Britannica Concise 2005

Shawnee \sho-'ne\ Algonquian- speaking North American Indian people from the central Ohio River valley. (See Algonquian languages.) Closely related in language and culture to the Fox, Kickapoo, and Sauk, the Shawnee were also influenced by the Seneca and Delaware. In the summer the Shawnee lived in bark-covered houses grouped into large villages near cornfields. Women farmed, and the pri¬ mary male occupation was hunting. In winter the village broke into small patrilineal family groups, which moved to hunting camps. In the 17th cen¬ tury the Shawnee were driven from their home by the Iroquois, scattering into widely separated areas. After 1725 the Shawnee reunited in Ohio. Fol¬ lowing their defeat by Gen. Anthony Wayne (1794), they broke into three independent branches that eventually settled in Oklahoma. Today some 11,000 people claim Shawnee ancestry. See also Tecumseh.

shaykh See sheikh

Shays's Rebellion (1786-87) Uprising in western Massachusetts. In a period of economic depression and land seizures for debt collection, several hundred farmers led by Daniel Shays (17477-1825), who had served as a captain in the Revolutionary army, marched on the state supreme court in Springfield, preventing it from carrying out foreclosures and debt collection. Shays then led about 1,200 men in an attack on the nearby federal arsenal, but they were repulsed by troops under Benjamin Lincoln. As a result of the uprising, the state enacted laws easing the eco¬ nomic condition of debtors.

Shcharansky \sho-'ran-ske\, Anatoly (Borisovich) or Natan Sharansky (b. Jan. 20, 1948, Stalino, Ukraine, U.S.S.R.) Soviet dissi¬ dent and Israeli politician. He studied mathematics and computer program¬ ming at the Moscow Physical-Technical Institute (1966-72) and then worked in Moscow as a computer specialist for the Institute of Oil and Gas. A Jew, he applied for permission to emigrate to Israel in 1973 but was refused and discharged from his job. With an excellent command of English, he became a spokesperson for the dissidents and refuseniks in con¬ tacting Western correspondents to publicize their cause. In 1977 he was arrested by the KGB for treason and espionage, sentenced to 13 years in prison, and sent to the Siberian Gulag. His wife, Avital, who had emigrated to Israel in 1974, championed his cause. Released in 1986, he settled in Israel, where he founded a party stressing the concerns of Russian immi¬ grants, and he was appointed to the cabinet as minister of industry and trade in 1996. He later served as interior minister in Ehud Barak’s government and as housing and construction minister in Ariel Sharon’s government.

She-Chi See She-Ji

She-Ji Vsho-'jeV or She-Chi Ancient Chinese compound deity of the soil and harvests. China’s earliest legendary emperors worshiped She (earth), for they alone had responsibility for the entire earth and country. Since ordinary people had no part in this courtly worship, they came to focus their worship on the god of grain (Ji). Local shrines held two images, one of She and one of Ji, and eventually the two images were considered man and wife.

shear legs Device, often temporary, for lifting heavy weights. It con¬ sisted of three poles lashed together at the top with a block and tackle attached. Shear legs were often used for placing masts in sailing ships.

shear wall In building construction, a rigid vertical diaphragm capable of transferring lateral forces from exterior walls, floors, and roofs to the ground foundation in a direction parallel to their planes. Examples are the reinforced-concrete wall or vertical truss. Lateral forces caused by wind, earthquake, and uneven settlement loads, in addition to the weight of

structure and occupants, create powerful twisting (torsional) forces. These forces can literally tear (shear) a building apart. Reinforcing a frame by attaching or placing a rigid wall inside it maintains the shape of the frame and prevents rotation at the joints. Shear walls are especially important in high-rise buildings subject to lateral wind and seismic forces.

shearing In textile manufacturing, the cutting of the raised nap of a pile fabric to a uniform height to enhance appearance. Shearing machines operate much like rotary lawn mowers, and the amount of shearing depends on the desired height of the nap or pile. Shearing may also be applied to create stripes and other patterns by varying surface height. In animal husbandry, shearing is the cutting off of the fleece of sheep and other wool-bearing animals, using special shears.

shearwater Any of numerous species (family Procellariidae) of long¬ winged seabirds named for their habit of gliding on stiff wings along wave troughs. Typical shearwaters are the 12-17 drab, slender-billed species of Puffinus, 14-26 in. (35-65 cm) long. Shearwaters nest in a burrow on off¬ shore islands and coastal hills in the Atlantic and Mediterranean and throughout most of the Pacific. A colony may consist of hundreds of thousands of pairs; at night, when the calling adults move in and out of the burrows, the din is deafening. See also fulmar, petrel.

sheathed bacteria Group of bacteria found widely in nature in slow- running water. Many species are attached to underwater surfaces. They are characterized by a threadlike, branching arrangement of cells enclosed in a sheath. The sheaths of some are variously encrusted with iron or manganese oxides, depending on the water. One of the best-known is a common species, Sphaerotilus natans\ in polluted water it has thin, colourless sheaths, and in unpolluted water containing iron it has yellow- brown, iron-encrusted sheaths that often grow into long slimy tassels.

Sheba, Queen of (fl. 10th century bc) In Jewish and Islamic tradi¬ tions, ruler of the Kingdom of Saba 5 (Sheba) in southwestern Arabia. In an Old Testament story, she visited King Solomon to test his wisdom. In Islamic tradition she is known as Bilqls and is converted from worship of the sun to worship of God, marrying either Solomon himself or a Ham- danl tribesman. In Persian folklore she is considered the daughter of a Chinese king and a peri (a type of supernatural being). Ethiopian tradi¬ tion names her Makeda; her son by Solomon is seen as the founder of the Ethiopian royal dynasty.

Shebele River See Shabeelle River

Shebeli \sho-ba'-le\ River Somali Shabeelle \sha-'be-le\ River River, eastern Africa. It rises in the Ethiopian Highlands and flows south¬ east through the arid Ogaden Plateau. After crossing into Somalia, it approaches the coast near Mogadishu, then turns southwest to flow par¬ allel with the coast. Its total length is about 1,130 mi (1,820 km). During rainy periods in Ethiopia, it joins the Jubba River, and the combined waters then flow to the Indian Ocean. In drier years it disappears in a series of marshes and sand flats northeast of the Jubba confluence.

Sheeler, Charles (b. July 16, 1883, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—d. May 7, 1965, Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.) U.S. painter and photographer. Educated at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, he initially earned a living as a photographer. His acclaimed series of photographs of the Ford auto¬ mobile plant at River Rouge, Mich. (1927), was followed by a series on Chartres Cathedral (1929). In his paintings, early Cubist influences led to the Precisionism of his maturity. He treated industrial and architectural subjects in an abstract-realist style, emphasizing their formal qualities, as in his painting Rolling Power (1939), which revealed the abstract power of a locomotive’s driving wheels.

Sheen, Fulton J(ohn) (b. May 8, 1895, El Paso, II. U.S.—d. Dec. 9, 1979, New York, N.Y.) U.S. religious leader. He attended parochial school and St. Viator College before being ordained to the priesthood in 1919. He pursued further studies in the U.S. and Belgium. He taught at Catho¬ lic University (Washington, D.C.) from 1926 to 1950. In 1930 he began his 22-year radio career on the program The Catholic Hour, with which he reached an estimated 4 million listeners. In 1951 he became a titular bishop, and he served as bishop of Rochester, N.Y. from 1966 to 1969. In the 1950s he began a weekly television series, Life Is Worth Living ; it was followed by two more series. He was also the author of numerous books. At his death he was one of the best-known clerics in the U.S.

sheep Ruminants (bovid genus Ovis) that have scent glands in the face and hind feet. Homs, if present, are more divergent than those of goats.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1736 I sheep laurel ► Shelley

Species range from 80 to 400 lb (35 to 180 kg). The coat of wild species consists of outer hair underlain by wool. Sheep graze in flocks, prefer¬ ably on short, fine grasses and legumes. They have been domesticated from at least 5000 bc in the Middle East, Europe, and Central Asia. Most domesticated breeds produce fine wool; the few that produce only hair or coarse or long wool are generally raised for meat. The flesh of mature sheep is called mutton; that of immature sheep is called lamb.

sheep laurel or lambkill Open upright woody shrub ( Kalmia angus- tifolia ) of the heath family. Growing 1-4 ft (0.3—1.2 m) high, it has glossy, leathery, evergreen leaves and showy pink to rose flowers. Like other Kalmia species (including mountain laurel) and other members of the heath family, it contains a poison (andromedotoxin). In northwestern North America, where these plants occur, livestock (especially sheep) that graze on nonfertile soils of abandoned pastures and meadows may ingest enough of the plant to become poisoned, potentially fatally.

sheepdog In general, any dog breed developed to herd sheep; specifi¬ cally, the border collie. Most sheepdog breeds stand about 2 ft (60 cm) and weigh over 50 lbs (23 kg). The French briard has bushy brows and a long, waterproof coat. The Belgian sheepdog has long black hair and erect ears. The Hungarian puli has a coat of long ropelike cords. It stands 16-19 in. (41-48 cm) and weighs about 30 lbs (14 kg). See also Old Engush sheep¬ dog, Shetland sheepdog.

sheepshead Species ( Archosargus probatocephalus) of popular edible sport fish in the porgy family, common along southern North American Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coasts. The species has inexplicably become very rare from New England to the Chesapeake Bay area, where it was once prevalent. Sheepsheads have a high forehead and a compressed silver body with wide, dark, vertical bands, most distinct in juveniles. The large flat teeth crush and grind crustaceans and hard-shelled mollusks. Adults are typically 2-2.5 ft (60-75 cm) long and weigh about 20 lbs (9 kg).

sheet See sill

sheet erosion Detachment of soil particles by raindrop impact and their removal downslope by water flowing overland as a sheet instead of in definite channels or rills. A more or less uniform layer of fine particles is removed from the entire surface of an area, sometimes resulting in an extensive loss of rich topsoil. Sheet erosion commonly occurs on recently plowed fields or on other sites having poorly consolidated soil material with scant vegetative cover.

Sheffield City and metropolitan borough (pop., 2001: 513,234), South Yorkshire, England. It is situated at the foot of the Pennines. An Anglo- Saxon village that became the site of a castle and parish church early in the 12th century, it has been known for its cutlery since medieval times. By 1700 it had a monopoly of the English cutlery trade, and it remains the centre of the industry today. It developed a steel industry from the mid-19th century, and several metallurgical innovations, including the process for making stainless steel, originated there. In 1568 Mary, Queen of Scots, was imprisoned in its Norman castle (now in ruins).

Sheffield plate Articles made of copper coated with silver by fusion. The technique was discovered c.

1742 by the Sheffield (Yorkshire,

Eng.) cutler Thomas Boulsover, who noted that the combination of fused silver and copper retained the ductil¬ ity of both metals and acted as one when manipulated. Other workshops in Britain, continental Europe, and North America also produced cook¬ ing and eating utensils of Sheffield plate. After the introduction of elec¬ troplating in 1840, production of Sheffield plate declined; by the 1870s it had all but disappeared.

Admired for its soft, glowing gray lustre, Sheffield-plate ware soon came to be prized and collected.

Sheherazade See Scheherazade

sheikh Vshek, 'shak\ or shaykh Among Arabic-speaking tribes, espe¬ cially Bedouin, the male head of the family, as well as of each succes¬ sively larger social unit making up the tribal structure. The sheikh is

generally assisted by an informal tribal council of male elders. Within the broader Arabic-speaking community, the word may also be used as a title or form of respectful address or to designate a religious authority. Its sig¬ nificance may vary from region to region.

Shekhina Vsho-ke-'na, sho-'ke-noV In Judaism, the worldly presence of God, sometimes conceived of as a divine light. It is said that the She¬ khina descended on the Tabernacle and on Solomon’s Temple, though it was one of the five things lacking in the Second Temple of Jerusalem. There is an affinity between the Shekhina and the Holy Spirit; though the two are not identical, both signify divine immanence, are associated with proph¬ ecy, can be lost due to sin, and are connected with the study of the Torah.

shelduck or sheldrake Any of several short-billed, somewhat goose¬ like, Old World ducks with long legs and an upright stance. They are smaller members of the duck tribe Tadornini (family Anatidae). The com¬ mon shelduck ( Tadorna tadorna ), of Europe and Asia, is black and white with a reddish chest band; the drake has a knob on his red bill. The ruddy shelduck ( Casarca ferruginea), ranging from northern Africa and Spain to Mongolia, is orangish, with a pale head and white wing patches. Drakes usually have melodious whistling calls and are aggressive. In North America, mergansers are sometimes called sheldrakes.

shelf fungus See bracket fungus

Shelikhov Vshe-li-.koft, Gulf of Russian Zaliv Shelikhova

\z3-T y if-'she-li-k3-v9\ Gulf, eastern Russia. Lying between the Siberian mainland and the Kamchatka Peninsula, it is an extension of the Sea of Okhotsk. It extends northward 420 mi (670 km) and has a maximum width of 185 mi (300 km). The tidal ranges in its northern bays are among the greatest in the world. It is closed by ice from December to May.

shell Artillery projectile, cartridge case, or shotgun cartridge. It origi¬ nated in the 15th century as a container for metal or stone shot, dispersed when the container burst after leaving the gun. Explosive shells, in use by the 16th century, were hollow cast-iron balls filled with gunpowder and lit by a fuse. Until the 18th century, such shells were used only in high- angle fire (including mortars). In the 19th century, shells were adopted for direct-fire artillery, notably in the form of shrapnel. Modern artillery shells consist of a casing (usually steel), a propelling charge, and a bursting charge; the propelling charge is ignited by a primer at the base of the shell and the bursting charge by a fuse in the nose. In rifle, pistol, and machine- gun ammunition, the word usually signifies the brass casing that contains the propulsive charge. In shotgun ammunition, the shell is the entire car¬ tridge, including shot, powder, primer, and case.

Shell See Royal Dutch Shell plc

shell structure In building construction, a thin, curved plate structure shaped to transmit applied forces by compressive, tensile, and shear stresses that act in the plane of the surface. They are usually constructed of concrete reinforced with steel mesh (see shotcrete). Shell construction began in the 1920s; the shell emerged as a major long-span concrete structure after World War II. Thin parabolic shell vaults stiffened with ribs have been built with spans up to about 300 ft (90 m). More complex forms of concrete shells have been made, including hyperbolic parabo¬ loids, or saddle shapes, and intersect¬ ing parabolic vaults less than 0.5 in.

(1.25 cm) thick. Pioneering thin- shell designers include Felix Candela and Pier Luigi Nervi.

Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft orig. Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin (b. Aug. 30, 1797, Lon¬ don, Eng.—-d. Feb. 1, 1851, London)

English Romantic novelist. The only daughter of William Godwin and Mary Wollstonecraft, she met and eloped with Percy B. Shelley in 1814.

They married in 1816 after his first wife committed suicide. Mary Shel¬ ley’s best-known work is Franken¬ stein (1818), a narrative of the dreadful consequences of a scien¬ tist’s artificially creating a human

Sheffield plate chamber candlestick by Matthew Boulton, c. 1820; in the Shef¬ field City Museum, Sheffield, South Yorkshire

COURTESY OF SHEFFIELD CITY MUSEUM; MOTTERSHAW PHOTOGRAPHY

Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, detail of an oil painting by Richard Rothwell, first exhibited 1840; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, LONDON

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Shelley ► Sheridan I 1737

being. After her husband’s death in 1822, she devoted herself to publi¬ cizing his writings and educating their son. Of her several other novels, the best. The Last Man (1826), is an account of the future destruction of the human race by a plague.

Shelley, Percy Bysshe (b. Aug. 4 Sussex, Eng.—d. July 8, 1822, at sea off Livorno, Tuscany) English Romantic poet. The heir to rich estates, Shelley was a rebellious youth who was expelled from Oxford in 1811 for refusing to admit author¬ ship of The Necessity of Atheism.

Later that year he eloped with Harriet Westbrook, the daughter of a tavern owner. He gradually channeled his passionate pursuit of personal love and social justice into poetry. His first major poem, Queen Mab (1813), is a utopian political epic revealing his progressive social ideals. In 1814 he eloped to France with Mary Woll- stonecraft Godwin (see Mary Shel¬ ley); in 1816, after Harriet drowned herself, they were married. In 1818 the Shelleys moved to Italy. Away from British politics, he became less intent on social reform and more devoted to expressing his ideals in poetry. He composed the verse tragedy The Cenci (1819) and his master¬ piece, the lyric drama Prometheus Unbound (1820), which was published with some of his finest shorter poems, including “Ode to the West Wind” and “To a Skylark.” Epipsychidion (1821) is a Dantean fable about the rela¬ tionship of sexual desire to spiritual love and artistic creation. Adonais (1821) commemorates the death of John Keats. Shelley drowned at age 29 while sailing in a storm off the Italian coast, leaving unfinished his last and possibly greatest visionary poem, The Triumph of Life.

shellfish Any aquatic mollusk, crustacean, or echinoderm that has a shell. Oysters, mussels, scallops, and clams rank among the most commercially important. Certain gastropod mollusks, such as abalone, whelk, and conch, are also marketed. The main crustaceans are shrimp, lobster, and crab. Among echinoderms, sea urchins and sea cucumbers are locally popular. After being harvested, all shellfish are highly perishable. Many types are cooked live to protect the consumer against the effects of spoilage.

sheltie See Shetland sheepdog Shen-hsi See Shaanxi

Shenandoah National Park National park, Blue Ridge Mountains, northern Virginia, U.S. Formed in 1935, the park consists of 193,537 ac (78,322 ha) and is noted for its scenery, which affords some of the wid¬ est views in the eastern states. It is heavily forested with hardwoods and conifers; wildlife includes deer, foxes, and numerous birds.

Shenandoah Valley Valley, chiefly in Virginia, U.S. The valley is about 150 mi (241 km) long and 25 mi (40 km) wide, extending south¬ west from Harpers Ferry, W.Va., and lying between the Blue Ridge and Allegheny Mountains. It is drained by the Shenandoah River. The route of the famous 19th-century Valley Turnpike (now an interstate highway) was used earlier by Native Americans and later became a main artery for westward expansion. The Shenandoah Valley was the scene of military operations throughout the American Civil War. Today its many parks, lime¬ stone caverns, and scenic drives are tourist attractions. In 2005 the Museum of the Shenandoah Valley opened in Winchester, Va.

sheng \'shaq\ Chinese "sage" or "saint" In Chinese belief, a mor¬ tal who attains extraordinary or supernatural powers by self-cultivation and serves as a model for others. Confucius used the term to refer to exemplary rulers of the past.

Shensi See Shaanxi

Shenyang Vshon-'yaqV or Shen-yang formerly Mukden Ymuk-dsnX City (pop., 2003 est.: 3,995,500), capital of Liaoning province, northeastern China. An ancient city, it was the Manchu capital (1625-44) before the establishment of the Qing (Manchu) dynasty. After 1895 it was

fought over by Russia and Japan in the struggle for Manchuria. It was occupied by the Japanese (1931—45). Taken by the communist forces in 1948, it was a base for their conquest of the Chinese mainland. It is one of China’s leading industrial cities; its manufactures include machinery, wires and cables, textiles, and chemicals. It is also a cultural and educa¬ tional centre.

Shepard, Alan B(artlett), Jr. (b. Nov. 18, 1923, East Derry, N.H., U.S.—d. July 21, 1998, Monterey, Calif.) U.S. astronaut. He graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy and served in the Pacific during World War II. In 1959 he became one of the original seven Mercury program astro¬ nauts. In May 1961,23 days after Yury A. Gagarin became the first human to orbit Earth, Shepard made a 15-minute suborbital flight that reached an altitude of 115 mi (185 km). He later commanded the Apollo 14 flight (1971), the first to land in the lunar highlands. Retiring from NASA and the navy in 1974, he entered private business.

Shepard, Roger N(ewland) (b. Jan. 30, 1929, Palo Alto, Calif., U.S.) U.S. psychologist and cognitive scientist. He received a Ph.D. from Yale University and later worked at Bell Laboratories (1958-66) and taught at Stanford University (from 1968). He is known for his work in multidimensional scaling, the use of spatial models to show similarities and dissimilarities among data. He has also examined the phenomena of “mental rotation,” a form of image transformation. He received the National Medal of Science in 1995.

Shepard, Sam orig. Samuel Shepard Rogers (b. Nov. 5, 1943, Fort Sheridan, Ill., U.S.) U.S. playwright and actor. He worked as an actor and rock musician before turning to play writing; his early one-act dramas and experimental plays were performed Off-Broadway in the 1960s, win¬ ning several Obie Awards. His successful full-length plays, noted for their often surreal images drawn from the American West, science fiction, and popular culture, include The Tooth of Crime (1972), Curse of the Starv¬ ing Class (1976), Buried Child (1979, Pulitzer Prize), True West (1980), Fool for Love (1983; film, 1985), and Simpatico (1996). He wrote the screenplay for Paris, Texas (1984) and acted in numerous movies, includ¬ ing Days of Heaven (1978) and The Right Stuff ( 1983).

shepherd's purse Widespread lawn and roadside weed ( Capsella bursa-pastoris ) of the mustard family, native to the Mediterranean and now found worldwide. Growing as high as 18 in. (45 cm), it is easily recog¬ nized by its flat, heart-shaped, green fruits, borne along the branching flower stalks, which arise from a dandelion-like rosette of deeply cut or almost entire leaves at the base and bear clusters of tiny white flowers. Shepherd’s purse has been much studied to understand embryogenesis (development from zygote to seedling) in flowering plants.

Shepp, Archie (Vernon) (b. May 24, 1937, Fort Lauderdale, Fla., U.S.) U.S. jazz saxophonist and composer. Shepp was originally inspired by John Coltrane. His playing increasingly demonstrated the influence of Ben Webster, with a wide vibrato and gruff tone; his occasional eruptions of harsh screams and multiphonics (two notes played simultaneously) became trademarks of avant-garde saxophone technique. His first record¬ ings were with free-jazz pianist Cecil Taylor (b. 1933) in the early 1960s; thereafter he worked as leader of his own groups. Also a playwright and educator, Shepp became an eloquent spokesman for the new music and its social significance.

Sheraton, Thomas (b. 1751, Stockton-on-Tees, Durham, Eng.—d. Oct. 22, 1806, London) British cabinetmaker. A leading exponent of Neo- classicism, he gave his name to a style of furniture characterized by a firm, feminine refinement of late Georgian and became probably the most pow¬ erful source of inspiration behind the furniture of the late 18th century. His four-part Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterers’ Drawing Book (1791) greatly influenced British and U.S. design. At his best, Sheraton had a natural approach to contemporary design: he used wood for its own sake, rather than covering it with such disguises as gilt or modulating it exces¬ sively with ormolu mounts.

Sheridan, Philip H(enry) (b. March 6, 1831, Albany, N.Y., U.S.—d. Aug. 5, 1888, Nonquitt, Mass.) U.S. army officer. He graduated from West Point and served at frontier posts. In the American Civil War he led a Union division in Tennessee and helped win the Battle of Chattanooga with his cavalry charge up Missionary Ridge. In the East he became com¬ mander of the cavalry (1864) and led raids on Confederate forces around Richmond, Va. As commander of the Army of the Shenandoah, he drove Confederate forces under Jubal Early from the Shenandoah Valley. He

, 1792, Field Place, near Horsham,

Percy Bysshe Shelley, oil painting by Amelia Curran, 1819; in the National Portrait Gallery, London

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, LONDON

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1738 I Sheridan ► Shetland Islands

joined Ulysses S. Grant to help secure Union victories in the Petersburg Campaign. After the war he became general of the army (1883).

Sheridan, Richard Brinsley (Butler) (baptized Nov. 4, 1751, Dub¬ lin, Ire.—d. July 7, 1816, London, Eng.) British playwright, orator, and politician. His family moved to England, and he was educated at Harrow School in London. He rejected a legal career for the theatre. His comedy The Rivals (1775) introduced the popular character Mrs. Malaprop and established him as a leading dramatist. He became manager and later owner of the Drury Lane Theatre (1776-1809), where his plays were pro¬ duced. He won wide acclaim for his comedy of manners The School for Scandal (1777) and showed his flair for satirical wit again in The Critic (1779). His plays formed a link in the history of the comedy of manners between the Restoration drama and the later plays of Oscar Wilde. In 1780 Sheridan became a member of Parliament, where he was a noted orator for the minority Whig party.

sheriff In the U.S., the chief law-enforcement officer for the courts in a county. He is ordinarily elected, and he may appoint a deputy. The sher¬ iff and his deputy have the power of police officers to enforce criminal law and may summon private citizens (the posse comitatus, or “force of the county”) to help maintain the peace. The main judicial duty of the sheriff is to execute processes and writs of the courts. Officers of this name also exist in England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. In England the office of sheriff existed before the Norman Conquest (1066).

Sherman, Cindy (b. Jan. 19, 1954, Glen Ridge, N.J., U.S.) U.S. pho¬ tographer. After graduating from the State University of New York at Buffalo, Sherman began work on Untitled Film Stills (1977-80), one of her best-known projects. The series of 8 x 10-inch black-and-white pho¬ tographs features Sherman in a variety of roles reminiscent of film noir. Throughout her career she would continue to be the model in her pho¬ tographs, donning wigs and costumes that evoke images from the realms of advertising, television, film, and fashion and that, in turn, challenge the cultural stereotypes about women supported by these media. During the 1980s Sherman’s work featured mutilated bodies and reflected concerns such as eating disorders, insanity, and death. She returned to ironic com¬ mentary upon female identities in the 1990s, introducing mannequins and dolls to some of her photographs.

Sherman, John (b. May 10, 1823, Lancaster, Ohio, U.S.—d. Oct. 22, 1900, Washington, D.C.) U.S. poli¬ tician. A brother of William T. Sher¬ man, he served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1855-61). A fiscal expert, he helped establish the national banking system (1863) and supported legislation that returned the U.S. to the gold standard. He served as U.S. secretary of the trea¬ sury (1877-81). In the U.S. Senate (1861-77, 1881-97), he proposed the Sherman Antitrust Act and the Sherman Silver Purchase Act (1890).

He later served briefly as secretary of state (1897-98), resigning the day Congress declared war against Spain.

Sherman, Roger (b. April 19,

1721, Newton, Mass.—d. July 23,

1793, New Haven, Conn., U.S.)

American jurist and politician. Active in trade and law in Connecticut, he served as judge of the superior court (1766-85) and mayor of New Haven (1784-93). A delegate to the Continental Congress, he signed the Decla¬ ration of Independence and helped draft the Articles of Confederation. At the Constitutional Convention, he proposed a compromise on congres¬ sional representation that combined facets of the two opposing plans by the large and small states. The result, called the Connecticut (or Great) Compromise, which was incorporated into the Constitution, provided for a bicameral legislature with representation based on population in one house (House of Representatives) and on the principle of equality in the other (Senate).

Sherman, William Tecumseh (b. Feb. 8, 1820, Lancaster, Ohio, U.S.—d. Feb. 14, 1891, New York, N.Y.) U.S. army general. A brother of John Sherman, he graduated from West Point, served in Florida and

California, then resigned his commission in 1853 to pursue a banking career. He rejoined the Union army when the American Civil War broke out. He fought in the Battle of Bull Run, then served under Ulysses S. Grant at Shiloh and was promoted to major general. With Grant he helped win the Vicksburg Campaign and the Battle of Chattanooga. As commander of the division of the Mississippi, he assembled 100,000 troops for the invasion of Georgia (1864). After engagements with Confederate troops under Joseph Johnston, he captured and burned Atlanta and began his devastating March to the Sea to capture Savannah, leaving a trail of near¬ total destruction. In 1865 he marched north, destroying Confederate rail¬ roads and sources of supply in North and South Carolina. He accepted the surrender of Johnston’s army on April 26. Promoted to general, he suc¬ ceeded Grant as commander of the army (1869-84). Often credited with the saying “War is hell,” he was a major architect of modern total war.

Sherman Antitrust Act (1890) First U.S. legislation enacted to curb concentrations of power that restrict trade and reduce economic compe¬ tition. Proposed by Sen. John Sherman, it made illegal all attempts to monopolize any part of trade or commerce in the U.S. Initially used against trade unions, it was more widely enforced under Pres. Theodore Roosevelt. In 1914 Congress strengthened the act with the Clayton Anti¬ trust Act and the formation of the Federal Trade Commission. In 1920 the U.S. Supreme Court relaxed antitrust regulations so that only “unreason¬ able” restraint of trade through acquisitions, mergers, and predatory pric¬ ing constituted a violation. Later cases reinforced the prohibition against monopoly control, including the 1984 break-up of AT&T. See also antitrust

LAW.

Sherpa Any member of a mountain-dwelling people of Nepal and of Sikkim state, India. Sherpas are of Tibetan culture and descent and speak a Tibetan dialect. They make a living spinning and weaving wool, along with farming and cattle breeding. They have won international renown as porters in the high Himalayas. They number about 120,000.

Sherrington, Sir Charles Scott (b. Nov. 27, 1857, London, Eng.—d. March 4, 1952, Eastbourne, Sussex) English physiologist. By studying animals whose cerebral cortexes had been removed, he showed that reflexes are integrated activities of the total organism, not based on isolated “reflex arcs.” Sherrington’s law states that when one set of muscles is stimulated, muscles opposing their action are inhibited. He showed that the role of proprioception in reflexes that maintain upright posture against gravity is independent of cerebral function and skin sen¬ sation. His work influenced the development of brain surgery and treat¬ ment of nervous disorders, and he coined the terms neuron and synapse. His classic work is The Integrative Action of the Nervous System (1906). In 1932 he shared a Nobel Prize with Edgar Adrian (1889-1977).

sherry Fortified wine of Spanish origin. It takes its name from the prov¬ ince of Jerez de la Frontera in Spain. Essential to its taste is the action of flor, a mildewlike growth encouraged by a slight exposure to air after fer¬ mentation. Also unique is the solera system of blending wines of many vintage years. Sherry is fortified after fermentation with high-proof brandy to 16-18% alcohol. It is served primarily as an aperitif, though sweeter, heavier sherries are used as dessert wines.

Sherwood, Robert E(mmet) (b. April 4, 1896, New Rochelle, N.Y., U.S.—d. Nov. 14, 1955, New York, N.Y.) U.S. playwright. Sherwood was a magazine editor in New York City and a member of the Algonquin Round Table, the centre of a New York literary coterie. He examined the pointlessness of war in his first play. The Road to Rome (1927). Idiot’s Delight (1936), Abe Lincoln in Illinois (1938), and There Shall Be No Night (1940) won Pulitzer prizes. In 1938 he cofounded the Playwrights’ Company, which became a major producing company. During World War II he wrote speeches for Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt and headed the over¬ seas branch of the Office of War Information (1941-44). His book Roosevelt and Hopkins (1948) won a Pulitzer Prize. Many of his plays were adapted for film; his original screenplays include The Best Years of Our Lives (1946, Academy Award).

Sherwood Forest Woodland, Nottinghamshire, England. A former royal hunting ground that is known for its association with the legendary Robin Hood, Sherwood Forest formerly occupied almost all of western Nottinghamshire and extended into Derbyshire. Today a reduced area of woodland remains between Nottingham and Worksop.

Shetland Islands or Zetland Islands Island group (pop., 2001: 21,988), Scotland. The Shetlands comprise some 100 islands located 130

Lancaster, Ohio, U.S.—d. Oct. 22,

John Sherman

COURTESY OF THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Shetland pony ► Shilluk I 1739

mi (210 km) north of the Scottish mainland and about 400 mi (640 km) south of the Arctic Circle. They form the Shetland administrative region; the region’s capital is Lerwick. Fewer than 20 of the islands are inhabited. The northernmost part of Britain, the islands have fjordlike coasts and a climate warmed by the North Atlantic Current. The Norse ruled the Shet- lands from the 8th to the 15th century. In 1472 the islands, with Orkney, were annexed to the Scottish crown. They are famous for their livestock, which includes the Shetland pony and the Shetland sheep. The latter’s fine wool is used in the distinctive Shetland and Fair Isle knitted patterns. The North Sea oil industry has contributed to the economy.

Shetland pony Breed of pony that originated in Scotland’s Shetland Islands. Well adapted to the islands’ harsh climate and scant food supply, Shetlands were used as pack horses. Around 1850 they were taken to England to work in coal mines and to the U.S., where a more refined pony suitable for children was developed. Except for certain dwarf ponies, the Shetland is the smallest breed of horse. Its average height is about 40 in. (102 cm; Shetlands are not measured in hands). Shetlands are long-lived and need little care; they are gentle and even-tempered if properly trained.

Shetland sheepdog or sheltie Breed of sheepdog developed from a Scottish working dog to herd the small sheep of the Shetland Islands.

The sheltie resembles the rough- coated colue but in miniature; it stands 13-16 in. (33^11 cm). Sturdy and agile, it is noted for its herding ability, intelligence, and affectionate nature. Its long, straight coat is gen¬ erally black, brown, or blue-gray with black mottling.

Shevardnadze \,she-v3rd-'nad- zo\, Eduard (Amvrosiyevich)

(b. Jan. 25, 1928, Mamati, Georgia,

U.S.S.R.) Soviet foreign minister (1985-90, 1991) and head of state of Georgia (1992-2003). He rose in the Komsomol hierarchy to become first secretary of its central commit¬ tee in Georgia (1957-61). He later served as a member of the Soviet Union’s Central Committee (1976) and a full member of the Politburo (1985). As foreign minister under Mikhail Gorbachev, he implemented the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan in 1988, new arms treaties with the U.S., and the Soviet Union’s tacit acquiescence in the fall of the commu¬ nist regimes of eastern Europe (1989-90), while promoting the reform policies of glasnost and perestroika. After the Soviet Union’s collapse, he returned to the newly independent republic of Georgia, where he was elected chairman of the State Council (an office then equivalent to presi¬ dent) in 1992 and later that year chairman of parliament. He fought orga¬ nized crime and tried to find solutions for separatist violence in the Georgian provinces of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. After surviving an assassination attempt in August 1995, he was elected president of Geor¬ gia in November. His government faced numerous problems, including a failing economy and charges of corruption and cronyism. In addition, several elections were marred by allegations of irregularities and fraud. Faced with growing unrest, Shevardnadze resigned in November 2003.

Shi'a See ShTite shiatsu See acupressure

Shibusawa Eiichi X.shs-bii-'sa-wa-'a-i-cheV (b. March 16, 1840, Musashi province, Japan—d. Nov. 11, 1931, Tokyo) Japanese industrial¬ ist and government official. The son of wealthy peasants, he received samurai status from the shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu (1837-1913). Fol¬ lowing the Meiji Restoration in 1868, he worked in the finance ministry of the new government. In 1873 he left to become the first president of Dai-ichi Bank (now Dai-ichi Kangyo Bank). In 1880 he organized the Osaka Spinning Mill, a major industrial success. He also created a cotton- spinners’ zaibatsu, or cartel, to help the industry and make mutually advan¬ tageous arrangements with shippers and merchandisers, a practice common in industrializing Japan. He helped create and manage many other companies, founded the Tokyo Chamber of Commerce and Bank¬ ers Assn., and, after retiring, was active in social welfare causes.

shigella \shi-'gel-3\ Any of the rod-shaped bacteria that make up the genus Shigella, which are normal inhabitants of the human intestinal tract and can cause dysentery, or shigellosis. Shigellae are gram-negative (see

gram stain), non-spore-forming, stationary bacteria. S. dysenteriae, spread by contaminated water and food, causes the most severe dysentery because of its potent toxin, but other species may also be dysentery agents.

Shih-chia-chuang See Shijiazhuang

shih tzu Vshe-'dziA Breed of toy dog developed in Tibet from the Peking¬ ese and the Lhasa apso. Sturdily built and short-legged, it stands about 10 in. (26 cm) tall and weighs 18 lb (8 kg) or less. It is longer than it is tall and has a short muzzle, hanging ears, and heavily haired tail, which it carries over its back. Its long, dense coat may be any of several colours and falls over the eyes, forming a beard.

Shihuangdi or Shih Huang-ti Vshir-'hwaq-'deN orig. Zhao Zheng (b. c. 259 bc, Qin state, northwestern China—d. 210 bc, Hebei province) Founder of the Qin dynasty (221-207 bc). His father was king of Qin, which was regarded as barbarous by the central states of China but had developed a strong bureaucratic government under the philoso¬ phy of legalism (see Hanfeizi). Aided by Li Si, Zheng eliminated the other Chinese states until in 221 bc Qin ruled supreme. He proclaimed himself Shihuangdi (“First Sovereign Emperor”) and initiated reforms designed to create a fully centralized administration. He was interested in magic and alchemy, hoping for an elixir of immortality; his reliance on magi¬ cians was strongly condemned by Confucian scholars, many of whom he executed. The scholars also advocated a return to old feudal ways; their obstinacy led him to order the burning of all nonutilitarian books. Tradi¬ tional histories regarded him as the ultimate villain, cruel, uncultivated, and superstitious. Modern historians stress the endurance of his bureau¬ cratic and administrative structure. Though the Qin dynasty collapsed after his death, future dynasties adopted his structures. He was buried in a massive tomb with an army of more than 6,000 terra-cotta soldiers and horses. See also Qin tomb.

Shrite \'she-,it\ Member of the Shi'ite branch of Islam, which resulted from the first fitnah, or split, within the religion over leadership. Mem¬ bers of the political faction that supported ‘Ad, Muhammad’s son-in-law, as the Prophet’s heir after the murder of the third caliph, 'Uthman, the Shl'ites gradually became a religious movement after the murder of 'All. 'All’s followers insisted that a caliph, or imam, be a lineal descendant of 'All and his wife, Fajimah. Shl'ite legal tradition is distinct from the four major schools of thought in Sunnite Islam and is generally regarded as the most conservative. Though Shl'ites represent only about 10% of Mus¬ lims in the world, they are a majority in Iran and Iraq, and there are siz¬ able populations in Yemen, Syria, Lebanon, East Africa, Pakistan, and northern India. The largest subdivision is the Ithna ‘Ashariyyah, or Twelv¬ ers, who recognized 12 historical imams (including 'All); other subsects include the Isma'Iliyyah and the Zaydiyyah.

Shijiazhuang Vshi-'jya-'jwaqV or Shih-chia-chuang City (pop., 1999 est.: 1,338,796), capital of Hebei province, northeastern China. Located on the edge of the North China Plain at the foot of the Taihang Mountains, the site dates to pre-Han times (c. 206 bc). After it came under the Tang dynasty (7th-10th century ad), it was only a local market town. Its growth into one of China’s major cities began in 1905, when the rail¬ way reached the area, stimulating trade and agriculture. Other rail con¬ nections and an extensive road network established it as a communications centre. It developed into an industrial city with admin¬ istrative functions at the end of World War II. It is now one of China’s major industrial, cultural, and economic centres.

shikhara See sikhara

Shikoku \she-'k6-ku\ Smallest main island (pop., 2000 prelim.: 4,148,000) of Japan. It is located south of Honshu and east of Kyushu. Much of its 7,063 sq mi (18,292 sq km) is mountainous, and the popu¬ lation is concentrated in urban areas along the coast. Rice, barley, wheat, and mandarin oranges are among the island’s major crops. Industries include petroleum, textiles, paper, and fishing.

Shillong \shi-'loq\ City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 132,876), northeastern India. It has been an administrative centre since 1864, first as a district headquarters, later as the capital of Assam, and since 1972 as the capital of Meghalaya state. It was destroyed by an earthquake in 1897; completely rebuilt, it is now a resort area and an important agricultural trade centre.

Shilluk \shi-Tuk\ People living on the western bank of the Nile in The Sudan. They speak an Eastern Sudanic language of the Nilo-Saharan family and are sedentary agriculturalists who keep cattle, sheep, and goats.

Shetland sheepdog

SALLY ANNE THOMPSON/EB INC.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1740 I Shiloh ► shinty

Historically, they were united in a single tribal state headed by a divine king whose physical and ritual well-being was held to ensure the state’s prosperity. In addition to several classes of royalty, the Shilluk tradition¬ ally were divided into royal retainers, commoners, and slaves. See also Nilot.

Shiloh Vshl-l6\, Battle of (April 6-7, 1862) Second major engagement of the American Civil War. Union forces under Ulysses S. Grant, includ¬ ing William T. Sherman, camped on the Tennessee River at Pittsburg Land¬ ing, Tenn. (near Shiloh Church), in preparation for an offensive. Confederate forces under A.S. Johnston and P.G.T. Beauregard attacked, surprising the Union troops and forcing their retreat, though Johnston was mortally wounded. A Union counterattack the next day regained the lost ground, and the Confederates withdrew to Corinth, Miss. Both sides claimed victory, but the battle was considered a Confederate defeat. Each side suffered about 10,000 casualties.

Shimabara \she-'ma-ba-ra\ Rebellion (1637-38) In Japanese his¬ tory, last major uprising against Tokugawa rule until the 1860s. A large contingent of peasants, supported by ronin (masterless samurai), rebelled in protest of heavy taxation. After initial success, the uprising was crushed, and an estimated 37,000 rebels were killed. Because many of the peasants were converts to Christianity, their rebellion strengthened gov¬ ernment determination to isolate Japan from foreign influence and vigor¬ ously enforce its proscription of all Christian beliefs and activities.

Shim la formerly Simla City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 142,161), capital of Himachal Pradesh state, northwestern India. The city was built by the British after the Gurkha War (1814-16), on a ridge of the Himalayan foothills some 7,100 ft (2,200 m) high. It served as the British summer capital (1865-1939), and as the headquarters of Punjab (1947-53). Because of its cool climate and scenic setting, it is one of India’s most popular hill resorts.

shimmy See chemin de fer

Shinano \she-'na-no\ River River, Honshu, Japan. The country’s long¬ est river, at 228 mi (367 km), it rises at the foot of Mount Kobushi and flows north-northeast to enter the Sea of Japan (East Sea) at Niigata. It has long served as an inland waterway and has numerous river ports.

Shinbutsu shugo Vshen-.but-su-'shu-.goX Japanese amalgamation of Buddhism and Shinto. The hybridization began on Buddhism’s appearance in Japan (mid-6th century ad), and the practice of building Shinto and Buddhist shrines near each other developed in the 8th century. To sepa¬ rate the two religions, the government issued an edict in 1868 ordering Buddhist priests connected with Shinto shrines either to be reordained as Shinto priests or to return to lay life. Because the state religion was Shinto, the government abolished Buddhist ceremonies in the imperial household. Nevertheless, most Japanese incorporate elements of both religions in their lives, celebrating life-related events (birth, coming of age, marriage) at Shinto shrines but holding Buddhist funeral rites and memorial services.

shinden-zukuri \ , shen-,den-zu- , ku-re\ Japanese architectural style of mansion-estates constructed in the Heian period (794-1185). The form con¬ sisted of a shinden (central building) to which subsidiary structures were connected by corridors. The shinden faced south on an open court, across which was a pond garden. The eastern and western tainoya, or subsidiary living quarters, were attached by watadono (corridors), from which narrow corridors extended south, ending in small pavilions. This layout resulted in a U-shaped arrangement around the court. See also shoin-zukuri.

shiner Any of several small freshwater fishes (genera Notemigonus and Notropis, family Cyprinidae). The common shiner ( Notropis cornutus ) is a blue and silver minnow up to 8 in. (20 cm) long. The golden shiner {Notemigonus cryseleucas ), sometimes called the American roach, is a greenish and golden minnow, about 12 in. (30 cm) long and weighing 1.5 lbs (0.7 kg). It is edible and valuable as bait.

shingle Thin piece of building material made of wood, asphaltic mate¬ rial, slate, metal, or concrete, laid in overlapping rows to shed water. Shingles are widely used as roof covering on residential buildings and sometimes also for siding (see Shingle style). Wood shingles in the U.S. are usually made of cypress, redwood, or Western red cedar.

Shingle style In the U.S., a style of wood-shingle-covered domestic architecture of the 1870s and ’80s. Among the finest examples are Henry Hobson Richardson’s Sherman House (1874-75), Newport, R.I., and Stoughton House (1882-83), Cambridge, Mass. The style grew out of the Queen Anne and Stick styles and was stimulated by a revived interest in

colonial American architecture. The small size of the shingle made it easy to cover a variety of shapes. Like the Stick style, the Shingle style is char¬ acterized by a free-flowing, open plan; open porches and irregular roof lines contribute to the picturesque or rustic effect. The style had a sig¬ nificant influence on Frank Lloyd Wright.

shingles or herpes zoster Vhsr-.pez-'zas-torV Acute viral skin and nerve infection. Groups of small blisters appear along certain nerve seg¬ ments, most often on the back, sometimes after a dull ache at the site; pain becomes more severe when the blisters break out. Caused by the same virus as chickenpox, it probably results from reactivation of seem¬ ingly inactive virus in a partially immune person. Spontaneous recovery from the infection usually occurs within two weeks, but neuralgia may last months or even years longer.

Shingon \'sheq- l goq,\ English Vshin-,gan\ Esoteric Japanese sect based on an interpretation of 9th-century Chinese Buddhism. It holds that the Buddha’s secret wisdom can be developed through special ritual means (see Yoga) employing body, speech, and mind, including the use of sym¬ bolic gestures, mystical syllables, and mental concentration. The whole is intended to arouse a realization of the spiritual presence of the Buddha inherent in all living things. Shingon’s main scripture, the Mahavairo- cana Sutra (“Great Sun Sutra”), is not canonical in other Buddhist schools. Shingon is properly considered a form of Vajrayana, though it was much modified and systematized by KOkai.

Shining Path Spanish Sendero Luminoso Maoist movement in Peru dedicated to violent revolution. It was founded in 1970 by a phi¬ losophy professor, Abimael Guzman Reynoso (b. 1934), as a result of a split in the Peruvian Communist Party. The senderistas began their cam¬ paign among the impoverished Indians of the high Andes, attracting sym¬ pathizers by their emphasis on the empowerment of Indians at the expense of Peru’s traditional elite. They gained control of large areas of Peru through violence and intimidation. By 1992, when Guzman was captured and their influence began to wane, they had caused an estimated 25,000 deaths and seriously disrupted the Peruvian economy. Their new leader, Oscar Ramirez Durand, was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1999.

Shinran \'shen-,ran\ orig. Matsuwaka-Maru (b. 1173, near Kyoto, Japan—d. Jan. 9, 1263, Kyoto) Japanese philosopher and religious reformer. He entered the priesthood at age nine and studied for 20 years at the centre founded by Saicho on Mount Hiei. He later met Honen, founder of the Jodo sect (see Pure Land Buddhism). When Honen’s move¬ ment was suppressed, he and Shinran were exiled. For more than 20 years, Shinran lived an academic and missionary life, compiling the six volumes of his teachings. In 1224 he established Jodo Shinshu (“True Pure Land sect”). He refined the Pure Land teaching that salvation could be attained through chanting the name of the Buddha Amida (Amitabha) by saying that even one such utterance, if made with true faith, was sufficient for salvation. He advocated marriage for his priests to minimize the distance between clergy and laity. Jodo Shinshu is the largest Buddhist denomi¬ nation in modern Japan.

Shinto Indigenous religion of Japan. Based on the worship of spirits known as kami, Shinto has no founder and no official scripture, though its mythology is collected in the Kojiki (“Records of Ancient Matters”) and Nihon shoki (“Chronicles of Japan”), written in the 8th century. The term Shinto (“Way of the Kami”) came into use to distinguish indigenous Japa¬ nese beliefs from Buddhism, which had been introduced into Japan in the 6th century. At Shinto’s core are beliefs in the kami 1 s mysterious creat¬ ing and harmonizing power. According to Shinto myths, in the beginning a certain number of kami simply emerged, and a pair of kami, Izanagi and Izanami, gave birth to the Japanese islands, as well as to the kami who became ancestors of the various clans. The Japanese imperial family claims descent from Izanagi’s daughter, the sun goddess Amaterasu. All kami are said to cooperate with one another, and life lived in accordance with their will is believed to produce a mystical power that gains their protection, cooperation, and approval. Through veneration and observa¬ tion of prescribed rituals at shrines (e.g., ritual purity), practitioners of Shinto can come to understand and live in accordance with divine will. In the early 21st century, Shinto had nearly 2.8 million followers. See also shinbutsu shOgo.

shinty Dr shinny Game similar to hurling and field hockey. Players (12 per team) use curved sticks to hit a small, hard ball into the opposing team’s goal {hail). It is considered the national game of Scotland, where it originated before the 17th century.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

ship ► Shiva I 1741

ship Large floating vessel capable of crossing open waters. The term for¬ merly was applied to sailing vessels with three or more masts; today it usually denotes a vessel of more than 500 tons’ (450 metric tons’) dis¬ placement. The largest ships today are enormous oil tankers, some of which are 500,000 tons (450,000 metric tons) deadweight. Other special¬ ized ships (containerships) carry general freight in standardized contain¬ ers that can be easily loaded, unloaded, and transferred. See also battleship, BRIG, CUPPER SHIP, CORVETTE, DHOW, FRIGATE, JUNK, LONGSHIP, OCEAN LINER, SCHOO¬ NER, YACHT.

ship money English tax levied by the crown on coastal cities for naval defense in time of war. First levied in medieval times, the tax required payment in the form of a number of warships or their equivalent in money. It was revived in 1634 by Charles I to raise extra revenue. He issued six annual writs (1634-39) that extended the imposition to inland towns and sought to establish it as a permanent tax. Its enforcement aroused wide¬ spread opposition and added to the discontent leading to the English Civil Wars. In 1641 the tax was declared illegal by Parliament.

ship of the line Type of sailing warship, the principal vessel of the West’s great navies from the mid-17th to the mid-19th century. It evolved from a tactic in naval warfare known as the line of battle, in which two opposing columns of ships maneuvered to fire their guns broadside against each other. Since the largest ships carrying the biggest guns usually won these battles, this led to the construction of more big line-of-battle ships, or ships of the line. These three-masted ships were often 200 ft (60 m) long, displaced 1,200-2,000 tons (1,100-1,800 metric tons), and had crews of 600-800 men; they usually had 60-110 cannons and other guns arranged along three decks. They eventually gave way to the steam- powered BATTLESHIP.

Shipka Pass Pass in the Balkan Mountains, central Bulgaria. The pass is 4,376 ft (1,334 m) high. A main route between Bulgaria and Turkey, it was the site of fierce fighting during the Russo-Turkish Wars; in one battle (1878), the Turks lost so many soldiers that their leader, Suleyman, earned the name “Shipka butcher.”

Shippen, William, Jr, (b. Oct. 21, 1736, Philadelphia, Pa.—d. July 11, 1808, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.) U.S. physician. He earned his M.D. in Edinburgh. In 1762 he established the first American maternity hospital, and in 1765, with John Morgan, he organized the first medical school in the American colonies, where he became the first systematic teacher of anatomy, surgery, and obstetrics. He was one of the first to use dissected human bodies to teach anatomy. He succeeded Morgan as head medical officer of the Continental Army in 1777. He was a founder and president of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia, the first American medical school.

shipping Transporting of goods and passengers by water. Early civili¬ zations, which arose by waterways, depended on watercraft for transport. The Egyptians were probably the first to use seagoing vessels (c. 1500 bc); the Phoenicians, Cretans, Greeks, and Romans also all relied on waterways. In Asia, Chinese ships equipped with multiple masts and a rudder were making sea voyages by c. ad 200; from as early as the 4th century bc the Chinese also relied heavily on internal waterways to trans¬ port food to their large cities (see Grand Canal). Japan, too mountainous to rely on roads for mass transport, also relied on internal and coastal waterways for shipping from early in its history. The spice trade was a great stimulus to shipping trade; Arabians were sailing to the spice islands before the Christian era and European merchant marines grew up largely because of it. The tea trade had a similar effect, as did the discovery of gold in the New World. From the 17th to the 19th century, the slave trade was a major feature of Atlantic shipping. The U.S. and England were the ascendant shipping nations in the 19th century; Germany, Norway, Japan, The Netherlands, and France joined them in the early 20th century, with Greece dominating the industry by the century’s end. Transoceanic ship¬ ping remains a vital part of the world economy. Many U.S. merchant ships are registered in a third nation to avoid heavy taxes. See also British East India Co.; Dutch East India Co.; French East India Co.

shipworm or pileworm Any of approximately 65 species (family Teredidae) of common marine bivalves that can severely damage wooden structures, including ship hulls and wharves. Its anterior end is covered by a shell; the rest is a tubelike structure, sometimes up to 6 ft (1.8 m) long. File-like ridges on its white shell cut into wood at 8-12 rasping motions a minute. It secretes lime to line its burrow, and its tubelike por¬

tion extends back to the burrow opening. It ingests food particles and oxygen from the water; some wood is also ingested as food.

Shirakawa Hideki (b. Aug. 20, 1936, Tokyo, Japan) Japanese chem¬ ist. He earned a Ph.D. from the Tokyo Institute of Technology in 1966. After graduation he began teaching at the University of Tsukuba. In 1977 he started collaborating with Alan J. Heeger and Alan G. MacDiarmid, conducting experiments on the polymer polyacetylene. Their work dem¬ onstrated that certain plastics can be chemically changed to conduct elec¬ tricity almost as readily as metals. Other conductive polymers were later discovered, and the finding was expected to play a significant role in the emerging field of molecular electronics. With Heeger and MacDiarmid, Shirakawa was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 2000.

Shiraz \she-'raz\ Industrial and commercial city (pop., 1996: 1,053,025), south-central Iran. It was important during the Seleucid (312-175 bc), Parthian (247 bc-ad 224), and Sasanian (c. ad 224-651) periods but reached its economic and cultural peak in the 10th— 11th centuries, dur¬ ing the Islamic period. In the 14th century, Timur occupied Shiraz, which had by that time become a Muslim centre rivaling Baghdad. In 1724 it was sacked by Afghan invaders and later became the capital of the Per¬ sian Zand dynasty (1750-94). Famous for its wine, gardens, shrines, and mosques, it was the birthplace of the Persian poets Sa c d! and Hafez, who remain local icons and whose tombs are located there.

Shire River Vshir-a\ River, southern Malawi and central Mozambique. The most important river in Malawi, it flows 250 mi (402 km) from the southern shore of Lake Malawi into the Zambezi River. In Malawi it drops 1,260 ft (384 m) in a spectacular 50-mi (80-km) stretch of gorges and cataracts. A dam at Liwonde regulates flow from Lake Malawi and pro¬ vides flood control.

Shirer VshIr-or\, William L(awrence) (b. Feb. 23, 1904, Chicago, Ill., U.S.—d. Dec. 28, 1993, Boston, Mass.) U.S. journalist, historian, and novelist. He served as a foreign correspondent and radio broadcaster in Europe and India in the 1920s, ’30s, and ’40s. Berlin Diary (1941) col¬ lects his impressions of European political events. He was blacklisted in the McCarthy era as a leftist sympathizer. He is best known for The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (1969, National Book Award), a massive study of Nazi Germany. His other major historical work is The Collapse of the Third Republic (1969), a study of France. Gandhi (1979) recalls inter¬ views conducted in the 1930s.

shirk In Islam, idolatry and polytheism, both of which are regarded as heretical. The Qu’ran stresses that God does not share his powers with any partner ( sharik ) and warns that those who believe in idols will be harshly dealt with on the Day of Judgment. The concept of shirk has broadened considerably throughout the dogmatic development of Islam, and it has come to be used as the opposite of taw hid (the oneness of God). Different grades of shirk have been distinguished by Islamic law; they include the belief in superstition, belief in the power of created things (e.g., reverencing saints), and belief in those who profess to know the future—all of which pale beside polytheism in seriousness.

Shirley, William (b. Dec. 2,

1694, Preston, Sussex, Eng.—d.

March 24, 1771, Roxbury, Mass.)

American colonial governor. A law¬ yer in England, he moved to Boston in 1731. He was appointed admiralty judge (1733), king’s advocate gen¬ eral (1734), and governor of Massa¬ chusetts (1741-49, 1753-56). In King George's War he planned the British capture of Louisbourg (1745). He became commander of British forces in North America (1755) but was dismissed after the failure of his expedition against Fort Niagara. He served as governor of the Bahamas (1761-67).

Shiva Vshi-vo, 'she-vo\ or Siva Major deity of Hinduism, believed to have many manifestations. Like Vishnu, he is the subject of an elabo¬ rate and sometimes contradictory

Shiva, bronze statue, Madras, c. ad

COURTESY OF THE GOVERNMENT MUSEUM, CHENNAI; PHOTOGRAPH, ROYAL ACADEMY OF ARTS, LONDON

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1742 I Shivaji ► shoin-zukuri

mythology. He is both the destroyer and the restorer, the great ascetic and the symbol of sensuality, the benevolent herdsman of souls and the wrath¬ ful avenger. His female consort is known under various manifestations, including Parvati, Durga, and Kau. In Shaivism he is worshiped as the para¬ mount lord.

Shivaji \'shi-va-je\ or Sivaji (b. Feb. 19, 1630, or April 1627, Shivner, Pune, India—d. April 3, 1680, Rajgarh) Indian king (r. 1674-80), founder of the Maratha kingdom of India. A devout Hindu, he grew up at a time when India was ruled by Muslims, and he found their religious persecu¬ tion intolerable. Collecting a band of followers, he began in c. 1655 to seize weak outposts of the sultan of Bijapur. In 1659 he lured the sultan’s army to its destruction and, possessed of its horses and armaments, became overnight a formidable warlord. The Mughal emperor Aurangzeb sent out his most prominent general and an army of 100,000 to capture him, but Shivaji made a daring escape. Gaining even more strength, he added a naval force to his military might. In 1674 he proclaimed himself an independent sovereign. He forged an alliance with the sultans in the south, thereby blocking the spread of Mughal rule. His rule was noted for its religious tolerance. See also Maratha confederacy.

Shklovsky Vshklof-skeV Viktor (Borisovich) (b. Jan. 24, 1893, St. Petersburg, Russia—d. Dec. 8,1984, Moscow) Russian critic and novelist. From 1914 he was a major voice in the critical movement called Russian Formalism, to which he contributed the concept of ostranenie, or “making it strange.” He argued that literature is a collection of devices that force read¬ ers to view the world afresh by presenting old ideas or mundane experi¬ ences in new, unusual ways. His earlier works include the acclaimed memoir A Sentimental Journey (1923) and The Technique of the Writer’s Craft (1928). Official Soviet displeasure with Formalism later obliged him to write within the constraints of Socialist Realism, and he published histori¬ cal novels, film criticism, and highly praised literary studies.

shock State in which the circulatory system fails to supply enough blood to peripheral tissues to meet basic requirements. Symptoms—weak, rapid pulse; low blood pressure; and cold, sweaty skin—are not all present in every case. Causes include low blood volume, caused by bleeding or fluid loss from burns or dehydration; inability of the heart to pump enough blood, due to heart attack, pulmonary embolism, or cardiac tamponade (compression of the heart by fluid in the membrane around it); and blood¬ vessel dilation as a result of septicemia, allergy (including anaphylaxis), or drugs. All result in reduced capillary blood flow; reflexes increase heart rate and constrict small blood vessels to protect the blood supply to essen¬ tial organs. Without treatment of the underlying cause, these mechanisms fail; since the cause is not always clear, cases tend to require different and occasionally contradictory treatment (e.g., intravenous fluids can save the life of a patient with massive blood loss but can overload a weakened heart).

shock absorber Device for controlling unwanted motion of a spring- mounted vehicle. On an automobile, the springs act as a cushion between the axles and the body and reduce the shocks produced by a rough road surface. Since some combinations of road surface and car speed may result in excessive up-and-down motion of the car body, shock absorbers—which today are hydraulic devices that oppose both compres¬ sion and stretching of the springs—slow down and reduce the magnitude of these vibratory motions. See also damping.

shock therapy See electroconvulsive therapy

Shockley, William B(radford) (b. Feb. 13, 1910, London, Eng.—d. Aug. 12, 1989, Palo Alto, Calif., U.S.) U.S. engineer and teacher. He received a Ph.D. from Harvard University. He joined Bell Labs in 1936, where he began experiments that led to the development of the transis¬ tor. During World War II he was director of research for the U.S. Navy’s Antisubmarine Warfare Operations Research Group; later (1954-55) he was deputy director of the Defense Department’s Weapons Systems Evaluation Group. He established the Shockley Semiconductor Labora¬ tory at Beckman Instruments in 1955. In 1956 he shared a Nobel Prize with John Bardeen and Walter H. Brattain for their work at Bell Labs on the transistor. He taught at Stanford University (1958-74). From the late 1960s he earned notoriety for his outspoken and critical views on the intellectual capacity of blacks.

shoe Outer covering for the foot, usually of leather, with a stiff or thick sole and heel, and generally reaching no higher than the ankle (unlike a boot). Early examples from Mesopotamia were moccasinlike wrap¬

arounds of leather; not until the Hellenistic Age did shoes become luxu¬ rious. The Romans developed shoes fitted for the left and right feet, and differentiated according to sex and rank. In the 14th—15th century, shoes became extremely long and pointed, the points attaining a length of 18 in. (45 cm) or more. In the 16th century, the toes became extremely broad, like a duck’s bill. In the 17th century, shoes had moderately high heels and were often decorated with large rosettes of lace and ribbons, which gave way to gold or silver buckles in the 18th century. The first shoe fac¬ tory opened in 1760, in Massachusetts, but not until the development of modern machinery in the 19th century were shoes made quickly and inexpensively.

Shoemaker, Bill or Willie Shoemaker in full William Lee Shoemaker (b. Aug. 19, 1931, Fabens, Texas, U.S.—d. Oct. 12, 2003, San Marino, Calif.) U.S. jockey. He began his racing career in 1949. He rode in 24 Kentucky Derbies and won four; he also won the Belmont Stakes five times and the Preakness twice. He rode more than 8,800 win¬ ners in his 41-year career, which ended in 1989, and he is considered the greatest American jockey of the second half of the 20th century.

Shoemaker-Levy 9 Comet that collided with t he planet Jupiter in July 1994, discovered by Carolyn and Eugene Shoemaker and David Levy 16 months earlier. The comet was tom apart into more than 20 fragments during a close encounter with Jupiter in July 1992, resulting in a “string of pearls” that collided sequentially with Jupiter two years later over a period of a week, leaving dark spots larger than Earth at their impact sites in Jupiter’s atmosphere.

shden \'sho-'en\ In Japan (c. 8th—15th century), a private, tax-free, often autonomous estate. As the shden increased in numbers, they undermined the political and economic power of the central government and contrib¬ uted to the growth of powerful local clans. Landowners would commend their parcels of land to powerful families or religious institutions with tax-free status, thereby obtaining that status for themselves. All people connected with the land—the powerful patron, the owner, and the estate manager—had rights to part of the income from the land. During the Kamakura period (1192-1333), the shogunate (military government) asserted authority over the shden by inserting its own stewards ( MO ) into each estate to collect taxes. During Japan’s Warring States period, the shden gave way to consolidated landholdings controlled by daimyo (domain lords). See also samurai.

shogi Vsho-ge\ Strategic board game for two players that evolved in Japan from the 8th to the 12th century. Although often called Japanese chess in the West, shogi is played with a board (9 x 9), pieces (flat, wedge-shaped tiles, all of one colour, with rank given by text on each side), and rules that are completely unlike those of chess. Its most unique feature is known as the drop, whereby a captured piece can be placed on an empty square, subject to certain restrictions. Most pieces are promoted to another piece, indicated by flipping its tile, after reaching particular regions of the board. Ownership of each piece is indicated by the direc¬ tion of the wedge.

shogun Vsh6-gon\ Japanese "barbarian-quelling generalis¬ simo" In Japanese history, a military ruler. The title was first used dur¬ ing the Heian period, when it was occasionally bestowed on a general after a successful campaign. In 1185 Minamoto Yoritomo gained military con¬ trol of Japan; seven years later he assumed the title of shogun and formed the first bakufu, or shogunate (see Kamakura period). Later Kamakura sho¬ guns lost real power to the Hojo family while remaining rulers in name. Ashikaga Takauji received the title of shogun in 1338 and established the Ashikaga shogunate (see Muromachi period), but his successors enjoyed even less control over Japan than had the Kamakura shoguns, and the country gradually fell into civil war (see Onin War). Tokugawa Ieyasu’s shogunate (see Tokugawa period) proved the most durable, but the Japa¬ nese penchant for titular rulers prevailed, and in time a council of elders from the main branches of the Tokugawa clan ruled from behind the scenes. Since the title of shogun ultimately came from the emperor, he became a rallying point for those who brought down the shogunate in the Meiji Restoration.

shoin-zukuri \'sh6-en-zu-'ku-re\ Style of Japanese domestic architec¬ ture. The name is taken from a feature called the shoin, a study alcove with a built-in desk. Other common features included the tokonoma and chigai-dana (built-in shelves). The style, derived from Zen Buddhist monastic dwellings, gradually replaced the shinden-zukuri style during the Muromachi period (1338-1573). It is characterized by a new modesty of

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shoji > Shoshone I 1743

scale (forced on the aristocracy by loss of income); asymmetry and an irregular flowing together of masses; and the use of solid-wall construc¬ tion and sliding shoji, rather than the movable partitions that divided the main living space in the shinden.

shoji \'sho-je\ In Japanese architec¬ ture, sliding partition doors and win¬ dows made of a latticework wooden frame and covered with a tough, translucent white paper. When closed, they softly diffuse light throughout the house. In summer they can be slid back or removed, opening the house to the outside—a desirable arrangement in Japan because of the extreme humidity.

Shoji are a feature of the shoin-zukuri style.

Sholem Aleichem Vsho-lom-o- 'la-ksnA orig. Sholem Yakov

Rabinowitz (b. Feb. 18, 1859, Pereyaslav, Russia—d. May 13, 1916, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Russian writer. Drawn to writing as a youth, he became a private tutor at age 17 and later served as a government rabbi. Beginning in 1883 he published more than 40 widely translated volumes of novels, stories, and plays in Yiddish. English translations from his 14-volume collected works include Jewish Children and The Old Coun¬ try. His best-known character, Tevye the dairyman, was the subject of a volume of short stories that later was the basis for the musical Fiddler on the Roof ( 1964).

Sholes, Christopher Latham (b. Feb. 14, 1819, near Mooresburg, Pa., U.S.—d. Feb. 17, 1890, Milwaukee, Wis.) U.S. inventor. His first experiments were with numbering and letter-writing machines. In 1868 he was granted a patent for a typewriter with Carlos Glidden and Samuel W. Soule; later improvements brought him two more patents. In 1873 he sold his rights for $12,000 to the Remington Arms Co., which developed the machine that was marketed as the Remington Typewriter.

Sholokhov Vshol-s-kafX, Mikhail (Aleksandrovich) (b. May 24,

1905, Veshenskaya, Russia—d. Feb. 21, 1984, Veshenskaya, U.S.S.R.) Russian novelist. A native of the Don River region, he served in the Red Army and joined the Communist Party in 1932. He is best known for the huge novel The Quiet Don, translated in two parts as And Quiet Flows the Don (1934) and The Don Flows Home to the Sea (1940). A portrayal of the struggle between the Cossacks and Bolsheviks, it was heralded in the Soviet Union as a powerful example of Socialist Realism and became the most widely read novel in Russia. It became controversial when Alek¬ sandr Solzhenitsyn and others alleged that it was plagiarized from the Cos¬ sack writer Fyodor Kryukov (d. 1920). Sholokhov’s later novels include Virgin Soil Upturned (1932-60). He received the Nobel Prize for Litera¬ ture in 1965.

Shona Cluster of Bantu-speaking peoples living in eastern Zimbabwe, west-central Mozambique, and southern Zambia. Numbering about nine million, they cultivate corn, millet, and sorghum and keep cattle. Their villages consist of mud-and-wattle huts, granaries, and common cattle kraals. Shona traditional culture, now fast declining under Christianizing and urbanizing influences, was noted for its ironwork, pottery, and music. Magic, witchcraft, and sorcery remain important. The Shona are believed to have built Great Zimbabwe.

shooting Sport of gun marksmanship. It typically involves firing at tar¬ gets with rifles, pistols, and shotguns. World championship competitions are held for the small-bore rifle, free rifle, centre-fire pistol, free pistol, rapid-fire pistol, air rifle, air pistol, and shotgun. Shooting has been an Olympic sport since the modem games began in 1896; women’s events were established in 1984. See also skeet shooting; trapshooting.

shooting star See meteor

shopping mall or shopping centre Collection of independent retail stores, services, and parking areas constructed and maintained by a management firm as a unit. It is a 20th-century adaptation of the histori¬ cal marketplace. In the U.S., postwar migration from cities to suburbs and

increased automobile use created a perceived need for centralized shop¬ ping facilities. The urban shopping arcade developed out of the need for shelter from the weather; Buffalo, N.Y., and Cleveland, Ohio, have charm¬ ing trussed and glass-roofed examples. The next generation of shopping malls, the large regional centre sited in a vast sea of parking lots, bears little resemblance to its small, arcaded ancestors. Two of the world’s larg¬ est malls are the West Edmonton Mall in Alberta, Canada, and the Mall of America in Bloomington, Minn. In recent years large shopping malls have attempted to revive an arcadelike atmosphere, often featuring atri¬ ums and balconies.

shore See coast

Shore Temple Complex of elegant shrines (c. 700), one among a num¬ ber of Hindu monuments at Mahabalipuram, on the coast of Tamil Nadu state, India. It is considered the finest early example of medieval south¬ ern Indian temple architecture. Unlike most of its neighbours at the site, it is built of cut stones rather than carved out of caves. It has two shrines, one dedicated to Shiva and the other to Vishnu. Its style is characterized by a pyramidal kutina- type tower that consists of stepped stories topped by a cupola and finial, a form quite different from the northern Indian SIKHARA.

Short Parliament See Long Parliament

short story Brief fictional prose narrative. It usually presents a single significant episode or scene involving a limited number of characters. The form encourages economy of setting and concise narration; character is disclosed in action and dramatic encounter but seldom fully developed. A short story may concentrate on the creation of mood rather than the telling of a story. Despite numerous precedents, it emerged only in the 19th century as a distinct literary genre in the works of writers such as E.T.A. Hoffmann, Heinrich Kleist, Edgar Allan Poe, Prosper Merimee, Guy de Maupassant, and Anton Chekhov.

Shorter, Wayne (b. Aug. 25, 1933, Newark, N.J., U.S.) U.S. saxo¬ phonist and composer. After studying at New York University and serv¬ ing in the U.S. Army, he played with Art Blakey’s group (1959-64), acting as its music director. Shorter then joined Miles Davis’s remarkable mid- 1960s group, which included Herbie Hancock, bassist Ron Carter (b. 1937), and drummer Tony Williams (b. 1945). In 1970 Shorter and Joe Zawinul (b. 1932) formed Weather Report, the most significant jazz-rock “fusion” band of the 1970s, with bassist Jaco Pastorius (1951-87). Shorter wrote many distinctive jazz standards.

shorthair cat Breed of domestic cat. Show standards call for a sturdily built cat with strong-boned legs, a round head, round eyes, and ears that are rounded at the tips. The coat must be short and may be of almost any colour or pattern. Some colours, such as blue cream, are infrequently found in shorthairs; others, such as tabby (stripes and mottled patterns in silver, brown, blue, and red), are common.

shorthand or stenography \st3-'na-gr9-fe\ System for rapid writ¬ ing that uses symbols or abbreviations for letters, words, or phrases. Employed since Greek and Roman times, shorthand has been used in England since the 16th century. Popular modern systems include Pitman, Gregg, and Speedwriting. Many are phonetic and call for writing words as they sound (e.g., in the Pitman system, deal, may, and knife are writ¬ ten del, ma, and nif). Shorthand has been used in reporting proceedings of legislative bodies and courts and in taking dictated business correspon¬ dence.

Shorthorn or Durham Blocky, short-horned breed of beef cattle developed in the late 18th century by crossbreeding of local cattle in the county of Durham, Eng. Colour can be white, solid or white-marked red, or roan. The Shorthorn is the only roan-coloured modern cattle breed. It is popular throughout the world. Special strains include the Milking, or Dairy, Shorthorn, raised for milk and beef, and the Polled Shorthorn, a hornless variety.

Shoshone \sh3-'sho-ne\ Group of closely related North American Indian peoples living in the Great Basin region of the U.S. Their language belongs to the Numic group of the Uto-Aztecan family. The Shoshone are usually divided into four groups: Western (unmounted) Shoshone, cen¬ tred in eastern Nevada; Northern (mounted) Shoshone of northwestern Utah and southern Idaho; Wind River Shoshone in western Wyoming; and Comanche in western Texas. The Western Shoshone subsisted through hunting and gathering. The Northern Shoshone and Wind River Shoshone

Shoin-zukuri interior in the Ginkaku Temple, Kyoto, showing a chigai-dana (left background) and a shoin with shoji (right background), late 15th cen¬ tury

OGURO PLANNING CO.-FPG

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1744 I Shoshone River ► Shrewsbury

probably acquired horses by 1680 and adopted much of Plains Indian cul¬ ture; they hunted buffalo, used tepees and skin clothing, and warred with other tribes. The Shoshone are closely related to the Ute, Paiute, Gosiute, and Bannock. After splitting from the Wind River group, the Comanche moved south. The Shoshone number about 10,000.

Shoshone \sh3-'sho-ne, sho-'shon\ River River, northwestern Wyo¬ ming, U.S. Formed by the uniting of two headstreams in the Absaroka Range in Yellowstone National Park, it flows northeast 100 mi (160 km) to join the Bighorn River near the Montana border. The river was named for the Shoshone Indians.

Shostakovich \,shas-t3-'ko-vich\, Dmitry (Dmitriyevich) (b. Sept. 25, 1906, St. Petersburg, Russia—d. Aug. 9, 1975, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Russian composer. Shaped by his intellectual parents and the political turmoil of his youth, he was admitted to the St. Petersburg Con¬ servatory at age 13. His Symphony No. 1 (1924-25) attracted international attention for its convincing command of a large scale and its expressive palette ranging from unaffected lyricism to bitter satire to grand heroics. He experimented with avant-garde trends in his next symphonies and theatre works, such as the opera Lady Macbeth ofMtsensk (1932; revised as Kat¬ erina Izmaylova). The denunciation of Lady Macbeth by the Soviet authorities in 1936 led to his adopting a very different style that was serious and elegiac, with a directness that appealed to the public. His wartime Sym¬ phony No. 7 (1941), thought to portray the German invasion, became a symbol of patriotism. After his music was denounced by the government in 1948, he was again devastated and began putting his most personal feelings into chamber works, particularly the remarkable 15 string quartets. With the Cold War “thaw” of the late 1950s, he composed two outspokenly per¬ sonal late symphonies, including the 13th (1962). He is remembered as the greatest Russian composer to follow Igor Stravinsky.

shot put Field event in which a metal ball is heaved for distance. It derives from the ancient event of “putting the stone”; later a shot (can¬ nonball) was substituted. A 16-lb (7.3-kg) shot was adopted for men in the first modem Olympic Games (1896); an 8.8-lb (4-kg) weight is used by women.

shotcrete or gunite Concrete applied by spraying. Shotcrete is a mix¬ ture of Portland cement, aggregate, and water conveyed by compressed air to a spray gun. For structural uses, shotcrete is usually sprayed over a framework of reinforcing bars and steel mesh. Because it can take any shape, is easily coloured, and can be sculpted after application, it is used for a variety of specialized structures, including artificial rock walls, zoo enclosures, canopies, shell structures, pools, and dams. It is sometimes used to bind the walls of tunnels.

shotgun Smoothbore shoulder firearm designed to fire a number of pel¬ lets, or shot, that cover a large target area after they leave the muzzle. It is used mainly against small game such as birds. The earliest examples were the fowling pieces that appeared in 16th-century Europe. Repeating shotguns, in which several cartridges could be loaded at once, became available in the 1880s. The range of a modern shotgun is about 50 yards (45 m).

Shotoku in full Shotoku Taishi \sho-'to-ku-'ta-e-she\ English Crown Prince Shotoku (b. 574, Yamato, Japan—d. April 8, 622, Yamato) Important Japanese regent and scholar of the Asuka period who promoted Buddhism and Confucianism, reinstituted embassies to China, and adopted the Chinese calendar and court ranks. He built the HoryO Temple and is sometimes credited with writing the Seventeen-Article Con¬ stitution, which describes Confucian ethical concepts and the Chinese bureaucratic system. Since his death he has been regarded as a Buddhist saint.

shoveler Any of four species (genus Anas, family Anatidae) of dabbling ducks having a long, spoon-shaped bill. The migratory northern shoveler (A. clypeata) inhabits shallow marshes and lagoons in the Americas, Europe, Africa, and Asia. The male has a green head, white breast, chest¬ nut belly and sides, and a blue patch on the fore wing. It uses its bill to sift small organisms and seeds from the mud; in deeper waters, it skims the surface for plankton. The other species are the South American red shoveler (A. platalea)\ the Cape, or Smith’s, shoveler (A. smithii ) of South Africa; and the Australasian, or blue-winged, shoveler (A. rhynchotis).

show jumping Competitive riding of horses through an obstacle course. Horses run the course one at a time, and the winner is judged according to jumping ability and speed. Individual and team jumping

events have been part of the Olympic Games since 1912. The President’s Cup is the world team championship.

Showa emperor See Hirohito

Showa Vsho-9\ period (1926-89) Period of Japanese history corre¬ sponding to the reign of Hirohito, the Showa emperor. The first decades of the period were marked by the rise of militarism in the 1930s and by Japan’s disastrous participation in World War II, resulting in the coun¬ try’s complete collapse and ultimate surrender. The postwar era was one of rehabilitation, during which it joined the UN (1956), hosted the 1964 Summer Olympics, and held the Osaka World Exposition in 1970. Japan experienced a so-called “economic miracle,” with annual growth averag¬ ing 10% in 1955-60 and higher in the years following. In the 1980s the Japanese economy became one of the world’s largest and most sophisti¬ cated, with per capita income surpassing that of the U.S. Japanese soci¬ ety became increasingly urban, with one-tenth of the population living in Tokyo by mid-decade. U.S. influence on popular culture was strong, and young Japanese emulated their U.S. counterparts in numerous ways. Other societal changes during the Showa period included more people living in nuclear families than in extended families, love marriages rather than arranged marriages, fewer children per family, and more opportunities for women. See also Heisei period; Occupation (of Japan).

shrapnel \'shrap-n 3 l\ Originally, a type of projectile invented by the Brit¬ ish artillery officer Henry Shrapnel (1761-1842), containing small spheri¬ cal bullets and an explosive charge to scatter the shot and fragments of the shell casing. A time fuse set off the explosive charge late in the shell’s flight, when it was near opposing troops. The resulting hail of high-velocity debris was often lethal; it caused most of the artillery-inflicted wounds in World War I. In World War II a high-explosive bursting charge that fragmented the shell’s iron casing made shrapnel balls unnecessary; the term shrapnel came to be used for the shell-casing fragments.

Shreve, Henry Miller (b. Oct. 21, 1785, Burlington county, N.J., U.S.—d. March 6, 1851, St. Louis, Mo.) U.S. inventor and explorer. He grew up on the western Pennsylvania frontier and began making trading voyages after his father’s death in 1799. In the War of 1812 he was skip¬ per of the Enterprise, the second steamboat on the Mississippi, carrying supplies for Andrew Jackson’s army. Though it was the first steamboat to reach Louisville, Ky. (1815), the trip convinced Shreve of the need for a new design for river steamers. His design for the Washington —with a flat shallow hull, a steam engine on the main deck, and a second deck— established the Mississippi steamboat type. To clear rivers of debris, he later designed the first snag boat. His camp on the Red River in Louisi¬ ana grew into a permanent settlement as Shreveport.

Shreveport City (pop., 2000: 200,145), northwestern Louisiana, U.S. It is located on the banks of the Red River. In 1837 Shreveport was founded on land bought from the Caddo Indians. The city became a Con¬ federate state capital and army headquarters during the American Civil War. It developed rapidly after oil was discovered in 1906 and is now a commercial and industrial centre for a three-state region. Barksdale Air Force Base is near the city.

shrew Any of more than 300 species of small insectivores constituting the family Soricidae. About 40% of these species live in Africa, but shrews are also found throughout the Northern Hemisphere. Shrews are absent from Australia and most of South America. They have tiny eyes and ears, a movable snout, and long, hook-tipped incisors. Typically 2 to 3 in. (6 to 8 cm) long, with a shorter tail, many shrews weigh only about 0.5 oz (14 g). Some are considered the smallest mammals, weighing only a few grams, with bodies less than 2 in. long. Most species live in ground lit¬ ter, but some live in burrows or trees and a few are semiaquatic. Because they are so small, shrews have the highest metabolic rates of any mam¬ mals (with pulses as high as 800 beats per minute). They spend most of their time searching for food, as they can survive only a few hours with¬ out eating. Their normal prey is invertebrates such as worms, though some will eat other small animals as well. Some species have toxic saliva (pain¬ ful to humans). Raptors and snakes eat shrews, but mammals avoid them. Tree shrews (family Tupaiidae) belong to a separate mammalian order (Scandentia) unrelated to true shrews.

Shrewsbury Town (pop., 1995 est.: 63,000), borough of Shrewsbury and Atcham, administrative and historic county of Shropshire, England. It is the county seat of Shropshire. Located on the English-Welsh border, Shrewsbury is encircled by the River Severn. Founded in the 5th century

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Shrewsbury ► shuffleboard I 1745

ad by the Welsh kingdom of Powys, it became part of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Mercia at the end of the 8th century. An 11th-century grant to Roger de Montgomery, who founded its abbey, made it one of the first English earldoms. Prosperity came to the area in the late Middle Ages after centuries of fighting with the Welsh ended and trading in Welsh wool and flax began. The town was the birthplace of Charles Darwin.

Shrewsbury, Charles Talbot, duke and 12th earl of (b. July 24, 1660—d. Feb. 1, 1718, London, Eng.) English statesman. He inher¬ ited his father’s title at age seven and was raised as a Catholic. He became a Protestant in 1679 and in 1688 was one of seven men who invited Wil¬ liam of Orange to seize power from James II. After aiding the successful rebellion, Shrewsbury served William III as secretary of state (1689-90, 1694-99) and was created a duke in 1694. Shifting his allegiance from the Whigs, he served in a Tory administration as lord lieutenant of Ire¬ land (1710-14) and was appointed by Queen Anne as lord high treasurer (1714). He obtained recognition of George I as the legitimate royal heir and assured the peaceful succession of the house of Hanover.

Shridhara (fl. c. 750, India) Highly esteemed Hindu mathematician who wrote several treatises on Indian mathematics. His extant works are the partially preserved Pcitiganita (“Mathematics of Procedures”), Gan- itasara (“Essence of Mathematics”), and Ganitapanchavimashi (“Math¬ ematics in 25 Verses”). Pcitiganita consists of versified mathematical rules, without proofs. The first part treats arithmetic operations (includ¬ ing the calculation of squares, square roots, cubes, and cubic roots) for both integers and fractions, reductions of fractions, and proportions. The second part presents mixture problems and various series before it breaks off in the midst of rules for plane figures. He composed Ganitasara and Ganitapanchavimashi as epitomes of a larger work, which may or may not have been Patiganita. He gave the first correct formulas in India for the volume of a sphere and of a truncated cone.

shrike Any of about 64 species of solitary, predatory songbirds (family Laniidae), especially any of the 25 species of the genus Lanius. Shrikes kill insects, lizards, mice, and birds with their bill or may impale their prey on a thorn (earning them the name butcher bird). Most species are gray or brownish and have a harsh call; several Eurasian species have reddish or brown markings. The great gray shrike (L. excubitor ), called northern shrike in Canada and the U.S., is about 10 in. (25 cm) long and has a black mask. The only other New World species is the similar but smaller loggerhead shrike (L. ludovicianus) of North America.

shrimp Any of approximately 2,000 decapod species (suborder Natan- tia) having a semitransparent body flattened from side to side and a flex¬ ible abdomen terminating in a fan¬ like tail. The appendages are modified for swimming, and the antennae are long and whiplike.

Shrimps occur in shallow and deep ocean waters and in lakes and streams. Species range from less than an inch (a few millimeters) to about 8 in. (20 cm) long. Larger spe¬ cies are often called prawns. Shrimps swim backward by rapidly flexing the abdomen and tail. They eat small plants and animals; some species eat carrion. Many species are commercially important as food. See also FAIRY SHRIMP.

Shripati (fl. c. 1045, Rohinikhanda, India) Indian astronomer-astrologer and mathematician. He wrote Ganitatilaka (“The Ornament of Mathemat¬ ics”) and the astronomical works Siddhantashekhara (“The Crest of Established Doctrines”), Dhikotidakarana (“Procedure Giving Intellec¬ tual Climax”), and Dhruvamanasa (“Permanent Mind”). Siddhantashek¬ hara includes two chapters on mathematics; as one of the few surviving documents from this period, it sheds important light on the state of Indian algebra between Brahmagupta and Bhaskara II. For horoscopic astrology, Shripati wrote Jatakakarmapaddhati (“Way to the Computation of Nativ¬ ity”) and Jyotisharatnamala (“A Jewel Necklace of Astral Science”), which were highly influential on the development of astrology in India.

Shropshire Vshrap-shir\ Administrative (pop., 2001: 283,240), geo¬ graphic, and historic county, western England. It is divided by the River Severn; its county seat is Shrewsbury. Remnants left by Neolithic, Bronze Age, and early Iron Age inhabitants have been found in the region. In the

1st century ad the Romans built a fortress at Viroconium, one of the larg¬ est towns in Roman Britain. The Saxon conquest brought the construc¬ tion of Offa's Dyke, marking the England-Wales border. After the Norman Conquest of 1066, a double line of castles was established as fortifica¬ tion against the Welsh. In the 13th century the high quality of Shropshire wool brought prosperity to the region. In the early 18th century it became the greatest iron-producing area in England. Iron founding and agricul¬ ture remain important. The administrative county of Shropshire comprises five districts: Bridgnorth, North Shropshire, South Shropshire, and the boroughs of Oswestry and Shrewsbury and Atcham.

Shroud of Turin See Shroud of Turin

shrub Any woody plant that has several stems, none of which is domi¬ nant, and is usually less than 10 ft (3 m) tall. When much-branched and dense, it may be called a bush. Intermediate between shrubs and trees are arborescences, or treelike shrubs (10-20 ft, or 3-6 m, tall). Trees are gen¬ erally defined as woody plants more than 20 ft (6 m) tall, having a domi¬ nant stem, or trunk, and a definite crown shape. These distinctions are not reliable, however; for example, under especially favourable environmen¬ tal conditions, some shrubs may grow to the size of an arborescence or even a small tree.

Shu \'shii\ In Egyptian religion, the god of the air and supporter of the sky, created by the god Atum. Shu and his sister Tefnut (goddess of moisture) were the first couple of the group of nine gods called the Ennead of Heliopolis. Of their union were born Geb and Nut. Shu was portrayed in human form with an ostrich feather on his head. He was often represented supporting with uplifted arms the body of Nut arched above him. Later he was frequently termed the son of Re, and he was also identified with Onuris, a warrior god.

Shu (907 -65) Ancient name for Sichuan and the name of two of the 10 kingdoms included in China’s Ten Kingdoms period (907-c. 980), spe¬ cifically the Qian (Former) Shu (907-25) and the Hou (Later) Shu (934- 65). The kingdom of Shu was located in present-day Sichuan. Aside from 10 years of instability that occurred between the two Shu regimes, the area experienced peace and prosperity. Poetry flourished, as did Buddhism and Taoism. See also Five Dynasties, Three Kingdoms.

Shu ching See Shu jing Shu Maung See U Ne Win

Shubert Brothers U.S. theatrical managers and producers. After emi¬ grating from Russia with their parents in 1882, the two oldest brothers, Lee (1872-1953) and Sam (c. 1875-1905), leased theatres and presented plays in Syracuse, N.Y., in the 1890s. By 1900 Jacob (1880-1963) had joined the business, and the brothers leased their first theatres in New York City. Coming into conflict with the Theatrical Syndicate, which controlled U.S. theatrical bookings, they led an independent movement to fight the syndicate and prevailed after a long legal battle. After Sam’s death, Lee and Jacob built theatres across the U.S. and came to own more than 60 legitimate houses and many vaudeville and movie theatres. They produced more than 1,000 different shows, including 600 plays, revues, and musi¬ cals. Theatrical unions such as Actors’ Equity were formed in response to their often sharp business practices. Charged with monopoly practices in 1950, they sold a number of theatres in 1956 but retained prestigious houses in many cities.

Shubra al-Khaymah \shu-'bra-el-'ka-m9\ City (pop., 1996: 870,716), Egypt. It is a northern suburb of Cairo, on the eastern bank of the Nile River. It was formerly a marketplace supplying Cairo with agri¬ cultural produce from the rich delta area. In the 1820s the Ottoman vice¬ roy of Egypt built the country’s first European-style factories and schools there, and it developed as an industrial centre. The city lies west of the southern terminus of the Isma'iliyyah Canal, which links the Suez Canal with the Nile.

Shudra Vsu-dro, 'shii-droX or Sudra Fourth and lowest of the varnas, or social classes, of Hindu India. Traditionally composed of artisans and labourers, it probably originally included all conquered peoples of the Indus civilization as they were assimilated into the caste system. Members are not permitted to participate in the upanayana and thus cannot study the Vedas. The high end of the Shudra includes some landowners; at the low end are untouchables. See also Brahman; Kshatriya; Vaishya.

shuffleboard Game in which two or four players use long-handled cues to shove disks into scoring areas of a diagram marked on a flat,

Peneus setiferus , an edible shrimp

MARINELAND OF FLORIDA

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1746 I Shugen-do ► Sibelius

smooth surface (6 x 52 ft [1.8 x 15.8 m]). It was popular in England as early as the 15th century, especially with the aristocracy; it later became popular as a deck game among travelers on ocean liners and cruise ships. The current form of the game was defined at St. Petersburg, Fla., U.S., in

Shugen-do Vshii-'gen-'doN Japanese religious tradition combining folk beliefs with Shinto, Buddhism, and elements of Daoism. The practitioner engages in spiritual and physical disciplines to attain power against evil spirits. Shugen-do flourished in the Heian period and allied itself with the esoteric schools of Buddhism, Tendai (Chinese Tiantai), and Shingon. Many Buddhist priests belonging to esoteric traditions regularly devel¬ oped Shugen-do techniques, and Shugen-do practitioners often served as Shinto priests. The government abolished Shugen-do in 1872. After 1945, with the establishment of religious freedom, some Shugen-do groups attempted a revival, but the tradition’s membership and influence remain greatly diminished.

Shujing or Shu-ching \'shu-'jiq\ One of the Five Classics of Chinese antiquity. Documenting China’s ancient history, the Shujing contains the oldest Chinese writing of its kind. It consists of 58 chapters, of which 33 are generally considered authentic works of the 4th century bc or earlier. The first 5 chapters purport to preserve the sayings and recall the deeds of emperors who reigned during China’s legendary golden age; the next 4 are devoted to the Xia dynasty; the next 17 chapters deal with the Shang dynasty; and the final 32 chapters cover the Western Zhou dynasty.

Shula, Don(ald Francis) (b. Jan. 4, 1930, Grand River, Ohio, U.S.) U.S. football coach. He played football for John Carroll University and the Baltimore Colts and other NFL clubs. After coaching collegiate foot¬ ball, he became head coach of the Colts (1963-69); under Shula the team won 71 games, lost 23, and tied 4. As coach of the Miami Dolphins (1970-96), he became the first NFL coach to win 100 games in 10 sea¬ sons; in 1972-73 the Dolphins became the first team to go undefeated through an entire season and the play-offs, culminating in a Super Bowl victory. Shula holds the all-time NFL record for victories, with 347.

Shull, George Harrison (b. April 15, 1874, Clark county, Ohio, U.S.—d. Sept. 28, 1954, Princeton, N.J.) U.S. botanist and geneticist. He acquired his doctorate in 1904 and worked thereafter primarily for the Carnegie Institute at Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., and at Princeton Univer¬ sity. He developed a method of breeding corn that made the seed capable of thriving under various soil and climatic conditions, as a result of which com yields per acre were increased 25-50%. Shull developed his first hybrids before 1910, though commercial production did not begin until 1922. He founded the journal Genetics in 1916. See also Edward Murray East.

Shun \'shun\ In Chinese mythology, one of the three legendary emper¬ ors, along with Yao and Da Yu, of the golden age of antiquity (c. 23rd century bc), singled out by Confucius as models of integrity and virtue. Though his father repeatedly tried to murder him, Shun remained loyal to him. Because heaven and earth knew of Shun’s virtue, animals assisted him in all his labours. The emperor Yao bypassed his own son to select Shun as his successor, and he gave Shun his two daughters in marriage. Shun is credited with standardizing weights and measures, regulating waterways, and organizing the kingdom into provinces.

Shute, Nevil orig. Nevil Shute Norway (b. Jan. 17, 1899, Ealing, Middlesex, Eng.—d. Jan. 12, 1960, Melbourne, Vic., Australia) English- born Australian novelist. Trained as an aeronautical engineer, Shute drew on technical detail in his fiction. His early works include So Disdained (1928) and What Happened to the Corbetts (1939), a foretaste of the bombing of civilians in World War II. After the war he settled in Austra¬ lia, where he set his later novels. Reflecting a growing despair about the future of humanity, they include A Town Like Alice (1950; film, 1956) and his best-known work, On The Beach (1957; film, 1959), a vivid picture of the nuclear annihilation of the human race.

shuttle In the weaving of cloth, a spindle-shaped device used to carry the crosswise threads (weft) through the lengthwise threads (warp). Not all modern looms use a shuttle; shuttleless looms draw the weft from a nonmoving supply. Shuttle looms fall into two groups according to whether the shuttle is moved by hand or automatically. The second kind is often described as an automatic loom, but except for shuttle movement it is no more automatic in its operation than the hand-moved or so-called nonautomatic loom. See also flying shuttle.

Shwe Dagon Vshwa-,da-gun\ Pagoda in Yangon (Rangoon) that is the centre of Burmese religious life. A Buddhist temple complex begun in the 15th century, the cone-shaped Shwe Dagon is constructed of brick and is completely covered with gold. Raised over a relic chamber, it was rebuilt several times and was brought to its present height of 326 ft (99 m) in 1841 by King Tharrawaddy. The pagoda sits atop a hill that rises 168 ft (51 m) above the city.

Shymkent \shim-'kent\ or Chimkent City (pop., 1999 est.: 360,100), south-central Kazakhstan. It lies at an elevation of 1,680 ft (512 m) in the foothills of the Ugam Range, north of Tashkent. Originally a settlement on the caravan route from Central Asia to China, it dates to at least the 12th century ad. Destroyed by nomad attacks several times, it became part of the khanate of Qo'qon in the early 19th century and was annexed by the Russian Empire in 1864. It lies on the Turkistan-Siberian Railroad, and its population grew dramatically in the 20th century. It is now an indus¬ trial and cultural centre.

SI system See International System of Units Sia See Hu, Sia, and Heh

Siad Barre Vse-.ad-'bar-aV Mohamed (b. c. 1919, Ganane, Italian Somaliland—d. Jan. 2, 1995, Lagos, Nigeria) President of Somalia, 1969— 91. He attended military school in Italy, and when Somalia achieved independence in 1960 he was made a colonel in its army. He seized power in a bloodless coup after the president’s assassination in 1969. Under Siad Barre, Somali forces invaded a disputed area in southeastern Ethiopia in 1977, but they were eventually repelled. His government was charged with widespread human rights abuses, and from 1988 government forces repeatedly clashed with rebels. With Somalia in a state of civil war and on the brink of mass starvation, he fled into exile in Nigeria in 1991.

Siam See Thailand

Siamese cat Breed of slender, short-haired domestic cat that originated in Thailand (Siam). The Siamese has a pale fawn or gray body with dark points on the ears, face, legs, and tail. The points may be dark brown (seal point), blue-gray (blue point), milk-chocolate brown (chocolate point), pinkish gray (lilac point), or reddish orange (red point). The head is wedge-shaped. The blue eyes are slanted and may be crossed, though crossed eyes and kinked tail are discouraged by breeders of show ani¬ mals. Siamese are considered highly intelligent and are very vocal, with a distinctive yowling mew.

Siamese fighting fish Freshwater ily Belontiidae or Anabantidae), noted for the males’ pugnacity toward one another. A native of Thai¬ land, it was domesticated there for use in contests. Combat consists mainly of fin nipping and is accom¬ panied by a display of extended gill covers, spread fins, and intensified colouring. This slender fish grows to about 2.5 in. (6.5 cm) long. In the wild it is predominantly greenish or brown, with red fins; domesticated, it has been bred with long, flowing fins and in a variety of colours, such as red, green, blue, and lavender.

Siamese twins See conjoined twins

Sian See Xi'an Siang River See Xiang River

Sibelius \si-'bal-y3s\, Jean orig. Johan Julius Christian Sibel¬ ius (b. Dec. 8, 1865, Hameenlinna, Fin.—d. Sept. 20, 1957, Jarvenpaa) Finnish composer. He played violin and composed as a child, and later he studied composition with Karl Goldmark (1830-1915). After initially concentrating on chamber music, he rapidly developed into an orchestral composer. He became involved with the movement for national indepen¬ dence from Russia, and his nationalism resulted in works based on Finn¬ ish folklore, such as Kullervo (1892), the Karelia suite (1893), Legends from the Kalevala (1893), and Finlandia (1900). His major achievements were his seven symphonies (1899-1924), the Violin Concerto in D Minor

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Siberia ► Siddons I 1747

(1903), and Tapiola (1926). His works, marked by a sweeping but mel¬ ancholy Romanticism, achieved international popularity. He wrote noth¬ ing in his last 30 years.

Siberia Region, north-central Asia, largely in Russia. It extends from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean and from the Arctic Ocean to central Kazakhstan and the boundaries of China and Mongolia; it covers more than 5,000,000 sq mi (13,000,000 sq km). It is notorious for the length and severity of its almost snowless winters. Temperatures of -90 °F (-68 °C) have been recorded. The first settlers probably arrived in southern Siberia in the Paleolithic Period. The area was under Chinese influence from c. 1000 bc, followed by the Turkic-Mongols in the 3rd century bc. Russian trappers and Cossack explorers (see Cossacks) colo¬ nized it in the late 16th century, and by the mid-18th century most of Siberia was under Russian rule. It was connected to other parts of Russia by the Trans-Siberian Railroad. Eastern Siberia was the scene of the anti- Bolshevik government of Aleksandr Kolchak (1918-20). It was made part of the Russian S.F.S.R. in 1922. Russia exiled criminals and political prisoners there, and in the 1930s Joseph Stalin set up forced-labour camps that fueled industrial growth. When Russian factories were relocated there during World War II, it played an important role in the war effort. It has deposits of coal, petroleum, natural gas, diamonds, iron ore, and gold; its chief industrial products include steel, aluminum, and machinery. South¬ ern Siberia produces wheat, rye, oats, and sunflowers. Its main cities include Novosibirsk, Omsk, Krasnoyarsk, and Irkutsk.

Siberian husky Breed of dog developed in Siberia by the Chukchi people, who used it as a sled dog, companion, and guard. It was brought to Alaska in 1909 for sled-dog races and became established as a consis¬ tent winner. A graceful dog with erect ears and a dense, soft coat, it stands 20-24 in. (51-60 cm) and weighs 35-60 lbs (16-27 kg). It is usually gray, tan, or black and white; head markings may resemble a cap, mask, or spectacles. The breed, kept pure for hundreds of years in Siberia, is noted for intelligence and a gentle temperament.

Siberian peoples Any of a large number of small ethnic groups living in Siberia. Most engage either in reindeer herding or fishing, while some also hunt furbearing animals or farm and raise horses or cattle. In the past, many had both summer and winter dwellings, their winter homes some¬ times being partially or entirely underground and their summer homes being various styles of tent. Shamanism was common, and the family was the basic societal unit. The Soviet government attempted to settle Siberian peoples on collective farms and to introduce new occupations, but some groups, such as the Koryak and the Nenets, still engage in their traditional pursuits. Other Siberian peoples include the Chukchi, Evenk, Ket, Khanty, Mansi, Sakha, and Yukaghir. See also Paleo-Siberian languages.

Siberut V.se-bo-'ruA Island, Indonesia. The largest island in the Men- tawai group, it lies off the western coast of Sumatra, Indonesia. It is 25 mi (40 km) wide and 70 mi (110 km) long. The coast is low and swampy; the inland is savanna. Agriculture is the chief occupation.

Sibyl Prophetess of Greek legend. She was a figure of the mythical past whose prophecies, phrased in Greek hexameters, were handed down in writing. In the late 4th century bc, the number of Sibyls multiplied, and the term sibyl was treated as a title. Sibyls were associated with various oracles, especially those of Apollo, who was said to be their inspiration. They were typically depicted as extremely old women who lived in caves and delivered their prophecies in an ecstatic frenzy. A famous collection of prophecies, the Sibylline Books , was traditionally kept in the temple of Jupiter, to be consulted only in emergencies.

Sichuan Vse-'chwan, 'se-'chwan\ or Ssu-ch'uan conventional Szechwan Province (pop., 2002 est.: 86,730,000), upper Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) valley, southwestern China. It is bordered by Qinghai, Gansu, Shaanxi, Guizhou, and Yunnan provinces, Chongqing municipal¬ ity, and Tibet. It has an area of 188,000 sq mi (487,000 sq km) and encom¬ passes the central depression called the Sichuan (or Red) Basin; its capital is Chengdu. Sichuan is one of China’s most densely populated and eth¬ nically diverse provinces. It was among the first areas to be settled by the Chinese (5th century bc). From the Zhou dynasty (1046-256 bc) until the Song dynasty (ad 960-1279), it was administered through various politi¬ cal subdivisions. It was established as a province during the Qing dynasty (1644-1911/12). During the Sino-Japanese War (1937^15), it served as the seat (at Chongqing) of the Nationalist government; the Japanese never penetrated the area. It is China’s leading producer of rice, corn (maize), sweet potatoes, cattle, and pigs. The most industrialized province of south¬

western China, it is a centre for coal mining, petroleum refining, and chemical production. Sichuan’s spicy cuisine is renowned worldwide.

Sicilian school Group of Sicilian, southern Italian, and Tuscan poets centred in the courts of Frederick II (r. 1194-1250) and his son Manfred of Sicily (d. 1266). They established the vernacular, as opposed to Provencal, as the standard language for Italian love poetry and are also credited with inventing two major Italian poetic forms, the canzone and the sonnet. Some 125 of their poems are extant, many by Giacomo Da Lentini (fl. 13th century), the school’s senior poet. The Sicilian-school sonnet became, with variations, the dominant poetic form in Renaissance Italy and Elizabethan England, where it was modified to form the English, or Shakespearean, sonnet.

Sicilian Vespers (1282) Massacre of the French that began a Sicilian revolt against the Angevin king Charles I. Backed by Peter III of Aragon, the rising broke out when Sicilians killed some insulting French soldiers at vespers in the church of Santo Spirito in Palermo. The people of the city followed suit and massacred 2,000 of its French inhabitants. All of Sicily soon revolted and sought help from the Aragonese, and the war became a French-Aragonese struggle for possession of Sicily. The con¬ flict was finally resolved when the Sicilians chose Frederick III, brother of the king of Aragon, as their ruler in 1302.

Sicily Vsi-s9-le\ Italian Sicilia \si-'sil-y3\ Island, Italy. Sicily is sepa¬ rated from the mainland by the Strait of Messina. The largest island (9,830 sq mi [25,460 sq km]) in the Mediterranean Sea, it is also the site of Europe’s highest active volcano, Mount Etna. The capital is Palermo. Sicily’s strategic location at the centre of the Mediterranean has made the island a crossroads of history. The Greeks colonized it in the 8th-6th cen¬ turies bc, and in the 3rd century bc it became the first Roman province. It came under Byzantine rule in the 6th century ad and fell in 965 to Arabs from North Africa. It was taken in 1060 by the Normans. In the 12th-13th centuries and again in the 18th century it formed part of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. During the 19th century it was a major centre of revolu¬ tionary movements; in 1860 it was liberated from the Bourbons, and in 1861 it was incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy. Agriculture is its eco¬ nomic mainstay; industries include oil refining, food processing, wine making, and shipbuilding. Together with the islands of Egadi, Lipari, Pelagie, and Panteleria, Sicily forms an autonomous region of Italy (pop., 2001 prelim.: 4,866,202).

sickle-cell anemia Blood disorder (see hemoglobinopathy) seen mainly in persons of Sub-Saharan African ancestry and their descendants and in those from the Middle East, the Mediterranean area, and India. About 1 in 400 blacks worldwide has the disease, caused by inheriting two copies of a recessive gene that makes those with one copy (about 1 in 12 blacks worldwide) resistant to malaria. The gene specifies a variant hemoglobin (hemoglobin S or Hb S) that distorts red blood cells (erythrocytes) into a rigid sickle shape. The cells become clogged in capillaries, damaging or destroying various tissues. Symptoms include chronic anemia, shortness of breath, fever, and episodic “crises” (severe pain in the abdomen, bones, or muscles). Hydroxyurea treatment triggers production of fetal hemo¬ globin (Hb F), which does not sickle, greatly lessening severity of crises and increasing life expectancy, pre¬ viously about 45 years.

Sicyon \'si-se-9n\ Ancient city, northern Peloponnese, southern Greece. Located 11 mi (18 km) northwest of Corinth, Sicyon was influential in Greek history, attaining its greatest power in the 6th century bc under Cleisthenes, grandfather of Cleisthenes of Athens. During the 4th century bc it was celebrated for its school of painters and sculptors, which included Lysippus. In the 3rd century bc it gained prominence under Aratus, who brought it into the Achaean League.

Siddons, Sarah orig. Sarah Kemble (b. July 5, 1755, Brecon,

Brecknockshire, Wales—d. June 8,

1831, London, Eng.) British actress.

VI l,

b'

Sarah Siddons, chalk drawing by J. Downman, 1787; in the National Por¬ trait Gallery, London

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1748 I Side ► Siemens-Martin process

She acted with her father’s traveling company and married actor William Siddons in 1773. Her performance as Isabella in Fatal Marriage at the Drury Lane Theatre in 1782 was highly successful; she was instantly acclaimed as the leading tragedienne of the time. Siddons played Shakes¬ pearean parts, notably Lady Macbeth, from 1785 until she retired in 1812. She was the subject of well-known portraits by Thomas Gainsborough and Joshua Reynolds.

Side Vse-doV Ancient city, southwestern Anatolia. The most important port of ancient Pamphylia, it originally was situated on the Mediterranean Sea coast; it now lies inland. Though it was founded by Aeolian Greeks, a peculiar non-Greek language was spoken there. Alexander the Great occupied it (333 bc); the Seleucid king Antiochus III was defeated there by a Roman army in 190 bc. In the 1st century bc, Cilician pirates made it their chief slave market. The ruins include the remains of a colossal theatre, built on arches and considered one of the finest in Anatolia.

side horse See pommel horse

sidereal \sl-'dir-e-ol\ period Time required for a celestial body in the solar system to complete one revolution with respect to the fixed stars (as observed from a fixed point outside the system). A planet’s sidereal period can be calculated from its synodic period. The sidereal period of the Moon or an artificial satellite of Earth is the time it takes to return to the same position against the background of stars. See also day.

siderite VsI-do-.riA or chalybite Vka-lo-.bltX Iron carbonate (FeC0 3 ), a widespread carbonate mineral that can be an ore of iron. The mineral commonly occurs in thin beds with shales, clay, or coal seams (as sedi¬ mentary deposits) and in hydrothermal metallic veins (as gangue, or waste rock).

sidewinder Species ( Crotalus cerastes ) of small, nocturnal rattlesnake, found in sandy deserts of Mexico and the southwestern U.S. It is 18-30 in. (45-75 cm) long. It has hornlike scales above its eyes and is pale tan, pinkish, or gray, with an inconspicuous spotted pattern on the back and sides. It moves by looping itself obliquely across the sand, leaving a char¬ acteristic J-shaped trail. Its venomous bite is usually not fatal to humans.

Sidgwick, Henry (b. May 31,1838, Skipton, Yorkshire, Eng.—d. Aug. 29, 1900, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire) British philosopher. Educated at Cambridge, he remained there as a fellow (from 1859) and professor (from 1883). His Methods of Ethics (1874) is considered by some the most sig¬ nificant 19th-century ethical work in English. Drawing on the utilitarianism of John Stuart Mill and the categorical imperative of Immanuel Kant, he pro¬ posed a system of “universalistic hedonism” that would reconcile the apparent conflict between the pleasure of self and the pleasure of others. His other writings include Principles of Political Economy (1883) and Ele¬ ments of Politics (1891). He also cofounded the Society for Psychical Research (1882) and helped found Cambridge’s first women’s college.

SIdT Muhammad ibn Yusuf See Muhammad V

STdT Muhammad Idris al-Mahdl al-SanusT See Idris I

siding Material used to surface the exterior of a building to protect against exposure to the elements, prevent heat loss, and visually unify the facade. The word siding implies wood units, or products imitative of wood, used on houses. There are many different types of siding, includ¬ ing clapboard, horizontal lap siding, vertical board siding, and shingles. Board and batten siding, sometimes found in Carpenter Gothic houses and very modest structures, differs from the common clapboard in that it con¬ sists of vertical wood boards with their butt joints covered by battens (narrow strips), imparting a seamed appearance. Both aluminum and polyvinyl-fluoride-coated siding (commonly called vinyl siding) were developed as maintenance-free alternatives to wood clapboard; they mimic its horizontal boards. Fiberboard, a pressed-wood-pulp product, is sometimes used, though its long-term durability is limited. In larger build¬ ings, the exterior covering is called cladding, and may be of brick, glass in a metal framework, or stone, concrete, or metal panels.

Sidney, Sir Philip (b. Nov. 30,1554, Penshurst, Kent, Eng.—d. Oct. 17, 1586, Arnhem, Neth.) English courtier, statesman, soldier, and poet. Born into an aristocratic family and educated to be a statesman and soldier, Sid¬ ney served in minor official posts and turned to literature as an outlet for his energies. Astrophel and Stella (1591), inspired by Sidney’s passion for his aunt’s married ward, is considered the finest Elizabethan sonnet cycle after William Shakespeare’s sonnets. The Defence ofPoesie (1595), an urbane and eloquent plea for imaginative literature, introduced the critical ideas of

Renaissance theorists to England. His heroic romance Arcadia, though unfinished, is the most important work of English prose fiction of the 16th century. None of his works was published in his lifetime. Wounded in action while soldiering in the Netherlands, he died from an infection, and he was widely mourned as the ideal gentleman of his day.

Sidon Vsid- 3 n\ Arabic Sayda Seaport (pop., latest est.: 140,000), south¬ western Lebanon. Located on the site of a city founded in the 3rd mil¬ lennium bc, it was a principal city of Phoenicia from the 2nd millennium bc and a parent city of Tyre. Ruled successively in ancient times by the Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians, it was conquered by Alexander the Great (c. 330 bc). Under Roman rule by the 1st century bc, it was an important centre for the manufacture of glass and purple dyes. It changed hands several times during the Crusades and fell to the Muslims in 1291. It flourished for a while under Ottoman rule after 1517.

Sidra Ysi-dreV, Gulf of or Gulf of Sirte \'sir-,ta\ Inlet of the Medi¬ terranean Sea, north-central coast, Libya. It extends 275 mi (443 km). In August the gulf’s water temperature reaches 88 °F (31 °C), the warmest in the Mediterranean. It was the scene of the Battle of Sirte in World War II (1939—45), during which a British naval convoy thwarted attacks by Italian warships and German bombers. In the early 1980s Libya laid claim to the entire gulf, prompting minor clashes with U.S. naval forces in the area.

SIDS See SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME

Siegel Vse-golV Bugsy orig. Benjamin Siegel (b. Feb. 28, 1906, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.—d. June 20, 1947, Beverly Hills, Calif.) U.S. gang¬ ster. He began his career extorting money from Jewish peddlers on New York’s Lower East Side. He joined with Meyer Lansky and began operat¬ ing bootlegging and gambling rackets; they later formed the forerunner of Murder, Inc. In 1937 he was sent to develop rackets on the West Coast, and he soon set up gambling dens and ships, as well as narcotics smug¬ gling and blackmail operations. In 1945 he built the Flamingo Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas, Nev. Originally budgeted at $1.5 million, its cost was driven to $6 million through his skimming. This angered Lansky and other bosses, and Siegel was murdered in his home.

Siegfried \'sig-,fred,\ German Vzek-,fret\ or Sigurd Hero of German and Old Norse mythology noted for his outstanding strength and courage. He is one of the heroes of the Poetic Edda and the Nibelungenlied, and he figures in many different, sometimes inconsistent, legends. In the earliest stories, Siegfried is presented as a boy of noble lineage who grew up without parental care, but other accounts provide elaborate detail of a courtly upbringing. One legend tells of his battle with a dragon, and another of his acquiring treasure. He also plays a part in the story of Brun¬ hild, in which he meets his death. He is the hero of Richard Wagner’s operatic tetralogy The Ring of the Nibelung. See also Kriemhild.

Siemens Vse-manzV Sir (Charles) William orig. Karl Wilhelm Siemens (b. April 4, 1823, Lenthe, Prussia—d. Nov. 19, 1883, London, Eng.) German-born British engineer and inventor. He immigrated to Brit¬ ain in 1844. In 1861 he patented the open-hearth furnace (see open-hearth process), which was soon being widely used in steelmaking and eventu¬ ally replaced the earlier Bessemer process. He also made a reputation and a fortune in the steel cable and telegraph industries and was a principal in the company that laid the first successful transatlantic telegraph cable (1866). His three brothers were also eminent engineers and industrialists (see Siemens AG).

Siemens Vse-monzN AG German electrical-equipment manufacturer. The first Siemens company, Siemens & Halske, was founded in Berlin in 1847 to build telegraph installations. Under Werner Siemens (1816-92) and his three brothers (including William Siemens), it expanded to pro¬ duce dynamos, cables, telephones, electric power, and electric lighting. In 1903 Siemens & Halske transferred its power-engineering activities to the new Siemens-Schuckertwerke GmbH, and in 1932 Siemens-Reiniger- Werke AG was established to produce medical equipment. The compa¬ nies expanded greatly during the Third Reich; after World War II, Siemens officials were charged with using slave labour and participating in the construction and operation of the Auschwitz and Buchenwald camps. The Siemens companies flourished again in the 1950s, and by 1966, when the three separate companies merged to form Siemens AG, were among the world’s largest electrical suppliers. Siemens products include electrical components, computer systems, microwave devices, and medical equip¬ ment.

Siemens-Martin process See open-hearth process

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Siena ► Siger de Brabant I 1749

Siena \se-'e-na\ ancient Saena Julia City (pop., 2001: 54,366), west¬ ern Italy. It is located south of Florence. Founded by the Etruscans, Siena later passed to the Romans and the Lombards; in the 12th century it became a self-governing commune. Rivalry with Florence made Siena the center of pro-imperial Ghibellinism in Tuscany. It was conquered by Charles I (Charles of Anjou), king of Naples and Sicily, in 1270 and joined the Guelph confederation (see Guelphs and Ghibellines). It was an impor¬ tant banking and commercial centre until surpassed by Florence in the 13th—14th centuries. Conquered by the Holy Roman emperor Charles V in 1555, it was ceded to Florence in 1557. Modern Siena is a market town and tourist centre; historic sites there include the Gothic-Romanesque cathedral, the University of Siena (founded 1240), and the Piazza del Campo, where the Corsa del Palio, a horse race originating in medieval times, is still held.

Sienkiewicz \sh y en-'k y e-v y ech\, Henryk (Adam Alexander Pius) (b. May 5, 1846, Wola Okrzejska, Pol.—d. Nov. 15, 1916, Vevey, Switz.) Polish novelist. In 1869 he began to publish critical works show¬ ing the influence of positivism. He worked as a newspaperman and pub¬ lished successful short stories before producing the great trilogy consisting of With Fire and Sword (1884), The Deluge (1886), and Pan Michael (1887-88). Describing Poland’s struggles against Cossacks, Tatars, Swedes, and Turks, the novels stress Polish heroism in a vivid style of epic clarity and simplicity. The widely translated Quo Wadis? (1896), set in Rome under Nero, established his international reputation. He received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1905.

Sierra Club U.S. organization for the conservation of natural resources, headquartered in San Francisco. It was founded in 1892 by a group of Californians, including John Muir, who wanted to sponsor wilderness out¬ ings in Pacific Coast mountain regions. As its first president, Muir initi¬ ated the club’s involvement in political action on behalf of nature conservation. With branches in all 50 states, it works to educate the pub¬ lic on environmental issues and lobbies local, state, and federal agencies for environmental legislation.

Sierra Leone \se-,er-3-le-'6n\ officially Republic of Sierra Leone

Country, western Africa. Area: 27,699 sq mi (71,740 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 5,018,000. Capital: Freetown. The Mende and Temne are the

largest of about 18 ethnic groups. Lan¬ guages: English (official), Krio (derived from English and a variety of African lan¬ guages). Religions: Islam (predominantly Sunni), traditional beliefs, Christianity. Cur¬ rency: leone. Sierra Leone has four physical regions: the coastal swamp; the Sierra Leone Peninsula, with thickly wooded mountains that rise from

the swamps; the interior plains, consisting of grasslands and rolling wooded country; and the eastern plateau region, encompassing several mountains. About one-eighth of the country is forest. Wildlife includes chimpanzees, tigers, crocodiles, and many species of birds. The economy is based largely on agriculture and mining; rice, cassava, coffee, cacao, and oil palm are major crops, and diamonds and bauxite are mined. Sierra Leone is a republic with one legislative house; the head of state and gov¬ ernment is the president. The earliest inhabitants were probably the Bulom and Temne; Mande-speaking peoples began arriving in the 15th century. The coastal region was visited by the Portuguese in the 15th century, who built a fort near the site of modern Freetown. European ships visited the coast regularly to trade for slaves and ivory, and the English built trading posts on offshore islands in the 17th century. British abolitionists and phi¬ lanthropists founded Freetown in 1787 as a private venture for freed and runaway slaves. In 1808 the coastal settlement became a British colony. The region became a British protectorate in 1896. It achieved indepen¬ dence in 1961 and became a republic in 1971. Since independence Sierra Leone has experienced a series of military coups. An 11 -year civil war that was marked by horrific atrocities and further devastated the country ended in 2002.