in colour from brown to black, it consists primarily of carbon but also contains nitrogen and smaller amounts of phosphorus and sulfur. As it decomposes, its components are changed into forms usable by plants. Humus is classified according to how well it is incorporated into the min¬ eral soil, the types of organisms involved in its decomposition, and the vegetation from which it is derived. It is valued by farmers and garden¬ ers because it provides nutrients essential for plant growth, increases the soil’s water absorption, and improves soil workability.

Hun Any member of a nomadic pastoralist people who invaded south¬ eastern Europe c. ad 370. Appearing from central Asia after the mid-4th century, they first overran the Alani, who occupied the plains between the Volga and Don rivers, and then overthrew the Ostrogoths living between the Don and Dniester rivers. About 376 they defeated the Visigoths living in what is now approximately Romania and reached the Danubian fron¬ tier of the Roman Empire. As warriors, they inspired almost unparalleled fear throughout Europe; they were accurate mounted archers, and their rapid, ferocious charges brought them overwhelming victories. They extended their power over many of the Germanic peoples of central Europe and allied themselves with the Romans. By 432 the leadership of the various groups of Huns had been centralized under a single king, Rua (Rugila). After his death (434), he was succeeded by his two nephews, Bleda and Attila. By a peace treaty with the Eastern Roman Empire, the Romans agreed to double the subsidies they had been paying the Huns; when they apparently failed to pay the stipulated sums, Attila launched a heavy assault on the Roman Danubian frontier (441), and other attacks spread the Huns’ control into Greece and Italy. After Attila’s death (453), his many sons divided up his empire and began a series of costly struggles with their subjects. The Huns were finally routed in 455 by an alliance of Gepidae, Ostrogoths, Heruli, and others in a great battle in Pannonia. The Eastern Roman government then closed the frontier to the Huns, who gradually disintegrated as a social and political unit.

Hunan Vhii-'nanV or Hu-nan Province (pop., 2002 est.: 66,290,000), central China. It lies south of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) and is bor¬ dered by Guizhou, Hubei, Jiangxi, and Guangdong provinces, Chongqing municipality, and Guangxi autonomous region. It has an area of 81,300 sq mi (210,500 sq km), and its capital is Changsha. Part of the 3rd- century-BC kingdom of Chu, it passed to the Qin dynasty and became part

Allen's hummingbird (Selasphorus sasin)

ARVIL L. PARKER

Doris Humphrey.

CULVER PICTURES

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

910 I Hundred Days ► Hunkar jskelesi

of the Chinese empire during the Han dynasty (206 bc-ad 220). Hubei and Hunan were one province until split in the mid-17th century. Hunan was invaded in 1852 by Taiping rebels, and in 1934 Mao Zedong led the Long March from Hunan. The scene of bitter fighting during the Sino-Japanese War (1937-45), it became part of communist China in 1949. Much of the terrain is mountainous; Mount Heng, one of China’s sacred mountains, is located there. The economy is basically agricultural. Hunan is one of China’s great rice-producing regions.

Hundred Days French Cent Jours (1815) In French history, the period between Napoleon’s arrival in Paris after escaping from exile on Elba and the return of Louis XVIII to Paris. Napoleon landed on French soil on March 1 and reached Paris on March 20. Austria, Britain, Prussia, and Russia swiftly concluded an alliance against Napoleon and forced a series of military engagements that led up to the Battle of Waterloo. On June 22 Napoleon abdicated a second time and was removed to St. Helena; Louis returned to Paris on July 8.

Hundred Years' War (1337 -1453) Intermittent armed conflict between England and France over territorial rights and the issue of suc¬ cession to the French throne. It began when Edward III invaded Flanders in 1337 in order to assert his claim to the French crown. Edward won a major victory at the Battle of Crecy (1346); after his son Edward the Black Prince managed to capture John II at the Battle of Poitiers (1356), the French were obliged to surrender extensive lands under the treaties of Bretigny and Calais (1360). When John II died in captivity, his son Charles V refused to respect the treaties and reopened the conflict, putting the English on the defensive. After Charles V’s death in 1380 both countries were preoccupied with internal power struggles, and the war lapsed into uncertain peace. In 1415, however, Henry V decided to take advantage of civil war in France to press English claims to the French throne (see Battle of Agincourt). By 1422, the English and their Burgundian allies controlled Aquitaine and all France north of the Loire, including Paris. A turning point came in 1429, when Joan of Arc raised the English siege of Orleans. The French king Charles VII conquered Normandy and then retook Aquita¬ ine in 1453, leaving the English in possession only of Calais. The war laid waste to much of France and caused enormous suffering; it virtually destroyed the feudal nobility and thereby brought about a new social order. By ending England’s status as a power on the continent, it led the English to expand their reach and power at sea.

Hung Hsiu-ch'uan See Hong Xiuquan Hung-shan culture See Hongshan culture Hung-shui River See Hongshui River Hung T'ai-chi See Hongtaiji Hung-tse Hu See Hongze Lake Hung-wu emperor See Hongwu emperor

Hungarian language Finno-Ugric language of Hungary, with sub¬ stantial minority populations in Slovakia, Transylvania in Romania, and northern Serbia. Hungarian has about 14.5 million speakers worldwide— more than any other Uralic language —including 400,000-500,000 in North America. The earliest known text in Hungarian dates from the late 12th century; a continuous literary tradition begins in the 15th century. Contact with Turkic, Iranian, and Slavic languages, and, more recently, High German dialects and Latin, has given Hungarian many loanwords.

Hungarian Revolution (1956) Popular uprising in Hungary follow¬ ing a speech by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev in which he attacked the period of Joseph Stalin’s rule. Encouraged by the new freedom of debate and criticism, a rising tide of unrest and discontent in Hungary broke out into active fighting in October 1956. Rebels won the first phase of the revolution, and Nagy Imre became premier, agreeing to establish a mul¬ tiparty system. On November 1 he declared Hungarian neutrality and appealed to the UN. Western powers failed to respond, and on Novem¬ ber 4 the Soviet Union invaded Hungary to stop the revolution. Never¬ theless, Stalinist-type domination and exploitation did not return, and Hungary thereafter experienced a slow evolution toward some internal autonomy.

Hungary officially Republic of Hungary Country, central Europe. Area: 35,919 sq mi (93,030 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 10,078,000. Capital: Budapest. The people are an amalgam of Magyars and various Slavic, Turkish, and Germanic peoples. Language: Hungarian (Magyar;

CZECH

REPUBLIC

Satoraljaujhely,, Sarospatak,* v6' f A ^ ,V^Miskolc BURK;- NATIONAL PARK

Vienna

Bratislava

AUSTRIA

\ KisvarJ ( Nyi'regyhaza

Mount Kekes , 3,392 ft.‘

Esztergor

NATIONAL PARK,

Balmazujvaros

*Fertod Gyfir # Tatabanyb rLIJFbEALFOLp / \ W i n • • /Mount K6ri\

• Pa P a 2,309 ft Szekesfehe

. Kamiend .

Koszeg

Szombathely t

Budapest'

Irvar

! Cegled*

°TRANST*S;

Nagykorijsv

s^m-y^iake^

y \Balaton

Marcali

Kaposvar #