Britannica Concise 2005 - читать бесплатно онлайн полную версию книги автора Encyclopedia Britannica (ч. 85)

monotreme Vma-no-.tremX Any of three living species of egg-laying maaamals (order Monotremata): the platypus and two species of echidna. Monotremes are found only in Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea. Except for their egg laying, they have mammalian characteristics, such as mammary glands, hair, and a complete diaphragm. They lack teats; the young suck milk through pores on the mother’s skin. The earliest fossil

monotremes, found in Australia, are only about 2 million years old and differ little from present species. Monotremes probably originated from a line of mammal-like reptiles different from the line that gave rise to pla¬ cental mammals and marsupials.

monotype or monoprint In art printmaking, a technique prized because of its unique textural qualities. Monotypes are made by drawing with printer’s ink or oil paint onto glass or a plate of metal or stone. The drawing is then pressed by hand onto a sheet of absorbent paper or printed on an etching press. The pigment remaining on the plate is usually insuf¬ ficient to make another print unless the original design is reinforced. Sub¬ sequent prints invariably differ from the first, because variations in repainting and printing are inevitable. In the 19th century, William Blake and Edgar Degas experimented with the technique.

Monro family Family of Scottish physicians. Three generations of the family made the University of Edinburgh an international centre of medi¬ cal teaching, holding the chair of anatomy for 126 years (1720-1846) without interruption. Alexander primus (b. Sept. 8, 1697, London, Eng.—d. July 10, 1767, Edinburgh, Scot.) lectured in anatomy and sur¬ gery; his anatomical preparations were outstanding, and, though not a surgeon, he advanced many new ideas for instruments and dressings. His son Alexander secundus (b. May 22, 1733, Edinburgh—d. Oct. 2, 1817, Edinburgh) began lecturing in his second year of medical study; of the three, he is judged the greatest teacher and anatomist, and his research also covered pathology and physiology. Alexander tertius (b. Nov. 5, 1773, Edinburgh—d. March 10, 1859, Craiglockheart, near Edinburgh) relied largely on the notes handed down to him.

Monroe, Bill orig. William Smith Monroe (b. Sept. 13, 1911, Rosine, Ky., U.S.—d. Sept. 9, 1996, Springfield, near Nashville, Tenn.) U.S. singer, songwriter, and mandolin player, inventor of the bluegrass style. Monroe began to play professionally in 1927 and later toured with his brother Charlie. They made their first recordings in 1936 and recorded 60 songs over the next two years. He formed the Blue Grass Boys in 1939. His bluegrass sound emerged fully in 1945, when banjoist Earl Scruggs (b. 1924) and guitarist Lester Flatt joined his band. The Blue Grass Boys established the classic makeup of a bluegrass group—mandolin, fiddle, guitar, banjo, and upright bass—and bequeathed its name to the genre itself. Monroe continued to perform until shortly before his death.

Monroe, Harriet (b. Dec. 23, 1860, Chicago, Ill., U.S.—d. Sept. 26, 1936, Arequipa, Peru) U.S. editor. She worked on various newspapers in the city as an art and drama critic while privately writing verse and verse plays. In 1912 she founded Poetry magazine, securing the backing of wealthy patrons and inviting contributions from a wide range of poets. Monroe’s open-minded editorial policy and awareness of the importance of the Modernist revolution in contemporary poetry made her a major influence in its development.

Monroe, James (b. April 28, 1758, Westmoreland county, Va.—d. July 4, 1831, New York, N.Y., U.S.)

Fifth president of the U.S. (1817—

25). After serving in the American Revolution, he studied law under Thomas Jefferson, then governor of Virginia. From 1783 to 1786 he served in the Congress under the Articles of Confederation. In 1790 he was elected to the U.S. Senate, where he opposed the adminstration of George Washington. He neverthe¬ less became Washington’s minister to France in 1794, though he was recalled two years later for mislead¬ ing the French about U.S. politics.

From 1799 to 1802 he served as gov¬ ernor of Virginia. In 1803 Pres. Jef¬ ferson sent him to France to help negotiate the Louisiana Purchase; he was then appointed minister to Brit¬ ain (1803-07). He returned to Vir¬ ginia and was again elected governor in 1810, though he resigned the office after 11 months to serve as U.S. secretary of state (1811-17) and secretary of war (1814-15). He

James Monroe, oil sketch by E.O. Sully, 1836, after a contemporary portrait by Thomas Sully; in Independence National Historical Park, Philadelphia.

COURTESY OF THE INDEPENDENCE NATIONAL HISTORICAL PARK COLLECTION, PHILADELPHIA

1286 I Monroe ► Montaigne

served two terms as president, presiding in a period that became known as the Era of Good Feelings. He oversaw the Seminole War of 1817-18 and the acquisition of the Floridas (1819-21), and he signed the Missouri Compromise (1820). With Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, he devel¬ oped the principles of U.S. foreign policy later called the Monroe Doc¬ trine.

Monroe, Marilyn orig. Norma 1926, Los Angeles, Calif., U.S.—d.

Aug. 5, 1962, Los Angeles) U.S. film actress. She endured a loveless child¬ hood and a brief teenage marriage.

After working as a photographer’s model, she made her screen debut in 1948 and won bit parts in The Asphalt Jungle (1950) and All About Eve (1950). She achieved stardom as a blonde sex symbol in the comedies Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1953),

How to Marry a Millionaire (1953), and The Seven Year Itch (1955).

After studying at the Actors Studio, she starred in more-ambitious films, including Bus Stop (1956), Some Like It Hot (1959), and The Misfits (1961). Her private life, which included marriages to Joe DiMaggio and Arthur Miller, was widely publi¬ cized. She died at age 36 of an appar¬ ently self-administered barbiturate overdose. Her vulnerability and sen¬ suousness combined with her death raised her to the status of an Ameri¬ can cultural icon.

Monroe Doctrine U.S. foreign-policy statement first enunciated by Pres. James Monroe on Dec. 2, 1823, declaring the Western Hemisphere off-limits to European colonization. Concerned that the European powers would attempt to restore Spain’s former colonies, he declared, inter alia, that any attempt by a European power to control any nation in the West¬ ern Hemisphere would be viewed as a hostile act against the U.S. It was reiterated in 1845 and 1848 by Pres. James K. Polk to discourage Spain and Britain from establishing footholds in Oregon, California, or on Mexi¬ co’s Yucatan Peninsula. In 1865 the U.S. massed troops on the Rio Grande to back up demands that France withdraw from Mexico. In 1904 Pres. Theodore Roosevelt added the Roosevelt Corollary, stating that in the event of flagrant wrongdoing by a Latin AMERiCAn state, the U.S. had the right to intervene in its internal affairs. As the U.S. became a world power, the Monroe Doctrine came to define the Western Hemisphere as a U.S. sphere of influence. See also Good Neighbor Policy.

Monrovia Port city (pop., 1999 est.: metro, area, 479,000), capital of Liberia, located on the Atlantic coast. It was founded in 1822 by the Ameri¬ can Colonization Society as a settlement for freed U.S. slaves and named for Pres. James Monroe. Bushrod Island contains the artificial harbour and free port of Monrovia, the only such port in West Africa. It is Liberia’s largest city and its administrative and commercial centre. Many of the city’s buildings were damaged during the civil war that began in 1990, and its increased population includes many formerly rural people dis¬ placed by the war. It is the seat of the University of Liberia.

Monsarrat \,man-s3-'rat\, Nicholas (John Turney) (b. March 22, 1910, Liverpool, Eng.—d. Aug. 8, 1979, London) British novelist. Trained in law, he served with the Royal Navy (1940-46), chiefly on dangerous Atlantic convoy runs. He put his experience to account in such books as H.M. Corvette (1942) and his best-known work, The Cruel Sea (1951), a best-seller that vividly captures life aboard a small ship in wartime. His later work includes The Story of Esther Costello (1953) and Smith and Jones (1963).

monsoon Major wind system that seasonally reverses its direction (e.g., one that blows for six months from the northeast and six months from the southwest). The most prominent examples occur in Africa and southern Asia. The primary cause of monsoons is the difference between annual temperature trends over land and sea. Seasonal changes in temperature are large over land but small over oceans. A monsoon blows from cold toward warm regions: from sea toward land in summer and from land

toward sea in winter. Most summer monsoons produce copious amounts of rain; winter monsoons tend to cause drought.

Mont, Allen Du See Allen B. Du Mont Mont Blanc See Mont Blanc

Mont-Saint-Michel \mo n -sa n -me-'shel\ Rocky, almost circular islet rising out of Mont-Saint-Michel Bay between Brittany and Normandy, northwestern France. It only becomes an island at high tide. Around its base are medieval walls and towers, above which rise the village’s clus¬ tered buildings, with an ancient abbey crowning the mount. Over the cen¬ turies it has been a pilgrimage center, fortress, and prison. The fine abbey church has an imposing 11th-century Romanesque nave and an elegant Flamboyant-style Gothic choir. The exterior walls of the Gothic monastery building combine the power of a military fortress and the simplicity of a religious building. Some of the houses bordering the island’s narrow, winding streets date back to the 15 th century.

montage \man-'tazh\ French "mounting" Pictorial technique in which cut-out illustrations, or fragments of them, are arranged together and mounted on a support, producing a composite picture made from sev¬ eral different pictures. It differs from collage in using only ready-made images chosen for their subject or message. The technique is widely used in advertising. Photomontage uses photographs only. In motion pictures, montage is the sequential assembling of separate pieces of thematically related film by the director, film editor, and visual and sound technicians, who cut and fit each part with the others to produce visual juxtapositions and complex audio patterns.

Montagnais and Naskapi \ l man-t3n-'ya... , nas-k3-pe\ Two related North American Indian peoples living in Quebec and Labrador, Can. They speak almost identical Algonquian dialects. The Montagnais, whose name is French, meaning “Mountaineers,” traditionally occupied a large for¬ ested area above the northern shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. They lived in birch-bark wigwams and subsisted on moose, salmon, eel, and seal. The Naskapi, whose name is derived from a Montagnais word mean¬ ing “savage,” lived farther north on the Labrador plateau, where they hunted caribou and fished. Both groups used canoes in summer and sleds and snowshoes in winter. Religious belief centred on manitou, or super¬ natural power; much importance was attached to nature and animal spir¬ its. The basic social unit was the nomadic band. Both groups now call themselves Innu—not to be confused with Inuit (see Eskimo) —meaning “People.” Together the Montagnais and Naskapi total some 20,000, the vast majority of whom are Montagnais.

Montagnard \ 1 mo n -,tan- , yar\ French "Mountain Man" Radical deputy in the National Convention during the French Revolution. The Mon- tagnards were so called because they sat on the higher benches (the “Moun¬ tain”) above the uncommitted deputies of the “Plain.” The Montagnards emerged in 1792 as opponents of the moderate Girondins and later asso¬ ciated with the radical Jacobin Club in the Committee of Public Safety. After the Thermidorian Reaction, many Montagnards were executed or purged from the convention, and they became a minority called the crete (“crest”).

Montagu Vman-t3-,gyu\ / Lady Mary Wortley orig. Lady Mary Pierrepont (baptized May 26, 1689, London, Eng.—d. Aug. 21, 1762, London) English writer, the most colourful Englishwoman of her time. A prolific letter writer, Montagu is remembered chiefly for 52 superb letters chronicling her stay in Constantinople, where her husband was ambassa¬ dor from 1716 to 1718. On their return, they introduced the Middle East¬ ern practice of smallpox vaccination into England. Also a poet, essayist, feminist, and eccentric, she was a friend of John Gay and Alexander Pope, who later turned against and satirized her. Among her writings are six “town eclogues,” witty adaptations of Virgil; a lively attack on Jonathan Swift (1734); and essays dealing with feminism and the moral cynicism of her time.

Montaigne \mo n -'ten y ,\ English \man-'tan\, Michel (Eyquem) de

(b. Feb. 28, 1533, Chateau de Montaigne, near Bordeaux, France—d. Sept. 23, 1592, Chateau de Montaigne) French courtier and author. Born into the minor nobility, Montaigne received an excellent Classical educa¬ tion (speaking only Latin up to age 6) before studying law and serving as counselor at the Bordeaux Parliament. There he met the lawyer Eti¬ enne de La Boetie, with whom he formed an extraordinary friendship; the void left by La Boetie’s death in 1563 likely led Montaigne to begin his writing career. He retired to his chateau in 1571 to work on his Essais (1580, 1588), a series of short prose reflections on many subjects that form

Jean Mortenson (b. June 1,

Marilyn Monroe.

BROWN BROTHERS

Montale ► Montenegro I 1287

one of the most captivating and intimate self-portraits ever written. At once deeply critical of his time and deeply involved in its struggles, he sought understanding through self-examination, which he developed into a description of the human condition and an ethic of authenticity, self¬ acceptance, and tolerance. Though most of his later years were devoted to writing, he occasionally served as mediator in episodes of religious conflict in his region and beyond, and served as mayor of Bordeaux dur¬ ing the troubled period 1581-85. See also essay.

Montale \mon-'ta-la\, Eugenio (b. Oct. 12, 1896, Genoa, Italy—d. Sept. 12, 1981, Milan) Italian poet, prose writer, editor, and translator. Montale began his literary activities after World War I, cofounding a jour¬ nal, writing for other journals, and serving as a library director in Flo¬ rence. His first book of poems. Cuttlefish Bones (1925), expressed the bitter pessimism of the postwar period. He was identified with Hermeticism in the 1930s and ’40s, and his works became progressively introverted and obscure. With The Storm and Other Poems (1956) his writing showed the increasing skill, warmth, and directness characteristic of his late period. His stories and sketches were collected in The Butterfly ofDinard (1956). He received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1975.

Montalembert \mo n -ta-la n -'ber\, Charles (-Forbes-Rene), count de (b. April 15, 1810, London, Eng.—d. March 13, 1870, Paris, France) French politician and historian. He began his political career as a journalist for several Catholic journals, became a leader of the liberal Roman Catholics in the July monarchy, and was a member of the House of Peers (1835-48). A champion of civil and religious liberties, he opposed Napoleon Ill’s policies after 1851. He wrote such historical works as The Catholic Interest in the 19th Century (1852), The Political Future of England (1856), and Monks of the West (1863-77).

Montana State (pop., 2000: 902,195), northwestern U.S. Bordered by Canada and the U.S. states of North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming, and Idaho, it covers 147,046 sq mi (380,849 sq km); its capital is Helena. Montana straddles the Great Plains to the east and the Rocky Mountains to the west. Unique among the states, its rivers flow into three of the con¬ tinent’s primary watersheds: the Pacific, the Gulf of Mexico, and Hud¬ son Bay. At the time of European settlement the region was inhabited by various Indian tribes, including the Cheyenne, Blackfoot, Nez Perce, and Crow. Most of Montana was obtained by the U.S. through the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. The western part was disputed until 1846, when Brit¬ ain relinquished its claim to the area. The Lewis and Clark Expedition explored Montana in 1804-06. St. Mary’s Mission, established in 1841 by Roman Catholic missionaries, became the first permanent town as Stevensville. Gold was discovered in the early 1860s; grazing of cattle and sheep was introduced later that decade, leading to bitter battles with the Indians, whose hunting grounds were destroyed. Montana Territory was established in 1864. Though the U.S. troops of George Armstrong Custer were defeated and slain at the Battle of the Little Bighorn in 1876, the Indians ceased fighting in 1877 and were placed on reservations. Montana became the 41st state in 1889. Vast deposits of copper were found in the 1890s, and mining was the economic mainstay for almost a century. The state’s economy now emphasizes tourism.

Montana, Joe in full Joseph Clifford Montana, Jr. (b. June 11, 1956, New Eagle, Pa., U.S.) U.S. football quarterback. He played for the University of Notre Dame, leading his team to the national championship in 1977. Playing with the San Francisco 49ers from 1979 to 1993, he led the team to Super Bowl championships in 1982, 1985, 1989, and 1990. He maintained one of the highest passing-completion rates in the NFL, with a career average of 63.2. His career totals for passes completed (3,409), yards passing (40,551), and touchdown passes (273) are among the highest on record. He finished his career with the Kansas City Chiefs (1993-95) and was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2000.

Montand \m6 n -'ta n \, Yves orig. Ivo Livi (b. Oct. 13, 1921, Monsum- mano Alto, Italy—d. Nov. 9, 1991, Senlis, France) Italian-born French actor and singer. Raised in Marseille, he was the protege of the famous chanteuse Edith Piaf in the late 1940s. He married the actress Simone Signoret (1921-85) in 1951. International renown came with his appear¬ ance in the film Wages of Fear (1953). In Hollywood he starred opposite Marilyn Monroe in Let’s Make Love (1960), and their romantic affair was widely publicized. His later films included Z (1969), Jean de Florette, and Manon of the Spring (both 1987). For most of his life he was known as a supporter of left-wing causes. He enjoyed great success as a singer, especially in France.

Montanes \,mon-tan-'yas\, Juan (de) Martinez (b. March 16, 1568, Alcala la Real, Jaen, Spain—d. June 18, 1649, Sevilla) Spanish sculptor. After studying in Granada, he established his studio in Sevilla (Seville) and was instrumental in the transition from Mannerism to the Baroque. He became known as el dios de la madera (“the god of wood”) because of his great skill at wood carving. His output and influence over 50 years were enormous. Montanes is remembered for his wood altars and altar figures covered with polished gold and coloured paint, which are realistic yet idealized. His work influenced not only the sculptors and altar makers of Spain and Latin America but also the Spanish painters of his century.

Montanism Vman-to-.ni-zonA Heretical Christian movement founded in ad 156 by Montanus. Having converted to Christianity, Montanus fell into a trance and began to prophesy. Others joined him, and the move¬ ment spread through Asia Minor. The Montanists held that the Holy Spirit was speaking through Montanus and that the Second Coming was immi¬ nent. The bishops of Asia Minor excommunicated the Montanists (c. 177), but the movement continued in the East as a separate sect; it also flour¬ ished in Carthage, where its most illustrious convert was Tertullian. It had almost died out by the 5th-6th century, though some remnants survived into the 9th century.

Montcalm \mant-'kalm\ (de Saint-Veran), Louis-Joseph de Montcalm-Grozon, marquis de (b. Feb. 28, 1712, Chateau de Candiac, France—d. Sept. 14, 1759, Quebec) French military leader. He joined the French army at age 12 and fought in several European con¬ flicts. In 1756 he was placed in command of French troops in North America, but his commission excluded most military resources in Canada. He forced the British to surrender their post at Oswego and captured Fort William Henry (1757). At the Battle of Ticonderoga (1758), he repulsed an attack by 15,000 British troops with a force of just 3,800 men. Pro¬ moted to lieutenant general, he received authority over military affairs in Canada. In 1759 a British force of 8,500 troops under Gen. James Wolfe marched on Quebec; in the ensuing Battle of Quebec, Montcalm fought with conspicuous gallantry and was mortally wounded.

Monte Alban Vmon-ta-al-'banV Ridgetop site of the ruins of the ancient centre of Zapotec culture, located near Oaxaca, Mex. Construction at the site began around the 8th century bc. Monte Alban reached its height ad 250-700. The site contains great plazas, truncated pyramids, a tlachtli court for an ancient ballgame, underground passageways, and about 170 tombs, the most elaborate yet uncovered in the New World. The great plaza atop the highest hill is flanked by four platforms; two temples stand on the platform to the south. In its final phase, Monte Alban was inhab¬ ited by the Mixtec.

Monte-Carlo Resort (pop., 2000: 15,507), one of the four sections (quartiers) of Monaco. It is situated northeast of Nice on the French Riv¬ iera. In 1856 Charles III of Monaco granted a charter allowing a joint- stock company to build a casino, which opened in 1861. The district around it, called Monte-Carlo, became a luxurious playground for the world’s wealthy. The government took over the casino’s operating com¬ pany in 1967.

Monte Carlo method Statistical method of approximating the solu¬ tion of complex physical or mathematical systems. The method was adopted and improved by John von Neumann and Stanislaw Ulam for simulations of the atomic bomb during the Manhattan Project. Because the method is based on random chance, it was named after a gambling resort.

Monte Cassino Principal monastery of the Benedictine order, located in Latium, central Italy. It was founded c. 529 by St. Benedict of Nursia and reached its peak under Desiderius (later Pope Victor III), who was abbot 1058-87. Its buildings were destroyed by the Lombards (c. 581), the Arabs (883), an earthquake (1349), and World War II bombardment (1944), but were rebuilt each time. It was reconsecrated in 1964.

Montego \man-'te-go\ Bay Seaport (pop., 2000 est.: 89,859), north¬ western Jamaica, located northwest of Kingston. It lies on the site of a large Arawak village visited by Christopher Columbus in 1494. The Span¬ ish, ousted by the British after 150 years, destroyed most of the original buildings. One of Jamaica’s largest cities, it is a commercial centre and busy port. It is also a popular tourist resort noted for its white sandy beaches.

Montenegro \ l mon-ta-'na-gr6\ Constituent republic of Serbia and Mon¬ tenegro. Area: 5,333 sq mi (13,812 sq km). Population (2003): 620,145.

1288 I Monterrey ► Montgolfier

The capital is Podgorica. The republic’s name (“Black Mountain”) refers to its ancient stronghold near the Adriatic Sea, Mount Lovcen, which rises to 5,738 ft (1,749 m). Montenegro’s landscape ranges from arid hills to forests and fertile valleys. The majority of its population are Montene¬ grins who follow the Eastern Orthodox Church; there are sizable Muslim and Albanian minorities. Under the Roman Empire the region was part of the province of Illyricum. Settled by Slavs in the 7th century, it was incorporated in the Serbian empire in the late 12th century. It retained its independence following the defeat of the Serbians by the Ottoman Empire in 1389 at the Battle of Kosovo. Often at war with the Ottomans and Albanians, it began an alliance with Russia early in the 18th century. In the Balkan Wars of 1912-13, it cooperated against the Ottoman Empire. It supported Serbia during and after World War I. It was then absorbed into Serbia; the union became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (from 1929, Yugoslavia). During World War II Montenegro was occupied by the Italians and was the scene of heavy fighting. In 1946 the federal constitution of the new Yugoslavia made Montenegro one of Yugo¬ slavia’s six nominally autonomous federated units. In 1992, one year after the breakup of Yugoslavia, Montenegro and Serbia combined as the new Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. In 2003, following agitation for indepen¬ dence in Montenegro, the Serbian, Montenegrin, and Yugoslav parlia¬ ments ratified a new constitutional agreement that maintained the federation; the accord renamed the country Serbia and Montenegro and gave Montenegro significant autonomy over its own affairs.

Monterrey City (pop., 2000: 1,110,997), capital of Nuevo Leon state, northern Mexico. It lies at an elevation of about 1,750 ft (530 m). It was founded in 1579, but its growth was slow until the late 19th century. In 1846 it was taken by U.S. Gen. Zachary Taylor in the Mexican War. In 1882 rail connections were established with Laredo, Texas, U.S., and in 1930 construction began on the Inter-American Highway, leading to the development of large-scale smelting and heavy-industry enterprises. It has several institutions of higher education.

Montesquieu V.man-tos-'kyuV, Charles-Louis de Secondat, baron de (La Brede et de) (b. Jan. 18, 1689, Chateau La Brede, near Bordeaux, France—d. Feb. 10, 1755, Paris) French philosophe and satirist. Born into a noble family, he held public office in Bordeaux from 1714. His satirical Persian Letters (1721) was hugely successful. From 1726 he traveled widely to study social and political institutions. His magnum opus, the enormous The Spirit of the Laws (1750), contained an original classification of governments by their manner of conducting policy, an argument for the separation of the legislative, judicial, and executive powers, and a celebrated but less influential theory of the politi¬ cal influence of climate. The work profoundly influenced European and American political thought and was relied on by the framers of the U.S. Constitution. His other works include Causes of the Greatness and Deca¬ dence of the Romans (1734).

Montessori X.man-to-'sor-eV Maria (b. Aug. 31, 1870, Chiaravalle, near Ancona, Italy—d. May 6, 1952, Noordwijk aan Zee, Neth.) Italian educator. Montessori took a degree in medicine (1894) and worked in a clinic for retarded children before going on to teach at the University of Rome. In 1907 she opened her first children’s school, and for the next 40 years she traveled throughout Europe, India, and the U.S., lecturing, writ¬ ing, and setting up Montessori schools. Today there are hundreds of such schools in the U.S. and Canada alone; their principal focus is on preschool education, but some provide elementary education to grade 6. The Mont¬ essori system is based on belief in children’s creative potential, their drive to learn, and their right to be treated as individuals. It relies on the use of “didactic apparatuses” to cultivate hand-eye coordination, self- directedness, and sensitivity to premathematical and preliterary instruc¬ tion.

Monteverdi V.man-to-'ver-deV, Claudio (Giovanni Antonio)

(baptized May 15, 1567, Cremona, Duchy of Milan—d. Nov. 29, 1643, Venice) Italian composer. The first of his nine books of madrigals appeared in 1587, the second in 1590. He visited the court of the Gonza- gas in Mantua, and his next book (1592) shows freer use of dissonance and close coordination of music and words. He married in 1599 and settled in Mantua. Attacked in 1600 for the even freer dissonance in his newest works, he replied that music now had two “practices,” the stricter first practice for sacred works and the more expressive second practice for secular music. It was his first opera, Orfeo, performed in 1607, that finally established him as a composer of large-scale music rather than of exquis¬ ite miniature works. In 1610 he completed his great Vespers. Having long

tried to obtain his release from Mantua, he was finally granted it in 1612, and the next year he was put in charge of music at San Marco Basilica, Venice. After the first opera house opened in Venice (1637), he wrote his last three operas, including II ritorno d’Ulisse in patria (1640) and the remarkable Incoronazione di Poppea (1643). Monteverdi is the first great figure of Baroque music, a remarkable innovator who synthesized the ele¬ ments of the new style to create the first Baroque masterpieces of both sacred and secular music.

Montevideo V.man-to-vi-'da-oX Port city (pop., 2004: 1,383,416), capi¬ tal of Uruguay. Situated on the northern shore of the Rfo de la Plata estu¬ ary, it was founded by the Spanish in 1726 to stem the Portuguese advance into the area from Brazil. From 1807 to 1830 it was alternately occupied by British, Spanish, Argentine, Portuguese, and Brazilian forces. It became the capital of newly independent Uruguay in 1830. A major sea¬ port of South America, it is the commercial, political, and cultural centre of Uruguay. It is the site of Uruguay’s only institutions of higher educa¬ tion, which include the Universidad de la Republica and the Universidad del Trabajo del Uruguay.

Montez \'man- l tez\ / Lola orig. Marie Dolores Eliza Rosanna Gilbert (b. 1818, Limerick, Ire.—d. Jan. 17, 1861, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Irish adventuress and dancer who achieved notoriety as the mistress of King Louis I of Bavaria. After a few dance lessons in Spain, she toured Europe, billing herself as a Spanish dancer. While in Munich in 1846, she became Louis’s mistress and influenced him toward supporting liberal and anti-Jesuit policies. Her power over the king provoked angry reactions in the government in 1848, forcing her to flee and causing his abdication. After further tours, she settled in New York City.

Montezuma II or Moctezuma II (b. 1466—d. c. June 30, 1520, Tenochtitlan, near modem Mexico City) Ninth emperor of the Aztecs. In 1502 he inherited from his uncle an empire of five to six million people that stretched from present-day Mexico to Nicaragua. Aztec belief in the prophesied return of the god Quetzalcoatl, whose description the con¬ quistador Hernan Cortes resembled, contributed to his downfall. Cortes, who had made alliances with tribes eager to be rid of Aztec domination, held Montezuma prisoner in Tenochtitlan, and he died in custody.

Montezuma Castle National Monument National monument, central Arizona, U.S. Situated in the Verde River valley, it occupies an area of 2.6 sq mi (6.7 sq km). Declared a national monument in 1906, it is the site of the country’s best-preserved pre-Columbian Pueblo Indian cliff dwellings. The “castle” is a five-story, 20-room adobe brick struc¬ ture, dating from c. ad 1100, built into the cliff face about 80 ft (24 m) above the valley floor. To the northeast is Montezuma Well, a large sink¬ hole rimmed with communal dwellings.

Montfort \m6 n -'f6r\, Simon de (b. 1165?—d. June 25, 1218, Tou¬ louse, France) French leader of the Albigensian Crusade. From 1209 he led a Crusade against the Cathari heretics, and he became governor of the lands he conquered in southern France. The fourth Lateran Council gave him Toulouse (1215), but Raymond VI, count of Toulouse, refused to accept defeat, and Montfort was killed while besieging the city. His eldest son ceded the Montfort lands in southern France to King Louis VIII.

Montfort, Simon de later Earl of Leicester (b. c. 1208, Montfort, Ile-de-France, France—d. Aug. 4, 1265, Evesham, Worcestershire, Eng.) The second son of Simon de Montfort, he gave up Montfort lands in France but revived the family claim to the English earldom of Leicester. His mar¬ riage to Henry Ill’s sister (1238) offended the barons and led to his tem¬ porary exile. Simon distinguished himself on a Crusade to the Holy Land (1240-42) and joined Henry’s failed invasion of France (1242). Sent to pacify Gascony (1248), he was censured for his harsh methods there and recalled. He joined the other leading barons in forcing Henry to accept the Provisions of Oxford. When Louis IX annulled the Provisions, Simon defeated and captured Henry (1264) and summoned (1265) what became the beginning of the modern Parliament. He governed England for less than a year before being defeated and killed by Henry’s son Edward.

Montgolfier \mo n -gol-'fya\, Joseph-Michel; and Montgolfier, Jacques-Etienne (respectively b. Aug. 26, 1740, Annonay, France—d. June 26, 1810, Balaruc-les-Bains; b. Jan. 6, 1745, Annonay, France—d. Aug. 2, 1799, en route from Lyon to Annonay) French designers of the hot-air balloon. The brothers discovered that heated air collected in a lightweight bag would cause the bag to rise. In 1783 they demonstrated their discovery with a balloon that rose 3,000 ft (1,000 m) and remained

Montgomery ► Montreux Convention I 1289

aloft 10 minutes. Later that year they sent a sheep, a duck, and a rooster up as passengers, and they followed that experiment with the first manned untethered balloon flight.

Montgomery City (pop., 2000: 201,568), capital of Alabama, U.S. The site was inhabited by Indian mound builders in prehistoric times. About 1717 the French built Fort Toulouse on the river above the present site of Montgomery. The city was founded in 1819 and named for Gen. Richard Montgomery; it became the state capital in 1846. In 1861, during the American Civil War, it served briefly as the capital of the Confederacy; it was captured by Union troops in 1865. It was a centre of the civil rights movement, notably the protests organized by Martin Luther King, Jr. Located southeast of Birmingham, it serves as the commercial centre of an agricul¬ tural region, trading in cotton and livestock and producing fertilizer. It is the seat of Alabama State University and several other institutions of higher education.

Montgomery (of Alamein), Bernard Law Montgomery, 1 st Viscount (b. Nov. 17, 1887, London, Eng.—d. March 24, 1976, near Alton, Hampshire) British general in World War II. Educated at Sandhurst, he distinguished himself in World War I and remained in the army, becoming known as a tough and efficient leader. In World War II he commanded the British army in the North Africa Campaign and forced the German retreat from Egypt after the Battle of El Alamein (1942). He commanded troops in the Allied invasion of Sicily and Italy (1943) and in the Normandy Campaign, leading the British-Canadian army group across northern France and into northern Germany. Promoted to field marshal, he became chief of the imperial staff (1946-48) and later deputy commander of NATO (1951-58). A cautious, thorough strategist, “Monty” often exasperated fellow Allied commanders, including Dwight D. Eisenhower, but his insistence on complete readiness ensured his popu¬ larity with his troops.

Montgomery, L(ucy) M(aud) (b. Nov. 30, 1874, Clifton, P.E.I., Can.—d. April 24, 1942, Toronto, Ont.) Canadian novelist. She worked as a teacher and journalist before achieving worldwide success with Anne of Green Gables (1908). The sentimental story of a spirited orphan girl, it drew on her childhood experiences and the rural life of her native Prince Edward Island. Six sequels, following Anne through motherhood, were less successful. Montgomery also produced another series of juvenile books, several collections of stories, and two books for adults.

Montgomery, Wes orig. John Leslie Montgomery (b. March 6, 1923/25, Indianapolis, Ind., U.S.—d. June 15, 1968, Indianapolis) U.S. jazz guitarist. He began playing guitar in his teens, and his principal early inspiration was the late-swing guitarist Charlie Christian. Montgomery was a member of Lionel Hampton’s band (1948-50) before forming a small group with his brothers. His finest recordings are small-group efforts made after 1959, although he achieved commercial success using accompany¬ ing orchestras in the 1960s. His unconventional technique, using his thumb rather than a plectrum, made possible his frequent use of octaves and chords in solos. He was probably the most influential guitar impro¬ viser in modem jazz.

Montgomery Ward & Co, Former U.S. retail merchandising com¬ pany. It was founded in Chicago in 1872 by Aaron Montgomery Ward (1844-1913), who bought merchandise wholesale and sold it directly to farmers. He distributed the world’s first mail-order catalog and offered a money-back guarantee. The company opened its first retail stores in 1926, and by 1930 retail sales exceeded catalog sales. It ended its mail-order business in 1985, and in 1997 it scaled back operations after filing for bankruptcy protection. Another bankruptcy in December 2000 caused the company to close its 250 stores and go out of business the following year. See also direct-mail marketing; Sears, Roebuck and Company.

Montherlant \mo n -ter-Ta n \, Henry (-Marie-Joseph-Millon) de

(b. April 21, 1896, Paris, France—d. Sept. 21, 1972, Paris) French nov¬ elist and dramatist. Bom into a noble family, he wrote stylistically con¬ cise works that reflect his own egocentric and autocratic personality. His major work of fiction is a cycle of four novels (1936-39) translated as The Girls, which describes the relationship between a libertine novelist and his adoring female victims. In the 1940s he turned to theatre; his best dramatic works include Malatesta (1946), Port-Royal (1954), and La Guerre civile (1965).

Monticello \,man-t3-'se-lo, .man-ta-'che-loV Home of Thomas Jefferson, located southeast of Charlottesville, Va. Designed by Jefferson and con¬

structed 1768-1809, it is one of the finest examples of the early Classi¬ cal Revival style in the U.S. Jefferson took the floor plan of the house from an English pattern book; the facade was influenced by the work of Andrea Palladio. The final structure is a three-story brick-and-frame build¬ ing with 35 differently shaped rooms. An octagonal dome dominates the structure; below it, a balustrade runs around the roof’s edge.

Montmorency \mo n -m6-ra n -'se\ English \ 1 mant-m9-'ren-se\ / Anne, duke de (b. March 15, 1493, Chantilly, France—d. Nov. 12, 1567, Paris) French soldier and constable of France. Named for his godmother. Queen Anne of Brittany, he served three kings— Francis I, Henry II, and Charles IX—in war and peace. He fought in numerous wars in northern Italy and southern France against Emperor Charles V and in campaigns against the Huguenots. In 1529 he helped negotiate the Peace of Cambrai between France and Charles V. He was created constable of France in 1538, and he became a duke and peer in 1551. Wounded at the Battle of Saint-Denis, he died two days later.

Montpelier Nmant-'pel-yorX City (pop., 2000: 8,035), capital of Ver¬ mont, U.S. Named for Montpellier, France, it commanded the main pass through the Green Mountains and was chartered in 1781 by proprietors from Massachusetts and western Vermont. It became the state capital in 1 805 and defeated attempts by other cities, including Burlington, to suc¬ ceed it as capital. In addition to providing state government services, it bases its economy on financial services and the local ski industry. It is the site of a campus of Norwich University/Vermont College and was the birthplace of Adm. George Dewey.

Montpellier \mo n -pel-'ya\ City (pop., 1999: 225,392), southern France, near the Mediterranean coast. Founded in the 8th century, it later came under control of Aragon and the king of Majorca. It developed as a trad¬ ing station for spice imports in the 10th century and acquired a charter in 1141. It reverted to France in the 14th century and served as a Huguenot stronghold until its capture by Louis XIII in 1622. It then became the admin¬ istrative capital of the Languedoc region. The city’s schools of medicine and law date from the 12th century, and the University of Montpellier was founded in 1220. The city is a tourist centre, and its industries include food processing and electronics. Historic sites include France’s oldest botanical gardens (founded 1593) and a 14th-century Gothic cathedral.

Montreal \,man-tre-'6l\ City (pop., 2001: metro, area, 3,426,350), southeastern Canada. It occupies about one-third of lie de Montreal (Mon¬ treal Island), near the confluence of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence rivers. The metropolitan area encompasses Montreal and other islands, as well as both shores of the St. Lawrence. It is built on the slopes of a moun¬ tain, Mont-Royal, from which the city’s name is derived. English and French are spoken throughout the city, which is the chief centre of French- Canadian industry and culture. The site was occupied by the Huron Indian settlement of Hochelaga when visited by French explorer Jacques Cartier in 1535. The first European settlement was founded by the French in 1642 and was given the name Ville-Marie de Montreal. Rapid colonization based on the fur trade began in the first half of the 18th century, and the city soon grew beyond its walls. It surrendered to British forces in 1760 and, with all of New France, became part of the British North American empire in 1763. Montreal served as the capital of Canada from 1844 to 1849. It is one of Canada’s chief ports for both oceangoing and inland shipping. It is Canada’s second-largest city and a major cultural centre, with a complex of theatre and concert halls and several museums. It is the seat of the English-language McGill University and Concordia Univer¬ sity, and of the French-language University de Montreal and the Univer¬ sity du Quebec a Montreal.

Montreal, University of Canadian public French-language univer¬ sity founded in Montreal, Quebec, in 1878. It provides instruction in the arts and sciences, education, law, medicine, theology, architecture, social work, criminology, and other fields. Affiliated schools include a polytech¬ nic school and a school of advanced business studies.

Montreux \'m6 n -'tr6e\ Resort town (pop., 2000: 22,455), western Swit¬ zerland, on the eastern shore of Lake Geneva. It was formed by the merger in 1962 of the villages of Le Chatelard, Les Planches, and Veytaux. The nearby 13th-century Chateau de Chillon was made famous by Lord Byron’s poem “Prisoner of Chillon.” It hosts a popular annual jazz fes¬ tival.

Montreux \m6 n -'troe\ Convention (1936) Agreement concerning the Dardanelles strait. In response to Turkey’s request to refortify the area,

1290 I Montrose > Moon

the signers of the Treaty of Lausanne and others met in Montreux, Switz., and agreed to return the zone to Turkish military control. The convention allowed Turkey to close the straits to all warships when it was at war and to permit merchant ships free passage. See also Straits Question.

Montrose \inan-'trdz\, James Graham, 5th earl and 1 st mar¬ quess of (b. 1612 —d. May 21, 1650, Edinburgh, Scot.) Scottish gen¬ eral in the English Civil Wars. He served in the Covenanter army that invaded northern England (1640) but remained a royalist. Appointed lieutenant-general by Charles I (1644), he led his royalist army of High¬ landers and Irish to victories in major battles in Scotland. After Charles’s defeat in 1645, Montrose fled to the European continent. He returned to Scotland in 1650 with 1,200 men, but he was defeated, captured, and hanged.

Montserrat Island (pop., 2001 est.: 3,600) and British crown colony, West Indies. Situated in the eastern Caribbean Sea, it occupies an area of 40 sq mi (102 sq km); it is 11 mi (18 km) long and 7 mi (11 km) wide. It was visited and named by Christopher Columbus in 1493 and was colo¬ nized by the British and Irish in 1632. France later held it briefly, but from 1783 it remained British. Its colonial economy was based on cotton and sugar plantations that used African slave labour. It was part of the colony of Leeward Islands from 1871 to 1956 and then of the Federation of the West Indies from 1958 to 1962. It was rebuilt after a devastating hurricane in 1989. A major eruption of the Soufriere Hills volcano in 1996 led to the evacuation of the southern half of the island and the abandon¬ ment of its capital, Plymouth. By 1998 more than two-thirds of its mid- 1990s population had left the island.

Monty Python('s Flying Circus) British comedy troupe. The inno¬ vative group, formed in the early 1960s, came to prominence in the 1970s, first on television and later in films. Its members, most of whom met while attending the University of Cambridge, included Graham Chapman (1941-89) and John Cleese (coauthors of most of their skits and films) as well as Terry Jones (b. 1942), Terry Gilliam (b. 1940), Eric Idle (b. 1943), and Michael Palin (b. 1943). The troupe’s parodies of British life and television and their array of absurd characters surprised and delighted international audiences. Their films include Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975) and Monty Python’s Life of Brian (1979).

Monumentum Ancyranum Xjnan-yu-'men-tom-.an-sir-'a-nonA (after ad 14) Latin and Greek inscription on the temple of Rome and Augustus at Ancyra (Ankara, Tur.). Known as the Res gestae divi Augusti (“Achievements of the Divine Augustus”), it represents the official account of his reign. It was composed by Augustus himself, who directed in his will that it be engraved on pillars at his mausoleum in Rome. The originals are missing, the copies at Ancyra being two of many.

monzonite \man- , zo- l nIt, 'man-zs-.nflA Type of igneous rock that con¬ tains abundant and approximately equal amounts of plagioclase and pot¬ ash feldspar, as well as other minerals. The type region is Monzoni, Italy, in the Italian Tirol; similar rocks have been described from Montana, Norway, Sakhalin Island, and other localities. Monzonite is not rare, but it generally occurs in rather small, heterogeneous masses mixed with diorites, pyroxenites, or gabbros.

mood or mode In grammar, a category that reflects the speaker’s view of an event’s reality, likelihood, or urgency. Often marked by special verb forms (inflections), moods include the indicative, for factual or neutral situations (e.g., “You did your work”); the imperative, to convey com¬ mands or requests (“Do your work”); and the subjunctive. The subjunc¬ tive’s functions vary widely. It may express doubt, possibility, necessity, desire, or future time. In English it often indicates a condition contrary to fact (e.g., “If he were to work here, he would have to learn to be punc¬ tual”).

Moody, Dwight L(yman) (b. Feb. 5, 1837, East Northfield, Mass., U.S.—d. Dec. 22, 1899, Northfield, Mass.) U.S. Protestant evangelist. Raised on a farm in Massachusetts, he moved first to Boston, where he converted to evangelical Christianity in 1856, and then to Chicago, where he prospered in business. He gave up business in 1860 and engaged in missionary work with the YMCA (1861-73). He founded Moody Church and preached in the slums, emphasizing literal interpretation of the Bible and the need to prepare for the Second Coming. In 1870 he teamed up with the hymn writer Ira D. Sankey (1840-1908), and they began a series of highly popular revival tours in Britain and the U.S. Moody founded the

Northfield School (1879), the Mount Hermon School (1881), and the Chicago Bible Institute (1889; now the Moody Bible Institute).

Moon Sole natural satellite of Earth, which it orbits from west to east at a mean distance of about 238,900 mi (384,400 km). It is less than one- third the size of Earth (diameter about 2,160 mi, or 3,476 km, at its equa¬ tor), about one-eightieth as massive, and about two-thirds as dense. Its surface gravity is about one-sixth that of Earth, and its gravitational pull is largely responsible for Earth’s tides. The Moon shines by reflected sun¬ light, but its albedo is only 7.3%. It rotates on its axis in about 29.5 days, in exactly the time it takes to orbit Earth, and it therefore always presents the same face to Earth. However, that face is lit by the Sun at different angles as the Moon revolves around Earth, causing it to display different phases over the month, from new to full. Most astronomers believe the Moon formed from a cloud of fragments ejected into Earth orbit when a MARS-sized body struck the proto-Earth early in the solar system’s his¬ tory. Its surface has been studied by telescope since Galileo first observed it in 1609 and firsthand by a total of 12 U.S. astronauts during the six successful lunar landing missions of the Apollo program. The dominant process affecting the surface has been impacts, both from micrometeorite bombardment, which grinds rock fragments into fine dust, and from mete¬ orite strikes, which produced the craters profusely scattered over its sur¬ face mostly early in its history, over four billion years ago. The maria (see mare) are huge, ancient lava flows. In the late 1990s unmanned spacecraft found possible signs of water ice near the Moon’s poles. More generally, a moon is any natural satellite orbiting a planet or other nonstellar body.

new moon waxing

crescent

5 © 6 ) full waning

moon gibbous

I c

first waxing

quarter gibbous

» •

last waning

quarter crescent

As the Moon revolves around Earth, the amount of its illuminated half seen from Earth slowly increases and decreases (waxes and wanes). The cycle takes about 29'/2 days.

Moon, Sun Myung (b. Jan. 6, 1920, Kwangju Sangsa Ri, P’yongan- puk province, Korea) South Korean religious leader. Convinced that he was designated by God as a successor to Jesus, Moon began to preach a new religion, loosely based on Christianity, in North Korea in 1946. After being imprisoned by North Korean authorities, he escaped or was released and went to South Korea, where he founded the Unification Church in 1954 and built a multimillion-dollar business empire. In 1973 he moved his headquarters to Tarrytown, N.Y., U.S., where he became the focus of con¬ troversies over fund-raising techniques, tax evasion, and the indoctrina¬ tion of followers (popularly called Moonies). In 1982 Moon was convicted of tax evasion, sentenced to 18 months in prison, and fined $25,000. He has also suffered from a damaging expose by his daughter- in-law. In the 1990s the church began operations in Brazil, where its pur¬ chase of large tracts of rainforest has been widely criticized.

Moor ► moose I 1291

Moor Any member of the Muslim population of Spain, of mixed Arab, Spanish, and Berber origins. North African Muslims (called by their Latin name Mauri—i.e., natives of Roman Mauretania) invaded Spain in the 8th century and, under the Umayyad and Almoravid dynasties, created the great Arab Andalusian civilization in such cities as Cordoba, Toledo, Granada, and Sevilla. The Christian reconquest of Spain under Alfonso VI began in the 11th century; from then until the Moors’ final defeat in 1492 and for another century thereafter, many Moors settled as refugees in North Africa. See also Mudejars.

Moore, Archie orig. Archibald Lee Wright (b. Dec. 13, 1913, Benoit, Miss., U.S.—d. Dec. 9, 1998, San Diego, Calif.) U.S. boxer. Moore began boxing in the 1930s but had difficulty advancing because contending fighters thought him too formidable. In 1952 he defeated Joey Maxim to win the world light-heavyweight championship. He held the crown until 1962, when he was disqualified for failing to meet the lead¬ ing contender, Harold Johnson. From 1936 to 1963 he fought 229 bouts and won 194 of them, 141 by knockouts. He later became a film actor and youth worker.

Moore, Brian (b. Aug. 25, 1921, Belfast, N.Ire.—d. Jan. 10, 1999, Malibu, Calif., U.S.) Irish-born Canadian novelist. Moore immigrated to Canada in 1948 and was a writer for the Montreal Gazette from 1952. He is best known for his first novel, The Lonely Passion of Judith Hearne (1955; film, 1987), about an aging spinster whose pretensions to gentil¬ ity are gradually dissolved in alcoholism. His later novels include The Luck of Ginger Coffey (1960), The Emperor of Ice Cream (1965), The Doctor’s Wife (1976), and The Magician’s Wife (1998). His novels were very different from each other in voice, setting, and incident but alike in their lucid, elegant, and vivid prose.

Moore, Clement Clarke (b. July 15, 1779, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. July 10, 1863, Newport, R.I.) U.S. scholar remembered for the ballad that begins “’Twas the night before Christmas.” Moore cofounded General Theological Seminary and taught Oriental and Greek literature there (1821-50). He is said to have composed “A Visit to St. Nicholas” to amuse his children on Christmas 1822, and it was published anonymously in the Troy (N.Y.) Sentinel, on Dec. 23, 1823. In 2000 it was determined that the poem was probably the work of Henry Livingston, Jr. (1748-1828).

Moore, Ely (b. July 4, 1798, near Belvidere, N.J., U.S.—d. Jan. 27, 1860, Lecompton, Kansas Territory) U.S. publisher. A printer and news¬ paper editor, he was elected the first president of New York’s federation of craft unions (1833). The following year he was elected chairman of the National Trades Union, which joined with Tammany Hall to elect him to the U.S. House of Representatives. In the House he helped generate sup¬ port for the 10-hour workday. When his second term expired in 1839, he became surveyor of the port of New York and then editor of the Warren Journal in New Jersey.

Moore, G(eorge) E(dward) (b. Nov. 4,1873, London, Eng.—d. Oct. 24, 1958, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire) British philosopher, one of the founders of analytic philosophy. While a fellow at the University of Cam¬ bridge (1898-1904), he published two influential papers, “The Nature of Judgment” (1899) and “The Refutation of Idealism” (1903), that did much to break the hold of absolute idealism on British philosophy. Also published during this period was his major ethical work, Principia Ethica (1903), in which he argued that “good” is a simple and unanalyzable quality that is knowable by direct apprehension. His intuitionism was the dominant meta- ethical position in Britain for the next 30 years, and it exerted considerable influence within the Bloomsbury group of artists and intellectuals. In epis¬ temology, Moore is remembered for his “common sense” philosophy, according to which human beings know to be true many propositions about themselves and the world that are inconsistent with idealist and skeptical doctrines (e.g., “The Earth has existed for many years”). His general posi¬ tion was that, because no argument for idealism or skepticism is as certain as the commonsense view, idealism and skepticism can be rejected out of hand. He was professor of philosophy at Cambridge from 1925 to 1939. From 1921 to 1947 he edited the journal Mind.

Moore, Henry (b. July 30, 1898, Castleford, Eng.—d. Aug. 31, 1986, Much Hadham) English sculptor and graphic artist. The son of a coal miner, he was enabled to study at the Royal College of Art by a rehabili¬ tation grant after being wounded in World War I. His early works were strongly influenced by the Mayan sculpture he saw in a Paris museum. From c. 1931 on he experimented with abstract art, combining abstract shapes with the human figure and at times leaving the human figure behind

altogether. When materials grew scarce during World War II, he concen¬ trated on drawings of Londoners sheltering from bombs in Underground stations. Commissions for a Madonna and Child and a family group turned his style from abstraction to the more humanistic approach that became the basis of his international reputation. He returned to experi¬ mentation in the 1950s with angular, pierced standing figures in bronze. Much of his work is monumental, and he is particularly well known for a series of reclining nudes. Among his major commissions were sculp¬ tures for UNESCO’s Paris headquarters (1957-58), Lincoln Center (1963-65), and the National Gallery of Art (1978).

Moore, Marianne (Craig) (b. Nov. 15, 1887, St. Louis, Mo., U.S.—d. Feb. 5, 1972, New York City, N.Y.) U.S. poet. She attended Bryn Mawr College and later settled in Brooklyn, N.Y., with her mother.

After 1919 she devoted herself to writing, contributing poetry and criticism to many journals. She edited the influential journal The Dial (1925-29). Her poetry volumes include Observations (1924) and Collected Poems (1951, Pulitzer and Bollingen Prizes, National Book Award). In her highly disciplined poems she distilled moral and intel¬ lectual insights from close observa¬ tion of objective detail, especially in the animal world, often in innovative stanzaic forms. In her much- anthologized “Poetry” (1921) she called for poems that present “imagi¬ nary gardens with real toads in them.” In her late years the winningly eccentric Moore, in her cape and tricomered hat, became an icon of sprightly gentility.

Moore, Mary Tyler (b. Dec. 29, 1936, Brooklyn, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. television and film actress. She studied dance and appeared in commercials and in minor roles on television before costarring in the hit Dick Van Dyke Show (1961-66; two Emmy Awards). She achieved even greater success as the star of The Mary Tyler Moore Show (1970-77; four Emmy Awards), which became the most popular situation comedy of the 1970s. She also won an Emmy for her role in the television miniseries Stolen Babies (1993). Her films include Ordinary People (1980) and Flirt¬ ing with Disaster (1996).

Moore, Stanford (b. Sept. 4, 1913, Chicago, Ill., U.S.—d. Aug. 23, 1982, New York, N.Y.) U.S. biochemist. He shared a 1972 Nobel Prize with Christian Anfinsen (1916-95) and William Stein (1911-80) for research on the molecular structures of proteins. He is best known for his applications of chromatography to the analysis of amino acids and peptides obtained from proteins and biological fluids and for the use of those analyses in determining the structure of the enzyme ribonuclease.

Moore, Thomas (b. May 28, 1779, Dublin, Ire.—d. Feb. 25, 1852, Wiltshire, Eng.) Irish poet, satirist, composer, and singer. Moore gradu¬ ated from Trinity College and studied law in London, where he became a close friend of Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley. His collections Irish Melodies and National Airs (1807-34) consist of 130 original poems set to folk melodies, including “The Minstrel Boy,” “Believe Me, if All Those Endearing Young Charms,” and “The Last Rose of Summer.” Performed by Moore for London’s aristocracy, they aroused sympathy and support for Irish nationalists. His reputation among his contemporaries rivaled that of Byron and Walter Scott. His poem Lalla Rookh (1817), a romantic Oriental fantasy, became the most translated poem of its time. In 1824 he was entrusted with Byron’s memoirs; he burned them, presumably to pro¬ tect Byron. He later published biographies of Byron and others, as well as a History of Ireland (1827).

moorhen or common gallinule Bird of the migratory gallinule spe¬ cies ( Gallinula chloropus, family Rallidae) of Europe, Africa, and east¬ ern North America. Moorhens are blackish and have a scarlet frontal shield (fleshy plate on the forehead). In North America, the moorhen is sometimes called the Florida gallinule.

moose Largest species ( Alces alces) in the deer family (Cervidae), found in northern North America and Eurasia. It is called elk in Europe. Moose

Marianne Moore, 1957

IMOGEN CUNNINGHAM

1292 I Moose River ► Moravia

have long legs, a bulbous and mobile muzzle, short neck and tail, and a brown, shaggy, coarse coat. They stand 5-7 ft (1.5-2 m) tall and weigh up to 1,800 lb (820 kg). Males have enormous flattened, tined antlers that are shed and regrown annually.

Moose wade in forest-edged lakes and streams, eating submerged aquatic plants, and browse on leaves, twigs, and bark. They are usually solitary, but North American moose often assemble in bands in winter.

They range throughout the Canadian coniferous forests and those of the northern U.S. They have been protected from extermination by regulation of hunting. See also wapiti.

Moose River River, northeastern Ontario, Canada. It flows northeast for more than 60 mi (100 km) to empty into James Bay. A wide stream, it is actually the estuary for several rivers, including the Abitibi and Matt- agami.

moraine \m3-'ran\ Accumulation of rock debris (till) carried or depos¬ ited by a glacier. The material may range in size from blocks or boulders to sand and clay, is unstratified when dropped by the glacier, and shows no sorting or bedding. Several kinds of moraines are recognized, depend¬ ing on how they are deposited by the glacier; these include lateral moraines along the margins of the glacier and terminal moraines at its leading edge.

Medial moraine of Gornergletscher (Gorner Glacier) in the Pennine Alps near Zer¬ matt, Switz.

JEROME WYCKOFF

moral psychology In psychology, study of the development of the moral sense—i.e., of the capacity for forming judgments about what is morally right or wrong, good or bad. The U.S. psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg hypothesized that people’s development of moral standards passes through several levels. At the early level, that of preconventional moral reasoning, the child uses external and physical events (such as pleasure or pain) as the source for moral decisions; his standards are based strictly on what will avoid punishment or bring pleasure. At the interme¬ diate level, that of conventional moral reasoning, the child or adolescent views moral standards as a way of maintaining the approval of authority figures, chiefly his parents, and acts in accordance with their precepts. At the third level, that of postconventional moral reasoning, the adult bases his moral standards on principles that he himself has evaluated and accepts as inherently valid, regardless of society’s opinion. Beginning in the 1970s Kohlberg’s work was criticized by psychologists and philosophers influenced by feminism. According to Carol Gilligan, Kohlberg’s stages are inherently sexist, because they equate moral maturity with an orien¬ tation toward moral problems that is socially instilled in males but not in females. Whereas the male “ethic of rights and justice” treats morality in terms of abstract principles and conceives of moral agents as essentially autonomous, acting independently of their social situations according to general rules, the female “ethic of care” treats morality in terms of con¬ crete bonds to particular individuals based on feelings of care and respon¬

sibility and conceives of moral agents as connected and interdependent through their feelings of care and responsibility for each other.

Morales \mo-'ra-las\ / Luis de (b. c. 1509, Badajoz, Spain—d. May 9, 1586, Badajoz) Spanish painter. He lived all his life in Badajoz, leaving only for occasional commissions. He is considered Spain’s greatest Man¬ nerist painter and is known especially for his emotional religious paintings.

He always worked on panels, often depicting such subjects as the Ecce Homo, the Pieta, and the Virgin and Child. His paintings show the influ¬ ence of Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael and are marked by detailed execu¬ tion and the anguished asceticism of 16th-century Spain.

morality play Allegorical drama of 15th-16th-century Europe. The plays’ characters personified moral qualities (such as charity or vice) or abstractions (such as death or youth).

One of the main types of vernacular drama of its time, it provided a tran¬ sition from liturgical drama to profes¬ sional secular drama. The plays were short works, usually performed by semiprofessional acting troupes that relied on public support. Everyman (c. 1495), featuring Everyman’s summons by Death and his journey to the grave, is considered the greatest morality play. See also miracle play; MYSTERY PLAY.

Morandi Xmo-'ran-deV Giorgio (b. July 20, 1890, Bologna, Italy—d. June 18, 1964, Bologna) Italian painter and etcher. He first exhibited his paintings with the Futurists and was closely associated with the Metaphysi¬ cal painters, but he is identified with neither school. He repeatedly returned to the subject matter of simple, geometric still lifes of bottles, jars, and boxes; by returning to the same subject matter, he was able to move past content to an exploration of pure form (i.e., line, colour, shape). His con¬ templative approach gave his landscapes and still lifes a delicacy of tone and subtlety of design. As instructor of etching at Bologna’s Academy of Fine Arts (1930-56), he had a profound influence on Italian graphic artists.

Morava River \'mo-ra-va\ German March \'mark\ River, eastern Czech Republic. It rises in mountains and flows south to enter the Danube River just above Bratislava, Slovakia, after a course of 227 mi (365 km). In its lower course it first divides the Czech Republic from Slovakia and then divides Slovakia from Austria. It gives its name to Moravia, the area around it.

Morava River River, Serbia, Serbia and Montenegro. Formed by the confluence of the South (Juzna) Morava and West (Zapadna) Morava riv¬ ers, it flows north to enter the Danube River, after a course of 137 mi (221 km). The total area of the Morava River basin is 14,457 sq mi (37,444 sq km), corresponding almost to the political definition of Serbia.

Moravia \ma-'ra-ve-9\ Region, central Europe. Bounded by Bohemia, Silesia, Slovakia, and northeastern Austria and crossed by the Morava River, it was inhabited from the 4th century bc. It was dominated by the Avars in the 6th and 7th centuries ad and later settled by Slavic tribes, and in the 9th century it became the state of Great Moravia and included Bohemia as well as parts of modem Poland and Hungary. It was destroyed by the Magyars in 906. In 1526 it came under Habsburg rule. After the Revolution of 1848 Moravia became an Austrian crown land with its capital at Brno. In 1918 it was incorporated into the new state of Czecho¬ slovakia. Germany annexed parts of it in 1938; after World War II they were restored to Czechoslovakia. It was included in the Czech Socialist Republic created in 1968 and in the Czech Republic in 1993.

Moravia Vmo-'rav-yaV Alberto orig. Alberto Pincherle (b. Nov. 28, 1907, Rome, Italy—d. Sept. 26, 1990, Rome) Italian journalist, nov¬ elist, and short-story writer. He worked as a journalist in Turin and as a foreign correspondent in London. Time of Indifference (1929), his first novel, is a scathing study of middle-class moral corruption. His works were censored by Benito Mussolini’s fascists and placed on the Index ubrorum pro-

Bull moose (Alces alces) in velvet

"The Virgin and Child," panel by Luis de Morales; in the National Gallery, London

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY, LONDON; PHOTOGRAPH, A.C. COOPER

Moravian Church ► Morgan I 1293

hibitorum. Later important novels, many of them portrayals of social alien¬ ation and loveless sexuality, include The Conformist (1951; film, 1971), Two Women (1957; film, 1961), and The Empty Canvas (1960). His books of short stories include Roman Tales (1954) and More Roman Tales (1959). He was married to the writer Elsa Morante (1918-85).

Moravian Church Protestant denomination founded in the 18th cen¬ tury. It traces its origins to the Unity of Brethren, a 15th-century Hussite movement in Bohemia and Moravia. The original Brethren movement was eroded by persecution, but it was renewed in 1722 at Hermhut, a theo¬ cratic community established in Saxony. In America the Moravians founded Bethlehem, Pa. (1740), and several other settlements, and carried out missionary work among the Indians. The Moravians ordain bishops but are governed by synods of elected representatives; they are guided by the Bible as their only rule of faith and worship.

moray Vmo-'ra, 'm6r-,a\ Any of about 80 species (family Muraenidae) of shallow-water eels inhabiting all tropical and subtropical seas. They live among reefs and rocks and hide in crevices. Their skin is thick, smooth, scaleless, and usually viv¬ idly marked or coloured. Most spe¬ cies lack pectoral fins. Morays have a wide mouth and strong, sharp teeth for seizing and holding prey (chiefly other fishes). They attack humans only when disturbed. Most species are less than 5 ft (1.5 m) long, but Thyrsoidea macrurus, of the Pacific Ocean, may grow to more than 11 ft (3.5 m). Morays are sometimes eaten, but their flesh may be toxic and can cause illness or death if consumed.

Moray Firth Vmsr-eV Inlet of the North Sea, northeastern Scotland. It extends inland for 39 mi (63 km) and is 16 mi (29 km) wide at its widest point. Its inner reaches are divided by a peninsula, the Black Isle, into two smaller inlets, Cromarty Firth and the Firth of Inverness; the city of Inverness lies there.

Mordecai Vmor-do-.klV In the biblical book of Esther, the cousin or guardian of Esther. Mordecai was a Jew who offended Haman, minister of King Ahasuerus. Haman persuaded the king to order Mordecai’s execu¬ tion and the destruction of all the Jews in the Persian empire, but Esther, Ahasuerus’s beloved Jewish queen, pleaded for him to change his mind, and Ahasuerus ordered Haman hanged, named Mordecai to his position, and allowed the Jews to strike out against their enemies. The deliverance of the Jews of Persia from destruction is celebrated in the festival of Purim.

More, Saint Thomas (b. Feb. 7,1477, London, Eng.—d. July 6,1535, London; canonized May 19, 1935; feast day June 22) English statesman and humanist. He studied at Oxford and was successful as a lawyer from 1501. He served as an undersheriff of London (1510-18) and endeared himself to Londoners as a fair judge and consultant. He wrote the notable History of King Richard III (1513-18) and the renowned Utopia (1516), which was an immediate success with humanists, including Desiderius Erasmus. In 1517 More was named to the king’s council, and he became Henry VIII’s secretary and confidant. In 1523 he was elected speaker of the House of Commons. He wrote A Dialogue Concerning Heresies (1529) to refute heretical writings. After the fall of Cardinal Wolsey (1529), More succeeded him as lord chancellor, but he resigned in 1532 when he could not affirm Henry’s divorce from Catherine. He also refused to accept the Act of Supremacy. In 1534 More was charged with high trea¬ son and imprisoned in the Tower of London, where he wrote his Dialogue of Comfort Against Tribulation. In 1535 he was tried and sentenced to death by hanging, which the king commuted to beheading.

Moreau \m6-'ro\, Gustave (b. April 6, 1826, Paris, France—d. April 18, 1898, Paris) French painter. He developed a distinctive style in the Symbolist mode, becoming known for his erotic paintings of mythologi¬ cal and religious subjects. Such works as Oedipus and the Sphinx (1864) and Dance of Salome (1876) have often been described as decadent. He made a number of technical experiments, including scraping his canvases; his nonfigurative paintings, done in a loose manner with thick impasto, have led some to call him a herald of Abstract Expressionism.

Moreau, Jeanne (b. Jan. 23, 1928, Paris, France) French film actress. At age 20 she became the youngest member of the Comedie-Francaise. She

made her screen debut in The Last Love (1949) and won acclaim for her roles in Louis Malle’s Frantic (1957) and The Lovers (1958). Though not conventionally beautiful, she became noted for her sensuality and sophis¬ tication. She starred in Moderato cantabile (1960), La notte (1961), and Jules et Jim (1961), playing a woman loved by two men in the movie that established her as an international star, and later in The Trial (1962), Diary of a Chambermaid (1964), and The Bride Wore Black (1968). She also directed films, including Lumiere (1976) and LAdolescente (1978).

Morehouse College Private, historically black, men’s liberal arts col¬ lege in Atlanta, Ga. It was founded as the Augusta Institute, a seminary, in 1867 and renamed in 1913 in honour of Henry L. Morehouse, an administrator. It offers programs in business, education, humanities, and physical and natural sciences. It is part of an educational consortium in which six institutions, including Spelman College, exchange faculty, stu¬ dents, facilities, and curricula. Notable alumni include Martin Luther King, Jr., civil rights leader Julian Bond, and filmmaker Spike Lee.

morel \m3-'rel\ Any of various species of edible mushrooms in the gen¬ era Morchella and Verpa. Morels have a convoluted or pitted head, or cap, vary in shape, and occur in diverse habitats. The edible M. esculenta, found in woods during early summer, is among the most highly prized edible fungi. The bell morel (Verpa), an edible mushroom with a bell¬ shaped cap, is found in woods and in old orchards in early spring. False morels, or lorchels, are represented by the genera Gyromitra and Helvella. Most species of Gyromitra are poisonous.

Morelia \mo-'ral-ya\ City (pop., 2000: 549,996), capital of Michoacan state, west-central Mexico. It was founded in 1541 as Valladolid, at the site of a Tarascan Indian settlement. It replaced Patzcuaro as the provin¬ cial capital in 1582. During the Mexican wars for independence it served briefly as the base of operations for the revolution; in 1828 its name was changed from Valladolid to Morelia in honor of revolutionary leader Jose Marfa Morelos. It is the commercial centre of an agricultural region. Its educational institutions include the University of Michoacan and the Cole- gio San Nicolas (1540), Mexico’s oldest institution of higher learning.

Morelos \mo-'ra-los\ State (pop., 2000: 1,555,296), central Mexico. It covers 1,911 sq mi (4,950 sq km), and its capital is Cuernavaca. Located on the southern slope of the central Mexican plateau, it is one of the country’s most flourishing agricultural states, with valleys that produce a variety of agricultural products. It was named for Jose Maria Morelos and was the birthplace of Emiliano Zapata, both of whom were heroes of Mexi¬ co’s wars for independence.

Moreton \'mor-t 3 n\ Bay Inlet of the Pacific Ocean, southeastern coast of Queensland, Australia. It is 65 mi (105 km) long and 20 mi (32 km) wide, and it serves as the gateway to Brisbane. In 1770 British navigator Capt. James Cook named the bay (misspelling it) for the earl of Morton. The first settlement on the mainland was a penal colony established at Redcliffe in the early 19th century.

Morgan Breed of light horse founded by a Vermont horse (foaled 1793, died 1821) named after his owner, Justin Morgan (1747-1797). The “Jus¬ tin Morgan horse,” a blend of Thoroughbred, Arabian, and other elements, was a compact, heavily muscled, short-legged horse of great style, energy, and endurance. Because he alone founded the breed, he is the world’s best example of prepotency (ability to pass one’s traits to one’s offspring). Modem Morgans are used mostly for riding. They are 14.1-15.2 hands (57-61 in., 145-155 cm) high, weigh 900-1,100 lbs (400-500 kg), and resemble the Arabian in conformation and endurance.

Morgan, Daniel (b. 1736, Hunterdon county, N.J.—d. July 6, 1802, Winchester, Va., U.S.) American Revolutionary army officer. He was com¬ missioned a captain of the Virginia riflemen and fought under Benedict Arnold in the unsuccessful assault on Quebec (1775). In 1777 he joined Gen. Horatio Gates in the Battle of Saratoga. In 1780 he was made briga¬ dier general and fought in the South, defeating a large British force at Cowpens, S.C. In 1794 he led Virginia militiamen to help suppress the Whiskey Rebellion.

Morgan, Sir Henry (b. 1635, Llanrhymney, Glamorgan, Wales—d. Aug. 25,1688, probably Lawrencefield, Jam.) Welsh buccaneer. In the sec¬ ond Anglo-Dutch War, he commanded buccaneers against the Dutch colo¬ nies in the Caribbean. After capturing Puerto Principe in Cuba and sacking the city of Portobelo, he set out in 1670 with 36 ships and 2,000 buccaneers to capture the major Spanish colonial city of Panama, defeated a large Spanish force, and sacked and burned the city. On the return journey, he

Green moray (Gymnothorax funebris ).

CARLETON RAY/PHOTO RESEARCHERS

1294 I Morgan ► Morison

deserted his followers and took most of the booty. In 1674 he was knighted and sent to Jamaica as deputy governor. An exaggerated account of Mor¬ gan’s exploits created his popular reputation as a bloodthirsty pirate.

Morgan, J(ohn) P(ierpont) (b. April 17, 1837, Hartford, Conn., U.S.—d. March 31, 1913, Rome, Italy) U.S. financier. The son of a fin¬ ancier, he began his career as an accountant in 1857 and became an agent for his father’s banking company in 1861. In 1871 he was named a part¬ ner in the firm of Drexel, Morgan, which became the chief source of U.S. government financing. In 1895 it became J.R Morgan and Co. In the 1880s and ’90s Morgan reorganized several major railroads, notably the Erie Railroad and the Northern Pacific. He was instrumental in achieving rail¬ road rate stability and discouraging overly chaotic competition, and he became one of the world’s most powerful railroad magnates, controlling about 5,000 mi (8,000 km) of railway by 1902. After the panic of 1893, Morgan formed a syndicate to supply the U.S. Treasury’s depleted gold reserves. He led the financial community in averting a general financial collapse following the stock-market panic of 1907. He financed a series of giant industrial consolidations, organizing the mergers that formed General Electric, United States Steel Corp., and International Harvester Co. (see Navistar International Corp.). A noted art collector, he donated many artworks to the Metropolitan Museum of Art; his book collection and the building that housed it became the Pierpont Morgan Library in New York City.

Morgan, J(ohn) P(ierpont), Jr. (b. Sept. 7, 1867, Irvington, N.Y., U.S.—d. March 13, 1943, Boca Grande, Fla.) U.S. banker and financier. He joined J.P. Morgan and Co. in 1892 and took control of it in 1913 on the death of his father, J.R Morgan. In World War I he served as pur¬ chasing agent in the U.S. for the British and French governments and organized the underwriting of more than $1.5 billion in Allied bonds. He pooled funds with other bankers in an unsuccessful attempt to prevent the crash of 1929. The Banking Act of 1933 compelled his firm to separate its investment-banking and commercial-banking activities. Morgan, Stan¬ ley and Co. became a new investment-banking firm, while Morgan him¬ self remained head of J.P. Morgan & Co., which was from then on strictly a commercial-banking firm.

Morgan, Joe in full Joseph Leonard Morgan (b. Sept. 19, 1943, Bonham, Texas, U.S.) U.S. baseball player. Morgan was named Rookie of the Year in 1965, his first full season with the Houston Astros. During each of his eight seasons with the Cincinnati Reds (1972-79) he made the All-Star team as second baseman. He was named the National League’s Most Valuable Player in 1975 and 1976, when he led the Reds to con¬ secutive World Series championships. He broke Rogers Hornsby’s record for home runs by a second baseman, with 266 (later broken by Ryne Sandberg with 277). In 1990 Morgan was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame.

Morgan, John (b. June 10, 1735, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—d. Oct. 15, 1789, Philadelphia) U.S. medical educator. He studied medicine in Europe before returning to the American colonies to found their first medical school in 1765 at the University of Pennsylvania. As North America’s first professor of medicine, he required a liberal education of his students and separated medicine, surgery, and pharmacology into distinct disci¬ plines, policies widely opposed by colonial physicians. He was made head of the army’s medical system in 1775; however, the Continental Congress did not let him organize the system and dismissed him in 1777, holding him responsible for the war’s high death rate. Though absolved in 1779, he never recovered, and he died an impoverished recluse.

Morgan, Julia (b. Jan. 20, 1872, San Francisco, Calif., U.S.—d. Feb. 2, 1957, San Francisco) U.S. architect. She received an engineering degree from the University of California at Berkeley. The first female architec¬ ture student at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris (1898), she later became California’s first licensed woman architect. Morgan then commenced 40 years of architectural work that resulted in some 800 buildings, most of them in California, particularly in San Francisco. She opened her own architectural office in 1904, and the devastation of the San Francisco earthquake of 1906 provided her with the opportunity to design hundreds of homes and many churches, office buildings, and educational buildings in the Bay area. She is best remembered for designing William Randolph Hearst’s private castle at San Simeon (1919-38).

Morgan, Lewis Henry (b. Nov. 21, 1818, near Aurora, N.Y., U.S.—d. Dec. 17, 1881, Rochester, N.Y.) U.S. ethnologist and a princi¬ pal founder of scientific anthropology. Morgan developed a deep interest

in the American Indians and in 1846 was eventually adopted by the Sen¬ eca. His Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family (1871) was a world survey of kinship systems that sought to establish con¬ nections between cultures and particularly to establish the Asiatic origin of the American Indians. This work led to a comprehensive theory of sociocultural evolution, set forth in Ancient Society (1877). He claimed that advances in social organization arose primarily from changes in food production and that society had progressed from a hunting-and-gathering stage (“savagery”) to one of settled agriculture (“barbarism”) to modem “civilization.” This theory, with the related theory that society originated in a state of sexual promiscuity and advanced through various forms of family life before culminating in monogamy, is now obsolete. For many years, however, Morgan was the dean of American anthropology, and his pioneering ideas influenced the theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, among others.

Morgan, Thomas Hunt (b. Sept. 25, 1866, Lexington, Ky., U.S.—d. Dec. 4, 1945, Pasadena, Calif.) U.S. zoologist and geneticist. He received his doctorate from Johns Hopkins University. As a professor at Colum¬ bia University (1904-28) and California Institute of Technology (1928— 45), he conducted important research on heredity. Like many of his contemporaries, Morgan found Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selec¬ tion implausible because it could not be tested experimentally, and he objected to Mendelian and chromosome theories, arguing that no single chromosome could carry specific hereditary traits. His opinion changed as a result of his studies of Drosophila. He developed the hypothesis of sex-linked traits. He adopted the term gene and concluded that genes were possibly arranged in a linear fashion on chromosomes. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1933. See also Calvin Blackman Bridges.

Morgan le Fay (“Morgan the Fairy”) Enchantress in Arthurian legend. Skilled in the arts of healing and changing shape, she ruled Avalon, the island where King Arthur retreated to be healed of his wounds after his last battle. She had learned her magic powers from books and from Mer¬ lin. In other stories she is Arthur’s sister and enemy, and seduces him to produce a son who later kills Arthur.

Morgenthau Vmor-gon-.thoV, Henry, Jr. (b. May 11, 1891, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Feb. 6, 1967, Poughkeepsie, N.Y.) U.S. public offi¬ cial. He was editor of American Agriculturist (1922-33) and a close friend of Franklin D. Roosevelt. As secretary of the treasury in Roosevelt’s cabi¬ net (1934-45), he was responsible for financing the programs of the New Deal and the enormous military expenditures of World War II. Over $370 billion was spent during the period, three times more money than was spent by the 50 previous secretaries of the treasury. He resigned after Roosevelt’s death and retired to his farm.

Morghab \mur-'gab\ River or Murgab River \mur-'gab\ River, northwestern Afghanistan and southeastern Turkmenistan. It flows gener¬ ally west and then north into Turkmenistan and is about 600 mi (970 km) long. It forms the border between Turkmenistan and Afghanistan for sev¬ eral miles. North of Mary (Merv), it disappears into the sands of the Kar- akum Desert.

Morike Vmoe-re-koN, Eduard Friedrich (b. Sept. 8, 1804, Ludwigs- burg, Wurttemberg—d. June 4, 1875, Stuttgart) German lyric poet. A clergyman, Morike suffered all his life from psychosomatic illnesses and retired at age 39, supplementing his pension by lecturing on literature. His small literary output includes the novel Maler Nolten (1832), fairy tales, and Mozart on the Way to Prague (1856), a humorous examination of the problems of artists in a world uncongenial to art. His best works are his exquisite lyrics, notably the “Peregrina” poems, which immortal¬ ize a youthful love, and sonnets to a onetime betrothed; many were set to music by Hugo Wolf.

Morison, Samuel Eliot (b. July 9,1887, Boston, Mass., U.S.—d. May 15, 1976, Boston) U.S. biographer and historian. He taught at Harvard University for 40 years. To give authenticity to his writings on maritime history, he undertook numerous voyages and during wartime served on 12 ships as a commissioned officer in the U.S. Naval Reserve. His works include Admiral of the Ocean Sea (1942, Pulitzer Prize), on Christopher Columbus; John Paul Jones (1959, Pulitzer Prize); the monumental His¬ tory of U.S. Naval Operations in World War II, 15 vol. (1947-62); and The Oxford History of the American People (1965).

Morison, Stanley (b. May 6, 1889, Wanstead, Essex, Eng.—d. Oct. 11, 1967, London) English typographer, scholar, and historian of printing.

Morisot ► Morocco I 1295

He attained much of his printing and typographic experience by working for publishing houses. He served as editor of the influential typographic journal The Fleuron (1926-30). He worked for The Times (London) in various capacities, including editor of The Times Literary Supplement (1929-60). He is best known as the designer of Times New Roman, which was adopted as The Times 's basic typeface in 1932, and went on to become the most successful new typeface of the 20th century.

Morisot \m6-re-'zo\/ Berthe (b. Jan. 14, 1841, Bourges, France—d. March 2, 1895, Paris) French painter and printmaker. Granddaughter of Jean-Honore Fragonard, she, studied with Camille Corot, but the major influence over her work was Edouard Manet, whose brother she later mar¬ ried. She exhibited regularly with the Impressionists. None of her exhibits proved commercially successful, but she outsold Claude Monet, Pierre- Auguste Renoir, and Alfred Sisley. Her colouring was delicate and subtle, often with a subdued emerald glow, and her subjects were often members of her family. She is best known for her extremely loose brushwork and for the sensitivity she brought to her female subjects.

Morita \m6-'re-t3\, Akio (b. Jan. 26, 1921, Nagoya, Japan—d. Oct. 3, 1999, Tokyo) Japanese entrepreneur, cofounder of Sony Corp. The son of an old sake-brewing family, Morita was trained as a physicist. In 1946 he and Ibuka Masaru cofounded the Tokyo Telecommunications Engineer¬ ing Corp., which changed its name to Sony Corp. in 1958. Primarily responsible for finances and marketing, Morita adopted U.S. advertising techniques and established Sony’s first U.S. plant in 1972. He became chief executive officer in 1971 and chairman of the board in 1976, in which post he served until 1994. Under his direction Sony became a world-renowned manufacturer of consumer electronics.

Morley (of Blackburn), John Morley, Viscount (b. Dec. 24, 1838, Blackburn, Eng.—d. Sept. 23, 1923, Wimbledon, London) English politician and historian. He worked as a journalist in London from 1860, mainly as editor of the liberal Fortnightly Review (1867-82). A supporter of William E. Gladstone, Morley served in the House of Commons (1883— 95, 1896-1908). As chief secretary for Ireland (1886, 1892-95), he helped prepare the Irish Home Rule bills. As secretary for India (1905-10), he brought elected Indian representation into the government. He also wrote acclaimed historical works, including biographies of Gladstone, Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Oliver Cromwell.

Morley, Thomas (b. 1557/58, Norwich, Norfolk, Eng.—d. October 1602, London) English composer, organist, and music theorist. He was educated at Oxford and studied with William Byrd. Though he composed a number of anthems and psalms, he is best known for his secular songs, including those published in the First Booke of Ayres (1600), and for the treatise A Plaine and Easie Introduction to Practicall Musick (1597). By editing and printing several anthologies of Italian music (often reworked), he was instrumental in bringing the Italian madrigal to England. He also edited The Triumphes of Oriana (published 1603), the most significant collection of English madrigals.

Mormon Member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints or of a sect closely related to it (e.g., the Community of Christ). The Mormon religion was founded by Joseph Smith, who claimed to have received an angelic vision telling him of the location of golden plates containing God’s revelation; this he published in 1830 as the Book of Mormon. Smith and his followers accepted the Bible as well as the Mormon sacred scrip¬ tures but diverged significantly from orthodox Christianity, especially in their assertion that God exists in three distinct entities as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Mormons also believe that faithful members of the church will inherit eternal life as gods. Other unique doctrines include the belief in preexisting souls waiting to be born and in salvation of the dead through retroactive baptism. The church became notorious for its practice of polygamy, though it was officially sanctioned only between 1852 and 1890. Smith and his followers migrated from Palmyra, N.Y., to Ohio, Missouri, and finally Illinois, where Smith was killed by a mob in 1844. In 1846- 47, under Brigham Young, the Mormons made a 1,100-mi (1,800-km) trek to Utah, where they founded Salt Lake City. In the early 21st century, the church had a worldwide membership of nearly 10 million, swelled yearly by the missionary work that church members, both men and women, are encouraged to perform.

Mormon, Book of Holy scripture of the Mormons, supplemental to the Bible. First published in 1830, it is held by all branches of Mormon- ism to be a divinely inspired work translated by the founder of their reli¬ gion, Joseph Smith. It relates the history of a tribe of Hebrews who migrated

from Jerusalem to America c. 600 bc. They eventually split into two groups: the Lamanites, who were ancestors of the American Indians; and the Nephites, who were instructed by Jesus before being destroyed by the Lamanites. The prophet Mormon recorded their history on gold tablets, which were buried and remained hidden for centuries. Moroni, Mormon’s son, appeared to Smith in angelic form and revealed their location.

morning-glory family Family Convolvulaceae, composed of about 1,400 species of flowering plants in 50 genera, widely cultivated for their colourful, funnel-shaped flowers. Most are twining and erect herbaceous plants; a few are woody vines, trees, or shrubs. The family is widespread in both tropical and temperate areas. Most popular morning glories are of the genus Ipomoea, as is the sweet potato. Several species of bindweeds are agricultural pests. The seeds of two species, Rivea corymbosa and I. vio- lacea, contain hallucinogenic compounds of historical interest.

Morny \m6r-'ne\, Charles-Auguste-Louis-Joseph, duke de

(b. Oct. 21, 1811, Paris, France—d. March 10, 1865, Paris) French poli¬ tician. Half brother of Louis-Napoleon (later Napoleon III), Morny devoted himself to Parisian society and to making a fortune before serving in the Chamber of Deputies (1842-48, 1849). Appointed minister of the interior in 1851, he organized the plebiscite that made Louis-Napoleon dictator. As president of the legislature (1856-65), he tried unsuccessfully to per¬ suade Napoleon III to give France more liberty.

Moro Any member of several Muslim peoples living in the southern Philippines. The Moros, who constitute about 5% of the Philippine popu¬ lation, are not ethnically different from other Filipinos, but, with a sepa¬ rate Islamic faith and local cultures, they have been the object of prejudice and neglect. They have a centuries-long history of conflict with ruling powers: first with Roman Catholic Spanish colonialists (16th-19th cen¬ tury), later with U.S. occupation troops, and finally with the independent Philippine government. Although the Moro National Liberation Front— which espoused Moro separatism and led a violent insurgency in the late 1960s and ’70s—split into factions at the end of the 1970s, the insurgency continued. Provisions for the expansion of the Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao, established in the late 1980s, were included in a 1996 treaty, but some separatists continue to hold out for complete indepen¬ dence.

Moro, Aldo (b. Sept. 23, 1916, Maglie, Italy—d. May 9, 1978, near or in Rome) Italian politician and premier of Italy (1963-64,1964-66, 1966- 68, 1974-76, 1976). A professor of law at the University of Bari, he was elected to the legislature in 1946. He served in several cabinet posts, then became secretary of the Christian Democrat Party (1959-63). As premier of Italy, he included socialists in his coalition governments. In 1976 he became president of the Christian Democrats and remained influential in Italian politics. In 1978 he was kidnapped in Rome by the Red Brigades; after the government refused to release Red Brigades members on trial in Turin, he was murdered by his captors.

Moroccan crises (1905-06, 1911) Two European incidents centring on Germany’s attempt to block France’s control of Morocco and to restrict French power. While visiting Tangier in 1905, the German emperor Wil¬ liam II issued a statement of support for Moroccan independence, which caused international panic. The crisis was resolved at the Algeciras Con¬ ference (1906), which recognized France’s special political interests in Morocco. The second crisis occurred in 1911 when a German gunboat arrived in Agadir, ostensibly to protect German economic interests dur¬ ing a local uprising. The French objected and made preparations for war, as did Britain, but a settlement was negotiated that gave France rights to a protectorship over Morocco. In return, Germany acquired part of the French Congo.

Morocco officially Kingdom of Morocco Country, North Africa. Area: 177,117 sq mi (458,730 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 31,478,000. Capital: Rabat. Arabized Berbers (Amazigh) are the country’s largest eth- nolinguistic group; there are French, Spanish, and Bedouin minorities. Languages: Arabic (official), Berber, French. Religion: Islam (official; mostly Sunni). Currency: dirham. Morocco is a mountainous country with an average elevation of 2,600 ft (800 m) above sea level. A mountain chain known as the Rif runs along the northern coast; the Atlas Mountains rise in the country’s centre and include Mount Toubkal (13,665 ft [4,165 m]), Morocco’s highest peak. The area is a zone of severe seismic activity, and earthquakes are frequent. Fertile lowlands support agriculture; major crops include barley, wheat, and sugar beets. Morocco is one of the world’s largest suppliers of phosphate. Its industrial centre is Casablanca,

1296 I Moroni ► Morris

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Mount Toubkal

CANARY

ISLANDS

(SPAIN)

the largest city. It is a constitutional mon¬ archy with two legislative houses; its chief of state and head of government is the king, assisted by the prime minister. The Berbers entered Morocco near the end of the 2nd

millennium bc. Phoenicians established trading posts along the Mediter¬ ranean coast during the 12th century bc, and Carthage had settlements along the Atlantic coast in the 5th century bc. After the fall of Carthage, the region’s leaders became loyal allies of Rome, and in ad 42 it was annexed by the Romans as part of the province of Mauretania. It was invaded by Muslims in the 7th century. The Almoravid dynasty conquered it and the Muslim areas of Spain in the mid-11th century; the Almohad dynasty overthrew the Almoravids in the 12th century and in turn were conquered by the Marin id dynasty in the 13th century. After the fall of the Marinids in the mid-15th century, the Sa'di dynasty ruled for a century, beginning c. 1550. Attacks by Barbary Coast pirates compelled Europe¬ ans to enter the area; the French fought Morocco over the boundary with Algeria, Europeans obtained trading rights in 1856, and the Spanish seized part of Moroccan territory in 1859. Morocco was a French protectorate from 1912 until its independence in 1956. In the 1970s it reasserted claim to the Spanish Sahara (see Western Sahara), and in 1976 Spanish troops withdrew from the region, leaving behind the Algerian-supported Saharan guerrillas of the Polisario movement. Relations with Mauritania and Alge¬ ria deteriorated, and fighting over the region continued. Attempts at mediation have been made by the international community.

Moroni Town (pop., 1995: 340,168), capital of the Comoros Islands, located on Grande Comore (Njazidja) island in the Indian Ocean. Founded by Arabic-speaking settlers, it is the largest settlement of the Comoros and has served as the capital since 1958. The port of Moroni consists of a small quay in a natural cove. The town retains an Arabic character and has several mosques, including Chiounda, a pilgrimage centre.

morpheme In linguistics, the smallest grammatical unit of speech. It may be an entire word (cat) or an element of a word (re- and -ed in reap¬ peared). In so-called isolating languages, like Vietnamese, each word contains a single morpheme; in languages such as English, words often contain multiple morphemes. The study of morphemes is included in MORPHOLOGY.

Morpheus In Greek and Roman mythology, the god of dreams. He was one of the sons of Hypnos (Somnus), god of sleep. Morpheus sent human shapes of all kinds to the dreamer, while his brothers Phobetor and Phan- tasus sent the forms of animals and inanimate objects.

morphine Heterocyclic compound, narcotic analgesic alkaloid originally isolated from opium. It is among the most powerful naturally occurring

compounds in its ability to reduce pain and distress; its calming effect protects the system against exhaustion in traumatic shock, internal hem¬ orrhage, congestive heart failure, and other debilitating conditions. Mor¬ phine is usually given by injection but may be taken by mouth. Its most serious drawback is its addictiveness; many doctors are reluctant to use amounts adequate to relieve severe pain, even though short-term use in such cases rarely leads to drug addiction. This remains controversial even in terminal cases, when addiction is arguably irrelevant; another issue in such cases is that large doses depress respiration and may thus hasten death.

morpho Any species of New World tropical brush-footed butterflies in the genus Morpho (family Nympha- lidae). Microscopic ridges on the wing scales break up and reflect light, producing the iridescent blue of the males of some species. The generally duller-coloured females have broader, less graceful wings.

The hairy larvae feed on plants and live and pupate in a communal web.

Some species have poisonous hairs that can cause a rash on human skin.

Morphos are raised commercially in South America for use in jewelry, lamp shades, pictures, and tray inlays.

Morpho butterfly (Morpho nestira).

APPEL COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY

morphology \m6r-'fa-l3-je\ In biology, the study of the size, shape, and structure of organisms in relation to some principle or generalization. Whereas anatomy describes the structure of organisms, morphology explains the shapes and arrangement of parts of organisms in terms of such general principles as evolutionary relations, function, and develop¬ ment.

morphology In linguistics, the internal construction system of words and its study. Languages vary widely in the number of morphemes a word can have. English has many words with multiple moiphemes (e.g., replacement is composed of re-, place, and -ment). Many American Indian languages have a highly complex morphology; other languages, such as Chinese, have a simple one. Morphology includes the grammatical pro¬ cesses of inflection, marking categories like person, tense, and case (e.g., the -s in jumps marks the third-person singular in the present tense), and derivation, the formation of new words from existing words (e.g., accept¬ able from accept).

Morrill Act See Land-Grant College Act of 1862

Morris, Gouverneur (b. Jan. 31, 1752, Morrisania house, Manhattan—d. Nov. 6, 1816, Morrisania house) American statesman and financial expert. He was admitted to the bar (1771) and served in the New York Provincial Congress (1775-77) and the Continental Congress (1778-79). He distrusted the democratic tendencies of colonists who wanted to break with England, but his belief in independence led him to join their ranks. As assistant superintendent of finance (1781-85), he pro¬ posed the decimal coinage system that became the basis for U.S. currency. A delegate to the Constitutional Convention, he helped write the final draft of the Constitution of the United States. He served as minister to France (1792-94) and as a U.S. Senator (1800-03), and he was the first chair¬ man of the Erie Canal commission (1810-16).

Morris, Mark (b. Aug. 29, 1956, Seattle, Wash., U.S.) U.S. dancer and choreographer. He formed the Mark Morris Dance Group in 1980. It was the resident company at the Theatre Royal de la Monnaie in Brussels (1988-91), returned to the U.S. in 1991, and made its permanent home in Brooklyn in 2001. Known for his daring style, he has choreographed many works for his own company as well as for opera productions and television performances, including The Hard Nut (1991), his modernized version of The Nutcracker.

Morris, Robert (b. Jan. 31, 1734, Liverpool, Merseyside, Eng.—d. May 8, 1806, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.) British-born American financier and politician. He immigrated to join his father in Maryland in 1747 and entered a Philadelphia mercantile firm the following year. As a member of the Continental Congress in the American Revolution, he practically controlled the financial operations of the war from 1776 to 1778, bor¬ rowing money from the French, requisitioning from the states, and even advancing money from his own pocket. He established the Bank of North

Morris ► mortar I 1297

America (1781) and served as U.S. superintendent of finance (1781-84) under the Articles of Confederation. He was a delegate to the Annapolis Convention and the Constitutional Convention and served in the U.S. Senate (1789-95). After investing heavily in land speculation, he went bankrupt and spent more than three years in a debtors’ prison before his release in 1801.

Morris, Robert (b. Feb. 9, 1931, Kansas City, Mo., U.S.) U.S. artist. His first one-man exhibition of paintings was held in San Francisco in 1957. In 1960, while living in New York City, he began producing large, monochromatic geometric sculptures, groups of which he exhibited in specific spatial relationships. His work of this period greatly affected the Minimalist movement, which sought to reduce art to its essence by elimi¬ nating personal expression and historical allusion. From the late 1960s, however, Morris moved toward a more spontaneous, if anonymous, expressiveness. He experimented in a wide variety of forms, including the “happening”; “dispersal pieces,” in which materials were strewn in apparent randomness on the gallery floor; and environmental projects. His work of the 1970s showed a preoccupation with paradoxes of mental and physical imprisonment.

Morris, William (b. March 24, 1834, Walthamstow, near London, Eng.—d. Oct. 3, 1896, Hammer¬ smith) British painter, designer, craftsman, poet, and social reformer, founder of the Arts and Crafts Move¬ ment. Born into a wealthy family, he studied medieval architecture at Oxford. He was apprenticed to an architect, but visits to Europe turned him toward painting. In 1861, with Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Edward Burne- Jones, Ford Madox Brown, and oth¬ ers, he founded Morris, Marshall,

Faulkner & Co., an association of “fine art workmen” based on the medieval guild. They produced fur¬ niture, tapestry, stained glass, fab¬ rics, carpets, and most notably wallpaper designs. In 1891 Morris founded the Kelmscott Press, and over the next seven years it produced 53 titles in 66 volumes; its Works of Geoffrey Chaucer is one of the great¬ est examples of the art of the printed book. Though he sought to produce fine art objects for the masses, only the rich could afford his expensive handmade products. A utopian socialist, he did much to develop British socialism; in 1884 he formed the Socialist League. In 1877 he founded the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings, one of the world’s first preservationist groups. He wrote several volumes of poetry and many prose romances, as well as the four-volume epic Sigurd the Volsung (1876). His works and writings revolutionized Victorian taste, and he ranks as one of the largest cultural figures of 19th-century Britain.

Morris dance Ritual folk dance mainly danced in rural England from about the 15th century. The name, a variant of “Moorish,” possibly arose in reference to the dancers’ blacking their faces as part of the ritual dis¬ guise. It is principally a fertility dance, performed especially in the spring. Danced by groups of men often dressed in white and wearing bells on their legs, the steps are varied and intricate and are maintained in a jog¬ trot while handkerchiefs are waved in both hands. It calls for individual characters such as a hobbyhorse and a fool.

Morris Jesup, Cape Cape, in the Peary Land region, northern Green¬ land, on the Arctic Ocean. Situated 440 mi (710 km) from the North Pole, it is one of the world’s most northerly points of land. Robert E. Peary was the first explorer to reach it in 1900; it was named for Morris K. Jesup, a merchant-banker who financed polar expeditions.

Morrison, Jim orig. James Douglas Morrison (b. Dec. 8, 1943, Melbourne, Fla., U.S.—d. July 3, 1971, Paris, France) U.S. rock singer and songwriter. He studied film at the University of California in Los Angeles, where he met Ray Manzarek (b. 1935); with Robbie Krieger (b. 1946) and John Densmore (b. 1945), they formed the psychedelic rock group the Doors, taking their name from Aldous Huxley’s book on mes¬ caline, The Doors of Perception. The dark-edged eroticism of Morrison’s baritone voice and pseudo-poetic lyrics helped make the band one of

rock’s most potent, controversial, and theatrical acts. Their popular hits of the 1960s included “Light My Fire” and “Hello I Love You.” Morri¬ son was known for his drinking and drug use and outrageous stage behav¬ iour. In 1971 he left the Doors to write poetry and moved to Paris, where he died of heart failure.

Morrison, Toni orig. Chloe Anthony Wofford (b. Feb. 18, 1931, Lorain, Ohio, U.S.) U.S. writer. She studied at Howard and Cornell uni¬ versities, taught at various universities, and worked as an editor before publishing The Bluest Eye (1970), a novel dealing with some of the shock¬ ing realities of the lives of poor blacks, and Sula (1973). The brilliant Song of Solomon (1977) brought her national attention. Her later novels include Tar Baby (1981), Beloved (1987, Pulitzer Prize), Jazz (1992), and Paradise (1998). The African American experience, particularly that of women, is the principal theme of her fiction. Her use of fantasy, her sinu¬ ous poetic style, and her interweaving of mythic elements give her sto¬ ries texture and great power. She was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1993.

Morristown National Historical Park Historical park, Morris¬ town, N.J., U.S. In the American Revolution the Continental army under George Washington had its main winter campsite there in 1776-77 and 1779-80. Established in 1933, the park covers 1,684 acres (682 hectares). It includes the house that served as Washington’s headquarters and other artifacts of the Revolution.

Morrow, Dwight W(hitney) (b. Jan. 11, 1873, Huntington, W.Va., U.S.—d. Oct. 5, 1931, Englewood, N.J.) U.S. lawyer and diplomat. He practiced law in New York City (1905-14), helping draft a workers’ com¬ pensation law (1911). He became a partner in J.P. Morgan & Co. (1914— 27) and organized the Kennecott Copper Corp. During World War I he was an adviser to the Allied Maritime Transport Council, and after the war he helped devise a national aviation policy. He served as ambassa¬ dor to Mexico (1927-30). He briefly served in the U.S. Senate (1931) before his death. His daughter Anne married Charles A. Lindbergh.

Morse, Carlton E. (b. June 4, 1901, Jennings, La., U.S.—d. May 24, 1993, Sacramento, Calif.) U.S. radio writer and producer. He worked as a newspaper reporter before joining NBC radio as a writer in 1930. Morse wrote, directed, and produced many radio programs, including the highly popular soap opera One Man’s Family (1932-59; television, 1949-52), the drama I Love a Mystery (1939—44, 1949-52), and the soap opera The Woman in My House (1951—59).

Morse, Samuel F(inley) B(reese) (b. April 27, 1791, Charlestown, Mass., U.S.—d. April 2, 1872, New York, N.Y.) U.S. painter and inven¬ tor. The son of a distinguished geographer, he attended Yale University and studied painting in England (1811-15). He returned home to work as an itinerant painter; his portraits still rank among the finest produced in the U.S. He cofounded the National Academy of Design and served as its first president (1826—45). Independent of similar efforts in Europe, he developed an electric telegraph (1832-35), believing his to be the first. He developed the system of dots and dashes that became known internation¬ ally as Morse code (1838). Though denied support from Congress for a transatlantic telegraph line, he received congressional support for the first U.S. telegraph line, from Baltimore to Washington; on its completion in 1844 he sent the message “What hath God wrought!” His patents brought him fame and wealth.

Morse code System for representing letters, numerals, and punctuation marks by a sequence of dots, dashes, and spaces. It is transmitted as elec¬ trical pulses of varied lengths or analogous mechanical or visual signals, such as flashing lights. The original system was invented by Samuel F.B. Morse in 1838 for his telegraph; the International Morse Code, a simpler and more precise variant with codes for letters with diacritic marks, was devised in 1851. With minor changes, this code has remained in use for certain types of radiotelegraphy, including amateur radio.

mortar Short-range artillery piece with a short barrel and low muzzle velocity that fires an explosive projectile in a high-arched trajectory. Large mortars were used against fortifications and in siege operations from medieval times through World War I. Since 1915, small portable models have been standard infantry weapons, especially for mountain or trench warfare. Medium mortars, with a caliber of about 3^4 in. (70-90 mm), a range of up to about 2.5 mi (4 km), and a bomb weight of up to 11 lbs (5 kg), are now widely used.

William Morris, drawing by C.M. Watts.

THE MANSELL COLLECTION

1298 I mortar ► Moscow school

mortar Material used in building construction to bond brick, stone, tile, or concrete blocks into a structure. The ancient Romans are credited with its invention. Mortar consists of sand mixed with cement and water. The resulting substance must be sufficiently flexible to flow slightly but not collapse under the weight of the masonry units. Before the 19th-century invention of Portland cement, masons used thin joints of lime mortar, which required greater precision than the thicker joints of portland-cement mortar and were not as strong. For tilework, a very thin mortar called grout is used. Pointing is the process of finishing a masonry joint.

mortgage In Anglo-American law, the method by which a debtor (mortgagor) conveys an interest in property to a creditor (mortgagee) as security for the payment of a money debt. The modern mortgage has its roots in medieval Europe. Originally, the mortgagor gave the mortgagee ownership of the land on the condition that the mortgagee would return it once the mortgagor’s debt was paid off. Over time, it became the prac¬ tice to let the mortgagor remain in possession of the land; it then became the mortgagor’s right to remain in possession of the land so long as there was no default on the debt.

Morton, James Douglas, 4th earl of (b. c. 1516—d. June 2,1581, Edinburgh, Scot.) Scottish nobleman. Appointed chancellor by Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1563, he conspired with other Protestant nobles to murder Mary’s adviser David Riccio and probably was involved in the murder of Lord Darnley. He led the nobles that drove Mary’s husband, the earl of Bothwell, from Scotland and forced her to abdicate in favour of her infant son, James (later James I of England). He became regent for James in 1572 and restored the rule of law to Scotland. Resented by the other nobles, he was forced to resign in 1578; he was later charged with complicity in Darnley’s murder and executed.

Morton, Jelly Roll orig. Ferdinand Joseph La Menthe (b. Oct. 20, 1890, New Orleans, La., U.S.—d. July 10, 1941, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. pianist and the first important composer in jazz. In his youth Mor¬ ton was apparently active as a gambler, pool shark, and procurer. A pio¬ neer ragtime piano player, he toured the country as a pianist from 1904, making his first recordings in Chicago in 1923 with his ensemble the Red Hot Peppers. An exponent of the New Orleans tradition, Morton achieved success integrating elements of ragtime with improvised and arranged ensemble passages, often on his own compositions such as “King Porter Stomp.” By the early 1930s Morton’s fame had been overshadowed by that of Louis Armstrong and other emerging innovators.

Mosaddeq Vmos-ad-.dekX, Mohammad (b. 1880, Tehran, Safavid Persia—d. March 5, 1967, Tehran, Iran) Iranian politician and nationalist leader. After law school in Switzerland, he served in the government until Reza Khan became shah (1925). After Reza Shah was deposed in 1941, Mosaddeq was reelected to the parliament (1944). Following Mosaddeq’s successful nationalization of the British-owned Anglo-Iranian Oil Com¬ pany, Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi (r. 1941-79) was virtually forced to appoint him premier (1951). Tension between the monarch and the pre¬ mier crested, however, and the shah attempted to dismiss him in 1953. The resulting unrest forced the shah to flee the country until a coup, backed by British and U.S. intelligence services, drove Mosaddeq from power. Convicted of treason, he spent three years in prison and the rest of his life under house arrest.

mosaic Surface decoration of small coloured components—such as stone, glass, tile, or shell—closely set into an adhesive ground. Mosaic pieces, or tesserae, are usually small squares, triangles, or other regular shapes. Mosaics cannot create the variations of light and shadow that paintings can, but glass tesserae can achieve a greater brilliance, espe¬ cially those to which gold and silver foil have been applied. This tech¬ nique was responsible for the great shimmering mosaics of the Byzantine period. The earliest known mosaics date from the 8th century bc and were made of pebbles, a technique refined by the Greeks in the 5th century. The Romans used mosaics widely, particularly for floors. Pre-Columbian Americans favoured mosaics of garnet, turquoise, and mother-of-pearl, which usually encrusted shields, masks, and cult statues.

Mosby Vmoz-beV John Singleton (b. Dec. 6, 1833, Edgemont, Va., U.S.—d. May 30, 1916, Washington, D.C.) U.S. guerrilla leader. He joined the Confederate cavalry in the American Civil War and was a scout with Jeb Stuart’s troops. He led guerrilla units, called Mosby’s Rangers, on raids on Union outposts in northern Virginia and Maryland, disrupt¬ ing supply and communication lines. His capture of a Union general and 100 of his men behind federal lines (1863) earned him promotion to colo¬

nel. After the war he resumed his law practice, and he later served as U.S. consul to Hong Kong (1878-85) and as assistant attorney in the U.S. Jus¬ tice Department (1904-10).

Mosca Vmo-skaV Gaetano (b. April 1, 1958, Palermo, Sicily, King¬ dom of the Two Sicilies—d. Nov. 8, 1941, Rome, Italy) Italian political theorist. Educated at the University of Palermo, he taught constitutional law there (1885-88) and at the Universities of Rome (1888-96) and Turin (1896-1908). A member of the Italian chamber of deputies from 1908, he was made senator for life by Victor Emmanuel III in 1919. In works such as The Ruling Class (1896) he argued that, historically and properly, soci¬ ety has been governed by minorities, whether military, religious, oligar¬ chic, or aristocratic.

Mosconi, Willie in full William Joseph Mosconi (b. June 27, 1913, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—d. Sept. 16, 1993, Haddon Heights, N.J.) U.S. pocket billiards player. The son of a billiards parlor owner, Mosconi began playing professionally in the early 1930s. Known for his accurate rapid-fire shooting, he was world champion 15 times between 1941 and 1957 and once had a run of 526 consecutive balls.

Moscow Vmas-ko, 'mas-kau\ Russian Moskva \mas-'kva\ Capital and largest city (pop., 2001 est.: 8,546,000) of Russia. It is located on both sides of the Moskva River in western Russia, about 400 mi (640 km) southeast of St. Petersburg and about 600 mi (970 km) east of Poland. Inhabited since Neolithic times, the site was first mentioned as a village in 1147 and became the capital of the principality of Moscow (Muscovy) in the late 13th century. It expanded in the 15th and 16th centuries under its grand dukes Ivan III and Ivan IV and became the capital of a united Russia (1547- 1712). In 1812 it was occupied by the French under Napoleon and was almost entirely destroyed by fire. In 1918 it became the capital of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and expanded greatly. It suffered much damage from German bombing in World War II. In 1993 it was the scene of armed conflict between opposing government factions after the dissolution of par¬ liament by Boris Yeltsin. The spiritual home of the Russian Orthodox church for more than 600 years, it is a political, industrial, transportation, and cul¬ tural centre. Its most notable structure is the Kremlin, a medieval fortress on the Moskva with Red Square along its eastern wall. The Lenin Mausoleum is nearby, and St. Basil’s Cathedral is at the southern end of the square. Moscow is also home to the Bolshoi Theatre, Moscow State University, and many other institutions of higher education.

Moscow Art Theatre Russian theatre specializing in theatrical natu¬ ralism. It was founded in 1898 by Konstantin Stanislavsky (as artistic director) and Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko (administrative director) with the goal of replacing old-fashioned histrionic acting and heavy- handed staging with a simpler and truer style. It opened with Aleksey Tol¬ stoy’s Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich and won its first major success with Anton Chekhov’s The Seagull. Along with other plays by Chekhov, the theatre mounted new works by writers such as Maksim Gorky and Maurice Maeter¬ linck. Its company received acclaim on European and U.S. tours in 1922 and influenced later theatrical development worldwide. Since 1939 it has been known as the Moscow Academic Art Theatre.

Moscow River See Moskva River

Moscow school School of late medieval Russian icon and mural painting. It succeeded the Novgorod school as the dominant school of painting when Moscow rose to a leading position in the movement to expel the Mongols. The school flow¬ ered first under the influence of the painter Theophanes the Greek (c.

1330/40-1405), who moved to Mos¬ cow from Novgorod c. 1400 and introduced complexity of composi¬ tion, subtle colour, and almost impressionistic rendering of figures.

His most distinguished successor was Andrei Rublev. From 1430 to the end of the century, Moscow grew in prestige and sophistication as the Mongols were driven out of Russia.

When Constantinople fell to the Turks in 1453, Moscow became the

"The Savior," icon painted on panel by Andrei Rublev, Moscow school, 1411 ; in the State Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow. NOVOSTI-SOVFOTO

Moscow State University ► mosquito I 1299

centre of Eastern Orthodoxy, and the new prestige of the Russian Ortho¬ dox church led to a new didactic iconography that expounded mysteries, rites, and dogma. By the 17th century the Stroganov school of Moscow artists assumed the leadership of Russian art.

Moscow State University in full Lomonosov Moscow State University Government-operated university in Moscow, Russia. Founded in 1755 by the linguist Mikhail Lomonosov with support from Elizabeth, empress of Russia, it is the oldest, largest, and most prestigious university in Russia. By the late 19th century it had established itself as a major centre of scientific research and scholarship. Moscow State Uni¬ versity supports more than 350 departments, a number of research insti¬ tutes and laboratories, several observatories, and various affiliated museums. Its library ranks among the largest in Russia (9 million vol¬ umes).

Moselle River or Mosel River \mo-'zel,\ German Ymo-zaH River, western Europe, about 340 mi (545 km) long. Rising in northeastern France, it flows north, forming part of the border between Germany and Luxembourg, then northeast into the Rhine River at Koblenz, Ger. In this part of the valley are the vineyards that produce the famous Moselle wines. The river, which is navigable for most of its course, passes Nancy, Metz, and Thionville in France and Trier in Germany. Among its chief tributaries are the Orne and the Saar.

Moser-Proll Vmo-zor-'proA, Annemarie orig. Annemarie Proll

(b. March 27, 1953, Kleinarl, Austria) Austrian downhill skier. She began skiing at age 4. She won downhill and slalom silver medals in the 1972 Winter Olympics and a downhill gold medal in 1980. She holds the all- time record of six women’s World Cup championships, including five in succession (1971-75). She established a career record for both men and women in individual World Cup races won (59).

Moses (fl. 14th—13th century bc) Prophet of Judaism. According to the Book of Exodus, he was bom in Egypt to Hebrew parents, who set him afloat on the Nile in a reed basket to save him from an edict calling for the death of all newborn Hebrew males. Found by the pharaoh’s daugh¬ ter, he was reared in the Egyptian court. After killing a brutal Egyptian taskmaster, he fled to Midian, where Yahweh (God) revealed himself in a burning bush and called Moses to deliver the Israelites from Egypt. With the help of his brother Aaron, Moses pleaded with the pharaoh for the Israelites’ release. The pharaoh let them go after Yahweh had visited a series of plagues on Egypt, but then sent his army after them. Yahweh parted the waters of the Red Sea to allow the Israelites to pass, then drowned the pursuing Egyptians. Yahweh made a covenant with the Isra¬ elites at Mount Sinai and delivered the Ten Commandments to Moses, who continued to lead his people through 40 years of wandering in the wil¬ derness until they reached the edge of Canaan. He died before he could enter the Promised Land. Authorship of the first five books of the Bible (see Torah) is traditionally ascribed to him.

Moses, Edwin (b. Aug. 31, 1955, Dayton, Ohio, U.S.) U.S. track-and- field athlete. He went to Morehouse College on an academic scholarship but starred in track. He won the gold medal for the 400-m hurdle in the 1976 and 1984 Olympics and set four successive world records in the event between 1976 and 1983.

Moses, Grandma orig. Anna Mary Robertson (b. Sept. 7,1860, Greenwich, N.Y., U.S.—d. Dec. 13, 1961, Hoosick Falls, N.Y.) U.S. painter. She began to produce embroidery pictures after her husband died in 1927. When arthritis impaired her embroidering, she turned to paint¬ ing. She had her first exhibition in a drugstore in 1938 at age 78. She went on to produce more than 1,000 nostalgic, naively executed scenes of turn-of-the-century rural life (e.g., Catching the Thanksgiving Turkey, Over the River to Grandma’s House). By 1939 her pictures were being exhibited internationally, and from 1946 they were regularly reproduced on holiday greeting cards.

Moses, Robert (b. Dec. 18,1888, New Haven, Conn., U.S.—d. July 29, 1981, West Islip, N.Y.) U.S. public official. He began his long career in pub¬ lic service in New York City’s bureau of municipal research. In 1919 Gov. Alfred E. Smith appointed him chief of staff of the New York state recon¬ struction commission and, in 1924, head of both the New York and Long Island state park commissions. For 40 years in these and related positions, Moses supervised the vast expansion of the park system and the construc¬ tion of numerous roads, bridges, tunnels, and housing projects in and around the city, reshaping it on a grand scale in often controversial ways.

Moses de Leon orig. Moses ben Shem Tov (b. c. 1240, Leon—d. 1305, Arevalo) Reputed author of the Sefer ha-zohar, the most important work of Jewish mysticism. Little is known of his life, though he is believed to have lived in Guadalajara (the centre for Spanish adherents of the Kabbala) until 1290 and later to have traveled widely. He repre¬ sented the Zohar as an ancient book that he had discovered, but it is more likely a work of his own authorship.

moshav \mo-'shav\ (Hebrew: “settlement”) Israeli cooperative com¬ munity that combines privately farmed land and communal marketing, sometimes with light industry as well. The land on a moshav belongs to the state or the Jewish National Fund. The first successful moshavim were organized in the 1920s. New immigrants were directed to these settle¬ ments in the early years of the State of Israel. See also kibbutz.

Moshoeshoe Nmo-'shwa-.shwaV or Mshweshwe \em-'shwa-,shwa\ (b. c. 1786, near the upper Caledon River, northern Basutoland—d. March 11, 1870, Thaba Bosiu, Basutoland) Founder and first paramount chief of Sotho (later Basutoland; now Lesotho). In the 1830s and ’40s he carefully played off British and Boer interests against one another. Involved in a series of wars, he proved a skillful tactician. In 1868 the British annexed Sotho, and Moshoeshoe’s power waned. His descendant Moshoeshoe II (1938-96) was the first king of independent Lesotho.

Moskva \mas-'kva\ River or Moscow River River, flowing through Moscow province and part of Smolensk province, western Russia. The river is 312 mi (502 km) long and drains an area of 6,800 sq mi (17,600 sq km). It runs through the city of Moscow to join the Oka River just below Kolomna. The river flows southeast through the Volga basin. It is navi¬ gable from Moscow and is an important source of the city’s water sup- ply.

Mosley, Sir Oswald (Ernald), 6th Baronet (b. Nov. 16. 1896, London, Eng.—d. Dec. 3, 1980, Orsay, near Paris, France) English poli¬ tician and fascist. He served in the House of Commons (1918-31) as, successively, a Conservative, an Independent, and a Labourite. After a visit to Italy, he founded the British Union of Fascists in 1932. With his followers, he distributed anti-Semitic propaganda, conducted hostile dem¬ onstrations in the Jewish sections of eastern London, and wore Nazi-style uniforms. During World War II he was interned (1940-43) with his wife, Diana Guinness, a sister of Jessica and Nancy Mitford and friend of Adolf Hitler. In 1948 Mosley founded the Union Movement, an amalgam of right-wing book clubs.

mosque Islamic public place of prayer. The masjid jami\ or “congre¬ gational mosque,” is the centre of community worship and the site of Fri¬ day prayer services. Though the mosque—originally a sacred plot of ground—has been influenced by local architectural styles, the building has remained essentially an open space, usually roofed, with a minaret sometimes attached. Statues and pictures are not permitted as decoration. The minbar, a seat at the top of steps placed at the right of the mihrab, is used by the preacher ( khatlb ) as a pulpit. Occasionally there is also a maqsurah, a box or wooden screen originally used to shield a worship¬ ing ruler from assassins. The minaret, originally any elevated place but now usually a tower, is used by the muezzin (crier) to proclaim the call to worship five times each day. During prayer, Muslims orient themselves toward the qiblah wall, which is invariably oriented toward the Ka'bah in Mecca. The mosque has traditionally been the centre of social, political, and educational life in Islamic societies.

Mosque of Omar See Dome of the Rock

mosquito Any of 2,500 dipteran species in the family Culicidae. The females of most species require a blood meal to mature their eggs.

Through bloodsucking, females of various species (genera Aedes,

Anopheles, and Culex ) transmit human diseases, including dengue FEVER, ENCEPHALITIS, filariasis, MALARIA, yellow fever, and elephantiasis. The adult has a long proboscis, a slender, elongated body, and long, fragile legs. The males (and sometimes the females) feed on plant juices. The female’s characteristic sound is made by the vibration of thin membranes on the thorax. The females lay their eggs on the surface of a body of usu-

Mosquito (Theobaldia anulata)

N.A. CALLOW-EB INC.

1300 I Mosquito Coast ► moth

ally stagnant water, and the eggs hatch into aquatic larvae (wrigglers). In the far north larvae pass the winter frozen into ice. The wrigglers are eaten by fishes and aquatic insects, the adults by birds and dragonflies. Control measures have included elimination of breeding sites, application of sur¬ face films of oil to clog the larvae’s breathing tubes, and use of larvicides.

Mosquito Coast or Miskito Coast Region along the coast of east¬ ern Nicaragua and Honduras. It comprises a lowland about 40 mi (65 km) wide that skirts the Caribbean Sea for about 225 mi (360 km). It was vis¬ ited by Christopher Columbus in 1502, but Europeans had little contact with the area until the rise of the buccaneers in the 17th century, after which England established a protectorate there. It is named for the Miskito Indi¬ ans. Spain, Nicaragua, and the U.S. disputed England’s protectorate until the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850). In 1894 the region was incorporated into Nicaragua, but the northern part was granted to Honduras in 1960 by the International Court of Justice. The chief town is Bluefields, at the mouth of the Escondido River in Nicaragua.

moss Any of at least 12,000 species of small, spore-bearing land plants in the bryophyte division, found worldwide except in salt water. Mosses are simple and ancient plants that have survived nearly unchanged since the Permian Period (290-248 million years ago). Commonly found in moist, shady locations (e.g., forest floors), mosses may range in size from microscopic to more than 40 in. (1 m) long. They prevent erosion and release nutrients from the substrates on which they grow. The life cycle shows clear alternation of generations between the sexual gametophyte, with stemlike and leaflike structures that produce eggs and swimming sperm, and the sporophyte, a raised stalk that ends in a spore case (spo¬ rangium). Mosses also reproduce asexually by branching. The economi¬ cally important genus Sphagnum forms peat. Many so-called mosses are not bryophytes, including Irish moss (a red form of algae); beard moss, Iceland moss, oak moss, and reindeer moss (all lichens); Spanish moss (a name used variously for a lichen or an air plant of the pineapple family); and club moss (an evergreen herb of the family Lycopodiaceae).

Moss, Stirling (b. Sept. 17, 1929, London, Eng.) British Formula One racing driver. He won his first event in 1950 in England and went on to win scores of races, including the British Grand Prix and the Monaco Grand Prix (three times). In 1962 an accident ended his career. In all he won 16 Grand Prix events and is considered the greatest driver never to win a world championship.

Mossad \mo-'sad\ Hebrew Mossad Merkazi le-Modiin U-letafkidim Meyuhadim ("Central Institute for Intelli¬ gence and Security") Most important of Israel’s major intelligence agencies. The Mossad carries out foreign espionage and covert political and paramilitary operations. Its director reports directly to the prime min¬ ister. It has enjoyed considerable success in operations against the coun¬ try’s Arab neighbours and Palestinian organizations, and it has an excellent reputation internationally for its effectiveness. Its secret agents are credited with the apprehension of Adolf Eichmann in Argentina, the execution of the killers of Israeli athletes at the 1972 Olympics, and the rescue of Israeli hostages in the Entebbe incident. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the Mossad was criticized for its treatment of detainees, many of whom were allegedly tortured and killed while in custody, and for its efforts to assassinate some Palestinian political leaders.

Mossi \'mo-se\ People of Burkina Faso and other parts of western Africa, mainly Mali and Togo. They speak Moore, a Gur language of the Niger- Congo family. Mossi society, organized as in the former Mossi states (c. 1500-1895), is divided into royalty, nobles, commoners, and formerly slaves. The morho naba (“big lord”) occupies a court in Ouagadougou. In the colonial era the Mossi acted as trading intermediaries between the forest states and the cities of the Niger. Today most of the nearly six mil¬ lion Mossi are sedentary farmers.

Mossi states Complex of independent western African kingdoms (c. 1500-1895) around the headwaters of the Volta River, within present-day Burkina Faso and Ghana. Though tradition held that their ancestors came from the east, perhaps in the 13th century, the kingdoms’ origins are obscure. The Mossi people harassed the empires of Mali and Songhai and vied for control of the Niger River. From c. 1400 the states acted as trading intermediaries between the forest states and the cities of the Niger. They remained independent until the French invasions of the late 19th century.

most-favoured-nation treatment Guarantee of same trading opportunities (i.e., tariff concessions) already granted to the most favoured

nation (MFN). It is a method of establishing equal trading opportunities among states by making originally bilateral agreements multilateral. Attempts to guarantee equal trading opportunities were incorporated into commercial treaties as far back as the early 17th century. The Anglo- French treaty signed in 1860 became the model for many later trade agreements, establishing a set of interlocking tariff concessions (see tar¬ iff) later extended worldwide by most-favoured-nation treatment. MFN treatment has always applied primarily to the duties charged on imports, but specific provisions have extended the principle to other areas of eco¬ nomic contact, including property rights, patents, and copyrights. See also General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade; reciprocity; World Trade Organi¬ zation.

Mostel \ma-'stel. Zero orig. Samuel Joel Mostel (b. Feb. 28, 1915, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Sept. 8, 1977, Philadelphia, Pa.) U.S. actor. He initially worked both on Broadway and in film, but after being blacklisted in Hollywood after 1955, he worked principally in theatre in New York City. He gave acclaimed performances in Ulysses in Nighttown (1958) and Rhinoceros (1961), and he had lead roles in the musicals A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (1962) and Fiddler on the Roof (1964). His later films included Mel Brooks’s The Producers (1968) and The Front (1976), a film about the blacklisting era. Mostel was also a serious painter throughout his life.

Mosul \mo-'sul, 'mo-sol \ Arabic Al-Mawsil V.al-mau-'selV City (pop., 2003 est.: 1,800,000), northwestern Iraq. Located across the Tigris River from the ruins of ancient Nineveh, which it succeeded, Mosul prospered until 1258, when it was ravaged by the Mongols. It was a centre of the Ottoman Empire (c. 1534-1918). After World War I (1914-18) it was occu¬ pied by the British and in 1926 was ceded to Iraq. The country’s second largest city and a chief commercial centre in the northwest, it has manu¬ facturing (cement, textiles) and an oil refinery and nearby oil fields. It has many ancient buildings, some dating from the 13th century, including the Great Mosque and the Red Mosque.

Motagua \mo-'ta-gwa\ River River, eastern Guatemala. It is the coun¬ try’s longest river, flowing about 250 mi (400 km) east and northeast into the Gulf of Honduras near the Honduran border. Locally the river is called the Silbapec near its source and the Rio Grande farther downstream. It is a major transportation artery for bananas, coffee, and other crops raised in its eastern valleys.

motel Hotel designed for persons traveling by automobile, with conve¬ nient parking space provided (the name blends the words “motor hotel”). Originally usually consisting of a series of separate or attached roadside cabins, motels serve commercial and business travelers and persons attending conventions and business meetings as well as vacationers and tourists. By 1950 the automobile was the principal mode of travel in the U.S., and motels were built near large highways, just as hotels had been built near railroad stations.

motet Latin choral composition, generally in one movement. Its origins are in the 13th century, when words (French mots) began to be added to originally wordless polyphonic lines in settings of plainchant. It grew directly out of the clausula, a polyphonic decoration of a portion of organum, but it soon split off to become a separate composition, while retaining a meaningless fragment of chant text and melody in the tenor part. The upper texts often became a confusing mixture of sacred and secular—and even anticlerical—poems, indicating its intended perfor¬ mance in courtly as well as ecclesiastical settings. The motet was the most important musical genre of the 13th century and an essential vehicle for the development of polyphony. In the Renaissance, sacred motets, now employing a single text, were written by composers such as Josquin des Prez, Orlande de Lassus, and William Byrd, though it remains unclear how often they were performed in church settings. In the 17th—18th centuries, motets were written by Jean-Baptiste Lully, Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Hein¬ rich Schutz, and Johann Sebastian Bach. After c. 1750 the genre declined, and its distinguishing characteristics became diffuse.

moth Any of several thousand lepidopteran species, found in all but polar habitats. Moths are chiefly nocturnal and have a stouter body, duller colouring, and proportionately smaller wings than butterflies. They have distinctive feathery antennae and, when at rest, fold their wings, wrap them around the body, or hold them extended at their sides. Wingspans range from less than 1 in. (2.5 cm) to about 1 ft (30 cm). The life cycle has four stages: egg, larva (caterpillar, or worm), pupa (chrysalis), and adult (imago). Both larvae and adults of most species are plant eaters, and

Mother Goose ► motocross I 1301

many seriously damage forests, agricultural crops, and fabrics. See also BAGWORM MOTH; GYPSY MOTH; HAWK MOTH; LUNA MOTH; MILLER; SATURNIID MOTH; SILKWORM MOTH; TIGER MOTH; TUSSOCK MOTH.

Mother Goose Fictitious old woman, reputedly the source of the body of traditional children’s songs and verses known as nursery rhymes. Often pictured as a beak-nosed, sharp-chinned old woman riding on the back of a flying gander, she was first associated with nursery rhymes in Mother Goose’s Melody (1781), published by the successors of John Newbery. The name apparently derived from the title of Charles Perrault’s collection of fairy tales Ma Mere I’oye (1697; “My Mother Goose”). The persistent rumour that Mother Goose was an actual Boston woman is false.

Mother Jones See Mary Harris Jones

Mother Lode Country Former gold-rush belt, Sierra Nevada foothills, central California, U.S. It was about 150 mi (240 km) long but only a few miles wide. The gold rush was sparked by the 1848 discovery of placer gold on John Sutter’s property. The term mother lode evolved from the miners’ concept of one main quartz vein with subsidiary offshoot veins. Exhaustion of the main gold streaks and a government-enforced price structure for gold caused mining operations to cease there in the 1930s. The area is dotted with scores of ghost camps and old mining towns.

Mother's Day and Father's Day Holidays. In the U.S. a nation¬ wide observance of Mother’s Day was suggested by Anna Jarvis of Grafton, W.Va., and in 1908 formal observances were held in churches in Grafton and Philadelphia. By 1911 every state celebrated the occasion on the second Sunday in May. It was formalized by Congress in 1914. In Britain, Mother’s Day is celebrated in mid-Lent as Mothering Sunday. During the Middle Ages a custom developed of allowing those who had moved away to visit their home parishes and their mothers on Laetare Sunday, the fourth Sunday of Lent. Many other countries also celebrate the holiday on this date, while some mark the observance at other times of the year. Father’s Day was first celebrated in 1910 in Spokane, Wash., through efforts of Sonora Dodd and the YMCA. Celebrated on the third Sunday in June, it became a legal holiday in 1972. Both days were origi¬ nally largely religious holidays but have been commercialized with the sending of greeting cards and the giving of gifts.

Motherwell, Robert (b. Jan. 24, 1915, Aberdeen, Wash., U.S.—d. July 16, 1991, Provincetown, Mass.)

U.S. painter, writer, and teacher. He received an art scholarship at 11, but he earned degrees from Stanford and Harvard before deciding to become a serious painter. He espoused Abstract Expressionism from the beginning of his career, and his eru¬ dite writings were largely respon¬ sible for the intellectual tone of the movement. In his Elegy to the Span¬ ish Republic painting series, begun in 1949 and continued over three decades, he developed a limited rep¬ ertory of simple, serene black forms that were applied to the picture plane in a way that created a sense of slow, solemn movement. Though he worked in various styles, his reputa¬ tion rests on his pioneering work as a founder and principal exponent of Abstract Expressionism.

Motherwell, photograph by Arnold Newman, 1959

©ARNOLD NEWMAN

motion Change in position of a body relative to another body or with respect to a frame of reference or coordinate system. Motion occurs along a definite path, the nature of which determines the character of the motion. Translational motion occurs if all points in a body have similar paths rela¬ tive to another body. Rotational motion occurs when any line on a body changes its orientation relative to a line on another body. Motion relative to a moving body, such as motion on a moving train, is called relative motion. Indeed, all motions are relative, but motions relative to the Earth or to any body fixed to the Earth are often assumed to be absolute, as the effects of the Earth’s motion are usually negligible. See also Brownian MOTION; PERIODIC MOTION; SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION; SIMPLE MOTION; UNIFORM CIR¬ CULAR MOTION.

motion, equation of Mathematical formula that describes the motion of a body relative to a given frame of reference, in terms of the position, velocity, or acceleration of the body. In classical mechanics, the basic equa¬ tion of motion is Newton’s second law (see Newton's laws of motion), which relates the force on a body to its mass and acceleration. When the force is described in terms of the time interval over which it is applied, the velocity and position of the body can be derived. Other equations of motion include the position-time equation, the velocity-time equation, and the acceleration-time equation of a moving body.

motion picture or movie Series of still photographs on film, pro¬ jected in rapid succession onto a screen. Motion pictures are filmed with a movie camera, which makes rapid exposures of people or objects in motion, and shown with a movie projector, which reproduces sound syn¬ chronized with the images. The principal inventors of motion-picture machines were Thomas Alva Edison in the U.S. and the Lumiere brothers in France. Film production was centred in France in the early 20th century, but by 1920 the U.S. had become dominant. As directors and stars moved to Hollywood, movie studios expanded, reaching their zenith in the 1930s and ’40s, when they also typically owned extensive theatre chains. Mov¬ iemaking was marked by a new internationalism in the 1950s and ’60s, which also saw the rise of the independent filmmaker. The sophistication of special effects increased greatly from the 1970s. The U.S. film indus¬ try, with its immense technical resources, has continued to dominate the world market to the present day. See also Columbia Pictures; MGM; Para¬ mount Communications; RKO; United Artists; Warner Brothers.

motion sickness Sickness caused by contradiction between external data from the eyes and internal cues from the balance centre in the inner ear. For example, in seasickness the inner ear senses the ship’s motion, but the eyes see the still cabin. This stimulates stress hormones and accel¬ erates stomach muscle contraction, leading to dizziness, pallor, cold sweat, and nausea and vomiting. Minimizing changes of speed and direc¬ tion may help, as may reclining, not turning the head, closing the eyes, or focusing on distant objects. Drugs can prevent or relieve motion sick¬ ness but may have side effects. Pressing an acupuncture point on the wrist helps some people.

motion study See time-and-motion study

motivation Factors within a human being or animal that arouse and direct goal-oriented behaviour. Motivation has long been a central sub¬ ject of study in psychology. Early researchers, influenced by Charles Dar¬ win, ascribed much of animal and human behaviour to instinct. Sigmund Freud believed that much of human behaviour was also based on irratio¬ nal instinctive urges or unconscious motives. Walter B. Cannon proposed that basic human drives served homeostatic functions by directing ener¬ gies toward the reduction of physiological tensions. Behavioral psycholo¬ gists, in contrast, stress the importance of external goals in prompting action, while humanistic psychologists examine the role of felt needs. Cognitive psychologists have found that a motive sensitizes a person to information relating to that motive: a hungry subject, for example, will perceive food stimuli as larger than other stimuli. See also behaviour genet¬ ics; HUMAN NATURE; LEARNING.

Motley, Marion (b. June 5, 1920,

1999, Cleveland, Ohio,) U.S. gridiron and linebacker for South Carolina State University and the University of Nevada. In 1946 he helped deseg¬ regate professional football by join¬ ing the Cleveland Browns as a fullback. A bruising rusher, he estab¬ lished himself as a running back and helped the Browns to five consecu¬ tive league championships (All- American Football Conference,

1946-49; NFL, 1950).

motocross Form of motorcycle racing in which cyclists compete on a closed course marked out over natural or simulated rough terrain.

Courses vary widely but must be 1.5-5 km (1-3 mi) in length, with steep inclines, hairpin turns, and mud. Motorcycles are grouped into

Leesburg, Ga., U.S.—d. June 27, football player. He played fullback

Motocross racing

KINNEY JONES

1302 I Motoori Norinaga ► Mount Vernon

classes according to engine displacement (e.g., 125-, 250-, 500-cc). It is probably the most physically demanding motorcycle sport.

Motoori Norinaga N.mo-to-'o-re-.no-re-'na-gaN (b. June 21, 1730, Matsuzaka, Japan—d. Nov. 5, 1801, Matsuzaka) Japanese Shinto scholar. Trained as a physician, he came under the influence of the Kokugaku movement, which stressed the importance of Japan’s literary heritage. The critical methods he used in his commentaries on Japanese classics pro¬ vided the theoretical foundation of the modern Shinto revival. Rejecting Buddhist and Confucian interpretations, he traced the genuine spirit of Shinto to Japanese myths and sacred traditions. He reaffirmed the ancient Japanese concept of musubi (the mysterious power of all creation and growth), which has become one of the main tenets of modern Shinto.

motorcycle Bicycle or tricycle propelled by an internal combustion engine. The first motor tricycle was built in 1884 in England, and the first gasoline-engine motorcycle was built by Gottlieb Daimler in 1885. Motor¬ cycles were widely used after 1910, especially by the armed forces in World War I. After 1950 a larger, heavier motorcycle was used mainly for touring and sport competitions. The moped, a light, low-speed motor bicycle that can also be pedaled, was developed mainly in Europe, and the sturdier Italian-made motor scooter also became popular for its economy.

motorcycle racing Sport of running motorcycles on tracks, closed circuits, or natural terrain. The main types are (1) road racing, conducted on a course made up wholly or partly of public roads; (2) trials, conducted both on and off the highway; (3) speedway racing, conducted on a short, flat, oval dirt track; (4) drag racing, conducted on a straight quarter-mile strip of pavement; (5) hill climbs, conducted on a large dirt mound; and (6) motocross. The first international road race took place in Douran, France, in 1905. The most famous race is the Tourist Trophy, established on Britain’s Isle of Man in 1907. Motorcycle racing in North America began in 1903; since 1937 the Daytona 200-mi (320-km) race has been the leading U.S. race.

Motorola, Inc. U.S. manufacturer of wireless communications, elec¬ tronic systems, and semiconductors. The company was founded in 1928 in Chicago by brothers Paul and Joseph Galvin as the Galvin Manufac¬ turing Corp. In 1930 Galvin introduced a low-cost automobile radio under the brand name Motorola, later adding Motorola police radios, home radios, phonographs, two-way radios, and television sets. The company changed its name to Motorola in 1947. Foreseeing a future demand for transistors, Motorola became a leading manufacturer of them in 1958, after licensing a transistor design from Bell Laboratories. Transistor technology led to the development of microprocessors, which Motorola marketed to computer makers in 1974. Although the company worked with IBM Corp. and Apple Computer in 1993 to develop the first con¬ sumer RISC (reduced-instruction-set computing) chip, Motorola realized greater success as a producer of embedded microprocessors—ubiquitous in kitchen appliances, pagers, video games, and handheld personal computers. Motorola was also a leader in the development of cellular telephone systems, and many of its cell phone designs became status symbols.

Motown U.S. recording company that gave its name to the hugely popular style of soul music that it created in the 1960s. It was founded in Detroit, Mich., in 1959 by the songwriter Berry Gordy, Jr. (b. 1929). (Motown, a contraction of “Motor Town,” refers to Detroit’s automotive industry.) It scored its first nationwide hits with “Shop Around” (1960) by the Miracles (see Smokey Robinson) and “Please Mr. Postman” (1961) by the Marvelettes. Its roster soon included the Temptations, the Four Tops, the Supremes, Marvin Gaye, and Stevie Wonder. The songwriting team Holland-Dozier-Holland (see Brian and Eddie Holland) helped create the “Motown sound,” which typically featured lyrical ballads sung to an infectiously rhythmic accompaniment. Motown became one of the most successful black-owned businesses and one of the most influential inde¬ pendent record companies in U.S. history. Later Motown names included the Isley Brothers, Gladys Knight and the Pips, and, in 1969, the Jackson 5 (see Michael Jackson). Motown continued to produce best-selling recordings by new artists such as Lionel Richie into the 1980s. Gordy moved the company headquarters to Los Angeles in 1971, and he finally sold the label to MCA in 1988.

Mott, Lucretia orig. Lucretia Coffin (b. Jan. 3, 1793, Nantucket, Mass., U.S.—d. Nov. 11, 1880, near Abington, Pa.) U.S. social reformer and women’s rights advocate. She attended a Quaker boarding school near

Poughkeepsie, N.Y., where she later taught. In 1811 she married a fellow teacher, James Mott, and she became an official Quaker minister in 1821. The Motts were active in the antislavery campaign, and Lucretia lectured widely on social reform. In 1848 she and Elizabeth Cady Stanton orga¬ nized the Seneca Falls Convention, and she thereafter devoted her atten¬ tion primarily to women’s rights, writing articles and lecturing widely. After the American Civil War, she also worked for voting rights for freed- men. See also abolitionism; woman suffrage.

Moultrie Ymiil-tre, 'mol-treV William (b. Dec. 4, 1730, Charleston, S.C.—d. Sept. 27, 1805, Charleston, S.C., U.S.) American Revolutionary officer. He served in the provincial assembly of South Carolina (1752-62) and gained military experience fighting the Cherokee. In the American Revolution he took command of a log fort on Sullivan’s Island in Charles¬ ton harbour, where he repulsed a British attack in 1776. The fort was named in his honour, and he was made a brigadier general. He fought the British at Beaufort, S.C. (1779), but surrendered with the fall of Charles¬ ton (1780). He later served as governor of South Carolina (1785-87,

1792-94).

Mound Builders See Hopewell culture

Mount, William Sidney (b. Nov. 26, 1807, Setauket, N.Y., U.S.—d. Nov. 19, 1868, Setauket) U.S. painter. He was apprenticed at 17 to his older brother as a sign painter. After studying drawing at the National Academy of Design, he painted historical subjects, but he later turned to genre painting and achieved immediate success with such works as Rus¬ tic Dance After a Sleigh Ride (1830). His portrayals of country life, affec¬ tionate and humorous without being sentimental, are a valuable record of his time. He was one of the first and most notable U.S. genre painters.

Mount Aspiring National Park Park, western South Island, New Zealand. Established in 1964, it has an area of 1,223 sq mi (3,167 sq km), including much of the Southern Alps and Mount Aspiring (9,932 ft [3,027 m]). Its southern boundary is Fiordland National Park. The park’s land¬ scape is varied, including glaciers, mountains, gorges, waterfalls, and passes, and it is the source of headwaters of seven major rivers. Birds common in the park include the tui, bellbird, fantail, and gray warbler. It is part of a regional UNESCO World Heritage site designated in 1990.

Mount Cook National Park Park, west-central South Island, New Zealand. Established in 1953, it has an area of 270 sq mi (700 sq km) and shares a western boundary with Westland National Park. It extends along the crest of the Southern Alps. There are some 27 peaks higher than 10,000 ft (3,000 m) in the park, including Mount Cook (Aoraki, Aorangi), the highest point in New Zealand at 12,316 ft (3,754 m). More than one-third of the park is covered by permanent snow and glacial ice. It is part of a regional UNESCO World Heritage site designated in 1990.

Mount Holyoke College Private liberal arts college for women in South Hadley, Mass. Founded by Mary Lyon as a female seminary in 1837, it was one of the first institutions of higher education for women in the U.S. Baccalaureate courses are taught in the humanities, science and mathematics, and social sciences. Mount Holyoke is part of an edu¬ cational consortium with Amherst, Hampshire, and Smith colleges and the University of Massachusetts at Amherst.

Mount of Olives See Mount of Olives

Mount Rushmore National Memorial Colossal sculpture, Black Hills, southwestern South Dakota, U.S. Sculptures of the heads of presi¬ dents George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, and Abraham Lincoln are carved on the granite face of the mountain, which is 5,725 ft (1,745 m) high. The four heads, each about 60 ft (18 m) high, represent, respectively, the nation’s independence, democratic process, leadership in world affairs, and equality. The memorial was dedicated in 1927. Work on it was carried out during 1927—41 under the direction of Gutzon Borglum.

Mount Vernon Home and burial place of George Washington. It is located in northern Virginia, U.S., on the Potomac River near Washington, D.C. The estate was inherited by Washington in 1752. Near the 18th- century Georgian mansion is a plain brick tomb, built at Washington’s direction, that holds his remains and those of his wife and several family members. After the U.S. government declined to buy it, in 1858 the Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association of the Union raised $200,000 and purchased the house and 200 acres (80 hectares) of the estate; the association still maintains the site.

Mount Wilson Observatory ► mouth-to-mouth resuscitation I 1303

Mount Wilson Observatory Astronomical observatory located atop Mount Wilson, near Pasadena, California, U.S. Founded in 1904 by George Ellery Hale (1868-1938), it was operated jointly with Palomar Observatory as Hale Observatories (1948-80). Its largest optical telescope, with a diam¬ eter of 100 in. (2.5 m), enabled Edwin Hubble and his associates to discover evidence of an expanding universe and to estimate its size.

mountain Landform that rises well above its surroundings, generally exhibiting steep slopes, a relatively confined summit area, and consider¬ able local relief (inequalities of elevation). Mountains are considered larger than hills, but the term has no standardized geologic meaning. Mountains are formed by the folding, faulting, or upwarping of the Earth’s surface due to the movement of plates (see plate tectonics) or by the emplacement of volcanic rock onto the surface. For example, the Hima¬ layan Mountains where India meets the Eurasian Plate were formed by a collision between plates that caused extreme compressional folding and the uplifting of large areas. The mountain ranges around the Pacific basin are attributed to the sinking of one plate beneath another. See also plateau.

mountain ash Any of several shrubs or trees of the genus Sorbus, in the ROSE family, native to the Northern Hemisphere. They are widely cul¬ tivated as ornamentals for their white flower clusters and bright-orange fruits. Most noteworthy are the handsome American mountain ash, or dogberry ( S. americana), and European mountain ash ( S. aucuparia), also called rowan, or quickbeam. The European species grows to 60 ft (18 m), twice as high as the American species.

mountain goat or Rocky Mountain goat Ruminant (bovid species Oreamnos americanus ) of the Yukon to the northern Rockies that is more closely related to antelopes than to goats. Stocky, with a hump at the withers, mountain goats stand about 40 in. (1 m) at the shoulder. Both sexes bear short, hollow, slightly backward-curving, black horns. The shaggy, coarse white hair covers a thick, woolly underfur, and a beard frames the slender muzzle. The hooves are black. Mountain goats are agile climbers and can leap more than 12 ft (3.5 m). They live in small bands above the timberline, eating moss, lichen, and scrub foliage.

mountain laurel Flowering evergreen shrub ( Kalmia latifolia ) of the heath family, occurring in most mountainous regions of eastern North America. It grows to about 3-18 ft (1-6 m) in height and has oval leaves. The rosy, pink, or white flowers appeal' in large clusters above the foli¬ age. The shrub is popular in landscape plantings.

mountain lion See cougar mountain sheep See bighorn

mountaineering or mountain climbing Sport of attaining, or attempting to attain, high points in mountainous regions, mainly for the joy of the climb. The pleasures of mountaineering lie not only in the con¬ quest of the peak but also in the physical and spiritual satisfactions brought about through intense personal effort, ever-increasing proficiency, and contact with natural grandeur. The greater rewards do not come with¬ out considerable risk and danger. The first great peak ascended in mod¬ em times was Mont Blanc, in 1786. Other Alpine peaks followed, capped by the ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865. By the 1910s, most peaks of the Andes, the Rockies, and other Western Hemisphere ranges had been climbed, including Mount McKinley (1913). Beginning in the 1930s a series of successful ascents of mountains in the Himalayas occurred; the summits of many of the Himalayan mountains were not reached until the 1950s, however. Of these climbs, the best known is the 1953 ascent of Mount Everest by Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay. In the 1960s moun¬ taineering became an increasingly technical sport, emphasizing the use of specialized anchoring, tethering, and grappling gear in the ascent of ver¬ tical rock or ice faces.

Mountbatten (of Burma), Louis Mountbatten, 1 st Earl orig. Louis Francis Albert Victor Nicholas, prince of Battenberg

(b. June 25, 1900, Frogmore House, Windsor, Eng.—d. Aug. 27, 1979, Donegal Bay, off Mullaghmore, County Sligo, Ire.) British statesman and

naval commander. Son of Prince Louis of Battenberg and great-grandson of Queen Victoria, he entered the Royal Navy in 1913 and became an aide to the prince of Wales in 1921. In World War II he was allied commander for Southeast Asia (1943^-6) and directed the recapture of Burma. Appointed viceroy of India (1947), he administered the transfer of power from Britain to the independent nations of India and Pakistan and served as the first governor-general of India (1947—48). He became first sea lord (1955-59) and chief of the United Kingdom Defense Staff (1959-65). In 1979, while on a sailing visit to Ireland, he was assassinated by Irish ter¬ rorists who planted a bomb on his boat.

Mountbatten family See Battenberg family Mounties See Royal Canadian Mounted Police

mourning dove Species ( Zenaida macroura) of pigeon (family Columbidae), the common wild pigeon of North America. They have long, pointed tails, and the sides of the neck are violet and pink. Their name comes from their call’s haunt¬ ing, mournful tone. Mourning doves are migratory; the northernmost populations migrate the farthest south. They are popular game birds.