Britannica Concise 2005

ERIC DRAPER/WHITE HOUSE PHOTO

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

302 I bushido ► Butler

differential equations. He helped found Raytheon Co., and he served as president of the Carnegie Institute (1939-55). In 1941 he became direc¬ tor of the U.S. Office of Scientific Research and Development, in which capacity he helped organize the Manhattan Project. By providing gov¬ ernment support for university-based scientific research, the agency paved the way for postwar federal support of basic scientific research. As adviser to Pres. Franklin Roosevelt, he laid the groundwork for the establishment of the National Science Foundation (1950). An information retrieval and annotation system he described became the theoretical prototype of hyper¬ text, the basis of the World Wide Web.

bushido \'bu-shi-do\ Japanese "way of the warrior" Code of conduct of the samurai class of Japan, first formulated in the 17th century. Its precise content varied over time, taking on overtones of Zen Buddhism and Confucianism. Along with self-discipline, honour, and austerity, one constant feature was the samurai’s obligation to his lord, which super¬ seded even familial ties. This obligation of loyalty and sacrifice was trans¬ ferred to the emperor with the Meiji Restoration and was a salient feature of the Japanese national mindset until the end of World War II (1945).

bushmaster Species ( Lachesis muta) of pit viper, found in scrublands and forests from Costa Rica south to the Amazon River basin. It is nor¬ mally about 6 ft (1.8 m) long but reportedly may grow to twice this length. It is pinkish or tan, marked with large, dark, diamond-shaped blotches. Though seldom encountered, the bushmaster is potentially lethal.

Bushmen See San

business cycle Periodic fluctuation in the rate of economic activity, as measured by levels of employment, prices, and production. Economists have long debated why periods of prosperity are eventually followed by economic crises (stock-market crashes, bankruptcies, unemployment, etc.). Some have identified recurring 8-to-10-year cycles in market econo¬ mies; longer cycles have also been proposed, notably by Nikolay Kon- dratev. Apart from random shocks to the economy, such as wars and technological changes, the main influences on the level of economic activ¬ ity are investment and consumption. An increase in investment, as when a factory is built, leads to consumption because the workers employed to build the factory have wages to spend. Conversely, increases in consumer demand cause new factories to be built to satisfy the demand. Eventually the economy reaches its full capacity, and, with little free capital and no new demand, the process reverses itself and contraction ensues. Natural fluctuations in agricultural markets, psychological factors such as a band¬ wagon mentality, and changes in the money supply have all been proposed as explanations for initial changes in investment and consumption. After World War II many governments used monetary policy to moderate the business cycle, aiming to prevent the extremes of inflation and depression by stimulating the national economy in slack times and restraining it dur¬ ing expansions. See also productivity.

business finance Raising and managing of funds by business orga¬ nizations. Such activities are usually the concern of senior managers, who must use financial forecasting to develop a long-term plan for the firm. Shorter-term budgets are then devised to meet the plan’s goals. When a company plans to expand, it may rely on cash reserves, expected increases in sales, or bank loans and trade credits extended by suppliers. Managers may also decide to raise long-term capital in the form of either debt (bonds) or equity (stock). The value of the company’s stock is a constant concern, and managers must decide whether to reinvest profits or to pay dividends. Other duties of financial managers include managing accounts receivable and fixing the optimum level of inventories. When deciding how to deploy corporate assets to increase growth, financial managers must also con¬ sider the benefits of mergers and acquisitions, analyzing economies of scale and the ability of businesses to complement each other. See also corporate finance; inventory.

business law or commercial law or mercantile law Legal rules and principles bearing on business organizations and commercial matters. It regulates various forms of legal business entities, including sole proprietors, partnerships, registered companies with limited liability, agents, and multinational corporations. Nearly all statutory rules govern¬ ing business organizations are intended to protect creditors or investors. In addition, specific bodies of law regulate commercial transactions, including the sale and carriage of goods (terms and conditions, specific performance, breach of contract, insurance, bills of lading), consumer credit agreements (letters of credit, loans, security, bankruptcy), and rela¬ tions between employers and employees (wages, conditions of work,

health and safety, fringe benefits, and trade unions). It is a broad and con¬ tinually evolving field. See also agency; corporation; debtor and creditor;

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY; LABOUR LAW.

Busoni \bu-'so-ne\, Ferruccio (Dante Michelangiolo Benve¬ nuto) (b. April 1, 1866, Empoli, Tuscany—d. July 27, 1924, Berlin, Ger.) Italian-born German composer and pianist. He first performed in public at age 7, and at 12 he conducted his own Stabat Mater. He taught in Hel¬ sinki, Moscow, and Boston before settling permanently in Berlin in 1894. He won fame as a virtuoso pianist and gave premieres of the works of major composers. His most celebrated work in his lifetime, the opera Die Brautwahl (1910), was followed by the operas Arlecchino (1916) and Turandot (1917), but the unfinished and posthumously produced Doktor Faust is regarded as his masterpiece. Of his orchestral works, his piano concerto (1904) is most widely performed. His many piano pieces include the Fantasia contrappuntistica (1910), six sonatinas (1910-20), and arrangements of organ works by Johann Sebastian Bach.

bustard Any of about 23 species of medium-sized to large game birds in the family Otididae, related to the cranes and rails in the order Grui- formes. Bustards are found in Africa, southern Europe, Asia, Australia, and New Guinea. A tall running bird, they have long legs, a compact body carried in a horizontal position, and an erect neck placed forward of the legs. The best-known species is the great bustard (Otis tarda), the largest European land bird. Males of this species weigh as much as 31 lbs (14 kg) and reach lengths of 4 ft (1.2 m), with 8-ft (2.4-m) wingspreads.

Bute, John Stuart, 3rd earl of orig. John Stuart (b. May 25,

1713, Edinburgh, Scot.—d. March 10, 1792, London, Eng.) Scottish-born British statesman. He was the tutor and constant companion of the future George III; when the latter ascended to the throne, he named Bute secre¬ tary of state (1761). As prime minister (1762-63), Bute negotiated the peace ending the Seven Years' War, but, having failed to create a stable administration, he resigned in 1763.

Buthelezi X.biit-Va-zeV Mangosuthu G(atsha) (b. Aug. 27, 1928, Mahlabatini, Natal, S.Af.) Zulu chief and leader of the Inkatha Freedom Party. Descended from Cetshwayo, he assumed leadership of the Buthelezi clan in 1953. He was elected head of the nonindependent black state of KwaZulu in 1972 and revived Inkatha in 1975 after breaking with the African National Congress (ANC). Rejecting full independence for Kwa¬ Zulu, he worked within the white establishment to end apartheid. In 1990-94 he engaged in a fierce struggle for leadership with the ANC; thousands were killed in Inkatha-ANC clashes. Following the 1994 national elections, he was appointed minister of home affairs by Nelson Mandela; he held the post until 2004.

Butkus Vbot-kosV, Dick in full Richard J. Butkus (b. Dec. 9, 1942, Chicago, Ill., U.S.) U.S. football player. He played for the University of Illinois before joining the Chicago Bears (1965-73). He became known for his aggression and toughness on the field as much as for his play¬ making ability. His career was shortened by injuries; after retirement he became active in television and sports promotion. Butkus is considered among the best middle linebackers of all time.

Butler, Benjamin F(ranklin) (b. Nov. 5, 1818, Deerfield, N.H., U.S.—d. Jan. 11, 1893, Washington, D.C.) U.S. army officer. A prominent attorney in Lowell, Mass., Butler served two terms in the state legislature (1853, 1859). In the American Civil War he commanded Fort Monroe, Va., where he refused to return fugitive slaves to the Confederacy, calling them “contraband of war,” an interpretation later upheld by the government. He oversaw the occupation of New Orleans in 1862 but was recalled because of his harsh rule. He led the Union army in Virginia, but after several defeats he was relieved of his command in 1865. In the U.S. House of Representatives (1867-75, 1877-79), he was a Radical Republican prominent in the impeachment trial of Pres. Andrew Johnson. He switched parties in 1878 to support the Greenback movement and later served as governor of Massachusetts (1882-84).

Butler, Joseph (b. May 18, 1692, Wantage, Berkshire, Eng.—d. June 16, 1752, Bath, Somerset) British bishop and moral philosopher. He became dean of St. Paul’s Cathedral in 1740 and bishop of Durham in 1750. His works defended revealed religion against the rationalist think¬ ers of his time. His The Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution and Course of Nature (1736) attacked the doctrine of Deism, according to which knowledge of God is acquired through reason rather than revelation. His Of the Nature of Virtue, appended to the Anal-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Butler ► button I 303

ogy, presented a refutation of hedonism and of the notion that self-interest is the ultimate principle of good conduct.

Butler, Nicholas M(urray) (b. April 2, 1862, Elizabeth, N.J., U.S.—d. Dec. 7, 1947, New York, N.Y.) U.S. educator. He received his Ph.D. from Columbia University. He was the founding president of what is today Columbia’s Teachers College (1886-91). As president of Colum¬ bia University itself (1901—45), he led the institution to world renown. Early in his career he criticized prevailing pedagogical methods, but later he turned on pedagogical reform itself, decrying vocationalism in educa¬ tion and behaviorism in psychology. A champion of international under¬ standing, he helped establish the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in 1910 and served as its president (1925—45). In 1931 he shared the Nobel Peace Prize with Jane Addams.

Butler, R(ichard) A(usten), baron of Saffron Walden (b. Dec. 9, 1902, Attock Serai, India—d. March 8, 1982, Great Yeldham, Essex, Eng.) British politician. Known as “Rab” Butler, he was elected to Par¬ liament in 1929 and served in various Conservative governments in the 1930s. As minister of education, he was responsible for the 1944 Educa¬ tion Act, which established free secondary education. After the Tories’ electoral losses in 1945, he helped remold the Conservative Party, serv¬ ing as its leader (1955-61). He served as chancellor of the exchequer (1951-55), home secretary (1957-62), and foreign secretary (1963-64).

Butler, Samuel (b. Feb. 8, 1612, Strensham, Worcestershire, Eng.—d. Sept. 25, 1680, London) British poet and satirist. He held several clerical positions, where he could observe cranks and scoundrels like those whose antics he targeted. He is famous for Hudibras (1663-78), a mock-heroic poem skewering the fanaticism, pretentiousness, pedantry, and hypocrisy he saw in militant Puritanism. It is the most memorable burlesque poem in English and the first English satire that successfully attacked ideas rather than personalities.

Butler, Samuel (b. Dec. 4, 1835,

Eng.—d. June 18, 1902, London)

British novelist, essayist, and critic.

Descended from distinguished cler¬ gymen, he grappled for many years with Christianity and evolution, first embracing, then rejecting, Charles Darwin’s theories in his writings. He is best known for The Way of All Flesh (1903), his autobiographical novel that tells, with ruthless wit and lack of sentiment, the story of his escape from the suffocating moral atmosphere of his home circle. In his lifetime his reputation rested on the utopian satire Erewhon (1872), which foreshadowed the end of the Victorian illusion of eternal progress.

Buto Vbyu-to\ In ancient Egyptian religion, the cobra goddess who was tutelary goddess of Lower Egypt and, with the vulture-goddess Nekh- bet of Upper Egypt, protector of the king. She was nurse to the infant god Horus and helped his mother, Isis, protect him from his uncle Seth. She was later identified with Leto. She is depicted as a cobra twined around a papyrus stem.

Buton \'bu-,t6n\ or Butung \'bu-,tuq\ Island, east-central Indonesia. Lying off the southeast coast of Celebes (Sulawesi), it is about 100 mi (160 km) long and has an area of about 2,000 sq mi (5,200 sq km). Its chief town is Baubau, on the southwestern coast. The coastal people are chiefly trading sailors and fishermen.

butte \'byiit\ (French: “hillock” or “rising ground”) Flat-topped hill sur¬ rounded by a steep cliff, from the bottom of which a slope descends to the plain. The term is sometimes used for an elevation higher than a hill but not high enough to be a mountain. Buttes topped by horizontal plat¬ forms of hard rock are characteristic of the arid plateau region of the western U.S. A butte is similar to a mesa but generally smaller; both are created by erosional processes.

butter Solid emulsion of fat globules and water made by churning cream, used as a food. Presumably known since the advent of animal husbandry.

butter has long been used as a cooking fat and as a spread. It was tradi¬ tionally a farm product, but with the advent of the cream separator in the late 19th century it began to be mass-produced. It is a high-energy food, containing about 715 calories per 100 grams. It is high in butterfat (80- 85%) and low in protein. Colouring is sometimes added to enhance its natural yellow colour (from carotene), and salt is often added.

butter-and-eggs or toadflax Common perennial herbaceous plant (Linaria vulgaris ) of the snapdragon family, native to Eurasia and widely naturalized in North America. The plant bears flaxlike leaves and showy yellow and orange flowers that are two-lipped and spurred like snap¬ dragons.

buttercup Any of about 250 species of herbaceous flowering plants constituting the genus Ranunculus of the family Ranunculaceae. Butter¬ cups are especially common in the woods and fields of the northern tem¬ perate zone. The turban, or Persian buttercup ( R . asiaticus ), is the flo¬ rist’s ranunculus. Among the many wild species are the tall meadow but¬ tercup ( R . acris) and common water crowfoot (R. aquatilis). Other mem¬ bers of the family Ranunculaceae are widely distributed in all temperate and subtropical regions. In the trop¬ ics they occur mostly at high eleva¬ tions. Their leaves are usually alternate and stalkless and may be simple or much divided. The flowers may be radially symmetrical or irregular. The family includes such flowers as anemone, larkspur, marsh marigold, clematis, and hepatica (genus Hepatica).

butterfly Any of more than 17,000 lepidopteran species found world¬ wide. Unlike moths, butterflies are active during the day and are usually brightly coloured or strikingly patterned. Distinctive features are club- tipped antennae and a habit of holding the wings vertically over the back when at rest. With few exceptions the larvae and adults eat plants. But¬ terflies are classified into five or six families. The metalmarks of the fam¬ ily Lycaenidae are found chiefly in the New World tropics; some members of the family Nymphalidae are called snout butterflies. Other species (with their families) include the white and sulphur butterflies (Pieridae), the swal¬ lowtail butterfly (Papilionidae), the blue, copper, and hairstreak butterflies (Lycaenidae), and the admiral, monarch, and painted lady (Nymphalidae).

butterfly bush See buddleia butterfly effect See chaotic behavior

butterfly weed North American plant ( Asclepias tuberosa ) of the milk¬ weed family, a stout, rough-haired perennial with long horizontal roots. The leafy, erect, somewhat branching stem is about 1-3 ft (0.3-0.9 m) tall. In midsummer it bears numerous clusters of bright orange flowers. Unlike most milkweeds, it has a scanty milky juice. It is native to dry fields and is often planted in wild gardens or grown as a border plant.

butternut Deciduous NUT-producing tree (JugIans cinerea ) of the wal¬ nut family, native to eastern North America. A mature tree has gray, deeply furrowed bark. Each leaf has 11-17 yellowish green leaflets that are hairy underneath. Chocolate-coloured partitions divide the pith of the twig into many chambers. The egg-shaped fruit has a sticky, greenish brown husk. The hard, woody nut bears many ridges and contains a sweet, oily seed. The tree is economically important for its edible nuts and for a yellow or orange dye obtained from the fruit husks. Some substances in the inner bark of the roots are used in medicines.

button Small disk or knob used as a fastener or ornament. It usually has holes or a shank through which it is sewn to one side of a garment. It is used to fasten or close the garment when it is passed through a loop or hole in the other side. The ancient Greeks fastened their tunics with but¬ tons and loops. In medieval Europe, garments were laced or fastened together with brooches or clasps until the buttonhole was reinvented in the 13th century. Throughout history, buttons have been made in a range of sizes and materials, some elaborated into miniature works of art.

Langar Rectory, Nottinghamshire,

Samuel Butler, detail of an oil painting by Charles Gogin, 1896; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, LONDON

Aquatic buttercup (Ranunculus flabellaris).

FRANCES V. DAVIS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

304 I buttress ► Byron

buttress Exterior support, usually of masonry, projecting from the face of a wall and serving to strengthen it or resist outward thrust from an arch or roof. Buttresses also have a decorative function. Though used since ancient times (Mesopotamian temples featured decorative buttresses, as did Roman and Byzantine structures), they are especially associated with Gothic architecture. See also flying buttress.

Butung See Buton

Buwayhid dynasty See Buyid dynasty

Buxtehude Vbuk-sto-'hu-doV, Dietrich (b. 1637, probably in Oldes- loe, Holstein—d. May 9, 1707, Ltibeck) Danish organist and composer. He held two organist positions before being appointed organist at the important Marienkirche in Liibeck (now in Germany), where he remained for almost 40 years. There he reinstated the tradition of the Abendmusik, an annual series of church concerts. His reputation was such that in 1705 Johann Sebastian Bach traveled 200 miles there to hear him play and ended up staying three months. Buxtehude’s approximately 130 surviving vocal works, usually called cantatas, can instead be classified as concertos, cho¬ rale settings, and arias. All are imbued with a devout simplicity that con¬ trasts strongly with the elaborations of their Bachian successors. He also composed almost 100 works for organ, some 20 keyboard suites, and more than 20 chamber sonatas.

Buyid \'bu-yid\ dynasty or Buwayhid \bii-'wl-hid\ dynasty (945-1055) Muslim ShTite dynasty founded by three sons of Buyeh, a Daylamite (north Persian) fisherman. They captured Baghdad in 945, and each brother took a portion of territory. After they died, one Buyid leader, c Adud al-Dawlah, consolidated control (977) and enlarged the Buyid domain. From 983 the territories were split among family members. The dynasty ended when the Turkic Seljuq dynasty took Baghdad in 1055. Buyid art maintained its influence throughout the Seljuq reign; Buyid sil- verwork is notable.

buzkashi Persian "goat dragging" An equestrian game in which riders compete to gain control of a goat or calf carcass that has been decapitated and dehoofed. Buzkashi likely originated as an entertaining variant of ordinary herding or raiding. It is popular predominantly among Turkic peoples in Afghanistan but can be found in the Muslim republics of Central Asia and in parts of northwestern China. Buzkashi has two main forms. The traditional version, tudabaray, has no formal teams and is not played within clearly defined boundaries. Games often involve hundreds of riders, and the objective is to gain sole possession of the carcass and ride it free and clear of all other riders. The modern government-sponsored qarajay style involves two teams of 10-12 riders that contend on a defined field with goals. Beginning in the early 1950s, the Kabul-based Afghan government hosted national tournaments.

buzz bomb See V-l missile

buzzard Chiefly British term for any of several birds of prey of the hawk genus Buteo (family Accipitridae) and, in North America, various New World vultures, especially the turkey vulture. In Australia, a large hawk of the genus Hamirostra is called a black-breasted buzzard. The buteos, also called buzzard hawks, can usually be distinguished when soaring by their broad wings and expansive rounded tail. The plumage of most species is dark brown above and white or mottled brown below; the tail and under¬ side of the wings are usually barred. Buteos customarily prey on insects, small mammals, and occasionally birds. They nest in trees or on cliffs. Species range over much of the New World, Eurasia, and Africa. The red¬ tailed hawk, the most common North American buteo, is about 2 ft (60 cm) long.

Buzzards Bay Inlet of the Atlantic Ocean, southeastern Massachusetts, U.S. Connected to Cape Cod Bay by the Cape Cod Canal on the north¬ east and bordered on the southeast by the Elizabeth Islands, it is 30 mi (48 km) long and 5-10 mi (8-16 km) wide. Its coastline is dotted with fishing villages and summer resorts. Buzzards Bay town (pop., 2000: 3,549) is the site of Massachusetts Maritime Academy.

Byatt, A(ntonia) S(usan) orig. Antonia Susan Drabble (b.

Aug. 24, 1936, Sheffield, Eng.) British novelist and scholar. Sister of Margaret Drabble, she was educated at Cambridge and taught at Univer¬ sity College, London. Her third novel. The Virgin in the Garden (1978), won high acclaim; the sequel Still Life (1985) followed. Possession (1990), a virtuoso double narrative, won the 1990 Booker Prize, and both it and Angels and Insects (1991) were adapted for film. Her story collec¬

tions include The Djinn in the Nightingale’s Eye (1995) and Elementals (1998). Degrees of Freedom (1965) was the first major study of Iris Mur¬ doch. In 2002 Byatt published the novel A Whistling Woman, the last of a series of four novels—beginning with The Virgin in the Garden — featuring the character Frederica Potter.

Byblos Vbi-bl3s\ modern Jbail or Jubayl \ju-'bal\ Ancient coastal city, eastern Mediterranean Sea. Located north of Beirut, Leb., the site was occupied by at least the Neolithic Period (New Stone Age); extensive settle¬ ment developed during the 4th millennium bc. As the chief harbour for the export of cedar to Egypt, it was a great trading centre. Papyrus, an early writing surface produced in Egypt, received its original Greek name, byblos, from its export to the Aegean through the city; the English word Bible means essentially “the (papyrus) book.” Almost all known early Phoenician inscriptions, most from the 10th century bc, come from By¬ blos. By that time Tyre had become the preeminent city in Phoenicia, and, though Byblos continued to flourish into Roman times, it never recovered its former supremacy.

Bydgoszcz \'bid-,g6shch\ City (pop., 2000 est.: 384,500), northern Poland. Originally a commercial city of the Teutonic Order, it received town rights in 1346. It prospered as a grain and timber centre until it was devastated in the 17th-century Swedish wars. In the 18th century the Bydgoszcz Canal, which linked the basins of the Vistula and Oder rivers, made the city a major inland port. It fell under Prussian rule in 1772- 1919. The Germans held it throughout World War II, but it was noted for its staunch resistance to the Nazi invasion of 1939. It remains important as a water transport route, connecting Upper Silesia with the Baltic ports.

Byelarus See Belarus

Byelorussian language See Belarusian language bypass surgery See coronary bypass

Byrd, Richard E(velyn) (b. Oct. 25, 1888, Winchester, Va., U.S.—d. March 11, 1957, Boston, Mass.) U.S. naval officer, aviator, and polar explorer. After serving in World War I, he worked developing navigational aids for aircraft. In 1926 he and Floyd Bennett claimed to have reached the North Pole by airplane, becoming the first to do so. In 1928 Byrd began his explorations of Antarctica with the first expedition to his “Little America” base, which was followed in 1929 by a flight with three com¬ panions over the South Pole, again the first such flight. He led subsequent expeditions that discovered and mapped large areas of Antarctica. His several books include Discovery (1935) and Alone (1938), which chronicled his months spent alone in a camp near the South Pole. His brother Harry F. Byrd (1887-1966) served as a U.S. senator from Virginia

(1933-65).

Byrd, William (b. 1543, Lincoln, Lincolnshire?, Eng.—d. July 4, 1623, Stondon Massey, Essex) British composer. He studied under Thomas Tal¬ us and was appointed organist of Lincoln Cathedral at age 20. In 1572 he became organist of the Chapel Royal, sharing the post with Tallis. In 1575 the two men received from Elizabeth I the exclusive license for the print¬ ing and selling of music in Britain. Though repeatedly prosecuted as a Roman Catholic, Byrd remained in favour with the queen. He is renowned as Britain’s finest composer of sacred choral works, as well as for his keyboard music and songs. His works include three masses (for three, four, and five voices), some 220 Latin motets, four important Anglican services, and some 60 anthems, as well as some 100 virginal pieces (many preserved in the collections Parthenia and The Fitzwilliam Virginal Book).

Byrne, David (b. May 14, 1952, Dumbarton, Dunbartonshire, Scot.) Scottish-born U.S. singer and songwriter. At the Rhode Island School of Design in the mid-1970s, he cofounded the rock group Talking Heads as singer and guitarist. Identified with the new wave movement (see punk), the band’s debut album Talking Heads ’77 (1977) was followed by releases that reflected Byrne’s interest in experimental pop and African rhythms, including Speaking in Tongues (1983), Stop Making Sense (soundtrack for film of the same name; 1984), and solo albums such as Rei Momo (1989). An ethnomusicologist and producer, Byrne also wrote the score for choreographer Twyla Tharp’s The Catherine Wheel (1980) and directed the film True Stories (1986).

Byron, George (Gordon) Byron, 6th Baron known as Lord Byron (b. Jan. 22, 1788, London, Eng.—-d. April 19, 1824, Missolonghi, Greece) British Romantic poet and satirist. Born with a clubfoot and extremely sensitive about it, he was 10 when he unexpectedly inherited

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

byssinosis ► Byzantium I 305

his title and estates. Educated at Cambridge, he gained recognition with English Bards and Scotch Reviewers (1809), a satire responding to a criti¬ cal review of his first published volume, Hours of Idleness (1807). Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage (1812-18), a poetic travelogue expressing melan¬ choly and disillusionment, brought him fame, while his complex person¬ ality, dashing good looks, and many scandalous love affairs, with women and with boys, captured the imagination of Europe. Settling near Geneva, he wrote the verse tale The Prisoner of Chillon (1816), a hymn to liberty and an indictment of tyranny, and Manfred (1817), a poetic drama whose hero reflected Byron’s own guilt and frustration. His greatest poem, Don Juan (1819-24), is an unfinished epic picaresque satire in ottava rima. Among his numerous other works are verse tales and poetic dramas. He died of fever in Greece while aiding the struggle for independence, mak¬ ing him a Greek national hero.

byssinosis \,bi-s3-'no-s3s\ or brown lung disease Respiratory dis¬ order caused by dust from cotton and other fibres, common among tex¬ tile workers. In addition, the dust stimulates histamine release; air passages constrict, making breathing difficult. Over time the dust accumulates in the lung, producing a typical brown discoloration. Byssinosis today is seen in most cotton-producing regions of the world. Several years of exposure to cotton dust are needed before byssinosis develops. In advanced stages, it causes chronic, irreversible obstructive lung disease. Though cotton is by far the most common cause, flax, hemp, and other organic fibres can also produce byssinosis. There is evidence that a bac¬ terial product found in the fibres is the cause of the disease.

byte See bit

Byzantine architecture Vbi-zon-.tenV Building style of Constantino¬ ple (now Istanbul, formerly ancient Byzantium) after ad 330. Byzantine architects were eclectic, at first drawing heavily on Roman temple fea¬ tures. Their combination of the basilica and symmetrical central-plan (cir¬ cular or polygonal) religious structures resulted in the characteristic Byzantine Greek-cross-plan church, with a square central mass and four arms of equal length. The most distinctive feature was the domed roof. To allow a dome to rest above a square base, either of two devices was used: the squinch (an arch in each of the comers of a square base that transforms it into an octagon) or the pendentive. Byzantine structures fea¬ tured soaring spaces and sumptuous decoration: marble columns and inlay, mosaics on the vaults, inlaid-stone pavements, and sometimes gold coffered ceilings. The architecture of Constantinople extended throughout the Christian East and in some places, notably Russia, remained in use after the fall of Constantinople (1453). See also Hagia Sophia.

Byzantine art Art associated with the Byzantine Empire. Its character¬ istic styles were first codified in the 6th century and persisted with remark¬ able homogeneity until the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453. Concerned almost exclusively with religious expression, it tends to reflect an intensely hierarchical view of the universe. It relies on vigour of line and brilliance of colour; individual features are absent, forms are flattened, and perspective is absent. Walls, vaults, and domes were cov¬ ered in mosaic and fresco decoration in a total fusion of architectural and pictorial expression. Byzantine sculpture was largely limited to small ivory reliefs. The importance of Byzantine art to European religious art was immense; the style was spread by trade and expansion to the Medi¬ terranean basin, eastern European centres, and especially Russia. See also Byzantine architecture.

Byzantine chant Unison liturgical chant of the Greek Orthodox church from the era of the Byzantine Empire to the 16th century. It probably derived principally from Hebrew and Syrian Christian liturgies. A system of eight modes, very similar to the eight Greek modes, was used for psalms and hymns, each mode (or echos) consisting primarily of a few melodic for¬ mulas. The principal hymn genres were the troparion (one or more stan¬ zas of poetic prose), the kontakion (a metrical sermon), and the kanon (a complexly ordered set of hymn types). See also Gregorian chant.

Byzantine Empire Empire, southeastern and southern Europe and western Asia. It began as the city of Byzantium, which had grown from an ancient Greek colony founded on the European side of the Bosporus. The city was taken in ad 330 by Constantine I, who refounded it as Con¬ stantinople. The area at this time was generally termed the Eastern Roman Empire. The fall of Rome in 476 ended the western half of the Roman Empire; the eastern half continued as the Byzantine Empire, with Con¬ stantinople as its capital. The eastern realm differed from the west in many respects: heir to the civilization of the Hellenistic era, it was more com-

Byzantine Emperors

Zeno

474-491

Theodora ( empress)

1055-56

Anastasius 1

491-518

Michael VI Stratioticus

1056-57

Justin 1

518-527

Isaac 1 Comnenus

1057-59

Justinian 1

527-565

Constantine X Ducas

1059-67

Justin II

565-578

Romanus IV Diogenes

1067-71

Tiberius II Constantine

578-582

Michael VII Ducas

1071-78

Maurice Tiberius

582-602

Nicephorus III Botaniates

1078-81

Phocas

602-610

Alexius 1 Comnenus

1081-1118

Heraclius

610-641

John II Comnenus

1118-43

Heraclius Constantine

641

Manuel 1 Comnenus

1143-80

Heraclonas (or Heraclius)

641

Alexius II Comnenus

1180-83

Constans II (Constantine

641-668

Andronicus 1 Comnenus

1183-85

Pogonatus)

Isaac II Angelus

1185-95

Constantine IV

668-685

Alexius III Angelus

1195-1203

Justinian II Rhinotmetus

685-695

Isaac II Angelus ( restored)

1203-4

Leontius

695-698

& Alexius IV Angelus

Tiberius III

698-705

Alexius V Ducas

1204

Justinian II Rhinotmetus

705-711

Murtzuphlus

( restored)

Latin emperors

Philippicus

711-713

Baldwin 1

1204-5

Anastasius II

713-715

Henry

1206-16

Theodosius III

715-717

Peter

1217

Leo III

717-741

Yolande (empress)

1217-19

Constantine V

741-775

Robert

1221-28

Copronymus

Baldwin II

1228-61

Leo IV

775-780

John

1231-37

Constantine VI

780-797

Nicaean emperors

Irene ( empress )

797-802

Constantine (XI)

1204-5?

Nicephorus 1

802-811

Theodore 1 Lascaris

1205?-22

Stauracius

811

John III Ducas Vatatzes

1222-54

Michael 1 Rhangabe

811-813

Theodore II Lascaris

1254-58

Leo V

813-820

John IV Lascaris

1258-61

Michael II Balbus

820-829

Greek emperors restored

Theophilus

829-842

Michael VIII

1261-82

Michael III

842-867

Palaeologus

Basil 1

867-886

Andronicus II

1282-1328

Leo VI

886-912

Palaeologus

Alexander

912-913

Andronicus III

1328-41

Constantine VII

913-959

Palaeologus

Porphyrogenitus

John V Palaeologus

1341-76

Romanus 1 Lecapenus

920-944

John VI Cantacuzenus

1347-54

Romanus II

959-963

Andronicus IV

1376-79

Nicephorus II Phocas

963-969

Palaeologus

John 1 Tzimisces

969-976

John V Palaeologus

1379-90

Basil II Bulgaroctonus

976-1025

( restored)

Constantine VIII

1025-28

John VII Palaeologus

1390

Romanus III Argyrus

1028-34

John V Palaeologus

1390-91

Michael IV

1034-41

( restored)

Michael V Calaphates

1041-42

Manuel II Palaeologus

1391-1425

Zoe ( empress )

1042-50

John VIII Palaeologus

1421-48

Constantine IX

1042-55

Constantine XI

1449-53

Monomachus

Palaeologus

*For emperors of the Eastern Roman Empire (at Constantinople) before the fall of Rome, see Roman republic and empire.

mercial and more urban. Its greatest emperor, Justinian (r. 527-565), reconquered some of western Europe, built the Hagia Sophia, and issued the basic codification of Roman law. After his death the empire weak¬ ened. Though its rulers continued to style themselves “Roman” long after Justinian’s death, “Byzantine” more accurately describes the medieval empire. The long controversy over iconoclasm within the eastern church prepared it for the break with the Roman church (see Schism of 1054). During the controversy, Arabs and Seljuq Turks increased their power in the area. In the late 11th century, Alexius I Comnenus sought help from Venice and the pope; these allies turned the ensuing Crusades into plun¬ dering expeditions. In the Fourth Crusade the Venetians took over Con¬ stantinople and established a line of Latin emperors. Recaptured by Byzantine exiles in 1261, the empire was now little more than a large city-state. In the 14th century the Ottoman Turks began to encroach; their extended siege of Constantinople ended in 1453, when the last emperor died fighting on the city walls and the area came under Ottoman control.

Byzantium See Istanbul

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

306 I C ► cable structure

C High-level procedural computer programming language with many low- level features, including the ability to handle memory addresses and bits. It is highly portable among platforms and therefore widely used in indus¬ try and among computer professionals. C was developed by Dennis M. Ritchie (bom 1941) of Bell Laboratories in 1972. The operating system UNIX was written almost exclusively in C, and C has been standardized as part of POSIX (Portable Operating System Interface for UNIX).

C++ \'se- , pl9s- , pbs\ High-level computer programming language. Devel¬ oped by Bjarne Stroustrup of Bell Laboratories in the early 1980s, it is traditional C language with added object-oriented programming capabili¬ ties. C++, along with Java, has become popular for developing commer¬ cial software packages that incorporate multiple interrelated applications.

C-section See cesarean section Cabala See Kabbala

Caballero, Francisco

Largo Caballero

Largo See Francisco

cabaret \,ka-b3-'ra\ Restaurant that serves liquor and offers light musical entertainment. The cabaret probably originated in France in the 1880s as a small club that presented amateur acts and satiric skits lam¬ pooning bourgeois conventions. The first German Kabarett was opened in Berlin c. 1900 by Baron Ernst von Wolzogen and accompanied its musical acts with biting political satire. By the 1920s it had become the centre for underground political and literary expression and a showcase for the works of social critics such as Be tolt Brecht and Kurt Weill; this decadent but fertile artistic milieu was later portrayed in the musical Cabaret (1966; film, 1972). The English cabaret derived from concerts given in city taverns in the 18th— 19th centuries and evolved into the music hall. In the U.S. the cabaret developed into the nightclub, where comedians, singers, or musicians performed. Small jazz and folk clubs and, later, comedy clubs evolved from the original cabaret.

cabbage Leafy garden plant ( Brassica oleracea, Capitata group) of European origin, with a short stem and a globular head of usually green leaves. A member of the mustard family, it is a major table vegetable in most countries of the temperate zone. The term cabbage also refers more gen¬ erally to a vegetable and fodder plant of various horticultural forms devel¬ oped by long cultivation from the wild, or sea, cabbage ( B. oleracea) found near the seacoast in England and continental Europe. The common forms may be classified by the plant parts used for food: leaves (e.g., KALE, collard, common cabbage, Brussels sprout); flowers and flower stalks (e.g., broccoli, cauliflower); and stems (e.g., kohlrabi). Cabbages grow best in mild to cool climates and tolerate frost. Edible portions are low in caloric value and are an excellent source of vitamin C, minerals, and dietary fibre. See also Chinese cabbage.

cabbage looper Distinctive green, white-lined larva, or caterpillar {Trichoplusia ni), of the owlet MOTH family (Noctuidae). Like other loop- ers, it moves in an “inching” motion. It is an economic pest of cabbages and associated crops, particularly in the U.S. and Europe. The adults, known as Ni moths, migrate considerable distances. They are mottled brown with a pale Y-shaped mark on each forewing. The typical adult wingspan is about 1 in. (25 mm).

cabbage palmetto See palmetto

cabbage white or cabbage butterfly European cabbage butterfly (Pieris rapae). Its larva is a major economic pest, attacking cabbage and related plants. Introduced into North America c. 1860, the cabbage white is today one of the most common North American white butterfly species.

Cabbala See Kabbala

Cabeiri or Cabiri \ko- , bI- l ri\ Important group of deities, probably of Phrygian origin, worshiped in Asia Minor and in Macedonia and north¬ ern and central Greece. In classical times there were two males, Axiocer- sus and his son Cadmilus, and two females, Axierus and Axiocersa. They were promoters of fertility and protectors of seafarers. The male pair, the more important, was often confused with the Dioscuri. The Cabeiri were also identified with the Great Gods of Samothrace, and their cult reached its height in the 4th century bc.

Cabell Vkab-olV James Branch (b. April 14, 1879, Richmond, Va., U.S.—d. May 5, 1958, Richmond) U.S. writer. Cabell attacked American orthodoxies and institutions in his best-known novel, Jurgen (1919), a story replete with sexual symbolism. His other works, many of them alle¬ gories set in an imaginary medieval province, include The Cream of the Jest (1917) and The High Place (1923). Though much praised in the 1920s, his mannered style and skeptical view of human experience soon lost favour.

Cabeza de Vaca Vko-'ba-zo-do-'va-koV Alvar Nunez (b. c. 1490, Extremadura, Castile—d. c. 1560, Sevilla, Spain) Spanish explorer. He took part in an expedition that reached what is now Tampa Bay, Fla., U.S., in 1528. One of only four members of the expedition to survive, he spent eight years in the Gulf region of modern Texas. His accounts of the legendary Seven Cities of Cibola probably inspired the extensive explorations of North America by Hernando de Soto and Francisco Vazquez de Coronado.

Cabezon V.ka-ba-'thonV Antonio de (b. c. 1510, Castrillo de Matajudios, near Burgos, Spain—d. March 26, 1566, Madrid) Spanish composer and organist. Of noble birth, he was blind from early childhood. In 1526 he became organist to Isabella, wife of Charles V. He remained a royal favourite, especially to Philip II, whom he accompanied on his travels. His works, which influenced the English vir- ginalists and J.P. Sweelinck, are almost entirely for keyboard; they include numerous tientos (ricercars or fantasias) and diferencias (variations), a genre of which he was one of the first masters.

cabildo Spanish "municipal council" Fundamental unit of local government in colonial Latin America. It was responsible for all ordinary aspects of municipal government, including policing, sanitation, taxation, price and wage regulation, and the administration of justice. Its jurisdiction extended beyond the city to the surrounding hamlets and countryside. By the mid- 16th century appointments to cabildos were usu¬ ally made by the Spanish crown and could be sold or inherited. Cabildos were often corrupt, but cabildos abiertos (open town meetings) were important to the Latin American independence movement of the early 19th century.

cabinet Body of senior ministers or, in the U.S., advisers to a chief executive, whose members also serve as the heads of government depart¬ ments. The cabinet has become an integral part of parliamentary govern¬ ment in many countries, though its form varies. It developed from the British Privy Council, when King Charles II and Queen Anne regularly consulted the council’s leading members to reach decisions before meet¬ ing with the unwieldy full council. The modern British cabinet consists of departmental ministers, drawn from the members of Parliament and appointed by the prime minister. In the U.S., the cabinet serves as an advisory group to the president without the sanction of law. Members’ appointments are subject to Senate approval, and the U.S. Constitution sets cabinet members’ order of succession to the presidency. The cabinet includes the secretaries of State, Treasury, Defense, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, Labor, Health and Human Services, Housing and Urban Development, Transportation, Education, Energy, and Veterans Affairs and the attorney general.

cable car See streetcar

cable modem Modem used to convert analog data signals to digital form and vise versa, for transmission or receipt over cable television lines, especially for connecting to the Internet. A cable modem modulates and demodulates signals like a telephone modem, but is a much more complex device. Data can be transferred over cable lines much more quickly than over traditional phone lines. Transmission rates are typically around 1.5 megabits per second. Faster transmission is actually possible, but speed is usually restricted by the cable company’s (typically slower) connection to the Internet. Cable Internet access is regarded as a replacement for slower dial-up and ISDN services, and is competitive with other broadband modes of delivery (e.g., DSL connections). See also broadband technology.

Cable News Network See CNN

cable structure Form of long-span structure that is subject to tension and uses suspension cables for support. Highly efficient, cable structures

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

cable television ► cactus I 307

include the suspension bridge, the cable-stayed roof, and the bicycle- wheel roof. The graceful curve of the huge main cables of a suspension bridge is almost a catenary, the shape assumed by any string or cable sus¬ pended freely between two points. The cable-stayed roof is supported from above by steel cables radiating downward from masts that rise above roof level. The bicycle-wheel roof involves two layers of tension cables radiating from an inner tension ring and an outer compression ring, which in turn is supported by columns.

cable television System that distributes television signals by means of coaxial or fibre-optic cables. Cable television systems originated in the U.S. in the early 1950s to improve reception in remote and hilly areas, where broadcast signals were weak. In the 1960s they were introduced in large metropolitan areas where reception is sometimes degraded by reflection of signals from tall buildings. Since the mid-1970s there has been a pro¬ liferation of cable systems that offer special services and which generally charge a monthly fee. Besides providing high-quality signals, some sys¬ tems can deliver hundreds of channels. Another feature increasingly offered by cable operators is two-way, interactive communication by which viewers can, for example, participate in public-opinion polls as well as connect to the Internet. Cable operators are also involved in the devel¬ opment of video compression, digital transmission, and high-definition tele¬ vision.

Cabot, George (b. Jan. 16, 1752, Salem, Mass.—d. April 18, 1823, Boston, Mass., U.S.) U.S. Federalist Party leader. After studying at Har¬ vard University, he went to sea; he became a shipowner and successful merchant, retiring from business in 1794. Elected to the U.S. Senate (1791-96), he supported the fiscal policies of Alexander Hamilton. In 1793 he was appointed a director of the Bank of the United States. A member of the Federalist Essex Junto, he presided at the Hartford Convention in 1814.

Cabot, John orig. Giovanni Caboto (b. c. 1450, Genoa?—d. c. 1499) Italian navigator and explorer. In the 1470s he became a skilled navigator in travels to the eastern Mediterranean for a Venetian mercan¬ tile firm. In the 1490s he moved to Bristol, Eng., and, with support from city merchants, he led an expedition in 1497 to find trade routes to Asia. After landing somewhere in North America, possibly southern Labrador or Cape Breton Island, he took possession of the land for Henry VII and conducted explorations along the coastline. On a second expedition in 1498, he may have reached America but probably was lost at sea. His two voyages for England helped lay the groundwork for the later British claim to Canada. Sebastian Cabot was his son.

Cabot, Sebastian (b. c. 1476, Bristol, Gloucestershire, Eng., or Venice—d. 1557, London) English navigator, explorer, and cartographer. The son of John Cabot, he served at various times both the English and Spanish crowns. In 1525 he took charge of a Spanish expedition, aban¬ doning the original goal of developing trade with the Orient and instead embarking on a fruitless expedition to South America. Later he served in England as governor of the Merchant Adventurers, organizing an expe¬ dition to search for a northeast passage from Europe to the Orient.

Cabral \k9-'bral\, Amilcar (b. 1921, Bafata, Portuguese Guinea—d. Jan. 20, 1973, Conakry, Guinea) Guinean nationalist politician. In 1956 he founded the Partido Africano da Independence da Guine e Cabo Verde, which in 1962 began a war of liberation against Portuguese forces. By the late 1960s Cabral controlled much of Portuguese Guinea. He was assas¬ sinated in 1973. His half-brother, Luis de Almeida Cabral, became the first president of independent Guinea-Bissau in 1974.

Cabral, Pedro Alvares (b. 1467/68, Belmonte, Port.—d. 1520, San- tarem?) Portuguese navigator credited with the discovery of Brazil. A nobleman, Cabral long enjoyed the favour of Manuel I of Portugal, who in 1500 sent him and 13 ships on the second Portuguese voyage to India, following the route taken by Vasco da Gama, to strengthen commercial ties and further Portugal’s conquests. Cabral sailed southwest on a route that took him close to lands that had previously been sighted and claimed by the Portuguese. On April 22, 1500, he landed on the coast of what is now Brazil and formally took possession of the country for Portugal. The rest of his journey to India and back was beset by misfortune; only four ships returned to Portugal.

Cabrillo \k3-'bri-lo\, Juan Rodriguez (d. Jan. 3, 1543?, off the coast of northern California) Explorer in the service of Spain and discoverer of California. Little is known of his early life, though he may have been born in Portugal. In 1520 he accompanied Spanish explorers to Mexico.

He was one of the conquerors of present-day Guatemala, where he may have served as governor. In 1542 he left Mexico and sailed along the California coast, entering San Diego and Monterey bays. He landed on several islands off the coast; he apparently died of complications from a broken leg suffered on one such landing.

Cabrini, Saint Frances Xavier known as Mother Cabrini (b.

July 15, 1850, Sant’Angelo Lodigiano, Lombardy, Austria—d. Dec. 22, 1917, Chicago, Ill., U.S.; canonized July 7, 1946; feast day December 22) Italian-born U.S. missionary, the first U.S. citizen to be canonized by the Roman Catholic church. She was determined from childhood to become a missionary, and she took her vows in 1877. She founded the Mission¬ ary Sisters of the Sacred Heart in 1880, and in 1889 Pope Leo XIII sent her to the U.S. to work among Italian immigrants. She lived in New York City and Chicago but traveled in the Americas and Europe to found 67 houses of her order.

cacao \k9-'kau\ Tropical New World tree ( Theobroma cacao) of the chocolate family (Sterculiaceae, or Byttneriaceae). Its seeds, after fer¬ mentation and roasting, yield cocoa and chocolate. Cocoa butter is extracted from the seed. The tree is grown throughout the wet lowland tropics, often in the shade of taller trees. Its thick trunk supports a canopy of large, leathery, oblong leaves. The small, foul-smelling, pinkish flow¬ ers are borne directly on the branches and trunk; they are followed by the fruit, or pods, each yielding 20^10 seeds, or cocoa beans.

Caccini \kat-'che-ne\, Giulio or Giulio Romano (b. c. 1550, Rome, Papal States—buried Dec. 10, 1618, Florence) Italian composer and singer. He accompanied his patron, Cosimo I, to Florence in the 1570s; there he became associated with the Camerata, an academy that dedicated much attention to producing a revival of ancient Greek drama. His Euridice (1600), embodying the Camerata’s ideals, was the first opera to be published and was one of the first two surviving operas; the other, also titled Euridice, is largely by Jacopo Peri (1561-1633), whose lost Dafne (1598) was the first opera of all. Caccini’s Le nuove musiche (1602), a collection of songs with basso continuo, was of landmark importance in establishing the new monodic style.

cachalot See sperm whale

cache \'kash\ Temporary computer storage used for quick retrieval of data in order to increase processing speed. The cached data can be stored in a reserved area of RAM, a special cache chip (separate from the CPU) that provides faster access than RAM, or on the disk drive. By keeping frequently accessed data in a rapidly accessible place, the computer can respond quickly to requests for those data without having to perform time-consuming searches of RAM or hard drives. Since a “stale” cache will contain data that have been superseded by later information, the cached data must be refreshed periodically.

cachet, lettre de See lettre de cachet

cactus Any of the flowering plants that make up the family Cactaceae, containing about 1,650 species, native through most of North and South America, with the greatest number and variety in Mexico. Cacti are succulent perennials. Most live in and are well adapted to dry regions. Cacti generally have thick herba¬ ceous or woody stems containing chlorophyll. Leaves usually are absent or greatly reduced, minimiz¬ ing the surface area from which water can be lost; the stem is the site of photosynthesis. The generally thin, fibrous, shallow root systems range widely in area to absorb super¬ ficial moisture. Cacti vary greatly in size and appearance, from buttonlike peyote and low clumps of prickly pear and hedgehog cactus ( Echinocereus) to the upright columns of barrel cacti (Ferocactus and Echinocactus) and the imposing saguaro. Cacti can be distinguished from other succulent

Golden rainbow cactus (Echinocereus dasyacanthus ), a hedgehog cactus, growing in the desert of southwestern Texas.

© ROBERT AND LINDA MITCHELL

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

308 I Cacus and Caca > Caen

plants by the presence of small cushionlike structures (areoles) from which, in almost all species, spines arise, as do flowers, branches, and leaves (when present). Flowers, often large and colourful, are usually solitary. Cacti are widely cultivated as ornamentals. Various species, nota¬ bly prickly pears and chollas, are cultivated as food. Barrel cacti are an emergency source of water for people.

Cacus and Caca \'ka-k9s...'ka-k9\ In Roman religion, brother and sis¬ ter fire deities of the early Roman settlement on the Palatine Hill. Virgil described Cacus as the son of Vulcan and as a fire-breathing brigand who terrorized the countryside. He stole some of the giant Geryon’s cattle from Hercules (see Heracles) and hid them in his lair, but Hercules discovered Cacus’s hiding place and killed him. The story is traditionally connected with the establishment of Hercules’s oldest Roman place of worship, the Ara Maxima, in the Forum Boarium (cattle market).

CAD/CAMVkad-.kam, .kad-'kamX in full computer-aided design/ computer-aided manufacturing. Integration of design and manu¬ facturing into a system under direct control of digital computers. CAD systems use a computer with terminals featuring video monitors and inter¬ active graphics-input devices to design such things as machine parts, pat¬ terns for clothing, or integrated circuits. CAM systems use numerically controlled (see numerical control) machine tools and high-performance programmable industrial robots. Drawings developed during the design process are converted directly into instructions for the production machines, thus optimizing consistency between design and finished prod¬ uct, and providing flexibility in altering machine operations. These two processes are sometimes grouped as CAE (computer-aided engineering).

Cadbury, George (b. Sept. 19, 1839, Birmingham, Warwickshire, Eng.—d. Oct. 24, 1922, Birmingham) British businessman and social reformer. In 1861 he and his brother Richard took over their father’s fail¬ ing business and built it into the highly prosperous Cadbury Brothers cocoa- and chocolate-manufacturing firm. They improved working con¬ ditions and introduced a private social security program for employees. George was also noted for his successful experiments in housing and town planning in Bournville, where he built affordable working-class homes with large gardens.

caddis fly Any member of about 7,000 species of mothlike aquatic insects (order Trichoptera) found worldwide, usually in freshwater habi¬ tats but sometimes in brackish and tidal waters. Generally dull brownish, caddis flies have long antennae and hairy wings that fold rooflike over the abdomen. They feed primarily on plant juices and flower nectar, though a few are predaceous. Many caddis-fly larvae construct a portable case from grains of sand, bits of shells, and plant debris glued together by a sticky substance they secrete. This case surrounds the larva’s abdomen while it matures. Caddis flies are important to freshwater ecosystems because they clean the water by consuming plant and animal debris and serve, as larvae and adults, as an important food for fish, particularly trout.

Caddo One of a group of North American Indian people living mostly in western Oklahoma, U.S. Their language is of the Caddoan language family. Their name derives from a French truncation of kadohadacho, meaning “real chief’ in Caddo. From ancient times they occupied the lower Red River area in Louisiana and Arkansas, and many striking examples of prehistoric pottery and basketry have been found. They were a semisedentary agricultural people who lived in conical pole- and-thatch dwellings. In the 18th century pressures from white settlers pushed many Caddo off their lands, a process that intensified with the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. By 1835 the Caddo had ceded all their land to the U.S., and by 1859 most were living on reservations in Oklahoma. Some 2,700 Caddo claimed sole Caddo descent in the 2000 U.S. census.

Cade's Rebellion (1450) Uprising against the government of Henry VI of England. Jack Cade, an Irishman of uncertain occupation living in Kent, organized a rebellion among local small property holders angered by high taxes and prices. He took the name John Mortimer, identifying

himself with the family of Henry’s rival, the duke of York. Cade and his followers defeated a royal army in Kent and entered London, where they executed the lord treasurer. They were soon driven out of the city; Cade’s followers dispersed on being offered a pardon, and Cade was mortally wounded in Sussex. His rebellion contributed to the breakdown of royal authority that led to the Wars of the Roses.

Cadiz \ko-'diz,\ Spanish Vka-thes\ City (pop., 2001: city, 133,363; metro, area, 400,157), southwestern Spain. Located on a peninsula in the Bay of Cadiz northwest of Gibraltar, it is the main seaport of Cadiz province in Andalusia. Founded as Gadir by Phoenicians from Tyre c. 1100 bc, it was later ruled by Carthage, Rome (as Gades), and the Visigoths. It was held by the Moors beginning in ad 711. In 1262 Cadiz was captured by Alfonso X of Castile-Leon. The city enjoyed great prosperity as a centre for Span¬ ish trade with the American colonies in the 16th—18th centuries (see Sevilla). It now has naval and mercantile shipbuilding yards.

Cadiz, Bay of Inlet of the Gulf of Cadiz, southwestern Spain. An inlet indenting the coast of Cadiz province, it receives the Guadalete River and is partially protected by the Isle of Leon, on which the port of Cadiz is located. The Spanish-U.S. air and naval base at Rota is situated on the bay.

cadmium Metallic chemical element, chemical symbol Cd, atomic num¬ ber 48. It normally occurs along with other metals, especially zinc, in ores. A silvery white metal capable of taking a high polish, cadmium does not corrode under alkaline (see alkali) conditions; one of its major uses is in electroplating other metals and alloys to protect them. Because it absorbs neutrons effectively, it is used in control rods in some nuclear reactors. Its compounds, in which it has valence 2, are very toxic. They are used as pigments, as phosphors in television and computer monitor screens, as pesticides, and in photographic applications and analytical chemistry.

Cadmus In Greek mythology, the son of the king of Phoenicia, brother of Europa, and founder of Thebes. When Zeus carried off Europa, Cadmus was sent to find her. The Delphic oracle ordered him to end his search, follow a cow, and build a town where it lay down. That town became Thebes. He built the citadel of Thebes with the help of fierce armed men who sprang up where he sowed the teeth of a dragon he had slain. He married Harmonia, daughter of Ares and Aphrodite, and their five children included Semele. Cadmus was said to have brought the alphabet to Greece.

Cadogan \k9-'d9g-9n\, William, 1st Earl (b. 1672, Liscarton, County Meath, Ire.—d. July 17, 1726, Kensington, near London, Eng.) British soldier. He served as a trusted colleague with the duke of Marl¬ borough in the War of the Spanish Succession. Later he became involved in intrigues to secure the succession for the Hanoverian George I (1714). He crushed a Jacobite rebellion in 1716, was granted an earldom in 1718, and was promoted to commander in chief in 1722.

caduceus \k9-'du-se-9s\ Staff carried by Hermes as a symbol of peace. It served as a badge of protection for ancient Greek and Roman heralds and ambassadors. It was originally depicted as a rod or olive branch ending in two shoots and decorated with garlands or ribbons; in later iconography the garlands became two snakes and a pair of wings was attached to the staff to represent Hermes’ speed. The caduceus was adopted as a symbol of physicians because of its similarity to the staff of Asclepius.

caecilian \si-'sil-y9n\ Any of 155 species of wormlike amphibians found in humid regions from Mexico to northern Argentina and in Africa, South¬ east Asia, and the Seychelles. The elongate, ringed, limbless body is 4-60 in. (10-150 cm) long. Colour ranges from blackish to pinkish tan. The tiny eyes are covered by skin and often by bone. A chemosensory projection lies between the eye and nostril. Some species lay eggs, which are guarded by the female and hatch into free-living larvae; other species bear live young. Caecilians spend their lives underground and eat worms and insects.

Caecus, Appius Claudius See Appius Claudius Caecus

Caedmon Ykad-msnX (fl. 658-680) Earliest known Old English Chris¬ tian poet. According to Bede, he was a herdsman who received a divine call in a dream to sing of “the beginning of things” and began to utter “verses which he had never heard.” He entered a monastery, where he produced vernacular poetry on sacred themes expounded to him by more learned brethren. Only the nine-line original dream hymn can be confi¬ dently attributed to him, but it set the pattern for almost all of Anglo- Saxon religious verse.

Caen Vka n \ City (pop., 1999: 113,987), northwestern France. Situated on the Orne River, it was the capital of lower Normandy in the 11th cen-

Incised redware cat effigy bowl, Cad¬ doan from Louisiana; in the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, New York City

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN, NEW YORK CITY

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Caere ► Cagney I 309

tury. The English took it in 1346 and 1417 and held it until 1450. It suf¬ fered in the Wars of Religion and fell to the Protestants in 1562. During the French Revolution it was a centre for the Girondin movement. The city was severely damaged in the Allied Normandy Campaign (1944), but it was rebuilt. Notable structures include the 11th-century abbey and the university. Caen is a transportation centre and manufactures automobiles and electrical equipment.

Caere \'k!-ra\ Ancient city, Etruria. Located northwest of Rome near the modern city of Ceveteri, it was an important trading centre. Brought under Roman control in 253 bc, it prospered as part of the empire but declined in later centuries. The derived Latin word caeremonium (source of English ceremony) reflects the Etruscan fascination with divina¬ tion and prophecy. Tomb chambers have yielded gold and silver objects, which show an Orientalizing ten¬ dency in the Etruscan art of the 7th century bc.

CaernarfonVklr-'nar-vo^kar-'nar- von\ Town (pop., 2001: 9,611), administrative centre of Gwynedd county and county seat of the historic county of Caernarvonshire, Wales.

Located near the west end of the Menai Strait, it was the site of a Roman fort, Segontium, built c. ad 75. After the Roman withdrawal (c.

380-390), it was the seat of local chieftains. The township was completely transformed by Edward I after his conquest of Wales in 1282-83. The imposing castle he built (birthplace of his son Edward II) has been pre¬ served, and since 1911 it has been the site of the investiture of the prince of Wales.

Caesar, Irving orig. Isidor Caesar (b. July 4, 1895, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Dec. 18, 1996, New York City) U.S. lyricist. Caesar worked with Henry Ford during World War I before turning to songwrit¬ ing. Working with various collaborators, he provided the lyrics for such standards as “Swanee,” “Sometimes I’m Happy,” “Crazy Rhythm,” and “Tea for Two,” one of the most frequently recorded tunes ever written.

Caesar, (Gaius) Julius (b. July 12/13, 100, Rome—d. March 15, 44 bc, Rome) Celebrated Roman general, statesman, and dictator. A patrician by birth, he held the prominent posts of quaestor and praetor before becoming governor of Farther Spain in 61-60. He formed the First Tri¬ umvirate with Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus in 60 and was elected consul in 59 and proconsul in Gaul and Illyria in 58. After conducting the Gallic Wars, during which he invaded Britain (55, 54) and crossed the Rhine (55, 53), he was instructed by the Senate to lay down his com¬ mand, Senate conservatives having grown wary of his increasing power, as had a suspicious Pompey. When the Senate would not command Pompey to give up his command simultaneously, Caesar, against regula¬ tions, led his forces across the Rubicon River (49) between Gaul and Italy, precipitating the Roman Civil War. Pompey fled from Italy but was pur¬ sued and defeated by Caesar in 48; he then fled to Egypt, where he was murdered. Having followed Pompey to Egypt, Caesar became lover to Cleopatra and supported her militarily. He defeated Pompey’s last sup¬ porters in 46-45. He was named dictator for life by the Romans. He was offered the crown (44) but refused it, knowing the Romans’ dislike for kings. He was in the midst of launching a series of political and social reforms when he was assassinated in the Senate House on the ides of March by conspirators led by Cassius and Brutus. His writings on the Gal¬ lic and Civil wars are considered models of classical historiography.

Caesar, Sid (b. Sept. 8, 1922, Yonkers, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. comedian. He began his career as a band musician but switched to comedy. Noted for his pantomime skills and his ability to mimic foreign languages at high speed, he performed comic routines in live television shows and costarred with Imogene Coca (1908-2001) and Carl Reiner in the popular comedy variety program Your Show of Shows (1950-54). He created his own Cae¬ sar’s Hour (1954-57) and later appeared in television specials.

Caesar Augustus See Caesar Augustus

Caesarea V.se-zo-'re-oX modern Horbat Qesari Vk6r-bat-'ka-sa-re\ Ancient seaport, Palestine. Located on the coast of present-day Israel south of the city of Haifa, it was originally a Phoenician settlement. Taken by the Romans and rebuilt in the 1st century bc by Herod the Great, it was renamed for his patron Augustus. The capital of the Roman province of Judaea in ad 6, it was the site of an early Christian church and was often visited by St. Paul. It later declined under Byzantine and Arab rule and was destroyed by the Mamluk sultan Baybars I in the 13th century.

caesaropapism X.se-zo-ro-'pa-.pi-zomX Political system in which the head of the state is also the head of the church and supreme judge in reli¬ gious matters. It is often associated with the Byzantine Empire, where emperors presided over church councils and appointed patriarchs. The term has also been applied to other historical eras, including the rule of Tsar Peter I, who made the Russian Orthodox Church a department of the state, and the reign of Henry VIII in England.

caffeine Heterocyclic comfound that, like other alkaloids, has marked physiological effects. It occurs in coffee beans, tea leaves, kola nuts, cacao, mate, and guarana and in the products made from them. Its stimu¬ lating effect on the central nervous system, heart, cardiovascular system, and kidneys makes it medically useful in treating respiratory depression caused by overdose of barbiturates, morphine, or heroin. Its positive effects can include improved motor performance, decreased fatigue, increased alert¬ ness, and enhanced sensory activity. Excessive caffeine can produce irri¬ tability, anxiety, insomnia, and potentially serious symptoms such as heart irregularities and delirium. Much of the caffeine included in many over- the-counter stimulants, cold remedies, and painkillers has been extracted during production of decaffeinated coffee and tea.

Cagayan de Oro X.ka-ga-'yan-da-'o-roX City (pop., 2000: 461,877), northern Mindanao, Philippines. Located along the Cagayan River near the head of Macajalar Bay, it was established as a mission station in the 17th century and fortified by the Spaniards. Chartered as a city in 1950, it has become northern Mindanao’s transportation and commercial hub.

Cagayan River or Rio Grande de Cagayan River, northeastern Luzon, Philippines. Flowing north 220 mi (354 km) to the port of Aparri on the Babuyan Channel, it is the longest river in Luzon and is navigable for much of its course. Its chief tributary is the Chico. Its valley, 50 mi (80 km) wide, is agriculturally important.

Cage, John in full John Milton Cage, Jr. (b. Sept. 5, 1912, Los Angeles, Calif., U.S.—d. Aug. 12, 1992, New York, N.Y.) U.S. avant- garde composer and writer. The son of an inventor. Cage studied music with Arnold Schoenberg and Henry Cowell. From the early 1940s he was closely associated with the choreographer Merce Cunningham. Though he began as a 12-tone composer (see serialism), by 1943 his sonic experiments had marked him as notably original. He soon turned to Zen Buddhism and concluded that all activities that make up music are part of a single natural process and that all sounds are potentially musical; thenceforth he advocated indeterminism and endeavoured to ensure randomness in his works, using increasingly inventive notation and often relying on the Confucian classic Yijing. By the 1960s he had expanded into the realm of multimedia. His disparate works include Bacchanale for prepared piano (1938), Imaginary Landscape No. 4 for 12 radios (1951), Fontana Mix for tape (1958), HPSCHD for seven harpsichords, 51 tapes, and nonmu¬ sical media (1969), and Roaratorio (1979). His widely read books include Silence (1961), A Year from Monday (1967), Notations (1969), and M (1973). His international influence was far greater than that of any pre¬ vious American composer.

Cagliari Vkal-ya-re\ ancient Caralis City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 158,351), capital of Sardinia, Italy. Located on the southern coast of the island of Sardinia, Cagliari was founded by the Phoenicians. Held suc¬ cessively by Rome, the Saracens, Pisa, Spain, and Austria, it passed with the rest of Sardinia to the house of Savoy in 1718. Long the military head¬ quarters of the island, Cagliari was bombed heavily in World War II. The rebuilt harbour is Sardinia’s principal port.

Cagney, James (b. July 17, 1899, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. March 30, 1986, Stanfordville, N.Y.) U.S. actor. He toured in vaudeville as a song-and-dance man before starring in the successful Broadway musical Penny Arcade (1929). He played the first in a series of pugnacious crimi¬ nal roles in the film Public Enemy (1931), followed by Angels with Dirty Faces (1938) and White Heat (1949). As George M. Cohan in Yankee

Gold fibula from the Regolini-Galassi tomb, Caere, 7th century bc; in the Vat¬ ican Museum.

SCALA/ART RESOURCE, NEW YORK

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310 I Cahn ► Cajun

Doodle Dandy (1942, Academy Award) he showed off his dance skills and streetwise charm. Later films include Mister Roberts (1955) and Rag¬ time (1981).

Cahn, Sammy orig. Samuel Cohen (b. June 18, 1913, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Jan. 15, 1993, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. song lyricist. He became a professional songwriter while still a teenager and later formed a songwriting team with Saul Chaplin; their first hit was “Rhythm Is Our Business” (1935). With Jule Styne he collaborated on songs for many films and musicals, including “Three Coins in the Fountain” (1954, Academy Award). In 1955 Cahn and Jimmy Van Heusen formed a partnership and went on to write dozens of songs for Frank Sinatra, whose recordings won them Academy Awards for “All the Way,” “High Hopes,” and “Call Me Irresponsible.”

Caicos Islands See Turks and Caicos Islands

Caillaux \ka-'yo\, Joseph (-Marie-Auguste) (b. March 30, 1863, Le Mans, France—d. Nov. 22, 1944, Mamers) French politician. Serving several times as minister of finance, he was an early but unsuccessful advocate of a national income tax. He was named premier in 1911 but was forced to resign after negotiating a controversial treaty with Germany over the second of the Moroccan crises. Later his opposition to World War I and friendship with German agents led to conviction on charges of corresponding with the enemy. Granted amnesty in 1924, he was later elected to the Senate and became head of the Commission of Finance (1927^10).

Caillebotte \ka-y9-'bot\, Gustave (b. Aug. 19, 1848, Paris, Fr.—d. Feb. 21, 1894, Gennevilliers) French painter and art collector. Born to a wealthy family, he was a naval architect by profession. He pursued his interest in painting at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts and became a prolific painter of contemporary subjects, town and country views, still lifes, and boating scenes. In Caillebotte’s masterpiece, Paris Street; Rainy Day (1877), he used bold perspective to create a monumental portrait of a Paris intersection. In addition to his own painting, Caillebotte was the chief organizer, promoter, and financial backer of the Impressionist exhibitions, and he purchased works by Edouard Manet, Edgar Degas, Claude Monet, Paul Cezanne, and others. He bequeathed his collection to the state, and in 1897 it formed the basis of the first Impressionist exhibition in a French museum. See Impressionism.

caiman Vka-monV Any member of several species of Central and South American reptiles of the alligator family. Like the rest of the crocodile order, caimans are amphibious, lizardlike carnivores. They live along the edges of rivers and other bodies of water, and reproduce by laying hard- shelled eggs in nests built and guarded by the female. The largest species is the black caiman (Melanosuchus niger ), a potentially dangerous animal with a maximum length of about 15 ft (4.5 m). Average lengths for the other species (genera Caiman and Paleosuchus) are 4-7 ft (1.2-2.1 m).

Cain and Abel In the Hebrew scriptures, the sons of Adam and Eve. According to Genesis, Cain, the firstborn, was a farmer, and his brother Abel was a shepherd. Cain was enraged when God preferred his broth¬ er’s sacrifice of sheep to his own offering of grain, and he murdered Abel. When God asked where Abel was, Cain pretended ignorance, saying, “Am I my brother’s keeper?” God punished Cain by sending him into exile but marked him with a sign as a warning to others, promising that he would be avenged if he were killed.

cairn terrier Breed of terrier developed in Scotland to rout animals that prey on game. The modern breed’s characteristics are carefully patterned on those of the dog’s ancestor, a 17th-century terrier of the Isle of Skye. This short-legged dog has a short, broad face. Its coarse coat is usually bluish gray, tan, or pale yellowish brown. Generally active, hardy, alert, and spirited, it is valued as a pet and watchdog. It stands 9-10 in. (23- 25.5 cm) high and weighs about 13-14 lbs (6-6.5 kg).

Cairngorm Mountains Vkarn-.gornA Mountain range, northeastern Scotland. It is located in the Highlands between the Spey and Dee river valleys; its highest peak is Ben Macdui, at 4,296 ft (1,309 m) the second- highest (after Ben Nevis) in the British Isles. Since World War II winter sports have developed in the area. It is a chief source of the cairngorm variety of quartz.

Cairo Vkl-ro \ Arabic Al-Qahirah \al-'ka-he-r3\ City (pop., 1996: city, 6,789,479; 1999 est.: metro, area, 10,345,000), capital of Egypt. Located on the banks of the Nile River near the site of a Roman city captured by

the Arabs in 641, Old Cairo (Al-Fustat) was then built by the Arabs as a military camp. Cairo’s newer section (Al-Qahirah) was built by the Fatimid dynasty (c. 968) and was made the capital in 973. From the 13th century, as the capital of the MamlOk dynasty, it reached its greatest prosperity as a trade and cultural centre. Occupied by French forces under Napoleon I in 1798, it was held by the French for three years. In World War II (1939— 45) it was a base of operations for British and U.S. forces and was also the site of two conferences by the Allied Powers (see Cairo conferences). The ancient metropolis is a blend of old and new. East and West. It is the centre of the largest urban agglomeration in the Middle East and Africa, and it is the chief cultural centre of the Arab world. Its most noteworthy landmark is the pyramid complex of Giza, located at the southwestern edge of the city. A manufacturing centre, it is also the site of several important universities and colleges.

Cairo conferences (November-December 1943) Two meetings held in Cairo during World War II. At the first, Winston Churchill and Frank¬ lin Roosevelt discussed plans for the Normandy Invasion (see Normandy Campaign). With Chiang Kai-shek, they announced their goal of stripping Japan of all the territories it had seized since 1914 and of restoring Korea to independence. At the second conference, Churchill and Roosevelt tried unsuccessfully to persuade Turkey’s Pres. Ismet InonO to bring his coun¬ try into the war on the side of the Allies.

Caishen or Ts'ai-shen Vtsi-'shonN Chinese god of wealth, believed to bestow on his devotees the riches carried about by his attendants. A Ming- dynasty novel relates that a hermit, Zhao Gongming, employed magic to support the collapsing Shang dynasty. He was killed by Jiang Ziya, a sup¬ porter of the Zhou dynasty. Rebuked for causing the death of a virtuous man, Jiang apologized in a temple, extolled Zhao’s virtues, and canon¬ ized him as the god of wealth. During Chinese New Year, incense is burned in Caishen’s temple and the greeting “May you become rich” is exchanged.

caisson \'ka-,san\ In engineering, a type of foundation most commonly used underwater for a bridge, but sometimes used in building construc¬ tion. It is a large hollow structure that is sunk down through the earth by workers excavating from inside it; ultimately it becomes a permanent part of the pier. There are three types: the open caisson, open at both top and bottom; the box caisson, closed at the bottom; and the pneumatic caisson, with an airtight chamber to accommodate submerged workers. Caisson columns, typically 2 ft (0.6 m) or more in diameter, may be used as an alternative to bearing piles. A round hole is dug or bored to a stable layer of earth and temporarily supported by a steel shell, then filled with con¬ crete poured around a cage of reinforcing bars.

caisson disease See decompression sickness

Caitanya \kl-'tan-y3\, Sri Krishna orig. Vishvambhara Mishra

(b. 1485, Navadvipa, Bengal, India—d. 1533, Puri, Orissa) Indian Hindu mystic. Born into a Brahman family, he became a teacher. While on a pilgrimage to perform his father’s death-anniversary ceremony, he had a profound religious experience, and he returned home indifferent to worldly matters. Disciples joined him in worship that consisted of choral singing of the name of God, often accompanied by dance movements and ending in trance states. He took his new name on initiation as an ascetic in 1510. In his lifetime his following came to constitute a major sect of Vaishnavism (see Caitanya movement). According to tradition, he died when he walked into the ocean while lost in a devotional trance.

Caitanya movement Emotional form of Hinduism that developed in the 16th century, inspired by the mode of worship originated by Caitanya. Centred in Bengal, the movement was organized by Caitanya’s followers Nityananda and Advaita. Bhakti (devotion) is central and takes the form of singing for hours, with accompaniment, hymns that repeat God’s name. Caitanya himself came to be worshiped as an incarnation of both Krishna and his beloved, Radha. Caitanya, Nityananda, and Advaita are regarded as the movement’s three masters. A group of six of Caitanya’s disciples developed its theology and devotional literature. Its present leaders are mostly lineal descendants of the early disciples. See also Hare Krishna MOVEMENT.

Cajun Any descendant of French Canadians who in the 18th century were driven by the British from the captured French colony of Acadia (now Nova Scotia and adjacent areas) and settled in the fertile bayou lands of southern Louisiana, U.S. Many Cajuns speak a dialect of North Ameri¬ can French. U.S. census figures for Cajuns are deceptive; although in 2000

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

cakravartin ► calculator I 311

only some 85,000 people reported themselves to be Acadian/Cajun, the census form also included a French Canadian category, which may have confused the issue. Experts suggest that there are some 100,000 Cajuns in Texas and from 500,000 to 700,000 Cajuns in Louisiana. In recent decades Cajun cuisine, noted for its use of spicy seasonings, and zydeco music have become popular among non-Cajuns.

cakravartin See chakravartin

Calabar \'ka-l3-,bar\ City (pop., 1991.: 310,839), southeastern Nigeria. Lying along the Calabar River above its confluence with the Cross River, it was settled in the 17th century by the Efik and became an important trading centre for Europeans arriving on the African coast. After accept¬ ing British protection in 1884, it served as capital of a British protector¬ ate until British administrative headquarters were moved to Lagos in 1906. With its natural harbour, it remains an important port.

calabash Tree (Crescentia cujete ) of the trumpet-creeper family (Big- noniaceae) that grows in Central and South America, the West Indies, and extreme southern Florida. It is often grown as an ornamental. It produces large spherical fruits, the hard shells of which are useful as bowls, cups, and other water containers when hollowed out. The fruit’s shell encloses a whitish pulp and thin, dark brown seeds. The tree bears funnel-shaped, light green and purple-streaked flowers and evergreen leaves. Fruits of the unrelated bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) are also known as calabashes.

Calabria \ka-'la-bre-a\ Region (pop., 2001 prelim.: 1,993,274), south¬ ern Italy. Forming the “toe” of the Italian “boot,” it is a peninsula that separates the Tyrrhenian and Ionian seas. A mountainous area covering 5,823 sq mi (15,080 sq km), it has been subject to earthquakes. Its capi¬ tal is Catanzaro. Founded as a Greek colony and known in ancient times as Bruttium, it was taken by the Romans in the 3rd century bc and gradu¬ ally went into decline. It eventually passed to the Byzantines, who renamed it Calabria. Conquered by the Normans, it was united with the Kingdom of Naples in the 11th century ad. A stronghold of Italian repub¬ licanism until the Risorgimento, it became part of Italy after the 1860 expedition of Giuseppe de Garibaldi. Long a poor area dependent on farm¬ ing, it underwent a land-reform system in the mid-20th century that pro¬ moted more diverse profitable crops.

caladium \ko-Ta-de-3m\ Any of the tropical New World tuberous her¬ baceous plants that make up the genus Caladium, in the arum family, widely cultivated for their showy, fragile-looking, variably coloured leaves. Cal- adiums are nonhardy bulbs used as potted plants indoors and in summer outdoor plantings. They keep surprisingly well if protected from chills and wintry drafts.

Calah \'ka-b\ modern NimrQd \'nim- l rud\ Ancient city, Assyria. Lying south of modern Mosul, Iraq, it was founded in the 13th century bc by Shalmaneser I. It remained unimpor¬ tant until the 9th century bc, when Ashurnasirpal II made it the capital of Assyria. It was the site of a reli¬ gious building founded in 798 bc by Queen Sammu-remat (Semiramis of Greek legend). Excavations there have yielded thousands of carved ivories from the 9th-8th centuries bc.

Calais \ka-'le, ka-'la\ Seaport (pop.,

1999: 77,333) on the Strait of Dover, northern France. Originally a fishing village built on an island, it was improved by the count of Flanders in 997 and fortified by the count of Boulogne in 1224. Calais was taken in 1347 by Edward III of England, and after 1450 it was the only remaining English possession in France. The 2nd duke de Guise took Calais from the English in 1558. In World War II it was a main objective in the Ger¬ man drive to the sea in 1940. It is an important passenger port and is near the French terminus of the Channel Tunnel. The city is famous for its lace and embroideries.

Calamity Jane orig. Martha Jane Cannary (b. May 1, 1852?, near Princeton, Mo.?, U.S.—d. Aug. 1, 1903, Terry, near Deadwood, S.D.)

U.S. frontierswoman. She grew up in Montana and worked in mining camps, where she acquired riding and shooting skills. In 1876 she settled in Deadwood, S.D., site of new gold strikes; her pursuits there included hauling goods and machin¬ ery to the outlying camps and work¬ ing as a cook and a dance-hall girl.

There she probably first met Wild Bill Hickok, who would become her com¬ panion. In 1891 she married Charley Burke, and from 1895 she toured with Wild West shows in the Mid¬ west. Facts about her life were embellished by contemporary feature-magazine writers.

Calatrava \,ka-la-'tra-va. Order of Oldest military and religious order in Spain. It was founded in 1158 by two Cistercian monks who proclaimed a holy Crusade to defend the city of Calatrava against the Moors. By the 15th century the order had 200,000 members and became increasingly involved in Castilian domestic politics. In 1489 it was incor¬ porated into the crown by Ferdinand V and Isabella I, who deemed that all private armies had outserved their usefulness. It remained an honorary association of Spanish nobles until its dissolution in the 19th century.

calcedony See chalcedony

calcite Vkal-,slt\ Most common form of natural calcium carbonate (CaC0 3 ), a widely distributed mineral known for the beautiful develop¬ ment and great variety of its crystals. It occurs in stalagmites and stalac¬ tites and forms the structure of coral reefs. Calcite is the most important mineral in limestones and marbles used in the building, steel, chemical, and glass industries. Transparent crystals are called Iceland spar.

calcium Chemical element, one of the alkaline earth metals, chemical sym¬ bol Ca, atomic number 20. The most abundant metallic element in the human body, it is an essential part of bones and teeth and has many physi¬ ological functions (see calcium deficiency; tooth). It is the fifth most abun¬ dant element in Earth’s crust but does not occur naturally in the free state. In its compounds calcium has valence 2. It occurs in limestone, chalk, marble, dolomite, eggshells, pearls, coral, and many marine shells as calcium car¬ bonate, or calcite; in apatite as calcium phosphate; in gypsum as calcium sul¬ fate; and in many other minerals. It is used as an alloying agent and in other metallurgical applications; its alloy with lead is used in cable sheathing and grids for batteries. Calcite is used as a lime source, a filler, a neutralizer, and an extender; in pure form it is used in baking powder and as an antacid and calcium supplement. Calcium oxide (lime) and its product after water addi¬ tion, calcium hydroxide (slaked lime), are important industrially. Other sig¬ nificant compounds are calcium chloride (a drying agent), calcium hypochlorite (a bleach), calcium sulfate (gypsum and plaster of Paris), and calcium phosphate (a plant food and stabilizer for plastics).

calcium deficiency Inadequate supply or metabolism of calcium, the main structural element of bones and teeth. Its metabolism is regulated by vitamin D, phosphorus, and hormones (see parathyroid gland). Calcium in the blood has roles in muscle contraction, nerve-impulse transmission, blood clotting, milk production, hormone secretion, and enzyme function, for which calcium is pulled from the bones if deficiency develops. Chronic deficiency may be a factor in the development of osteoporosis or osteo¬ malacia (softening of bone) and may contribute to hypertension and colon cancer. Severe calcium deficiency (hypocalcemia), usually the result of a metabolic problem rather than a dietary deficiency, causes numbness, tin¬ gling, and painful muscle aches and spasms.

calcium oxide See lime

calculator Machine for performing arithmetic operations and certain mathematical functions automatically. Blaise Pascal devised a digital arith¬ metic machine in 1642. By the late 19th century, such machines had become smaller and easier to use, and desktop machines appeared in the early 20th century. Electronic data-processing systems in the mid-1950s led to the obsolescence of mechanical calculators. Miniature solid-state

Winged bull of alabaster, guardian of a gate of the palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud; in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.

COURTESY OF THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW VORK, GIFT OF JOHN D. ROCKEFELLER, JR, 1932

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312 I calculus ► calendar

devices ushered in calculators that could perform mathematical functions in addition to basic arithmetic, and also store data and instructions in memory registers, providing programming capabilities similar to those of small computers.

calculus Field of mathematics that analyzes aspects of change in pro¬ cesses or systems that can be modeled by functions. Through its two pri¬ mary tools—the derivative and the integral —it allows precise calculation of rates of change and of the total amount of change in such a system. The derivative and the integral grew out of the idea of a limit, the logical extension of the concept of a function over smaller and smaller intervals. The relationship between differential calculus and integral calculus, known as the fundamental theorem of calculus, was discovered in the late 17th century independently by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Cal¬ culus was one of the major scientific breakthroughs of the modem era.

Calcutta See Kolkata

Caldecott Vkol-do-kotV, Randolph (b. March 22, 1846, Chester, Cheshire, Eng.—d. Feb. 12, 1886, St. Augustine, Fla., U.S.) British graphic artist and watercolourist. While working as a bank clerk, he began drawing for periodicals such as London Society, and, after he moved to London, Punch and Graphic. He developed a gently satirical style and achieved success with illustrations for Washington Irving’s books The Sketch Book (1875) and Bracebridge Hall (1876). Caldecott is best known as an illustrator of children’s books, including William Cowper’s John Gilpin (1878) and Oliver Goldsmith’s Elegy on a Mad Dog (1879). Always frail in health, he died at age 39 in Florida, where he had gone to improve his condition. Since 1938 the Caldecott Medal has been awarded annually to the illustrator of the most distinguished U.S. picture book for children.

Colder Vkol-dorX, Alexander (Stirling) (b. July 22, 1898, Lawnton, Pa., U.S.—d. Nov. 11, 1976, New York, N.Y.) U.S. sculptor. He was the son and grandson of sculptors, and his mother was a painter. He studied mechanical engineering, and in 1923 attended the Art Students League, where he was influenced by artists of the Ash Can school. In 1924 he con¬ tributed illustrations to the National Police Gazette. In 1926 he moved to Paris and began making toylike ani¬ mals and circus figures of wood and wire; from these he developed his famous miniature circus. In the 1930s he became well known in Paris and the U.S. for his wire sculp¬ tures, as well as for portraits, continuous-line drawings, and abstract, motor-driven constructions.

He is best known as the inventor of the mobile, a forerunner of kinetic sculpture. He also constructed nonmovable sculptural works known as sta¬ biles. Although Calder’s early mobiles and stabiles were relatively small, he increasingly moved toward monumentality in his later works. His art was recognized with many large-scale exhibitions.

caldera \kal-'der-9\ Large, bowl-shaped volcanic depression that forms when the top of a volcanic cone collapses into the space left after magma is ejected during a violent volcanic eruption. The term is Spanish for “cal¬ dron.” Subsequent minor eruptions may build small cones on the floor of the caldera which may still later fill up with water; an example is Crater Lake in Oregon.

Calderon de la Barca V.kal-do-'ron-da-b-'bar-koV, Pedro (b. Jan. 17, 1600, Madrid, Spain—d. May 25, 1681, Madrid) Spanish playwright. He abandoned religious studies in 1623 to write plays for the court of Philip IV of Spain. His secular plays included The Surgeon of His Honour (1635), Life Is a Dream (1638), and his masterpiece. The Daughter of the Air (1653). His many plays on religious themes include The Constant Prince (1629) and The Wonder-Working Magician (1637). He also cre¬ ated 76 one-act religious dramas, notably The Great Theatre of the World (c. 1635) and The Faithful Shepherd (1678). Considered the successor to Lope de Vega as the greatest playwright of the Spanish Golden Age, he was noted for his well-constructed plots and his preoccupation with the van¬ ity of human existence.

Caldwell, Erskine (b. Dec. 17, 1903, Coweta county, Ga., U.S.—d. April 11, 1987, Paradise Valley, Ariz.) U.S. author. Caldwell became familiar with poor sharecroppers through his father’s missionary work. Fame arrived with Tobacco Road (1932), a controversial novel whose title became a byword for rural squalor; adapted as a play, it ran more than seven years on Broadway. God’s Little Acre (1933), also a best-seller, featured a cast of hopelessly poor degenerates. Like his other novels and stories about the rural Southern poor, they mix violence and sex in gro¬ tesque tragicomedy. He also wrote the text for documentary books with photographs by Margaret Bourke-White, whom he married.

Caledonian orogenic \,kal-9- , do-ne-3n- l or-3- , je-nik\ belt Range of mountains in northwestern Europe, extending in a southwest-northeast direction from Ireland, Wales, and northern England through Norway. The mountains developed in the period from the start of the Cambrian Period (543 million years ago) to the end of the Silurian Period (c. 417 million years ago). Remnants also exist in eastern Greenland.

calendar System for dividing time over extended periods, such as days, months, or years, and arranging these divisions in a definite order. A cal¬ endar is essential for the study of chronology, which reckons time by regular divisions, or periods, and uses these to date events. It is also vital for any civilization that needs to measure periods for agricultural, busi¬ ness, domestic, or other reasons. The lunation, or period in which the moon completes a cycle of its phases (29Vi days), is the basis for the month; most ancient calendars were collections of months. Days and sea¬ sons, which are a solar phenomena, do not have periods that evenly divide, so ancient calendars employed various means, such as the periodic inser¬ tion of an intercalary month, to reconcile the months with the seasons. The Gregorian calendar used almost universally today is a modification of the Julian calendar adopted by Julius Caesar, which used a 36514-day year with 12 months that came to have the number of days we know today. See also calendar, Jewish; calendar, Muslim; sidereal period.

calendar, French republican See French republican calendar

calendar, Jewish or Hebrew calendar Religious and civil dat¬ ing system based on both lunar and solar cycles. In the calendar used today, a day is counted from sunset to sunset, a week comprises 7 days, a month has 29 or 30 days, and a year has 12 lunar months plus approxi¬ mately 11 days (or 353, 354, or 355 days). In order to bring the calendar in line with the annual solar cycle, a 13th month of 30 days is added in the 3rd, 6th, 8th, 11th, 14th, 17th, and 19th years of a 19-year cycle. Therefore, a leap year may have from 383 to 385 days. The Jewish cal¬ endar in use today was popularly accepted around the 4th century ad and is based on Biblical calculations placing the creation in 3761 bc.

calendar, Muslim or Islamic calendar Dating system used in the Muslim world and based on a year of 12 months, each month beginning approximately at the time of the new moon. The months are alternately 30 and 29 days long except for the 12th, Dhu al-Hijjah, the length of which is varied in a 30-year cycle intended to keep the calendar in step with the true phases of the moon. In 11 years of this cycle, Dhu al-Hijjah has 30 days, and in the other 19 years it has 29. Thus the year has either 354 or 355 days. No months are added as in leap years, so the named months

Colder, photograph by Yousuf Karsh,

©KARSH AMDODFIN CAMP AND ASSOCIATES

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

calendering ► California poppy I 313

do not remain in the same seasons but retrogress through the entire solar, or seasonal, year (of about 36514 days) every 3214 solar years.

calendering Process of smoothing and compressing a material (nota¬ bly paper) during production by passing a continuous sheet through a number of pairs of heated rolls. The rolls in combination are called cal¬ enders; they are made of hardened steel or steel covered with fiber. In paper production, they typically exert a pressure of 500 lbs per linear in. (89 kg per cm). Coated papers are calendered to obtain a smooth, glossy finish. Calendering is also widely used in the manufacture of textiles, coated fabrics, and plastic sheeting.

calendula \k3-'len-j3-b\ Any herbaceous plant of the small genus Cal¬ endula, in the composite family, found in temperate regions. Calendulas produce yellow-rayed flowers. The pot marigold (C. officinalis) is grown especially for ornamental purposes.

Calgary Vkal-g3-re\ City (pop., 2001: city, 878,866; metro, area, 951,395), southern Alberta, Canada. It was founded in 1875 as a fort on the Bow River for the Northwest Mounted Police. The arrival of the Cana¬ dian Pacific Railway in 1883 aided its growth, as did the discovery of nearby oil and gas fields in 1914 and 1947. Its major industries are petro¬ leum refining, meatpacking, and lumbering. The annual Calgary Stam¬ pede, founded in 1912, is a world-famous rodeo and celebration of the Old West.

Calgary, University of Public university in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. It was founded in 1945 as part of the University of Alberta and gained full autonomy in 1966. It has faculties of education, engineering, envi¬ ronmental design, fine arts, graduate studies, humanities, law, manage¬ ment, medicine, nursing, physical education, science, social sciences, and social work. It has special programs devoted to space research, interna¬ tional development, gifted education, and world tourism.

Calhoun \kal-'hun\, John C(aldwell) (b. March 18, 1782, Abbeville district, S.C., U.S.—d. March 31,

1850, Washington, D.C.) U.S. poli¬ tician. A graduate of Yale University, he became an ardent Jeffersonian Republican and was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives (1811-17). As a leader of the War Hawks, he introduced the declaration of war against Britain in June 1812 (see War of 1812). From 1817 to 1825 he served as U.S. secretary of war. He was elected vice president in 1824 (under John Quincy Adams) and again in 1828 (under Andrew Jack- son). In the 1830s he became an extreme advocate of strict construc¬ tion of the U.S. Constitution, a champion of states' rights, a defender of slavery, and a supporter of nullifi¬ cation. In 1832 he resigned the vice presidency and was elected to the U.S. Senate, where he served until 1850; he was briefly secretary of state in 1844-45. His exuberant defense of slavery as a “positive good” aroused strong anti-Southern feeling in the free states.

Cali Vka-le\ City (pop., 1999 est.: 2,077,386), western Colombia. Lying on both sides of the Cali River, it was founded in 1536. Located far from the coast, it did not develop economically until the 20th century, when the upper Cauca River was harnessed to generate electrical power and prevent flooding. It is a major service centre for area products and rivals Bogota, Barranquilla, and Medellin as an industrial centre. Beginning in the late 20th century, Cali became notorious for its trade in illegal narcotics.

calico cat In North America, a blotched or spotted domestic cat, usually predominantly white with red and black patches (a pattern also called tortoiseshell-and-white). Because genetic determination of some coat colours in cats is linked to the sex chromosome, calicoes are almost always female.

California State (pop., 2000: 33,871,648), western U.S. Lying on the Pacific Ocean, it is bordered by Mexico and the U.S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona. California is the largest state in population and the

third largest in area (158,647 sq mi [410,895 sq km]), extending about 800 mi (1,300 km) north to south and 250 mi (400 km) east to west. Its capital is Sacramento. Within 85 mi (137 km) of each other lie Mount Whitney and Death Valley, the highest and lowest points in the 48 con¬ tiguous states. It was inhabited originally by American Indians. The first European coastal expansion took place in 1542-43 when Juan Cabrillo established a Spanish claim to the area. The first mission was established by Junipero Serra at San Diego in 1769. The region remained under Span¬ ish and, after the 1820s, Mexican control until it was taken by U.S. forces in the Mexican War and ceded to the U.S. by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848. Though settlement had begun by the U.S. in 1841, it was greatly accelerated by the 1848 gold rush. California was admitted to the Union in 1850 as a nonslavery state under the Compromise of 1850. Its already expanding population grew immensely in the 20th century. It has the largest economy of any U.S. state. It has suffered severe earthquakes, most destructively those of San Francisco in 1906 and 1989 and Los Angeles in 1994.

California, Gulf of or Sea of Cortes Gulf separating Baja Califor¬ nia from the rest of Mexico. Its area is about 59,000 sq mi (153,000 sq km). Its waters were coloured by red plankton when 16th-century Span¬ ish explorers named it Mar Bermejo (“Vermilion Sea”). Some geologists hold that the gulf is structurally part of the Pacific Ocean; others claim Baja California is pulling away from the continent as it moves north along the San Andreas Fault, allowing the gulf to form.

California, Lower See Baja California

California, University of U.S. public university with campuses at Berkeley (main campus), Davis, Irvine, Los Angeles, Merced, Riverside, San Diego (La Jolla), San Francisco, Santa Barbara, and Santa Cruz. Established in 1868 in Oakland, it has become one of the largest univer¬ sity systems in the U.S. The Berkeley campus, which replaced the Oak¬ land campus in 1873, remains a leader in scientific fields as well as in many other academic areas. In the 1930s researchers there produced the first cyclotron, isolated the human polio virus, and discovered several new chemical elements. The San Francisco campus, originally a medical col¬ lege, joined the University of California in 1873 and remains a centre for medical research and education. The San Diego campus, founded as a marine station, became part of the university in 1912; it includes the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. The Los Angeles branch (UCLA), founded in 1919, includes schools of law, medicine, and engineering. The Santa Barbara campus, originally founded as a teachers college, joined the university system in 1944. The Davis and Riverside campuses grew out of agricultural institutes and were added in 1959. To answer a grow¬ ing need for broad-based education and research, the university opened campuses at Santa Cruz and Irvine in 1965 and added the Merced cam¬ pus in 2005. The University of California operates nuclear research cen¬ tres at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, and Los Alamos National Laboratory.

California Institute of Technology known as Caltech U.S.- based, highly select, private university and research institute in Pasadena. Established in 1891, it offers graduate and undergraduate instruction and research in pure and applied science and engineering. It is considered one of the world’s premier scientific research centres. In 1958 its Jet Propul¬ sion Laboratory, in conjunction with NASA, launched Explorer I, the first U.S. satellite. Caltech operates astronomical observatories at such loca¬ tions as Palomar Mountain, Owens Valley, and Big Bear Lake, Calif., and Mauna Kea, Hawaii. Other facilities include a seismology laboratory, a marine biology laboratory, and a centre for the study of radio astronomy.

California Institute of the Arts known as CalArts U.S. private institution of higher learning in Valencia. Created in 1961 through the merger of two other art institutes, it was the first in the U.S. to specialize in degree programs for the visual and performing arts. It consists of five schools—art, dance, film and video, music, and theatre—and a division of critical studies. All schools award B.F.A. and M.F.A. degrees. A com¬ munity arts program sponsors work with young students in disadvantaged areas of Los Angeles.

California poppy Annual garden plant (Eschscholzia californica ) in the poppy family, native to the western coast of North America and natu¬ ralized in parts of southern Europe, Asia, and Australia. The flowers are usually pale yellow, orange, or cream in the wild, but whites and shades of red and pink have been developed in cultivation. The foliage is gray-

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314 I Californian Indian ► Callao