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Crotone Catanzaro

MALTA

Valletta

mi (301,328 sqkm). Population (2005 est.): 57,989,000. Capital: Rome. The people are overwhelmingly Italian. Language: Italian (official). Religion: Christianity (predomi¬ nantly Roman Catholic). Currency: euro. More than three-fourths of Italy is mountainous or highland country. The Alps stretch from east to west along Italy’s northern boundary, and the Apennines stretch southward the length of the peninsula. Most of the coun¬ try’s lowlands lie in the valley of its major river, the Po. Three tectonic plates converge in southern Italy and Sicily, creating intense geologic activity; southern Italy’s four active volcanoes include Mount Vesuvius and Mount Etna. The economy is based largely on services and manufacturing; exports include machinery and transport equipment, chemicals, textiles, clothing and shoes, and food products (olive oil, wine, fruit, and tomatoes). Italy is a republic with two legislative houses. The chief of state is the presi¬ dent, and the head of government is the prime minister. Italy has been inhabited since Paleolithic times. The Etruscan civilization arose in the 9th century bc and was overthrown by the Romans in the 4th-3rd centuries bc (see Roman Republic and Empire). Barbarian invasions of the 4th-5th centu¬ ries ad destroyed the Western Roman Empire. Italy’s political fragmenta¬ tion lasted for centuries but did not diminish its impact on European culture, notably during the Renaissance. From the 15th to the 18th century, Italian lands were ruled by France, the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, and Aus¬ tria. When Napoleonic rule ended in 1815, Italy was again a grouping of independent states. The Risorgimento successfully united most of Italy, including Sicily and Sardinia by 1861, and the unification of peninsular Italy was completed by 1870. Italy joined the Allies during World War I, but social unrest in the 1920s brought to power the Fascist movement of Benito Mussolini, and Italy allied itself with Nazi Germany in World War II. Defeated by the Allies in 1943, Italy proclaimed itself a republic in 1946. It was a charter member of NATO (1949) and of the European Community (now embedded in the European Union). It completed the process of setting up regional legislatures with limited autonomy in 1970s. After World War II it experienced rapid changes of government but remained socially stable.

Itami \e-'ta-me\, Juzo orig. Yoshihiro Ikeuchi (b. May 15, 1933, Kyoto, Japan—d. Dec. 20, 1997, Tokyo) Japanese film director and screenwriter. He had a successful 20-year career as an actor in films such as 55 Days at Peking (1963) before venturing into directing. His direc-

968 I Itanagar ► Ivan V

torial debut, The Funeral (1984), was acclaimed for its satire of social conventions, a novelty in Japanese cinema. He became an international success with his artful and entertaining Tampopo (1986) and A Taxing Woman (1987). His satire on Japan’s crime syndicate, The Gangster’s Moll (1992), provoked a near-deadly attack on him by gangsters.

Itanagar \,e-t3-'n3-g3r\ Capital (pop. 2001 prelim.: 34,970) of Arunachal Pradesh state, northeastern India, situated west of the Brah¬ maputra River. The state government has established an industrial estate in the city in order to foster industrial development. It is the home of Arunachal University.

ITAR-TASS formerly TASS in full Telegrafnoe Agentsvo Sovetskovo Soyuza (Russian: "Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union") As TASS, the official news agency of the Soviet Union from 1925 to 1991. It was renamed ITAR-TASS in 1992. The main source of news for all Soviet newspapers and radio and television stations, it was also a major international wire service. After the Soviet Union’s 1991 breakup, TASS was reorganized into the Information Telegraph Agency of Russia (ITAR), reporting on news of Russia, and the Telegraph Agency of the Countries of the Commonwealth (TASS), reporting on news of other countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States. ITAR-TASS dispatches on matters of public policy and international affairs reflect the official position of the state.

Itasca M-'tas-koV Lake Lake, northwestern Minnesota, U.S. Occupy¬ ing an area of 1.8 sq mi (4.7 sq km), it is located 1,475 ft (450 m) above sea level. Henry Rowe Schoolcraft’s theory that Lake Itasca is the source of the Mississippi River has been widely accepted. He is generally credited with originating the name Itasca, but Indian legend mentions I-tesk-ka, the daughter of Hiawatha, whose tears of anguish at being spirited away to the netherworld were the source of the Mississippi.

itching or pruritus \pru-'rit-9s\ Stimulation of nerve endings in the skin, usually incited by histamine, that evokes a desire to scratch. It is often transient and easily relieved. Pathological itching with skin changes usu¬ ally signals dermatologic disease. Generalized itching without skin changes can occur in systemic diseases (e.g., metabolic and endocrine conditions, cancer, drug reactions, and kidney, blood, and liver diseases). Dry skin often itches. Treatment depends on cause.

Itenez River See Guapor£ River

Ithna ‘Ashariyyah \,ith-na-a-sha-'re-9\ or Imamis English Twelv¬ ers The largest school of ShT'ite Islam, believing in a succession of 12 imams beginning with ‘Ad ibn Abu Talib, the fourth caliph and the son- in-law of Muhammad. The last of the 12 imams recognized by the school was Muhammad al-Mahdl al-Hujjah, who disappeared in 873 and is thought by believers to be alive and in occultation, ready to return at the Last Judgment. The Ithna ‘Ashariyyah believe that imams are the preserv¬ ers of the faith and the only interpreters of the esoteric meanings of law and theology. The imams are thought to influence the world’s future, and pilgrimages to the tombs of the imams secure special rewards. This school became the state religion of Iran under the Safavid dynasty (1501-1736). The Ithna ‘Ashariyyah also constitute a majority in Iraq and Bahrain, with sizable minorities in other Muslim countries. Compare Isma'iliyyah.

Ito Hirobumi \'e-t6-he-'ro-bu-me\ (b. Oct. 14, 1841, Suo province, Japan—d. Oct. 26, 1909, Harbin, Manchuria, China) Japanese statesman, prime minister, and writer of the Meiji Constitution. He played a minor role in the Meiji_ Restoration, through which he came in contact with Kido Takayoshi and Okubo Toshimichi. When Okubo was assassinated in 1878, Ito succeeded him as home minister. He persuaded the government to adopt a constitution, then traveled abroad to research constitutions. In 1889 the emperor promulgated the resultant document. Later, as prime minister, Ito negotiated an end to extraterritoriality with Britain; other Western nations followed suit, signaling that the West was beginning to treat Japan as an equal. Frustrated with the ability of the political parties to impede passage of government programs in the Diet, in 1900 Ito founded his own party, the Rikken SeiyOkai. This foray cost him control of the genro (elder statesmen) but made cooperation between high-ranking bureaucrats and party politicians acceptable. In 1906 Ito became resident general in Korea; he was assassinated in 1909 by a Korean nationalist.

Ito Jinsai Ve-to-'jen-.sA (b. Aug. 30, 1627, Kyoto, Japan—d. April 4, 1795, Kyoto) Japanese Confucian scholar. The son of a lumberman, he devoted himself to scholarship. He opposed the authoritarian Neo- Confucianism of the Tokugawa shogunate (see Tokugawa period) and advo¬

cated a return to the authentic teachings of Confucius and Mencius. He helped establish the Kogaku school of Neo-Confucianism and, with his son, founded the Kogi-do academy in Kyoto, which was run by his descendants until 1904. His writings include Gomojigi (1683), a com¬ mentary on Confucianism that tried to develop a rational basis for moral¬ ity and the pursuit of happiness.

ITT See International Telephone and Telegraph Corp.

Iturbide \,e-tur-'be-da\, Agusfin de - / Agustin I (b. Sept. 27, 1783, Valladolid, Viceroyalty of New Spain—d. July 19, 1824, Padilla, Mex.) Leader of the conservative factions in the Mexican independence move¬ ment and, briefly, emperor of Mexico (1822-23). An army officer when the independence movement emerged in 1810, he fought for the royalists, but in 1820, in reaction to a liberal coup in Spain, the conservatives did an about-face and advocated immediate independence. Iturbide joined forces with the insurgents and won Mexico’s independence in 1821. In 1822 he crowned himself emperor, but his arbitrary and extravagant ways cost him support. His abdication in 1823 did not save him from execu¬ tion. To Mexico’s conservatives he remains the principal hero of Mexi¬ can independence.

Ivan Asen \a-'san\ II (d. 1241) Tsar of the Second Bulgarian empire (1218-41). He took the throne after overthrowing and blinding his cousin Boril. A good soldier and administrator, Ivan restored order, controlled the boyars, and acquired much of Albania, Serbia, Macedonia, and Epi¬ rus (1230). He forged alliances through the marriages of his daughters, but a treaty to make him regent of the Latin empire was repudiated by Latins fearful of Bulgaria’s growing power, and he afterward separated the Bulgarian church from Rome.

Ivan Vi-v9n\ III known as Ivan the Great (b. Jan. 22, 1440, Moscow—d. Oct. 27, 1505, Moscow) Grand prince of Moscow (1462- 1505). Determined to enlarge the territory he inherited from his father, Ivan led successful military campaigns against the Tatars in the south (1458) and east (1467-69). He subdued Novgorod (1478) and gained control of most of the remainder of Great Russia by 1485. He also renounced Moscow’s subjection to the khan of the Golden Horde (1480) and won a final victory over the khan’s sons in 1502. Stripping the boyars of much of their authority, he laid the administrative foundations of a cen¬ tralized Russian state. Ivan IV the Terrible was his grandson.

Ivan IV Russian Ivan Vasilyevich known as Ivan the Terrible (b.

Aug. 25, 1530, Kolomenskoye, near Moscow—d. March 18, 1584, Mos¬ cow) Grand prince of Moscow (1533-84) and first tsar of Russia (1547-84). Crowned tsar in 1547 after a long regency (1533-46), he embarked on wide-ranging reforms, including a centralized administra¬ tion, church councils that system¬ atized the church’s affairs, and the first national assembly (1549). He also instituted reforms to limit the powers of the boyars. After conquer¬ ing Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan (1556), he engaged in an unsuccess¬ ful war to control Livonia, fighting against Sweden and Poland (1558—

83). After the defeat and the sus¬ pected treason of several Russian boyars, Ivan formed an oprichnina, a territory separate from the rest of the state and under his personal control. With a large bodyguard, he with¬ drew into his own entourage and left Russia’s management to others. At the same time, he instituted a reign of terror, executing thousands of boyars and ravaging the city of Novgorod. During the 1570s he married five wives in nine years, and, in a fit of rage, he murdered his son Ivan, his only viable heir, in 1581.

Ivan V Russian Ivan Alekseyevich (b. Sept. 6, 1666, Moscow, Russia—d. Feb. 8, 1696, Moscow) Nominal tsar of Russia (1682— 96). When his brother Tsar Fyodor III died, Ivan, a mentally deficient chronic invalid, was proclaimed coruler with his half brother Peter I, with Ivan’s sister Sophia as regent. After Sophia’s overthrow in 1689, Ivan was allowed to retain his official position, though he never participated in governmental affairs, devoting the bulk of his time to prayer, fasting, and pilgrimages.

Ivan IV, icon, late 16th century; in the National Museum, Copenhagen.

COURTESY OF THE NATIONALMUSEET, COPENHAGEN

Ivan VI ► Ivy League I 969

Ivan VI Russian Ivan Antonovich (b. Aug. 23, 1740, St. Petersburg, Russia—d. July 16, 1764, Shlisselburg Fortress, near St. Petersburg) Infant emperor of Russia (1740-41). The grandnephew of Empress Anna, Ivan was proclaimed her heir and then emperor, with his mother as regent, when he was only eight weeks old. In 1741 they were deposed by Eliza¬ beth, daughter of Peter I, and for the next 20 years he remained in solitary confinement in various prisons. In 1764, when an army officer tried to free Ivan to restore him to power and remove Catherine II, who had seized the throne in 1762, Ivan was assassinated by his jailers.

Ivanov \i-'va-noA, Lev (Ivanovich) (b. Feb. 18, 1834, Moscow, Russia—d. Dec. 24, 1901, St. Petersburg) Russian dancer and choreog¬ rapher. He joined the Imperial Ballet in St. Petersburg in 1852 and became lead dancer in 1869. In 1885 he was appointed assistant ballet master under Marius Petipa. He is best known for his choreography of The Nut¬ cracker (1892) and parts of Swan Lake (1895), which he based closely on the structure and emotional content of the music rather than empha¬ sizing virtuoso technique.

Ivanov Xi-'va-noA, Vyacheslav Ivanovich (b. Feb. 28, 1866, Moscow—d. July 16, 1949, Rome) Russian philosopher, scholar, and poet. He studied in Berlin and spent much of his life abroad, especially in Italy, where he converted to Roman Catholicism. His first volume of lyric poetry, Pilot Stars (1903), immediately established him as a key fig¬ ure in the Russian Symbolist movement, a position strengthened by later works, including the important Cor Ardens (1911). He also produced poetic dramas, essays, criticism, and translations.

Ives, Burl orig. Charles Icle Ivanhoe Ives (b. June 14, 1909, Jas¬ per county, Ill., U.S.—d. April 14, 1995, Anacortes, Wash.) U.S. singer and actor. Ives began performing at age four and learned Scottish, English, and Irish ballads from his grandmother. He left college to hitchhike around the U.S., collecting songs from hoboes and drifters. Soon after his post¬ war concert debut in New York City, he was hailed by Carl Sandburg as “the mightiest ballad singer of this or any other century.” He recorded more than 100 albums and had hits with “I Know an Old Lady (Who Swallowed a Fly),” “The Blue Tail Fly,” “Big Rock Candy Mountain,” “Frosty the Snowman,” and “A Little Bitty Tear.” He appeared in many films—including East of Eden (1955), Desire Under the Elms (1958), Cat on a Hot Tin Roof( 1958), and The Big Country (1958, Academy Award)— and on Broadway.

Ives, Charles E(dward) (b. Oct. 20, 1874, Danbury, Conn., U.S.—d. May 19, 1954, New York, N.Y.) U.S. composer. Ives claimed to be the product of training by his father, George, a highly imaginative former Union Army bandmaster. He received a solid classical grounding and began composing and performing at an early age. At Yale University he studied with the academic composer Horatio Parker (1863-1919) and composed his first symphony. Under the influence of Transcendentalism, he decided to forgo a music career, and in 1907 he founded a successful insurance firm. With music as a “sideline,” he felt free to pursue his unusual interests, though he suffered from his amateur status and a lack of intelligent critiques. A heart attack in 1918 curtailed all activities, and he stopped composing c. 1926. His music is tonal despite much disso¬ nance, atmospheric, and nostalgic, and it runs the gamut from sentimen¬ tal or quirkily humorous songs to exciting tone poems ( The Fourth of July, 1913) and weighty meditations ( Concord Sonata, 1915). He apparently made many remarkable tonal innovations, though questions have been raised about whether he later predated his works to give a misleading impression. His music was rediscovered late in his life; the third of his four symphonies won a Pulitzer Prize in 1947.

IVF See IN VITRO FERTILIZATION

ivory Hard white substance, a variety of dentin, that makes up the tusks of such animals as elephants, walruses, and preserved mammoths. It is prized for its beauty, durability, and suitability for carving. In ancient times it was treasured as highly as gold and precious stones. Most ivory used commercially once came from Africa; sales of ivory declined in the 20th century as the populations of African elephants shrank, and worldwide concern about endangered elephant populations have led to bans on the export and import of ivory. The once-thriving markets of Europe have shifted to South Asia, where skilled artisans, often trading illegally, carve ivory into figurines and other objects.

Ivory, James (Francis) (b. June 7, 1928, Berkeley, Calif., U.S.) U.S. film director. While directing a documentary on India in the 1960s, he

met a local producer, Ismail N. Merchant (b. 1936), beginning cinema’s longest-lasting partnership. They made several films written by Ivory and Ruth Prawer Jhabvala before their first international success, Shakespeare Wallah (1965). It was followed by a series of well-received adaptations of noted literary works, including The Europeans (1979), The Bostonians (1984), A Room with a View (1986, Academy Award), Maurice (1987), Howards End (1992), and The Remains of the Day (1993). Ivory’s films were noted for their attention to period detail and excellent acting.

ivy Any of about five species of evergreen woody vines (rarely shrubs) that make up the genus Hedera in the ginseng family, commonly grown as ground covers and on stone walls, especially English ivy ( H. helix), which climbs by aerial roots with adhering disks that develop on the stems. The tough, dark-green leaves of English ivy have three to five lobes and tend to droop horizontally from the stem. Unrelated plants called ivies include Boston ivy ( Partheno - cissus, or Ampelopsis, tricuspidata ), a clinging woody vine in the grape family whose leaves turn bright scar¬ let in autumn, and poison ivy.

Ivy League Group of eight univer¬ sities in the northeastern U.S., high in academic and social prestige, that are members of an athletic confer-

English ivy (Hedera helix).

SVEN SAMEUUS

ivory-billed woodpecker Black-and-white woodpecker (Campephi-

lus principalis) with a flaring crest (red on the male) and a long whitish bill. The largest North American woodpecker, it was thought to be extinct, though there were uncon¬ firmed sightings of the bird in the southern United States in the late 1990s; a small population on Cuba was last seen in the late 1980s. In 2005, however, researchers announced that it had been sighted in eastern Arkansas. The species’ decline coincided with the logging of virgin forest, where it subsisted on deadwood insects. A subspecies, the Cuban ivory-billed woodpecker, is also believed to be extinct. A related species, the imperial woodpecker of Mexico, is critically endangered. All these birds appear to have required large trees and isolation from distur¬ bance.

ivory carving Carving of ivory into decorative or utilitarian objects. It has flourished since prehistoric times. Most Stone Age carvings have been found in southern France, in the forms of small nude female figures and animals. A masterpiece of early Egyptian carving is an ivory statuette of Khufu, builder of the Great Pyra¬ mid. In China ivory carvings have been found in the tombs of the Shang dynasty (18th—12th century bc). The major artistic use of ivory in Japan was for netsukes, toggles used as fas¬ teners on men’s clothing. The early Inuit (Eskimos) produced such utili¬ tarian objects as harpoon shafts and bucket handles out of ivory and often etched them with geometric or curv¬ ing patterns. See also scrimshaw.

Ivory Coast See Cote d'Ivoire

Ivory-billed woodpeckers (Campephilus principalis ).

KENNETH W. FINK FROM ROOT RESOURCES

"An Elopement" (sometimes called "Lancelot and Guinevere"), ivory mir¬ ror case, French Gothic, 14th century

COURTESY OF THE LIVERPOOL MUSEUM, ENGLAND

970 I Iwo Jima ► Izvolsky

ence for intercollegiate gridiron football dating to the 1870s. It consists of Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Columbia, Brown, and Cornell universities, the University of Pennsylvania, and Dartmouth College.

Iwo Jima Island, the middle of the three Volcano Islands, Japan. Situ¬ ated in the western Pacific, it is about 5 mi (8 km) long, 800 yards to 2.5 mi (730 m-4 km) wide, and has an area of 8 sq mi (20 sq km). It was under Japanese control until 1945, when it was the scene of one of the severest campaigns of World War II.

After extensive bombing by U.S. planes (December 1944-February 1945), it was invaded by U.S. marines and was finally completely taken by mid-March; it became a strategic base for U.S. planes en route to Japan. In 1968 it was returned to Japan.

IWW See Industrial Workers of the World

Izabal \,e-sa-'bal\, Lake Lake,

Guatemala. The country’s largest lake, it occupies the lowlands in northeastern Guatemala. Fed by the Polochic River, it drains through the Dulce River into the Caribbean Sea. It lies only 26 ft (8 m) above sea level and has an area of 228 sq mi (590 sq km). The main settlement on its shores is El Estor, which originated as a trading outpost of the United Fruit Company.

Izanagi and Izanami \e- , za-,na-ge...e- , za- l na-me\ Brother and sister gods in the Japanese creation myth. They created the first land mass, and their sexual union produced many islands and deities. In giving birth to the fire god, Izanami was burned to death and went to the land of dark¬ ness. Izanagi tried to rescue her, but she had eaten the food of the place and could not leave; in disgust he left her rotting corpse and divorced her. As he bathed to purify himself afterwards, other deities were bom from him, including the sun goddess Amaterasu, the moon god Tsukiyomi, and the storm god Susanoo. His bath is the basis for Shinto purification rites.

Izmir Uz-'mir \ formerly Smyrna City (pop., 1997: 2,081,556), west¬ ern Turkey. On the Aegean seacoast, it is one of Turkey’s largest ports and its third largest city. Founded as early as 3000 bc, it was settled by the Greeks before 1000 bc. It was captured by the Lydians c. 600 bc and ceased to exist until it was refounded by Alexander the Great in the 4th century bc. It became one of the principal cities of Anatolia. After being

conquered in turn by the Crusaders and by Timur (Tamerlane), it was annexed to the Ottoman Empire c. 1425. It became part of the Republic of Turkey in 1923. It has grown rapidly since 1945 and has a large indus¬ trial economy and a growing tourist trade.

'Izra’Tl \,iz-ra-'el\ In Islam, the angel of death. One of the four archan¬ gels (with Jibra’il, MikaIl, and Israfil), he is of cosmic size, with 4,000 wings and a body formed from innumerable eyes and tongues. He was the only angel brave enough to go down to earth and face IblTs in order to bring God the materials to create man. For this service he was made the angel of death and given a register of all mankind, which lists the blessed and the damned.

Izu \'e-zii\ Peninsula Peninsula, central Honshu, Japan. It extends 37 mi (60 km) into the Pacific Ocean and consists largely of volcanic rock and highly eroded volcanoes. It is part of the Fuji-Hakone-Izu National Park, and its hot springs and warm winter climate are major tourist attractions.

Izumo shrine \'e-zu-mo,\ English \e-'zu-mo\ Oldest Shinto shrine in Japan (the present building is said to date from 1346), located northwest of Izumo on the island of Honshu. The temple complex covers 40 acres (16 hectares) and contains a valuable art collection. Enclosed by hills on three sides, it is approached through an avenue of pines. Most of its present buildings were constructed in the 19th century.

Izvestiya \iz-'ves-te-o\ formerly in full Izvestiya Sovetov Depu- tatov Trudyashchikhsya SSSR (Russian: “News of the Councils of Working People’s Deputies of the U.S.S.R.”) Russian daily newspaper published in Moscow, the official national publication of the Soviet gov¬ ernment until 1991. Founded in 1917, it grew rapidly in circulation. Restrictions during World War II and under Joseph Stalin slowed its growth, but it was transformed into a lively, readable daily under the edi¬ torship of Alexei Adzhubei, Nikita Khrushchev’s son-in-law, while remain¬ ing an instrument of the state. Following the Soviet Union’s breakup, it became an independent, employee-owned publication whose liberal edi¬ torial policy often put it at odds with both unreconstructed communists and Russian nationalists.

Izvolsky \iz-'v6l-ske\, Aleksandr (Petrovich), Count (b. March 18, 1856, Moscow, Russia—d. Aug. 16, 1919, Paris, France) Russian dip¬ lomat. He became minister of foreign affairs in 1906. In 1908 he secured Austria’s support for the right of Russian warships to use the Dardanelles strait in return for his reluctant support of Austria’s annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. While Austria succeeded in its annexation (see Bosnian crisis), Russia failed to gain access to the Dardanelles; Izvolsky’s respon¬ sibility for Russia’s diplomatic defeat increased tensions with Austria- Hungary prior to World War I. Dismissed in 1910, he served as ambassador to France until 1917.

U.S. Marines raising the American flag over Mount Suribachi, Iwo Jima, in February 1945.

JOE ROSENTHAL-AP/WIDE WORLD

Jabal al-Shaykh ► Jackson I 971

Jabal al-Shaykh See Mount Hermon

Jabal River or Bahr al-Jabal \,bar-el-'je-bel\ River, south-central Sudan. The river flows northward 594 mi (956 km) over the Fula Rap¬ ids, past Juba (the head of navigation), and through a vast swampy region. It receives the Ghazal River at Lake No and then turns east to join the Subaj River of western Ethiopia, thereafter forming the White Nile River.

Jabotinsky \ 1 yab-3-'tin-ske\, Vladimir (b. 1880, Odessa, Russian Empire—d. Aug. 3, 1940, near Hunter, N.Y., U.S.) Russian Zionist leader and founder of the Zionist Revisionist movement. He became a popular journalist and editorialist and by 1903 was expounding Zionism. In 1920 he organized and led Hagana, a Jewish militia. A Revisionist Zionist, he passionately advocated a Jewish state in an area both west and east of the Jordan River. See also Irgun Zvai Leumi.

Jabrail See JibrIl

jacaranda \ ja-ko-'ran-doX Any plant of the genus Jacaranda (family Bignoniaceae), especially the two ornamental trees J. mimosifolia and J. cuspidifolia. Jacarandas are grown widely in warm parts of the world and in greenhouses for their showy blue or violet flowers and attractive, oppositely paired, compound leaves. The genus includes about 50 spe¬ cies native to Central and South America and the West Indies. The name is also applied to several tree species of the genera Machaerium and Dcilbergia in the pea family (see legume), the sources of commercial rosewood.

jack In practical mechanics, portable hand-operated device for raising heavy weights through short distances, exert¬ ing great pressures, or holding assembled work firmly in position. The ratio of the load to the amount of force applied to the handle can be made quite high by using a gear or screw to regulate the upward extension. A ratchet allows a heavy weight to be raised in short successive stages.

Though limited by the requirements of portability and ease of manual operation, jacks may lift, or exert a force of, several tons. A familiar example is the automobile jack, used to raise one end of a car to change a tire.

jack Any of more than 150 species of fishes (family Carangidae, order Perciformes) found in temperate and tropical portions of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans and occasionally in fresh or brackish water. Though body size and shape vary greatly, many species have small scales that create a smooth appearance, a laterally compressed body, rows of large spiky scales along the side near the tail fin, and a deeply forked tail. Many have a bluish green, silvery, or yellowish sheen. Jacks are impor¬ tant commercially and are favoured sport fishes. See also amberjack.

jack-in-the-pulpit North American plant ( Arisaema triphyllum) of the arum family, noted for the unusual shape of its flower. One of the best- known perennial wildflowers of late spring in the eastern U.S. and Canada, it grows in wet woodlands and thickets from Nova Scotia to Minnesota and south to Florida and Texas. Three-part leaves on each of two long stalks overshadow the flower, which consists of a conspicuous green- and purple-striped structure called a spathe (“pulpit”) that rises on a separate stalk. The spathe curves in a hood over a club-shaped spadix (“jack”) that, at its base, bears minute flowers. In late summer the plant produces a cluster of brilliant red berries that are poisonous to humans but are eaten by many wild animals.

Jack the Ripper Pseudonymous murderer of at least five women, all prostitutes, in or near London’s Whitechapel district, from Aug. 7 to Nov. 10, 1888. The throat of each victim was cut, and usually the body was mutilated in a manner indicating the murderer had considerable knowl¬ edge of human anatomy. Authorities received a series of taunting notes from a person calling himself Jack the Ripper and purporting to be the murderer. Although strenuous efforts were made to identify and trap the killer, he remained unknown. The unsolved case retained its hold on the popular imagination, becoming the subject of several motion pictures and more than 100 books, as well as a macabre tourist industry in London.

jackal Any of three canine species of the genus Canis. They inhabit open country and live alone, in pairs, or in packs. They hunt at night, feeding on small animals, plant material, or carrion. A pack can bring down larger prey. The golden, or Asiatic, jackal (yellowish) is found from eastern Europe and North Africa to South Asia. The black-backed jackal (rusty red with a black back) and side-striped jackal (grayish with a white-tipped

Black-backed jackal mesomelas).

LEONARD LEE RUE III

(Canis

Jackdaw (Corvus monedula)

tail and an indistinct stripe on each side) are found in southern and east¬ ern Africa. Jackals are 34-37 in. (85-95 cm) long, including the 12-14-in. (30-35-cm) tail, and

weigh 15-24 lbs (7-11 kg).

jackdaw or daw Crowlike black bird ( Corvus monedula) with gray nape and pearly eyes. About 13 in. (33 cm) long, jackdaws breed in colonies in treeholes and on cliffs and tall buildings; their flocks fly in formation around the site. Their cry sounds like their name: “chak.” The species ranges from the British Isles to central Asia. See also crow,

jackrabbit Any of sev¬ eral large, common North American species of hares (e.g., Lepus townsendii, L. californicus). Jackrabbits have very long ears and long hind legs. They are

widespread, particularly in JOHNMARKHAM _

the West, but are found most often in prairie and plains environments.

Jackson City (pop., 2000: 184,256), capital of Mississippi, U.S. It lies along the Pearl River in the west-central part of the state. Settled in 1792 by Louis Le Fleur, a French Canadian trader, it was a trading post called Le Fleur’s Bluff until settlers began arriving in 1820. It was made the state capital in 1822 and was named for Andrew Jackson. During the American Civil War it was burned by Union forces (1863). The state’s largest city, it is a railroad and distribution centre. It is the seat of Jack- son State University (1877) and other educational institutions.

Jackson, A(lexander) Y(oung) (b. Oct. 3, 1882, Montreal, Que., Can.—d. April 5, 1974, Kleinburg, Ont.) Canadian landscape painter. He traveled to every region of Canada, including the Arctic; from 1921 on, he returned every spring to a favourite spot on the St. Lawrence River, where he produced sketches that he later executed in paint. Over a long career he became a leading artistic figure in his country. His easy style, featuring rolling rhythms and rich, full colour, exerted a strong influence on Canadian landscape painting.

Jackson, Andrew (b. March 15,1767, Waxhaws region, S.C.—d. June 8, 1845, the Hermitage, near Nash¬ ville, Tenn., U.S.) Seventh president of the U.S. (1829-37). He fought briefly in the American Revolution near his frontier home, where his family was killed in the conflict. In 1788 he was appointed prosecuting attorney for western North Carolina.

When the region became the state of Tennessee, he was elected to the U.S.

House of Representatives (1796-97) and the Senate (1797-98). He served on the state supreme court (1798—

1804) and in 1802 was elected major general of the Tennessee militia.

When the War of 1812 began, he offered the U.S. the services of his 50,000-man volunteer militia. Sent to the Mississippi Territory to fight the Creek Indians, who were allied with the British, he defeated them after a short campaign (1813-14) at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. After cap¬ turing Pensacola, Fla., from the

Andrew Jackson, detail of an oil paint¬ ing by John Wesley Jarvis, c. 1819; in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City

972 I Jackson, C. ► Jackson, R.

British-allied Spanish, he marched overland to engage the British in Loui¬ siana. A decisive victory at the Battle of New Orleans made him a national hero; he was dubbed “Old Hickory” by the press. After the U.S. acquired Florida, Jackson was named governor of the territory (1821). One of four candidates in the 1824 presidential election, he won an electoral-vote plu¬ rality, but the House of Representative instead selected John Quincy Adams as president. Jackson’s victory over Adams in the 1828 presidential elec¬ tion is commonly regarded as a turning point in U.S. history. Jackson was the first president from west of the Appalachian Mountains, the first to be born in poverty, and the first to be elected through a direct appeal to the mass of voters rather than through the support of a recognized political organization. The era of his presidency has come to be known as “Jackso¬ nian Democracy.” Upon taking office he replaced many federal officials with his political supporters, a practice that became known as the spoils sys¬ tem. His administration acquiesced in the illegal seizure of Cherokee land in Georgia and then forcibly expelled the Indians who refused to leave (see Trail of Tears). When South Carolina claimed a right to nullify a federally imposed tariff, Jackson asked for and received Congressional authority to use the military to enforce federal laws in the state (see nullification). His reelection in 1832 was partially the result of his controversial veto of a bill to recharter the Bank of the United States, which was unpopular with many of his supporters (see Bank War). The intensity of the political struggles during his tenure led to the strengthening of the Democratic Party and to the further development of the two-party system.

Jackson, Charles Thomas (b. June 21, 1805, Plymouth, Mass., U.S.—d. Aug. 28, 1880, Somerville, Mass.) U.S. physician, chemist, geologist, and mineralogist. He graduated from Harvard Medical School in 1829. Known for his contentiousness and litigiousness, he took credit for the first demonstration of surgical anesthesia with ether by a dental surgeon he had advised on it, and he claimed to have told Samuel F.B. Morse the basic principles of the telegraph. He worked many years as a geologist for the U.S. Geological Survey.

Jackson, Glenda (b. May 9, 1936, Birkenhead, Cheshire, Eng.) Brit¬ ish stage and film actress. Discovered by Peter Brook, she was cast in his Theatre of Cruelty revue and soon appeared as the mad Charlotte Corday in his celebrated production of Peter Weiss’s Marat/Sade (1964; film, 1967). She became known for her tense portrayals of complex women, gaining international acclaim in the film Women in Love (1969, Academy Award) and later successes such as Sunday Bloody Sunday (1971), A Touch of Class (1973, Academy Award), and the television series Eliza¬ beth R. Her screen career continued until 1992, when she won a seat in the House of Commons.

Jackson, Jesse (Louis) orig. Jesse Louis Burns (b. Oct. 8, 1941, Greenville, S.C., U.S.) U.S. civil rights leader. He became involved with the civil rights movement as a col¬ lege student. In 1965 he went to Selma, Ala., to march with Martin Luther King, Jr., and began working for King’s Southern Christian Leader¬ ship Conference (SCLC). In 1966 he helped found the Chicago branch of Operation Breadbasket, the SCLC’s economic arm; he was its national director from 1967 to 1971.

Ordained a Baptist minister in 1968, he founded Operation PUSH (People United to Save Humanity) in 1971.

In 1983 he led a voter-registration drive in Chicago that helped elect the city’s first African American mayor,

Harold Washington. In 1984 and 1988 Jackson entered the Demo¬ cratic presidential primary, becom¬ ing the first African American man to make a serious bid for the U.S. presidency; he received 6.7 million votes in 1988. In 1989 he moved to Washington, D.C. and was elected the city’s unpaid “statehood senator” to lobby Congress for statehood. From the late 1970s Jackson gained wide attention through his attempts to mediate in various international disputes, including in the Middle East. In the late 1990s he faced allegations of financial misconduct, and in 2001 he admit¬ ted fathering a child out of wedlock.

Jackson, Joe in full Joseph Jefferson Jackson known as Sho¬ eless Joe Jackson (b. July 16, 1888, Greenville, S.C., U.S.—d. Dec. 6, 1951, Greenville) U.S. baseball player. Jackson started his career in 1908 and became an outfielder with the Chicago White Sox. An outstand¬ ing hitter, his career batting average of .356 is the third-highest (after Ty Cobb and Rogers Hornsby) in baseball history. Jackson was involved in the 1919 Black Sox scandal; though acquitted in 1921, he was banned from baseball for life by baseball commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis.

Jackson, John Hughlings (b. April 4, 1835, Green Hammerton, Yorkshire, Eng.—d. Oct. 7, 1911, London) British neurologist. He showed that most right-handed persons with aphasia had disease on the left side of the brain, confirming Paul Broca’s findings. In 1863 he discovered Jacksonian epilepsy (spasms progressing through the body), tracing it to motor region damage. Electroencephalography has confirmed his 1873 definition of epilepsy as “a sudden, excessive, and rapid discharge” of electricity by brain cells.

Jackson, Mahalia (b. Oct. 26, 1911, New Orleans, La., U.S.—d. Jan. 27, 1972, Evergreen Park, Ill.) U.S. gospel music singer. As a child, Jack- son sang in the choir of the New Orleans church where her father preached. She learned sacred songs but was also exposed to blues record¬ ings by Bessie Smith and Ida Cox. In Chicago she worked at odd jobs while singing with a touring gospel quintet, and she opened several small businesses. Her warm, powerful voice first came to wide public atten¬ tion in the 1930s, when she partici¬ pated in a cross-country tour singing songs such as “He’s Got the Whole World in His Hands.” Closely asso¬ ciated with Thomas A. Dorsey, she sang many of his songs. “Move on up a Little Higher” (1948) sold more than a million copies, and she became one of the most popular singers of the 1950s and ’60s. She first appeared at Carnegie Hall in 1950. Active in the civil rights move¬ ment from 1955, she sang at the epochal 1963 civil rights march on Washington.

Jackson, Michael (Joseph) (b. Aug. 29, 1958, Gary, Ind., U.S.) U.S. singer and songwriter. The nine-year-old Jackson became the lead singer of The Jackson Five, a family group formed by his father. Their hits on the Motown label included “I Want You Back” and “ABC.” Though Michael remained a member of the group until 1984, he began recording under his own name in 1971. His album Off the Wall (1979) sold millions; his next solo album, Thriller (1982), sold more than 40 million copies, becoming the best-selling album in history. The emerging format of the music video was an important aspect of Jackson’s work; his videos for “Beat It” and “Billie Jean” (both 1983) featured his highly influential dancing style (notably his trademark “moonwalk”). He later released the albums Bad (1987), Dangerous (1991), and HIStory (1995). Despite his many efforts to speak out on social issues, Jackson’s eccentric, secluded lifestyle stirred controversy in the early 1990s. His reputation was seri¬ ously damaged in 1993 when he was accused of child molestation by a 13-year-old boy. Several of his siblings, notably his sister Janet (b. 1966), have also enjoyed solo success.

Jackson, Reggie in full Reginald Martinez Jackson (b. May

18, 1946, Wyncote, Pa., U.S.) U.S. baseball player. Jackson excelled in track, football, and baseball in high school. In the major leagues, batting and throwing left-handed and playing outfield, he helped three teams (Oakland Athletics, 1968-75; New York Yankees, 1976-81; California Angels, 1982-87) win five World Series, six pennant races, and 10 divi¬ sional play-offs. Noted for his home-run hitting, he was nicknamed “Mr. October” for his reliable prowess in play-off and World Series games. He hit a career total of 563 home runs, placing him in the top ten of all-time home-run hitters.

Jackson, Robert H(oughwout) (b. Feb. 13, 1892, Spring Creek, Pa., U.S.—d. Oct. 9, 1954, Washington, D.C.) U.S. jurist. He pleaded his

Jesse Jackson, 1988.

Mahalia Jackson, 1961.

THE BETTMANN ARCHIVE

Jackson, S. ► Jacobs I 973

first case while still a minor and was a lawyer by age 21. He became cor¬ poration counsel for Jamestown, N.Y. As general counsel for the U.S. Bureau of Internal Revenue (1934), he successfully prosecuted Andrew W. Mellon for income-tax evasion. He served as U.S. solicitor general (1938— 39) and attorney general (1940-41). In 1941 he was appointed by Pres. Franklin Roosevelt to the U.S. Supreme Court, where he served until 1954. He infused his well-worded opinions with a blend of liberalism and nation¬ alism. In 1945—46 he served as chief U.S. prosecutor in the NOrnberg trials.

Jackson, Shirley (Hardie) (b. Dec. 14, 1919, San Francisco, Calif., U.S.—d. Aug. 8, 1965, North Bennington, Vt.) U.S. novelist and short- story writer. She is best known for her story “The Lottery” (1948), a chill¬ ing tale that provoked outrage when first published, and The Haunting of Hill House (1959; film, 1963, 1999). These and her other five novels, including We Have Always Lived in the Castle (1962), confirmed her reputation as a master of gothic horror and psychological suspense.

Jackson, Stonewall orig. Thomas Jonathan Jackson (b. Jan. 21, 1824, Clarksburg, Va., U.S.—d. May 10, 1863, Guinea Station, Va.) U.S. and Confederate army officer. Despite little formal education, he secured an appointment to West Point. He served with distinction in the Mexican War. At the start of the American Civil War, he organized Virginia volunteers into an effective brigade. At the first Battle of Bull Run, he sta¬ tioned his brigade in a strong line and withstood a Union assault, a feat that earned him a promotion to major general and the nickname “Stone¬ wall.” In 1862 he won campaigns in the Shenandoah Valley and later in the Seven Days’ Battles. Robert E. Lee used Jackson’s troops to encircle the Union forces to win the second Battle of Bull Run, and Jackson assisted Lee at Antietam and Fredericksburg. In April 1863, while mov¬ ing his troops around the flank of the Union army at Chancellorsville, he was accidentally shot and mortally wounded by his own men.

Jackson, William Henry (b. April 4, 1843, Keesville, N.Y., U.S.—d. June 30, 1942, New York, N.Y.) U.S. photographer. As a boy, he worked for a photographic studio in Troy, N.Y. After the American Civil War he went west and opened a studio in Omaha. He was the official photogra¬ pher for the U.S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories (1870-78), and his photographs were instrumental in the establishment of Yellowstone National Park.

Jacksonville City (pop., 2000: 735,617), northeastern Florida, U.S. It is the site of Florida’s first European (French Huguenot) settlement (1564). Named for Andrew Jackson, it was laid out in 1822 and incorpo¬ rated in 1832. It was largely destroyed by fire in 1901. In 1968 it was consolidated with most of Duval county; it covers 841 sq mi (2,178 sq km), making it one of the largest U.S. cities in terms of land area. A deep¬ water port with major shipyards, it is Florida’s chief transportation and commercial centre. It is the site of Jacksonville University, the Univer¬ sity of North Florida, and Jones College.

Jacob Hebrew patriarch, son of Isaac and grandson of Abraham, and the traditional ancestor of the people of Israel. His story is told in the Book of Genesis. The younger twin brother of Esau, he used trickery to gain Isaac’s blessing and Esau’s birthright. On a journey to Canaan he wrestled all night with an angel, who blessed him and gave him the name Israel. Jacob had 13 children, 10 of whom founded tribes of Israel. His favorite son, Joseph, was sold into slavery in Egypt by his brothers, but the family was later reunited when a famine forced the brothers to go to Egypt to seek grain.

Jacob \zha-'kob\, Francois (b. June 17, 1920, Nancy, France) French biologist. After receiving his doctorate, he went to work at the Pasteur Institute in Paris. Beginning in 1958, he worked with Jacques Monod studying the regulation of bacterial enzyme synthesis. They discovered regulator genes, so called because they control the activities of other genes. Jacob and Monod also proposed the existence of an RNA messen¬ ger, a partial copy of DNA that carries genetic information to other parts of the cell. The two men shared a 1965 Nobel Prize with Andre Lwoff.

Jacob ben Asher (b. 1269?, Cologne?—d. 1340?, Toledo, Castile) Jewish legal scholar. He emigrated to Spain with his family in 1303, and his father became chief rabbi in Toledo. Jacob is believed to have made his living as a moneylender. He divided Jewish law into categories by subject, producing a codification known as Tur, which became a popular Jewish theological work of the 15th century. The basis for many rabbinic decisions, it was considered standard until superseded by the work of Joseph ben Ephraim Karo in the 16th century.

Jacobean \ ja-ko-'be-onV age Period in the visual and literary arts dur¬ ing the reign of James I (Latin Jacobus) of England (r. 1603-25). Jacobean architecture combines motifs from the late Gothic period with Classical details and Tudor pointed arches and interior paneling. Jacobean furni¬ ture, made of oak, featured heavy forms and bulbous legs. Inigo Jones, following the theories and works of Andrea Palladio, introduced the Clas¬ sical style of Renaissance architecture into England. Most Jacobean por¬ traitists and sculptors were foreign-bom or foreign-influenced, and their efforts faded when such Flemish painters as Peter Paul Rubens and Anthony Van Dyck worked in England for James’s successor, Charles I. See also Jacobean literature.

Jacobean \ ja-ko-'be-onV literature Body of works written during the reign of James I of England (1603-25). The successor to Elizabethan litera¬ ture, Jacobean literature was often dark in mood, questioning the stabil¬ ity of the social order; some of William Shakespeare’s greatest tragedies may date from the beginning of the period, and other dramatists, includ¬ ing John Webster, were often preoccupied with the problem of evil. The era’s comedy included the acid satire of Ben Jonson and the varied works of Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher. Jacobean poetry included the graceful verse of Jonson and the Cavalier poets but also the intellectual complexity of the Metaphysical poetry of John Donne and others. In prose, writers such as Francis Bacon and Robert Burton showed a new toughness and flexibility of style. The era’s monumental prose achievement was the King James Version of the Bible (1611).

Jacobin Vja-ko-bonV Club or Jacobins Political group of the French Revolution, identified with extreme radicalism and violence. Formed in 1789 as the Society of the Friends of the Constitution, it was known as the Jacobin Club because it met in a former convent of the Dominicans (known in Paris as Jacobins). It was originally formed by deputies of the National Assembly to protect the Revolution’s gains against a possible aristocratic reaction. Although it did not have a direct role in overthrowing the mon¬ archy in 1792, the club later changed its name to Society of the Jacobins, Friends of Liberty and Equality. It admitted leftist Montagnard deputies of the National Convention and agitated for the king’s execution and the over¬ throw of the Girondins. In 1793, with about 8,000 clubs and 500,000 mem¬ bers, the Jacobins became instruments of the Reign of Terror. The Parisian club supported Maximilien Robespierre, but it closed after his fall in 1794. Although officially banned, some local clubs lasted until 1800.

Jacobite In British history, a supporter of the exiled Stuart king James II (in Latin, Jacobus) and his descendants after the Glorious Revolution of 1688. The movement was strong in Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, and it included Catholics and Anglican Tories. The Jacobites, especially under William III and Queen Anne, could offer a feasible alternative title to the crown, and several attempts were made to restore the Stuarts. In 1689 James II landed in Ireland, but his army was defeated at the Battle of the Boyne. In the Fifteen Rebellion (1715), led by John Erskine, 6th earl of Mar (1675-1732), Jacobites tried to seize the crown for James Edward, the Old Pretender. In the Forty-five Rebellion (1745) Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, took Scotland, but the Jacobite army was crushed at the Battle of Culloden (1746).

Jacobs, Helen Hull (1908 -1997) U.S. tennis player.Jacobs was the national junior tennis champion in 1924-25. She was first defeated by Helen Wills, who would prove to be her longtime rival, in the 1928 finals at Forest Hills, N.Y. Though Wills was virtually always victorious, Jacobs was a popular favourite. Her only victory over Wills came by default. Though often in Wills’s shadow, Jacobs won four U.S. Open singles (1932-35), three doubles (1932 and 1934-35), and mixed doubles (1934) championships. She was ranked in the world’s top 10 from 1928 to 1940. In 1933 she became the first woman to break with tradition by wearing man-tailored shorts at Wimbledon. Her autobiography. Beyond the Game , appeared in 1936.

Jacobs, Jane orig. Jane Butzner (b. May 4, 1916, Scranton, Pa., U.S.) U.S.-bom Canadian urbanologist. She became active in urban com¬ munity work while living in New York City with her architect husband. For 10 years she was an editor at Architectural Forum. Her highly influ¬ ential The Death and Life of Great American Cities (1961) is a brash, passionate, and highly original reinterpretation of the multiple needs of modern urban places. The Economy of Cities (1969) discussed the impor¬ tance of diversity to a city’s prospects. Later works include Cities and the Wealth of Nations (1984) and Edge of Empire (1996). See also urban plan¬ ning.

974 I Jacopo da Pontormo ► jaguar

Jacopo da Pontormo See Jacopo da Pontormo

Jacopo della Quercia Vya-ko-po-dal-la-'kwer-chaV orig. Jacopo di Piero di Angelo (b. c. 1374, Siena—d. Oct. 20, 1438, Bologna, Papal States) Italian sculptor active in Siena. He was the son of a gold¬ smith and wood carver. His earliest major work is the tomb of Ilaria del Carretto in Lucca Cathedral (c. 1406-08). His most important commis¬ sion for Siena was the fountain known as Fonte Gaia (1408-19) in the Piazza del Campo. He worked with Donatello and Lorenzo Ghiberti on reliefs for the baptismal font in the Baptistery in Siena (1417-30). His last and greatest work was the sculptural reliefs around the portal of San Petronio in Bologna (1425-30). In 1435 he was appointed supervising architect of Siena Cathedral. He elevated Sienese sculpture to a place of prominence and influenced subsequent Sienese painters. The greatest non- Florentine sculptor of the 15th century, he was a major influence on the young Michelangelo.

Jacquard \zha-'kar,\ English \'ja-,kard\, Joseph-Marie (b. July 7, 1752, Lyon, Fr.—d. Aug. 7, 1834, Oullins) French inventor. In 1801 he demonstrated an automatic loom incorporating revolutionary new tech¬ nology; it was declared public property in 1806, and Jacquard was rewarded with a pension and a royalty on each machine. His loom uti¬ lized interchangeable punched cards that controlled the weaving of the cloth so that any desired pattern could be obtained automatically. The Jacquard loom’s technology became the basis of the modem automatic loom and a precursor of the modern computer. His punched cards were adapted by Charles Babbage as an input/output medium for his proposed analytical engine and by Herman Hollerith to feed data to his census machine, and punched cards were used for inputting data into early digi¬ tal computers.

Jacquard \'ja-,kard\ loom Loom incorporating a special device to con¬ trol individual warp yarns. It enabled production of fabrics with intricate woven patterns such as tapestry, brocade, and damask, and has also been adapted to the production of patterned knitted fabrics. Developed in France by J.-M. Jacquard in 1804-05, it used interchangeable punched cards that controlled the weaving of the cloth so that any desired pattern could be obtained automatically. It aroused bitter hostility among weav¬ ers, who feared that its labour-saving capabilities would deprive them of jobs; the weavers of Lyon not only burned the machines but attacked Jac¬ quard as well. Eventually the loom’s advantages led to its general accep¬ tance, and by 1812 there were 11,000 in use in France. Use of the loom spread to England in the 1820s and from there virtually worldwide.

Jacui \zha-'kwe\ River River, southern Brazil. It rises in the hills east of Passo Fundo and flows southward and eastward for 280 mi (450 km). At Porto Alegre it receives four other rivers and forms the Guaiba River, a shallow estuary that empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Navigable upstream as far as Cachoeira do Sul, it has one of the most heavily used river barge systems in Brazil.

jade Either of two tough, compact, typically green gemstones that take a high polish. Both have been carved into jewelry, ornaments, small sculp¬ tures, and utilitarian objects from earliest recorded times. The more highly prized of the two jadestones is jadeite; the other is nephrite. Both types may be white or colourless, but colours such as red, green, and gray may occur.

jadeite Vjad-,It\ Gem-quality sili¬ cate mineral in the pyroxene family that is one of the two forms of jade.

Jadeite (imperial jade), sodium alu¬ minum silicate (NaAlSi 2 0 6 ), may contain impurities that give it a vari¬ ety of colours: white, green, red, brown, and blue. The most highly prized variety is emerald green.

Jadeite occurs only in metamorphic rocks, most often in those that have

been subjected to the high pressures deep below the Earth’s surface. The area around the city of Mogaung in northern Myanmar has long been the main source of gem-quality jadeite.

jaeger \'ya-gor\ Any of three species (genus Stercorarius, family Ster- corariidae) of seabirds. They resemble dark gulls with a forward- set black cap and projecting central tail feathers. Jaegers have two colour phases: all brown or (more com¬ monly) brown above and white below. They nest in the Arctic tundra and then go to sea, many as far as Australia and New Zealand. At sea they catch fish on their own, but, while nesting along coasts, they force terns and kittiwakes to disgorge their food, destroy the eggs and young of other seabirds, and capture land birds and rodents. The species range from 14 to 20 in. (35 to 50 cm) long. In Great Britain, jaegers are called skuas.

Ja'far ibn Muhammad \ , ja-far- 1 i-b3n-mu-'ha-m3d\ (b. 699/700, Medina, Arabia—d. 765, Medina) Sixth imam of the Shiite branch of Islam and the last to be recognized by all the Shfite sects. He was the great- grandson of 'All As a possible claimant to the caliphate, Ja'far was viewed as a threat to both the Umayyad and 'Abbasid dynasties. He traveled to Baghdad in 762 to prove to the caliph that he was not seeking power, then returned to his native Medina, where his pupils included Abu HanTfah. After his death the Shl'ites began to splinter. One sect, the Isma'iliyyah, became followers of his son, Ismail. Another, the Ithna 'Ashariyyah, traced a succession from Ja'far to the Twelfth Imam awaited at the Last Judg¬ ment.

Jaffa See Tel Aviv-Yafo

Jagannatha Vjs-go-.nat-oX or Jagannath Form under which Krishna is worshiped at Puri, Orissa, a famous religious center of India. His temple at Puri dates from the 12th century. The Rathayatra, or Chariot Festival, is held in his honor each year in June or July. An image of the god is placed on a cart so heavy that it takes thousands of devotees several days to move it to the god’s temple outside the city. According to legend, pil¬ grims sometimes throw themselves under the wagon in hopes of attain¬ ing instant salvation, a practice that gave rise to the English word juggernaut.

Jagiello I See Wladislaw II Jagiello

Jagiellon \yag-'ye-lon\ dynasty Family of monarchs of Poland- Lithuania, Bohemia, and Hungary that became one of the most powerful in east-central Europe in the 15th-16th centuries. It was founded by Jogaila, grand duke of Lithuania, who became Wladyslaw II Jagiello of Poland after marriage to Queen Jadwiga (13737-99) in 1386. Wladyslaw III Wamenczyk (1424-44) extended the dynasty by also assuming the throne of Hungary (1440). He was succeeded by Casimir IV, who placed his son on the thrones of Bohemia (1471) and Hungary. During the reigns of Casimir’s sons John Albert (1459-1501) and Alexander (1461-1506), the Jagiellon rulers lost much of their power in Poland to the nobility. When Sigismund I succeeded Alexander in 1506, he strengthened the gov¬ ernment and saw the Teutonic Order convert its lands into the secular duchy of Prussia (1525), a Polish fief. In 1526 the death of Louis II ended Jagiellon rule in Bohemia and Hungary. In 1561 Sigismund II Augustus incorporated Livonia into Poland, but when he died, leaving no heirs, the Jagiellon dynasty ended (1572).

jagirdar \j3-'gir-,dar\ system Form of land tenancy introduced in India by the early sultans of Delhi in the early 13th century. Under the system, land, its revenues, and the power to govern it was assigned to an official of the state. The land reverted to the government on the official’s death, but heirs could renew the land assignment by paying a fee. Feu¬ dalists in character, the jagirdar system tended to enfeeble the central government by setting up quasi-independent baronies. Periodically abol¬ ished, it was always renewed. After Indian independence, measures were taken to abolish absentee landownership.

jaguar Largest New World cat. Once found in wooded regions from the U.S.-Mexican border south to Patagonia, the jaguar (Panthera onca ) sur¬ vives, in reduced numbers, only in remote areas of Central and South

Dragon among clouds, carved jade medallion or button, Ch'ing dynasty, probably late 18th century (reign of Ch'ien-lung); in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London

COURTESY OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES OF THE VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, LONDON, WELLS LEGACY

Uncut (left) and cut jadeite

RUNK/SCHOENBERGER-GRANT HEILMAN

Long-tailed jaeger (Stercorarius longi- caudus).

Jaguaribe ► Jamaica i 975

America; the largest known population is in the Amazon rain forest. The male is 5.5-9 ft (1.7-2.7 m) long, including the 23-35-in. (60-90-cm) tail, and weighs 220-350 lbs (100-160 kg). The coat is typically orange- tan with black spots arranged in rosettes having a black spot in the cen¬ tre. A solitary predator, the jaguar usually hunts rodents, deer, birds, and fish; it will also take cattle, horses, and dogs.

Jaguaribe \,zha-gwa-'re-be\ River River, northeastern Brazil. Formed by the junction of the Carapateiro and Trici rivers, it flows northeastward for 350 mi (560 km) to enter the Atlantic Ocean at Aracati. Long periods of drought, during which much of the river is dry, are followed by cata¬ strophic floods that inundate the towns along its lower course.

Jahangir Vjo-'han-geAo; Jehangir (b. Aug. 31,1569, Fatehpur, Sikri, India—d. Oct. 28, 1627, en route to Lahore) Mughal emperor of India (1605-27). Though designated heir apparent, the impatient Jahangir revolted in 1599; his father, Akbar, nevertheless confirmed him as his suc¬ cessor. Like Akbar, Jahangir managed diplomatic relations on the Indian subcontinent adroitly, was tolerant of non-Muslims, and was a great patron of the arts. He encouraged Persian culture in Mughal India. During the middle portion of his reign, politics were dominated by his Persian wife (Nur Jahan), her father, and Jahangir’s son Prince Khurram (the future Shah Jahan).

John \'yan\, Friedrich Ludwig (b. Aug. 11, 1778, Lanz, Branden¬ burg, Prussia—d. Oct. 15, 1852, Freyburg an der Unstrut, Prussian Sax¬ ony) German educator who founded the Tumverein (gymnastic club) movement in Germany. As a teacher in Berlin from 1809, he began a pro¬ gram of outdoor exercise for students. He invented the parallel bars, rings, balance beam, horse, and horizontal bar, all of which have become stan¬ dard equipment for gymnastics. In 1819 he came under suspicion for his fervent nationalism and strong influence on youth. He was arrested and imprisoned for almost a year; his gymnastic club closed, and a national ban was placed on gymnastics (lifted in 1842). He was awarded the Iron Cross for military bravery (1840) and served in the national parliament

(1848-49).

jahrzeit See yahrzeit

jai alai VhI-,11, .hl-o-'ll \ Basque "merry festival" Court game resem¬ bling handball. Of Basque origin, it developed from pelota and was given its present name when it was imported to Cuba in 1900. It is played between two or four players with a ball and a hurling device consisting of a long, curved wicker basket strapped to the wrist. The use of this hurl¬ ing device, called a cesta, allows the ball to reach speeds up to 240 km/hr (150 mph). The court, 53.3 m (58.3 yards) long, is three-walled. The object of the game is to bounce the ball off the front wall with such speed and spin that the opponent is unable to return it. Pari-mutuel betting on jai alai is permitted in the U.S.

Jaina vrata \'jl-n3-'vr3-t9\ In Jainism, any of the vows taken by monks, nuns, and lay members. The first five are the mahavratas, or “great vows”: nonviolence, truthfulness, not stealing, sexual purity, and renunciation of possessions. These are interpreted more moderately for lay members than for monks; for example, lay members need only remain sexually faithful to their spouses, while monks must practice celibacy. The remaining vows are designed to help in keeping the first five. The final vow is the prom¬ ise to die in meditation during self-starvation when observance of the other vows is no longer possible.

Jainism Vjl-.ni-zomV Religion of India established in the 6th century bce. It was founded by Vardhamana, who was called Mahavira, as a reaction against the Vedic religion, which required animal sacrifices. Jainism’s core belief is AHIMSA, or noninjury to all living things. Jainism has no belief in a creator god, though there are a number of lesser deities for various aspects of life. Jains believe their religion is eternal and hold that it was revealed in stages by a number of Conquerors, of whom Mahavira was the 24th. Living as an ascetic, Mahavira preached the need for rigorous penance and self-denial as the means of perfecting human nature, escap¬ ing the cycle of rebirth, and attaining moksha, or liberation. Jains view karma as an invisible material substance that interferes with liberation and can be dissolved only through asceticism. By the end of the 1st century ce the Jains had split into two sects, each of which later developed its own canon of sacred writings: the Digambaras, who held that an adherent should own nothing, not even clothes, and that women must be reborn as men before they can attain moksha; and the more moderate Svetambaras, who retained a few possessions such as a robe, an alms bowl, a whisk

broom, and a mukhavastrika (a piece of cloth held over the mouth to pro¬ tect against the ingestion and killing of small insects). In keeping with their principle of reverence for life, Jains are known for their charitable works, including building shelters for animals. Jainism preaches univer¬ sal tolerance and does not seek to make converts. In the early 21st cen¬ tury Jainism had some 4.5 million followers.

Jaipur \'jl-,pur\ Capital (pop., 2001 prelim.: 2,324,319) of Rajasthan state, northwestern India. A walled town surrounded by hills (except to the south), it was founded in 1727 by Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh to replace Amber as the capital of the princely state of Jaipur. The city, known for its beauty, is unique in its straight-line planning; its buildings are mostly rose-coloured, and it is sometimes called the “pink city.” It is a popular tourist destination; historic structures include the city palace, the Hall of Winds, Ram Bagh palace, and Nahargarh, or Tiger Fort.

Jakarta \p-kar-te\ formerly (1949-72) Djakarta Capital (pop., 1999 est.: 9,604,900) and largest city of Indonesia. Located on the northwest¬ ern coast of Java, it was founded in 1527 after the sultan of Bantam defeated the Portuguese on the site. The Dutch took control in 1619, renaming it Batavia and establishing it as the headquarters of the Dutch East India Company. In 1949 the city was renamed and made Indonesia’s capital. It grew rapidly, soon becoming one of the world’s most populous cities. A major trade, industrial, and financial centre, it is also the seat of several universities.

Jakobson Vya-kob-sonN, Roman (Osipovich) (b. Oct. 11, 1896, Moscow, Russia—d. July 18, 1982, Boston, Mass., U.S.) Russian-born U.S. linguist. Born and educated in Moscow, Jakobson moved to Prague in 1920; the European political situation forced him to flee to Scandina¬ via in 1938 and to the U.S. in 1941. He taught at Harvard University (1949-67). His interests ranged from folk epics and the cultural history of the Slavs to general phonology, the morphology of the Slavic languages, and speech acquisition. His preoccupation with contrast and opposition is reflected in his analysis of the Russian case system (1938), a brilliant analysis of the Russian verbal system (1948), and preeminently in his work on distinctive features in phonology.

Jalal al-DIn al-Rum? See ROmT

Jalapa \ha-'la-pa\ in full Jalapa Enriquez City (pop., 2000: 373,076), capital of Veracruz state, east-central Mexico. It is located in the Sierra Madre Oriental about 4,700 ft (1,430 m) above sea level. A mar¬ ket city for locally grown coffee and tobacco, it was famous in colonial days for its annual fair, held to dispose of the goods brought from Cadiz, Spain, by the returning Spanish silver fleet. The massive Spanish-Moorish architecture of the city is reminiscent of viceregal days.

Jalisco \ha-'les-ko\ State (pop., 2000: 6,322,002), west-central Mexico. It covers 31,211 sq mi (80,836 sq km), and its capital is Guadalajara. The Sierra Madre Occidental mountain range traverses the state, separating the Pacific coast from a high plateau region. The Sierra Madre region is largely volcanic, and earthquakes are frequent. The state’s many lakes include Chapala, Mexico’s largest. First invaded by Spaniards in 1526, Jalisco was incorporated into Nueva Galicia. In 1889 its area was much reduced by the separation of the territory of Tepic (now Nayarit state) from its coastal zone. Its economy is based on agriculture, livestock raising, forest products, and mining.

jam See jelly and jam

Jamaica Island country, West Indies, located south of Cuba. The third largest island in the Caribbean, it is 146 mi (235 km) long and 35 mi (56 km) wide. Area: 4,244 sq mi (10,991 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 2,736,000. Capital: Kingston. The population consists mostly of descen- dents of African slaves. Languages: English (official), Jamaican Creole. Religions: Christianity (mainly Protestant; also Roman Catholic); also Ras- TAFARlANism. Currency: Jamaica dollar. Jamaica has three major regions: the coastal lowlands, which encircle the island and are heavily cultivated; a limestone plateau, which covers half of the island; and the interior high¬ lands, with forested mountain ranges, including the Blue Mountains. Agri¬ culture employs about one-fifth of the workforce, and the major agricultural export is raw sugar, with molasses and rum as by-products. Industry focuses on the production of bauxite and alumina and on the gar¬ ment industry. Tourism is very important. Jamaica is a constitutional mon¬ archy with two legislative houses. Its chief of state is the British monarch, represented by the governor-general, and its head of government is the prime minister. The island was settled by Arawak Indians c. ad 600. It was

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Spain colonized it in the early 16th century but neglected it because it lacked gold reserves. Britain gained control in 1655, and by the end of the 18th century Jamaica had become a prized colonial possession because of the volume of sugar produced by slave labourers. Slavery was abolished in the late 1830s, and the plantation system col¬ lapsed. Jamaica gained full internal self-government in 1959 and became an independent country within the British Commonwealth in 1962. In the late 20th century the government, led by Michael Manley, nationalized many businesses.

Jamaica Bay Inlet of the Atlantic Ocean. It occupies about 20 sq mi (50 sq km) along the southwestern shore of Long Island, in southeastern New York, U.S. Part of the Port of New York, it is sheltered on the south by Rockaway Peninsula and connects with the ocean through Rockaway Inlet. Near the entrance channel is Coney Island. On the northeastern shore, at Idle wild, is the John F. Kennedy International Airport.

Jamal al-DIn al-Afghani yjo-'mal-al-'den-al-af-'ga-neN (b. 1838, Asadabad, Persia—d. March 9, 1897, Istanbul) Muslim politician and journalist. He is thought to have adopted the name Afghani to conceal the fact that he was of Persian Shfite origin. He lived in Afghanistan from 1866, and a year later he became counselor to the khan. Displaced after a change of rulers, he went to Istanbul and then to Cairo in 1871. After becoming known as a rabble-rouser and heretic, he was deported from Egypt in 1879. By 1883 he was in Paris, where he championed Islamic civilization in the face of European domination. In Russia (1887-89) he seems to have worked as an anti-British agitator. His next stop was Iran, from which he was deported as a heretic in 1892; four years later he avenged himself by instigating the shah’s murder. He died in Istanbul after failing to interest the sultan in his pan-Islamic ideas.

James, C(yril) L(ionel) R(obert) (b. Jan. 4, 1901, Tunapuna, Trin.—d. May 31, 1989, London, Eng.) Trinidadian writer and political activist. As a young man he moved to Britain, where his first work, The Life of Captain Cipriani, was published in 1929. His study of Toussaint- Louverture, The Black Jacobins (1938), was a seminal work. During James’s first stay in the U.S. (1938-53), he became friends with Paul Robeson. Eventually deported to Britain because of his Marxism and labour activism, James wrote on cricket for The Guardian. His Beyond the Boundary (1963) mixes autobiography with commentary on politics and sports. He returned to the U.S. in 1970 but eventually settled perma¬ nently in Britain.

James, Harry (Haag) (b. March 15,1916, Albany, Ga., U.S.—d. July 5, 1983, Las Vegas, Nev.) U.S. trumpeter and leader of one of the most

popular big bands of the swing era. He joined Benny Goodman’s band in 1937, becoming one of its principal soloists before forming his own group in late 1938. The band achieved commercial success through recordings featuring Frank Sinatra, virtuoso set pieces, and ballads performed with James’s trademark wide vibrato. He married actress Betty Grable in 1943 and appeared in several films. An accomplished and technically brilliant improviser, his music from the late 1940s reflected his renewed interest in jazz, and he continued to perform with his band for more than 40 years.

James, Henry (b. April 15, 1843, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Feb. 28, 1916, London, Eng.) U.S.-British novelist. Born to a distinguished family, the brother of William James, he was privately educated. He trav¬ eled frequently to Europe from childhood on; after 1876 he lived pri¬ marily in England. His fundamental theme was to be the innocence and exuberance of the New World in con¬ flict with the corruption and wisdom of the Old. Daisy Miller (1879) won him international renown; it was fol¬ lowed by The Europeans (1879),

Washington Square (1880), and The Portrait of a Lady (1881). In The Bostonians (1886) and The Princess Casamassima (1886), his subjects were social reformers and revolu¬ tionaries. In The Spoils of Poynton (1897), What Maisie Knew (1897), and The Turn of the Screw (1898), he made use of complex moral and psy¬ chological ambiguity. The Wings of the Dove (1902), The Ambassadors (1903), and The Golden Bowl (1904) were his great final novels. His intense concern with the novel as an art form is reflected in the essay “The Art of Fiction” (1884), his prefaces to the volumes of his collected works, and his many literary essays. Perhaps his chief technical innova¬ tion was his strong focus on the individual consciousness of his central characters, which reflected his sense of the decline of public and collec¬ tive values in his time.

James, Jesse and James, Frank in full Jesse Woodson James and Alexander Franklin James (respectively b. Sept. 5, 1847, near Centerville, Mo., U.S.—d. April 3, 1882, St. Joseph, Mo.; b. Jan. 10, 1843, near Centerville, Mo.—d. Feb. 18, 1915, near Kearney, Mo.) Brothers who were among the most notorious outlaws of the Ameri¬ can West. Jesse and Frank both fought as Confederate guerrillas in the American Civil War. In 1866 they and eight other men robbed a bank in Liberty, Mo. Joined by other outlaws in subsequent years, the James gang robbed banks from Iowa to Alabama and Texas. In 1873 the bandits began robbing trains; they also preyed upon stagecoaches, stores, and individu¬ als. In 1876 Jesse led a failed attempt to rob a bank in Northfield, Minn.; though the brothers escaped, the rest of the gang was killed or captured. After assembling a new gang in 1879 the brothers resumed robbing, and in 1881 the governor of Missouri offered a $10,000 reward for the broth¬ ers’ capture, dead or alive. In 1882 Jesse was shot in the back of the head and killed instantly by Robert Ford, a gang member, who claimed the reward. A few months later, Frank gave himself up. Tried and acquitted three times, he retired to a quiet life on his family’s farm. The exploits of the James brothers were romanticized in pulp fiction and in movies.

James, Saint or James the Great (b. Galilee, Palestine—d. ad 44, Jerusalem; feast day July 25) One of the 12 Apostles of Jesus. He and his brother John (see St. John the Apostle) were fishermen on the Sea of Gali¬ lee and were among the first disciples to be called. As a member of the inner circle of disciples, he witnessed the major events in the ministry of Jesus, including the Transfiguration and the Agony in the Garden of Geth- semane. He was beheaded in ad 44 by order of Herod Agrippa. By tradi¬ tion, his body was taken to Santiago de Compostela, Spain; his shrine there has long been a place of pilgrimage.

James, William (b. Jan. 11, 1842, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Aug. 26, 1910, Chocorua, N.H.) U.S. philosopher and psychologist. Son of the philosophical writer Henry James (1811-82) and brother of the novelist Henry James, he studied medicine at Harvard, where he taught from 1872.

tew York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Feb. 28,

Henry James, 1905.

SMITH COLLEGE ARCHIVES/PHOTOGRAPH BY KATHERINE E. ACCLELLAN

James I ► James River I 977

His first major work, The Principles of Psychology (1890), treated think¬ ing and knowledge as instruments in the struggle to live. His most famous work is The Varieties of Religious Experience (1902). In Pragmatism (1907), he generalized the theories of Charles Sanders Peirce to assert that the meaning of any idea must be ana¬ lyzed in terms of the succession of experiential consequences to which it leads and that truth and error depend solely on these consequences (see pragmatism). He applied this doctrine to the analysis of change and chance, freedom, variety, pluralism, and nov¬ elty. His pragmatism was also the basis for his polemic against monism, the idealistic doctrine of internal rela¬ tions, and all views that presented reality as a static whole. He was also a leader of the psychological move¬ ment known as functionalism.

James I Spanish Jaime known as James the Conqueror (b. Feb. 2, 1208, Montpellier, County of Toulouse—d. July 27, 1276) King of Aragon and Catalonia (1214-76). The most renowned of the medieval kings of Aragon, he was educated by the Knights Templar, and his great- uncle ruled as regent until 1218. James helped to subdue rebellious nobles and took over the government of his kingdoms in 1227. He reconquered the Balearic Islands (1229-35) and Valencia (1233-38) but renounced his claims to lands in southern France. He also helped Alfonso X to suppress a Moorish rebellion in Murcia (1266), and he undertook an unsuccessful Crusade to the Holy Land (1269).

James I (b. June 19, 1566, Edinburgh Castle, Edinburgh, Scot.—d. March 27, 1625, Theobalds, Hertfordshire, Eng.) King of Scotland, as James VI (1567-1625), and first Stuart king of England (1603-25). He was the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and Lord Darnley, and at age one James succeeded his mother to the Scottish throne. Controlled by a succession of regents, he became the puppet of contending intriguers—Roman Catho¬ lics, who sought to bring his mother back to the throne, and Protestants. In 1583 he began to pursue his own policies as king, allying himself with England. On the death of Elizabeth I, he succeeded to the English throne as great-great-grandson of Henry VII. He quickly achieved peace and prosper¬ ity by ending England’s war with Spain (1604). He presided over the Hampton Court Conference (1604), rejecting most of the Puritans’ demands for reform of the Church of England but permitting preparation of a new translation of the Bible, the King James Version. His policies toward Catholics led to the Gunpowder Plot, and his growing belief in royal abso¬ lutism and his conflicts with an increasingly self-assertive Parliament led to his dissolution of Parliament from 1611 to 1621. With the death of Robert Cecil, he came under the influence of incompetent favourites.

James I (b. 1394—d. Feb. 20/21, 1437, Perth, Perth, Scot.) King of the Scots (1406-37). The son and heir of Robert III, he was captured by the English in 1406 and held prisoner in London until 1424. During the 13 years in which he truly ruled Scotland (1424-37), he established the first strong monarchy the Scots had known in nearly a century. He weakened the nobility but did not entirely subdue the Highland lords, and he greatly improved the administration of justice for the common people. His mur¬ der in a Dominican friary by a group of rival nobles led to a popular uprising in favour of his widow and six-year-old son, who succeeded him as James II.

James II Spanish Jaime known as James the Just (b. c. 1264—d. Nov. 3, 1327, Barcelona, Aragon) King of Aragon (1295-1327) and king of Sicily (as James I, 1285-95). He inherited the Sicilian crown on the death of his father (1285); when his brother died (1291) he inherited Ara¬ gon. He resigned Sicily (1295) and married the daughter of the king of Naples in order to make peace with the Angevins. Sardinia and Corsica were given to him in compensation for Sicily, but he was able to occupy only Sardinia (1324).

James II (b. Oct. 14, 1633, London, Eng.—d. Sept. 16/17, 1701, Saint- Germain, France) King of Great Britain (1685-88). He was brother and

successor to Charles II. In the English Civil Wars he escaped to the Neth¬ erlands (1648). After the Restoration (1660) he returned to England and became lord high admiral in the Anglo-Dutch Wars. He converted to Catholicism c. 1668, and he resigned in 1673 rather than take the Test Act oath. By 1678 his Catholicism had created a climate of hysteria about a Popish Plot to assassinate Charles and put James on the throne, and suc¬ cessive Parliaments sought to exclude him from succession. By the time Charles died (1685), James came to the throne with little opposition and strong support from the Anglicans. Rebellions caused him to fill the army and high offices with Roman Catholics and suspend a hostile Parliament. The birth of his son, a possible Catholic heir, brought about the Glorious Revolution in 1688, and he fled to France. In 1689 he landed in Ireland to regain his throne, but his army was defeated at the Battle of the Boyne, and he returned to exile in France.

James II (b. Oct. 16, 1430, Edinburgh, Scot.—d. Aug. 3, 1460, Rox¬ burgh Castle, Roxburgh) King of Scotland (1437-60). He succeeded to the throne on the assassination of his father, James I of Scotland. Because he was so young, the strong central authority his father had established quickly collapsed, and his first adult task was the restoration of monar¬ chical authority. He strove to dominate the powerful Douglas family, and in 1452 he stabbed to death William, earl of Douglas, at Stirling Castle. He established a strong central government and improved the adminis¬ tration of justice. Turning his attention to the English, who had renewed their claims to rule Scotland, he attacked English outposts in Scotland and was killed during a siege of Roxburgh Castle.

James III (b. May 1452—d. June 11, 1488, near Stirling, Stirling, Scot.) King of Scotland (1460-88). He succeeded his father, James II. Unlike the latter, he was unable to restore strong central government after his long minority. A weak monarch, he was confronted with two major rebellions. He evidently offended his nobles by his interest in the arts and by taking artists for his favourites. In 1488 two powerful border families raised a rebellion and won to their cause his son, the future James IV; James III was captured and killed at age 36.

James IV (b. March 17, 1473—d. Sept. 9, 1513, near Branxton, Northumberland, Eng.) King of Scotland (1488-1513). He unified his country, gaining control over all northern and western Scotland by 1493. He fought border skirmishes with England (1495-97) in support of a pre¬ tender to the English throne. His marriage (1503) to Margaret Tudor, daughter of Henry VII, helped stabilize relations between the two coun¬ tries, but in 1512 he allied with France against England. He invaded England in support of the French in 1513; his army was defeated at the Battle of Flodden, and James was killed.

James Bay Extension of Hudson Bay, located between northern Ontario and Quebec, Can. Generally less than 200 ft (60 m) deep, it is 275 mi (443 km) long and 135 mi (217 km) wide. It contains numerous islands, of which the largest is Akimiski Island. The many rivers that empty into the bay, including the Moose, are the cause of its low salinity. Visited by Henry Hud¬ son in 1610, it is named for Capt. Thomas James, who explored it in 1631.

James Edward, the Old Pretender orig. James Francis Edward Stuart (b. June 10, 1688, London, Eng.—d. Jan. 1, 1766, Rome, Papal States) Claimant to the English and Scottish thrones. Son of the exiled James II of England, he was raised in France as a Catholic. On the death of his father (1701), he was proclaimed king of England by the French king Louis XIV, but the English Parliament passed a bill of attain¬ der against him. He served with the French army in the War of the Span¬ ish Succession. In the Jacobite uprising (1715), James landed in Scotland, but within two months the uprising collapsed and he returned to France. He lived thereafter in Rome under the pope’s patronage. He became known as the “Old Pretender” to distinguish him from his son, Charles Edward, the Young Pretender.

James River or Dakota River River in the U.S. rising in central North Dakota and flowing southeast across South Dakota. It joins the Missouri River about 5 mi (8 km) below Yankton after a course of 710 mi (1,140 km). Major cities along the river include Jamestown, N.D., and Huron, S.D.

James River River, Virginia, U.S. Formed by the junction of the Jack- son and Cowpasture rivers, it flows east across the Blue Ridge and past Richmond, then southeast to enter Chesapeake Bay through Hampton Roads after a course of 340 mi (550 km). The historic settlement of Jamestown lies on its lower course.

William James

COURTESY OF THE HARVARD UNIVERSITY NEWS SERVICE

978 I James the Conqueror ► Janus

James the Conqueror See James I (Aragon)

James the Just See James II (Aragon)

Jameson, Sir Leander Starr (b. Feb. 9, 1853, Edinburgh, Scot.—d. Nov. 26, 1917, London, Eng.) British administrator in southern Africa. As Cecil Rhodes’s representative, Jameson successfully negotiated mineral concessions in Matabeleland and Mashonaland (present-day Zimbabwe) before becoming the first administrator of the new colony of Rhodesia in 1893. In 1895 Rhodes and Jameson plotted with Uitlander (British) lead¬ ers in the Transvaal to overthrow the Boer government of Paul Kruger; the original plan was postponed, but Jameson carried out his own invasion and was quickly captured with all his men. After imprisonment in England, he returned to participate in South African politics.

Jamestown Colony First permanent English settlement in North America. It was founded in May 1607 on a peninsula in the James River of Virginia. Named after King James I, Jamestown began cultivating tobacco and established the continent’s first representative government (1619); the colony, its leader John Smith, and the Indian Pocahontas— who, according to lore, saved Smith’s life—have been the subject of numerous novels, dramas, and films, many of them highly fanciful. When nearby Williamsburg replaced it as the capital of colonial Virginia in 1699, it fell into decline. By the mid-19th century, erosion had transformed the peninsula into Jamestown Island. In 1936 the site was incorporated into the Colonial National Historical Park.

JamiVjo-.meW/g. Mawlana Nural-DIn 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Ahmad (b. Nov. 7, 1414, district of Jam—d. Nov. 9, 1492, Herat, Timu- rid Afghanistan) Persian scholar, mystic, and poet. Despite offers of patronage by many Islamic rulers, he led a simple life, mostly in Herat. His prose ranges from Qur’anic commentaries to treatises on Sufism and music. His poetry expresses ethical and philosophical views in fresh, graceful language. His best known poetry collection is The Seven Thrones (or Ursa Major). He is often called the last great mystical poet of Iran.

Jamison, Judith (b. May 10, 1943, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.) U.S. dancer and choreographer. In 1965 she joined Alvin Ailey’s American Dance Theater; she became celebrated for her energetic grace and rivet¬ ing stage presence and inspired many of Ailey’s new dances, most nota¬ bly Cry (1971). She left the company in 1980 to star in the Broadway musical Sophisticated Ladies. She toured worldwide in the 1980s and choreographed for various companies. In 1988 she founded her own troupe, the Jamison Project, but, after Ailey’s death in 1989, she returned to the Ailey troupe as artistic director, becoming the first African Ameri¬ can woman to direct a major modern dance company.

Jammu Vjo-miA City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 378,431) and winter capital of Jammu and Kashmir state, northwestern India. It lies along the Tawi River, south of Srinagar. Once the capital of the Dogra Rajput dynasty, it became part of Ranjit Singh’s domain in the 19th century. It is now a railroad and manufacturing centre. Sites of interest include a fort, a pal¬ ace of the rajas, and the University of Jammu (founded 1969).

Jammu and Kashmir State (pop., 2001: 10,143,700), northern India. With an area of 39,146 sq mi (101,387 sq km), it occupies the southern portion of the Kashmir region of the northwestern Indian subcontinent and is bordered by the portions of Kashmir administered by Pakistan and China and by the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab. The land is pre¬ dominantly mountainous and includes segments of the Karakoram and Himalaya ranges. Much of Kashmir’s Ladakh region is included in the state. There are two major lowland areas: the Jammu plain and the fertile and heavily populated Vale of Kashmir. The majority of the state’s people are Muslims, although Hindus predominate in the southeastern Jammu area, and northeastern Ladakh is largely Buddhist. Formerly a princely state cre¬ ated in the 1840s, Jammu and Kashmir became an Indian state in 1947, even as India and Pakistan were fighting for control of the entire Kashmir region. A cease-fire line, established in 1949, has since served as the state’s boundary with the Pakistan-administered area. Tension has remained high in the region, and there have been periodic outbreaks of border fighting.

Janacek Vya-no-.chekV Leos (Eugen) (b. July 3, 1854, Hukvaldy, Moravia, Austrian Empire—d. Aug. 12, 1928, Ostrava, Czech.) Czech (Moravian) composer. Son of a church musician, he worked as a teacher and choral conductor until age 40. When his marriage ended in 1887, he began his first opera and spent the next year collecting folk songs. In 1894 he began his first mature opera, Jenufa, in a folk-influenced style; com¬ pleted nearly a decade later, it had a successful premiere in Brno (1904),

and he retired to compose full-time, becoming music’s most extraordi¬ nary late bloomer. Major works of his last two decades include the Glagolitic Mass (1927) and the operas Kat’a Kabanova (1921), The Cunning Little Vixen (1924), The Makropulos Affair (1925), and From the House of the Dead (1928). A late love affair inspired the Kreutzer and Intimate Pages string quartets (1923,

1928).

Jane Seymour (b. 1509?,

England—d. Oct. 24, 1537, Hamp¬ ton Court, London) Third wife of Henry VIII of England. A lady-in- waiting to Henry’s wives Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn, she first attracted Henry’s attention c.

1535 but refused to be his mistress.

This probably hastened Anne Boleyn’s downfall and execution (1536), after which Jane and Henry were married privately. She restored Henry’s daughter Mary (later Mary I) to his favour and gave birth to his only male heir, the future Edward VI, but she died 12 days later, to Henry’s genuine sorrow.

Janissary Vja-no-.ser-eX also spelled Janizary Vja-n3-,zer-e\ Turkish Yeniceri ("New Troop") Elite corps of the Ottoman Empire’s army from the late 14th to the early 19th century. Its original soldiers were pris¬ oners of war, but a system soon was developed (the devsirme ) wherein Christian youths were levied from Balkan vassals, converted to Islam, and—though paid a regular salary—inducted into the ranks of the sul¬ tan’s slaves. They were, for the most part, infantry troops conscripted to replace the often-unreliable Turkish tribal cavalry (spahi). Strict early rules of behaviour, including celibacy, were later abandoned, and the Jan¬ issaries became active in court politics. In 1826 they rebelled rather than accept the reform of the army along European lines. The revolt was vio¬ lently put down, and most of the Janissaries were killed.

Jansen Vyan-S3n,\ English Vjan-S3n\, Cornelius Otto (b. Oct. 28, 1585, Acquoi, near Leerdam, Holland—d. May 6, 1638, Ypres, Flanders, Spanish Neth.) Flemish leader of the Roman Catholic reform movement known as Jansenism. He studied at the University of Louvain, where he absorbed the teachings of St. Augustine, especially those concerning origi¬ nal sin and the need for grace. He spent 1611-14 in Bayonne, France, where he directed the episcopal college. After studying theology three more years, he returned to Louvain. He became rector of the university in 1635 and a year later was appointed bishop of Ypres. In 1638 he died of the plague. His major work, the Augustinus, was published in 1640; in 1642 Pope Urban VIII forbade the reading of the book.

Jansenism Roman Catholic reform movement inspired by the writings of Cornelius Jansen. Influenced by the works of St. Augustine and espe¬ cially by Augustine’s attacks on Pelagianism and the doctrine of free will, Jansen adopted Augustine’s doctrines of predestination and the necessity of God’s grace, a stance considered uncomfortably close to Calvinism by Roman Catholic authorities, who banned his book the Augustinus in 1642. After Jansen’s death in 1638, his followers made their base at the abbey in Port-Royal, France. Blaise Pascal, the most famous Jansenist, defended their teachings in his Provincial Letters (1656-57). In 1709 Louis XIV ordered the Port Royal abbey demolished. Followers of Jansen started a Jansenist church in 1723, which endured into the late 20th century.

Jansky, Karl (Guthe) (b. Oct. 22,1905, Norman, Okla., U.S.—d. Feb. 14,1950, Red Bank, N.J.) U.S. engineer. He graduated from the University of Wisconsin and went to work for Bell Telephone Laboratories. Assigned to track down sources of static that could interfere with radiotelephone communication, he discovered (1931) the first extraterrestrial source of radio waves, emanating from the constellation Sagittarius in the direction of the Milky Way Galaxy’s centre. The discovery proved that celestial bod¬ ies could emit radio waves and marked the beginning of radio astronomy.

Janus \'ja-nos\ Roman god of doorways and archways, after whom the month of January is named. Often depicted as a double-faced head, he was a deity of beginnings. The worship of Janus dated back to the ear¬ liest years of Rome, and the city had many freestanding ceremonial gate-

Japan ► Jarrell I 979

ways called jani, used for symbolically auspicious entrances or exits. The most famous was the Janus Geminus, whose double doors were left open in time of war and closed when Rome was at peace. The festival of Janus, the Agonium, took place on January 9.

Japan Island country, East Asia, western Pacific Ocean. Its four main islands are Hokkaido, Honshu,

Shikoku, and Kyushu. It is separated from the Asian mainland by the Sea of Japan (East Sea). Area: 145,903 sq mi (377,887 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 128,085,000. Capital:

Tokyo. The Japanese overwhelm¬ ingly are a single Asian ethnic group. Language: Japanese (official). Reli¬ gions: Shinto, Buddhism; also Christianity. Currency: yen. Situated in one of Earth’s most geologically active zones, Japan experiences volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. Mountain ranges cover some four-fifths of its land surface; its highest mountain is Mount Fuji. The economy, one of the world’s biggest, is based largely on manufacturing and services; exports include electronic and electrical equipment, motor vehicles, chemicals, and iron and steel products. The government’s involvement in banking results in unique cooperation between the public and private sectors. Japan is one of the world’s principal seagoing nations, with an important marine fishing sector. It is a constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses; its symbol of state is the emperor, and the head of government is the prime minister. Human habitation in Japan is thought to date to at least 30,000 years ago. The Yamato court established the first unified Japanese state in the 4th-5th century ad; during that period, Buddhism arrived in Japan by way of Korea. For centuries Japan borrowed heavily from Chinese culture, but it began to sever its links with the mainland by the 9th cen¬ tury. The Fujiwara family were dominant through the 11th century. In 1192 Minamoto Yoritomo established Japan’s first bakufu, or shogunate (see Kamakura period). The Muromachi period (1338-1573) was marked by war¬ fare among powerful families. Unification was achieved in the late 16th and early 17th centuries under the leadership of Oda Nobunaga, Toyo- tomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu. During the Edo (Tokugawa) period (1603-1867), the government imposed a policy of isolation. Under the leadership of the emperor Meiji (1867-1912), it adopted a constitution (1889) and began a program of modernization and Westernization. Japa¬ nese imperialism led to war with China (1894-95) and Russia (1904-05) as well as to the annexation of Korea (1910) and Manchuria (1931). Dur¬ ing World War II Japan attacked U.S. forces in Hawaii and the Philip¬ pines (December 1941) and occupied European colonial possessions in Southeast Asia. In 1945 the U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and Japan surrendered to the Allies. A new democratic consti¬ tution was drafted (1947) during the U.S. postwar occupation. Japan also began rebuilding its ruined industrial base using new technology. A tre¬ mendous economic recovery followed, and Japan became one of the world’s wealthiest countries. It was able to maintain a favourable balance of trade despite a long-term economic recession. See map on following page.

Japan, Sea of or East Sea Branch of the western Pacific Ocean, bounded by Japan, by Sakhalin Island, and by Russia and Korea on the Asian mainland. It has a surface area of about 377,600 sq mi (978,000 sq km), a mean depth of 5,748 ft (1,752 m), and a maximum depth of 12,276 ft (3,742 m). Its relatively warm waters contribute greatly to the mild climate of Japan. The growing trade among East Asian countries has increased its use as a commercial waterway.

Japanese beetle Scarab beetle (Popillia japonica) that is a major pest of plants. Introduced accidentally from Japan into the U.S. in 1916, Japa¬ nese beetles are known to feed on more than 200 species of plant. Their larvae feed underground on roots; adults feed on flowers, fruit, and foli¬ age. They range from Maine to South Carolina, and infestations have occurred in other parts of North America. The adult, about 0.4 in. (10 mm) long, is bright metallic green with coppery-brown wing covers. Con¬ trol efforts include the use of poisonous sprays and a disease-inducing bacterium and introduction of the beetle’s natural enemies (certain para¬ sitic wasp and fly species).

Japanese crab See king crab

Japanese language Language spoken by about 125 million people on the islands of Japan, including the Ryukyus. The only other language of the Japanese archipelago is Ainu (see Ainu), now spoken by only a handful of people on Hokkaido, though once much more widespread. Japanese is not closely related to any other language, though a distant genetic kinship to Korean is now thought probable by some scholars, and an even more remote relationship to the Altaic languages is possible. Japanese is first attested in the 8th century ad, when Middle Chinese char¬ acters were utilized solely for their phonetic value to write native Japa¬ nese words. Japanese retains a huge stock of loanwords from Middle Chinese, long adapted to native phonetics.

Japanese law Law as it has developed in Japan as a consequence of the combination of two cultural and legal traditions, one indigenous Japa¬ nese, the other Western. In the 8th century Japan borrowed and adapted the legal system of the Chinese Tang dynasty. With the rise of the warrior class, clan codes governing the behaviour and actions of warrior families were developed. After the Meiji Restoration (1868), Japan began to bor¬ row heavily from European legal systems, particularly the German Civil Code. After World War II, largely as a result of the country’s occupation by the U.S. military and later contacts with U.S. legal scholars, Japan incorporated aspects of the U.S. legal system, including various civil pro¬ cedures and elements of labour and business law. Traditional extralegal dispute-resolution methods remain strong, and litigation plays a less per¬ vasive role than in the U.S.

Japanese philosophy Conceptual expression of Japanese culture since early 6th century ad. Japanese philosophy is not generally indig¬ enous; Japanese thinkers have always skillfully assimilated alien philo¬ sophical categories in developing their own systems. One of the two principal schools of Japanese thought arose from Buddhism and was highly tinged with a religious and often somewhat metaphysical character. The second school arose from Confucianism and was essentially a system of moral philosophy. Since the Meiji Restoration (1868), Western philosophy has been abundantly introduced into Japan. At first British and American philosophies predominated, but in the 20th century the influence of Ger¬ man philosophy became increasingly strong; leading Japanese philoso¬ phers were especially influenced by German idealism, phenomenology, and existentialism. To distinguish Western philosophy from Buddhist and Chi¬ nese thought, the term tetsugaku (“wise learning”) was coined and has come into common use.

Japanese writing system System of modified Chinese characters used for writing the Japanese language. The Japanese developed a mixed system, partly logographic (based on the Chinese writing system) and partly syllabic. In the 9th or 10th century two sets of syllabic signs evolved: hiragana, simplified cursive versions of Chinese characters; and kata- kana, based on elements of Chinese characters. Modem Japanese is writ¬ ten with the two syllabaries and Chinese characters.

Japura \,zha-pu-'ra\ River River, northwestern South America. It rises as the Caqueta River in the Cordillera Central of the Andes Mountains in southwestern Colombia. Afterward it flows through southeastern Colom¬ bia and is joined by the Apaporis River at the Brazilian border, where it takes the name Japura and flows eastward to join the Amazon River. Its total length, including the Caqueta, is about 1,750 mi (2,820 km). It has a strong current and is navigable by small boats in Brazil.

Jaques-Dalcroze Vzhak-.dal-'krozV Emile (b. July 6, 1865, Vienna, Austria—d. July 1, 1950, Geneva, Switz.) Swiss music educator and com¬ poser. He studied composition with Anton Bruckner, Gabriel Faure, and Leo Delibes, and in 1892 he became professor of harmony at the Geneva Conservatory. In the early 20th century he experimented with new meth¬ ods of music education, which evolved into eurythmics, a system in which bodily movements are used to represent musical rhythms. In 1914, hav¬ ing left the conservatory, he founded the Institut Jaques-Dalcroze in Geneva to teach and promulgate his new method.

Jari River or Jary \zha-'re\ River River, northern Brazil. It flows southeast for about 350 mi (560 km) to join the Amazon River at Boca do Jari. The Jari forms the border between Para and Amapa states, and its lower course is navigable. Since the late 1960s the river’s valley has been the focus of large-scale development for lumber production.

Jarrell Vja-'relV, Randall (b. May 6, 1914, Nashville, Tenn., U.S.—d. Oct. 14, 1965, Chapel Hill, N.C.) U.S. poet and critic. He taught at the

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University of North Carolina (Greensboro) from 1947 until his death. As a critic, he revitalized the reputations of Robert Frost, Walt Whitman, and William Carlos Will¬ iams in the 1950s; his criticism is col¬ lected in Poetry and the Age (1953),

A Sad Heart at the Supermarket (1962), and the posthumous Third Book of Criticism (1969). His poems appeared in Little Friend, Little Friend (1945) and Losses (1948), both drawing on his wartime experi¬ ences, and such later collections as The Seven-League Crutches (1951) and The Woman at the Washington Zoo (1960). He was killed when he stepped in front of a moving car.

Jarrett, Keith (b. May 8, 1945,

Allentown, Pa., U.S.) U.S. jazz pia¬ nist, composer, and bandleader. He played with Art Blakey (1965-66) and with Miles Davis’s jazz-rock group (1970-71) before making a series of solo recordings that won him broad popularity. His trio (from 1966) with bassist Charlie Haden (b. 1937) and drummer Paul Motian (b. 1931), later expanded to a quartet (1971-76), was highly regarded. By the 1980s his public performance had turned mainly to classical recitals.

Jarry \zha-'re\, Alfred (b. Sept. 8,

1873, Laval, France—d. Nov. 1,

1907, Paris) French writer. He went to Paris to live on his inheritance at age 18; after exhausting it, he led a life of calculated buffoonery. His farce Ubu Roi (1896), considered a forerunner of theatre of the absurd and of Surrealism, featured the gro¬ tesque Pere Ubu, who becomes king of Poland. Jarry followed it with two sequels, one of which was published posthumously. The brilliant imagery and wit of his stories, novels, and poems usually lapse into incoherence and unintelligible symbolism. A heavy drinker, he died at 34.

Jaruzelski \,yar-u-'zel-ske\, Wojciech (Witold) (b. July 6, 1923, Kurow, Pol.) Polish army general and chief of state (1981-89) and presi¬ dent (1989-90) of Poland. He rose through the ranks of the army and the Communist Party to be elected premier and first secretary of the party in 1981 as Poland came under increasing pressure from the Solidarity move¬ ment. He declared martial law (1981-83), carrying out mass arrests of dissidents. Unable to restore Poland’s stagnant economy, he began nego¬ tiations in 1988 with Solidarity, culminating in agreements to reform Poland’s political system. Elected president in 1989, he resigned his posts in the Communist Party. In 1990 Lech Walesa was elected president, and Jaruzelski relinquished the last of communist power in Poland.

jasmine Vjaz-monN Any of about 300 tropical and subtropical species of fragrant, flowering, woody, climb¬ ing shrubs that make up the genus Jasminum of the olive family, native to all continents except North America. The jasmine used in per¬ fumery and aromatherapy comes from the fragrant white flowers of common, or poet’s, jasmine (7. offi¬ cinale), native to Iran. The dried flowers of Arabian jasmine (7. sam-

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bac) make jasmine tea. Many fragrant- flowered plants from other families are also commonly called jasmine.

Jason In Greek legend, the leader of the Argonauts. He was the son of Aeson, king of Iolcos in Thessaly. Raised by Chiron after his father’s half-brother Pelias seized Iolcos, he returned as a young man and was promised his inheritance if he could bring back the Golden Fleece. After an adventur¬ ous voyage, he won the fleece with the help of Medea. He married her, and the two returned to Iolcos, where Medea murdered Pelias. Driven out by Pelias’s son, they sought refuge with King Creon of Corinth. When Jason deserted Medea for Creon’s daughter, Medea killed her own chil¬ dren by Jason.

jasper Opaque, fine-grained or dense variety of the silica mineral chert that exhibits various colours, but chiefly brick red to brownish red. Long used for jewelry and ornamentation, it has a dull lustre but takes a fine polish; its physical properties are those of quartz. Jasper is common and widely distributed, occurring in the Ural Mountains, North Africa, Sicily, Germany, and elsewhere. For thousands of years, black jasper was used to test gold-silver alloys for their gold content. Rubbing the alloys on the stone, called a touchstone, produces a streak the colour of which deter¬ mines the gold content within 1 part in 100.

Jasper National Park National park, western Alberta, Can. Located on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains, it was established in 1907. It occupies 4,200 sq mi (10,878 sq km), including the Athabasca River val¬ ley and the surrounding mountains. It encompasses part of the great Columbia Icefield, the meltwaters of which feed rivers that flow to the Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic oceans. The park’s wildlife includes bear, elk, moose, caribou, and cougar.

Jaspers ► Jawlensky I 981

Jaspers \'yas-p9rs\, Karl (Theodor) (b. Feb. 23, 1883, Oldenburg, Ger.—d. Feb. 26, 1969, Basel, Switz.) German-Swiss philosopher and psychiatrist. As a research psychiatrist, he helped establish psychopathol¬ ogy on a rigorous, scientifically descriptive basis, especially in his Gen¬ eral Psychopathology (1913). He taught philosophy at the University of Heidelberg from 1921 until 1937, when the Nazi regime forbade him to work. From 1948 he lived in Switzerland, teaching at the University of Basel. In his magnum opus. Philosophy (3 vol., 1969), he argued that the aim of philosophy is practical; its purpose is the fulfillment of human existence ( Existenz ). For Jaspers, philosophical illumination is achieved in the experience of limit situations, such as conflict, guilt, and suffering, that define the human condition. In its confrontation with these extremes mankind achieves its existential humanity. He is one of the most impor¬ tant figures of EXISTENTIALISM.

Jassy See Iasi

Jassy \'ya-se. Treaty of (Jan. 9, 1792) Pact signed at Jassy in Mol¬ davia (modern Ia§i, Rom.), at the conclusion of the Russo-Turkish Wars. The treaty confirmed Russian dominance in the Black Sea by advancing the Russian frontier to the Dniester River. It also restored Bessarabia, Moldavia, and Walachia to the Ottoman Turks.

jaundice Excess bile pigments (bilirubin) in the bloodstream and tissues, causing a yellow to orange—even greenish—colour in the skin, the whites of the eyes, and the mucous membranes. Bilirubin may be overproduced or inadequately removed by the liver or leak into the bloodstream after removal; jaundice may also be due to impaired bile flow. Causes include anemia, pneumonia, and liver disorders (e.g., infection or cirrhosis). While bilirubin excess usually does no harm, retention jaundice signals severe liver malfunction.

Jaures \zho-'res\, (Auguste-Marie-Joseph-) Jean (b. Sept. 3, 1859, Castres, France—d. July 31,

1914, Paris) French socialist leader.

He served in the Chamber of Depu¬ ties (1885-89, 1893-98, 1902-14) and at first adopted the ideas of Alex¬ andre Millerand. After 1899 the socialists split into two groups, and Jaures headed the French Socialist Party, advocating reconciliation with the state. In the newspaper L’Humanite, which he cofounded in 1904, he espoused democratic socialism, but when the Second Inter¬ national (1904) rejected his position he acquiesced. In 1905 the two French socialist parties united, and his authority continued to grow. On the eve of World War I, he espoused peace through arbitration and cham¬ pioned Franco-German rapproche¬ ment, which earned him the hatred of French nationalists, and he was assassinated in 1914 by a young nation¬ alist fanatic. He wrote several books, including the influential Socialist History of the French Revolution (1901-07).

Java \'ja-va\ Indonesian Djawa Island (pop., 2000 prelim.: 121,352,608), Indonesia. Lying southeast of Sumatra, it is Indonesia’s fourth largest island, and it contains more than half of the country’s popu¬ lation. Its area, including offshore Madura Island, is 49,228 sq mi (127,499 sq km). The capital of Java and of Indonesia is Jakarta. The island’s highest point is Mount Semeru, an active volcano measuring 12,060 ft (3,676 m) high. It is inhabited by three major ethnic groups: the Javanese (who constitute 70% of the population), the Sundanese, and the Madurese. The fossilized remains of Homo erectus, or “Java man,” indi¬ cate that the island was occupied some 800,000 years ago. Indian traders began arriving in the 1st century ad, bringing Hindu influences. The Majapahit dynasty was founded in eastern Java in 1293; it fell early in the 16th century when Muslim kingdoms arose. In 1619 the Dutch East India Company took control of Batavia (Jakarta) and extended its influ¬ ence. Ruled by the Dutch until the 1940s when it was occupied by Japan, it became part of newly independent Indonesia in 1950.

Java Modular object-oriented programming language developed by Sun Microsystems in 1995 specifically for the Internet. Java is based on the

idea that the same software should run on many different kinds of com¬ puters, consumer gadgets, and other devices; its code is translated accord¬ ing to the needs of the machine on which it is running. The most visible examples of Java software are the interactive programs called “applets” that animate sites on the World Wide Web, where Java is a standard cre¬ ative tool. Java provides an interface to HTML.

Java man Common name of fossilized Homo erectus remains found in 1891 at Trinil, Java. The remains, a skullcap and thighbone, represent the first known fossils of H. erectus (though originally assigned to Pithecan¬ thropus erectus ) and, together with numerous other finds along the Solo River, suggest that H. erectus was present in eastern Asia some 1,000,000 years ago and persisted there for at least 500,000 years and possibly as long as 800,000 years. Java man predates the finds at Zhoukoudian (Peking Man) in China and is considered somewhat more primitive.

Java Sea Part of the western Pacific Ocean between Java and Borneo islands. Measuring 900 mi (1,450 km) long by 260 mi (420 km) wide, it occupies a total area of 167,000 sq mi (433,000 sq km). A shallow sea, it has a mean depth of 151 ft (46 m). It was the scene of a World War II naval battle (1942) that resulted in an Allied defeat and Japan’s invasion of Java.

Javanese Any member of the largest ethnic group on the island of Java, Indonesia. They speak an Austronesian language. The Javanese are Mus¬ lim, though relatively few are strictly observant. Traditional Javanese social organization varied in structure from relatively egalitarian villages to the highly stratified society of the cities; these differences find expres¬ sion in the many Javanese styles of speech still in use. Javanese villages are compact groups of single-family houses, generally built of bamboo, surrounding a central square. Rice is the main food crop. The growth of large cities in Java has produced an urban underclass who live in make¬ shift huts in enclosed neighbourhoods.

JavaScript Computer programming language developed by Netscape in 1995 for use in HTML pages. JavaScript is a scripting language (or inter¬ preted language), which is not as fast as compiled languages (such as Java or C++) but easier to learn and use. It is only loosely related to Java, and is not a true object-oriented language (see object-oriented programming). JavaScript can be quickly added to a pure HTML page to provide dynamic features, such as automatically calculating the current date or activating an action. The JavaScript code must be interpreted and executed by a browser as it reads the Web page or by a Web server before it delivers the page to the browser.

javelin See peccary

javelin throw Track-and-field sport of throwing a wooden or metal spear for distance. It is hurled after a short run and must land point-first. The men’s javelin is 8.5 ft (260 cm) long, the women’s 7.2 ft (220 cm). Included in the ancient Greek Olympic Games as part of the pentathlon, the javelin throw has been part of the modern Olympic program since its inception in 1896. A women’s event was added in 1932. See also decath¬ lon; HEPTATHLON.

jaw Either of two bones that frame the mouth: a movable lower jaw (mandible) and a fixed upper jaw (maxilla). These hold the teeth (see tooth) and are used for biting and chewing and in speech. Vertical por¬ tions at the back of the lower jaw form hinge joints at the temples. The front of its arch thickens to form the chin. The upper jaw is attached to bones at the bridge of the nose, in the eye sockets and roof of the mouth, and the cheekbones. It contains the large maxillary sinus.

Jawlan, Al- See Golan Heights

Jawlensky \yov-Tan-ske\, Alexey orig. Aleksei lavlenskii (b.

March 13, 1864, Torzhok, Russia—d. March 15, 1941, Wiesbaden, Ger.) Russian-born German painter. He gave up a military career to study paint¬ ing, and in 1896 he moved to Munich, where he became affiliated with Der Blaue Reiter. In France in 1905 he worked with Henri Matisse. Back in Munich he produced works featuring flat areas of vibrant Fauve colour outlined with simple, thick contours. In Switzerland during World War I he painted a series of “variations” on the view from his window. Their meditative mood culminated in such semiabstract faces as Looking Within Night (1923), whose mystical intensity is reminiscent of Russian icon painting. In 1924 he joined Vasily Kandinsky, Paul Klee, and Lyonel Fein- inger to form Der Blaue Vier (“The Blue Four”); they exhibited together until arthritis forced Jawlensky to abandon painting.

Jean Jaures.

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982 I Jaxartes River ► Jefferson

Jaxartes River See Syr Darya

jay Any of 35^0 bird species (family Corvidae) that inhabit woodlands and are known for their bold, rau¬ cous manner. Most are found in the New World, but several are Eurasian.

Jays are nearly omnivores; some steal eggs, and many store seeds and nuts for winter use. They make a twiggy, cuplike nest in trees. The 12-in. (30-cm) blue jay, blue and white with a narrow black neckline, is found in North America east of the Rockies; westward it is replaced by the dark-blue, black-crested Steller’s jay. Another abundant species is the scrub jay, found throughout western North America and in Florida.

Jay, John (b. Dec. 12, 1745, New York, N.Y.—d. May 17, 1829, New Bedford, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. jurist, first chief justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. He practiced law in New York City. Though he initially deplored the growing conflict between Britain and the colonies, he became a staunch supporter of inde¬ pendence once the revolution was launched. He helped assure the approval of the Declaration of Indepen¬ dence (1776) in New York, where he was a member of the provincial Congress. The following year he helped draft New York’s first constitu¬ tion and was elected the state’s first chief justice, and in 1778 he was chosen president of the Continental Congress. In 1782 he joined Benjamin Franklin in Paris to negotiate terms of peace with Britain. On his return from abroad, Jay found that Congress had elected him secretary for for¬ eign affairs (1784—90). Convinced of the need for a stronger centralized government, he urged ratification of the U.S. Constitution. Under the pseudonym Publius, he wrote five of the essays that later became known as the Federalist papers (the others were written by James Madison and Alexander Hamilton); published in New York newspapers in 1787-88, the essays were a masterly defense of the Constitution and republican gov¬ ernment. As the first chief justice of the Supreme Court (1789-95), he set legal precedent by affirming the subordination of the states to the federal government. In 1794 he was sent to Britain to negotiate a treaty dealing with numerous commercial disputes. The Jay Treaty helped avert war, but critics contended that it was too favourable to Britain. Jay resigned from the court and was elected governor of New York (1795-1801).

Java, Mount Indonesian Puncak Jaya formerly Mount Sukarno Peak, Papua (Irian Jaya) province, Indonesia. Located on New Guinea, the 16,500-ft (5,030-m) peak is the highest in the South Pacific and the tallest island peak in the world.

Jayavarman \ja-ya-'var-man\ VII (b. c. 1120/25—d. c. 1215/19) King of the Khmer (Cambodian) empire of Angkor (r. 1181—c. 1215). Born into the royal family of Angkor, he settled in the Champa kingdom (present-day central Vietnam) in his young adulthood and engaged in military cam¬ paigns. In his late fifties he led his people in a struggle for independence after their subjugation by the Cham. He was crowned king of a reconsti¬ tuted Khmer empire at 61. He ruled more than 30 years and brought the empire to its zenith in terms both of territorial extent and of royal archi¬ tecture and construction. Champa, southern Laos, and portions of the Malay Peninsula and Myanmar (Burma) came under his control. He built temples, hospitals, and rest houses, and rebuilt the city of Angkor (now called Angkor Thom). His dedication to both the spiritual and physical needs of the people has made him a national hero to modern Cambodians.

Jayewardene \ja-ye-'war-di-no\, J(unius) R(ichard) (b. Sept. 7, 1906, Colombo, Ceylon—d. Nov. 1, 1996, Colombo, Sri Lanka) Prime minister (1977-78) and president (1978-89) of Sri Lanka. The son of a Supreme Court judge, he became minister of finance in 1948, when Cey¬ lon (from 1972, Sri Lanka) became independent. As prime minister, he amended the constitution to give Sri Lanka an executive presidency and became the first elected president in 1978. His administration steered the country away from socialism, revitalizing the private sector and reducing

government bureaucracy. When ethnic conflict erupted between the island’s Sinhalese Buddhist majority and its Tamil Hindu minority, he was unable to end the violence, which continued after his retirement and death.

Jaza’iri, ( Abd al-Qadir ibn MuhyT al-DTn ibn Mustafa al-Hasam al- See Abdelkader

Jazeera, Al- or al-JazTrah Arabic-language cable news network founded in Qatar in 1996. It was established by the emir of Qatar and was transmitted from its capital, Doha, and from bureaus around the world. It began continuous programming in 1999. The editorial freedom exercised by its staff was unique in the Middle East, and its broadcasts were occasionally blocked by Arab states. It was the only network to broadcast from Kabul during the 2001 U.S. -led campaign in Afghanistan.

Jazernicki, Yitzhak See Yitzhak Shamir JazTrah, Al- See Gezira

jazz Musical form, often improvisational, developed by African Ameri¬ cans and influenced by both European harmonic structure and African rhythms. Though its specific origins are not known, the music developed principally as an amalgam in the late-19th- and early 20th-century musi¬ cal culture of New Orleans. Elements of the blues and ragtime in particu¬ lar combined to form harmonic and rhythmic structures upon which to improvise. Social functions of music played a role in this convergence: whether for dancing or marching, celebration or ceremony, music was tai¬ lored to suit the occasion. Instrumental technique combined Western tonal values with emulation of the human voice. Emerging from the collective routines of New Orleans jazz (see Dixieland), trumpeter Louis Armstrong became the first great soloist in jazz; the music thereafter became prima¬ rily a vehicle for profoundly personal expression through improvisation and composition. Elaboration of the role of the soloist in both small and large ensembles occurred during the swing era (c. 1930-45), the music of pia¬ nist and bandleader Duke Ellington in particular demonstrating the com¬ bination of composed and improvised elements. In the mid-1940s saxophonist Charlie Parker pioneered the technical complexities of bebop as an outgrowth of the refinement of swing: his extremes of tempo and harmonic sophistication challenged both performer and listener. The trum¬ peter Miles Davis led groups that established the relaxed aesthetic and lyri¬ cal phrasing that came to be known as cool jazz in the 1950s, later incorporating modal and electronic elements. Saxophonist John Col- trane’s music explored many of the directions jazz would take in the 1960s, including the extension of bebop’s chord progressions and experi¬ mental free improvisation.

Jeans, Sir James (Hopwood) (b. Sept. 11, 1877, London, Eng.—d. Sept. 16, 1946, Dorking, Surrey) British physicist and mathematician. After teaching at Cambridge and Princeton, he worked as a research asso¬ ciate at the Mount Wilson Observatory (1923-44). He proposed that mat¬ ter was continuously created throughout the universe (see steady-state theory). He wrote on a wide variety of phenomena but is perhaps best known as a writer of popular books about astronomy.

Jeddah See Jiddah

jeep Outstanding light vehicle of World War II, developed by the U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps. It weighed 1.25 tons, had a four-cylinder engine, and could climb 60° grades and operate on rough terrain thanks to its four-wheel drive and high clearance. The origin of it name is uncer¬ tain; one theory traces it to the military designation “vehicle, GP” (i.e., general-purpose). Since the war the jeep has been adapted for civilian use, though it has been replaced in the U.S. military by the High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV), or Humvee.

Jeffers, (John) Robinson (b. Jan. 10, 1887, Pittsburgh, Penn., U.S.—d. Jan. 20, 1962, Carmel, Calif., U.S.) U.S. poet. Born to a wealthy family, he was educated in literature, medicine, and forestry. His lyrics express contempt for humanity and love of the harsh, eternal beauties of nature, notably the California coast near Carmel, where he moved in 1916. His third book, Tamar and Other Poems (1924), cemented his reputation and revealed the unique style and eccentric ideas he later developed in Cawdor (1928), Thurso’s Landing (1932), and Be Angry at the Sun (1941).

Jefferson, Thomas (b. April 13,1743, Shadwell, Va.—d. July 4,1826, Monticello, Va., U.S.) Third president of the U.S. (1801-09). He was a planter and became a lawyer in 1767. While a member of the House of Bur¬ gesses (1769-75), he initiated the Virginia Committee of Correspondence (1773) with Richard Henry Lee and Patrick Henry. In 1774 he wrote the influ-

Blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata)

JOHN H. GERARD

Jefferson City ► Jemison I 983

ential A Summary View of the Rights of British America , stating that the British Parliament had no authority to legislate for the colonies. A delegate to the Second Continental Congress, he was appointed to the committee to draft the Declaration of Independence and became its primary author. He was elected governor of Virginia (1779-81) but was unable to organize effec¬ tive opposition when British forces invaded the colony (1780-81). Criti¬ cized for his conduct, he retired, vowing to remain a private citizen. Again a member of the Continental Congress (1783-85), he drafted the first of the Northwest Ordinances for dividing and settling the Northwest Territory. In 1785 he succeeded Benjamin Franklin as U.S. minister to France. Appointed the first secretary of state (1790-93) by George Washington, he soon became embroiled in a bitter conflict with Alexander Hamilton over the country’s foreign policy and their opposing interpretations of the Consti¬ tution. Their divisions gave rise to political factions and eventually to political parties. Jefferson served as vice president (1797-1801) under John Adams but opposed Adams’s signing of the Alien and Sedition Acts (1798); the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, adopted by the legislatures of those states in 1798 and 1799 as a protest against the Acts, were written by Jef¬ ferson and James Madison. In the presidential election of 1800 Jefferson and Aaron Burr received the same number of votes in the electoral college; the decision was thrown to the U.S. House of Representatives, which chose Jefferson on the 36th ballot. As president, Jefferson attempted to reduce the powers of the embryonic federal government and to eliminate the national debt; he also dispensed with a great deal of the ceremony and formality that had attended the office of president to that time. In 1803 he oversaw the Louisiana Purchase, which doubled the land area of the country, and he authorized the Lewis and Clark Expedition. In an effort to force Britain and France to cease their molestation of U.S. merchant ships during the Napo¬ leonic Wars, he signed the Embargo Act. In 1809 he retired to his plantation, Monticello, where he pursued his interests in science, philosophy, and architecture. He served as president of the American Philosophical Society (1797-1815), and in 1819 he founded and designed the University of Vir¬ ginia. In 1812, after a long estrangement, he and Adams were reconciled and began a lengthy correspondence that illuminated their opposing politi¬ cal philosophies. They died within hours of each other on July 4, 1826, the 50th anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence. Though a lifelong slaveholder, Jefferson was an anomaly among the Vir¬ ginia planter class for his support of gradual emancipation. In January 2000 the Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation accepted the conclusion, sup¬ ported by DNA evidence, that Jefferson had fathered at least one child with Sally Hemings, one of his house slaves.

Jefferson City City (pop., 2000: 39,636), capital of Missouri, U.S. Located on the Missouri River near the centre of the state, it was selected as the site of the state capital in 1821. Named for Thomas Jefferson, it was incorporated as a town in 1825 and as a city in 1839. Loyalties were divided during the American Civil War, but it remained in the Union. The Capitol, completed in 1918, contains murals by Thomas Hart Benton. It is the trading centre for surrounding farmlands and has diversified manu¬ facturing. Lincoln University was founded there by black veterans of the Union army in 1866.

Jeffreys, Sir Harold (b. April 22, 1891, Fatfield, Durham, Eng.—d. March 18, 1989, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire) British astronomer and geophysicist. In astronomy, he established that the four large outer plan¬ ets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) are very cold, devised models of their planetary structure, and studied the origin of the solar system and the theory of latitude. In geophysics, he investigated the thermal history of the Earth, was coauthor (1940) of the standard tables of travel times for earthquake waves, and was the first to hypothesize that the Earth’s core is liquid. He explained the origin of monsoons and sea breezes and showed how cyclones are vital to the general circulation of the atmo¬ sphere. Jeffreys also worked on probability theory and on methods of general mathematical physics.

Jehangir See Jahangir

Jehovah's Witness Member of an international religious movement founded in Pittsburgh, Pa., by Charles T. Russell in 1872. The movement was originally known as the International Bible Students Association, but its name was changed by Russell’s successor, Joseph Franklin Rutherford (1869-1942). The Witnesses are a millennialist group whose beliefs are based primarily on the apocalyptic sections of the Bible, notably Daniel and the Book of Revelation. They refuse to perform military service or salute the flag, actions which have brought them into direct conflict with governments around the world. They are famous for their door-to-door

evangelizing and for refusing blood transfusions; they believe there is scriptural justification for all their actions and beliefs. Their goal is the establishment of God’s kingdom on earth, and they hold that Jesus —who is believed to be God’s first creation rather than one person in a trinity—is God’s agent in this plan. Their national headquarters is in Brooklyn, N.Y.; their major publications, the Watchtower and Awake!, are published in about 80 languages. See also millennialism.

Jekyll, Gertrude (b. Nov. 29, 1843, London, Eng.—d. Dec. 8, 1932, London) British landscape architect. She pursued painting until 1891, when she turned to garden design. She helped the landscape designer William Robinson (1838-1935) in his writings about the natural garden and wrote several successful books on her own, including Wood and Gar¬ den (1899) and Home and Garden (1900). Her taste was for the simplic¬ ity and orderly disorder of cottage gardens. She later worked closely with Edwin L. Lutyens, developing a modem, informal style of garden marked by a rhythmic use of colour and form.

Jelinek, Elfriede (b. Oct. 20, 1946, Miirzzuschlag, Austria) Austrian novelist and playwright. At age 17 she suffered an emotional breakdown, and during her recovery she turned to writing as a form of self-expression and introspection. A polemical feminist, Jelinek often wrote about gen¬ der oppression and female sexuality. She also rejected the conventions of literary tradition in favour of linguistic and thematic experimentation. Among her notable novels are Wonderful, Wonderful Times (1980), The Piano Teacher (1983; filmed 2001), and Lust (1989). She also wrote a number of plays, including Clara S. (1984) and Bambiland (2003). In 2004 Jelinek won the Nobel Prize for Literature.

Jellicoe, John Rushworth Jellicoe, 1st Earl (b. Dec. 5, 1859, Southampton, Hampshire, Eng.—d. Nov. 20, 1935, London) British admi¬ ral. He entered the Royal Navy in 1872 and rose through the ranks to become commander of the fleet during World War I (1914-16). He won a crucial victory in the Battle of Jutland (1916), after which he was pro¬ moted to first sea lord of the Admiralty (1916-17) and admiral of the fleet (1919). He served as governor of New Zealand (1920-24).

Jellinek Vje-li-,nek\, Elvin M(orton) (b. Aug. 15, 1890, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Oct. 22, 1963, Palo Alto, Calif.) U.S. physiologist. He studied at the University of Leipzig and worked in Budapest, Sierra Leone, and Honduras before returning to the U.S., where he studied alco¬ holism. He was an early proponent of the theory that alcoholism should be treated as a disease. He gathered and summarized his and others’ research in the authoritative Alcohol Explored (1942) and The Disease Concept of Alcoholism (1960).

jelly and jam Thick preserves made from fruit and sugar. Jelly is semitransparent, consisting of the strained juice of various fruits (occa¬ sionally vegetables), singly or in combination, that is sweetened, slowly simmered, and congealed, often with the aid of pectin or gelatin. Jam dif¬ fers from jelly in its inclusion of fruit pulp or whole fruit; whole-fruit jam is sometimes called preserve. Fruit jellies and jams are eaten on break¬ fast breads and in sandwiches and accompany the scones and other baked goods of the British tea meal. Vegetable and herb jellies traditionally complement lamb and other meat dishes.

jellyfish Any of about 200 described species of free-swimming marine cnidarians (in the classes Scyphozoa and Cubozoa), many of which have a bell-shaped body. The term is also frequently applied to other similar cnidarians (e.g., Portuguese man-of-war) and some unrelated forms (e.g., ctenophores and salps). In scyphozoan jellyfish, the free-swimming medusa form is the dominant stage, with the sessile polyp form found only during larval development. Jellyfish live in all oceans and include the familiar disk-shaped animals that are often found drifting along the shoreline. Most species are 1-16 in. (2-40 cm) in diameter; some are 6 ft (1.8 m) in diam¬ eter, with tentacles more than 100 feet (30 m) long. Though some jelly¬ fish simply filter-feed, most feed on small animals (e.g., crustaceans) that they catch in their tentacles, whose stinging cells immobilize the prey; contact can be irritating and sometimes dangerous to humans. The cubo- zoan jellyfish comprise 50 species of box jellies (the rather spherical body is squared off at the edges), which are usually 1-2 in. (2-4 cm) in diam¬ eter. See illustration on following page.

Jemison, Mae (Carol) (b. Oct. 17, 1956, Decatur, Ala., U.S.) U.S. physician and astronaut. She received an M.D. from Cornell University and then served in the Peace Corps in Africa. In 1988 she was accepted to NASA’s astronaut program and became the first black female astro-

984 I jen ► Jeremiah

Life cycle of the common jellyfish Aurelia. Eggs released by females pass out through the mouth and become lodged in pits on the tentacles. Sperm released from male jellyfish fertilize the eggs, which remain on the tentacles during early develop¬ ment. A fertilized egg develops into a ciliated larva, or planula, which settles on and attaches to a substrate (such as a rock) and develops into a polyp with a mouth and tentacles. The polyp reproduces asexually by budding off saucer-shaped immature medusae, which develop into mature sexually reproducing forms.

naut. In 1992 she spent more than a week aboard the space shuttle Endeav¬ our. After leaving NASA in 1993, she taught environmental studies at Dartmouth College.

jen See ren

Jena and Auerstedt Vya-n9... , au-3r- I shtet\, Battles of (1806) Mili¬ tary engagement of the Napoleonic Wars, fought between French troops and Prussians and Saxons. In 1806 Frederick William III of Prussia signed a secret alliance with Russia and joined the Third Coalition against Napo¬ leon. As the Prussian army moved through Saxony to meet its Russian allies, it was forced to face a French attack from the rear. The Prussians split their forces between Auerstedt and Jena, and on October 14 Napo¬ leon swept the Prussian troops off the field at Jena. At the same time, a secondary French force under Louis Davout defeated a Prussian army more than twice its size at Auerstedt. Napoleon completed his conquest of Prussia in six weeks.

Jenkins, Fergie in full Ferguson Arthur Jenkins (b. Dec. 13, 1943, Chatham, Ont., Can.) Canadian-born U.S. baseball pitcher. In high school Jenkins excelled in amateur baseball, basketball, and hockey. He began his major league career with the Philadelphia Phillies in the early 1960s, before playing for the Chicago Cubs, the Texas Rangers, and the Boston Red Sox, winning at least 20 games in each of six consecutive seasons (1967-72) and setting several season records. He was awarded the Cy Young award in 1971 for his 24-13 won-lost record and 2.77 earned run average.

Jenkins (of Hillhead), Roy (Harris) Jenkins, Baron (b. Nov. 11, 1920, Abersychan, Monmouthshire, Eng.—d. Jan. 5, 2003, Oxford¬ shire) British politician. Elected to Parliament in 1948, he served in Labour Party governments (1964-70, 1974-76). A strong supporter of NATO and the European Community, he was president of the executive branch of the latter (1976-81). He resigned from the Labour Party, and in 1981, with other Labour dissidents, he formed the Social Democratic Party, which he led in 1982-83. After accepting a life peerage (1987), he

became leader of the Social and Liberal Democratic Party in the House of Lords. He subsequently became chancellor of the University of Oxford.

Jenkins' Ear, War of War between Britain and Spain that began in 1739 and eventually merged into the War of the Austrian Succession. In 1738 Capt. Robert Jenkins appeared before a committee of the House of Commons and exhibited his own amputated ear, which he alleged was cut off by Spanish coast guards who boarded his ship in the West Indies in 1731. Public opinion had already been aroused by other Spanish outrages on British ships, and the incident was exploited by members of Parlia¬ ment who opposed the government of Robert Walpole.

Jenner, Edward (b. May 17,

Eng.—d. Jan. 26, 1823, Berkeley)

English surgeon, discoverer of the smallpox vaccine. He was appren¬ ticed to a surgeon at 13, and at 21 he became the house pupil of John Hunter, who gave him further train¬ ing and stressed the need for experi¬ mentation and observation. Jenner had noticed as a youth that people who had been sick with the relatively harmless disease cowpox did not contract smallpox. In 1796 he inocu¬ lated a young boy with matter taken from a dairymaid’s fresh cowpox lesions. The boy caught cowpox and, when subsequently inoculated with smallpox, did not contract it. Despite early difficulties, the procedure spread and the death rate from small¬ pox fell. Jenner received worldwide recognition (though he was also sub¬ ject to attacks and slander). He retired from public life in 1815 after the death of his wife.

Jensen \'yen-son\, Georg (b. Aug. 31, 1866, Raadvad, Den.—d. Oct. 2, 1935, Copenhagen) Danish silversmith and designer. At age 14 he was apprenticed to a goldsmith, and in 1904 he opened his own workshop in Copenhagen. Exhibiting his silverware and jewelry at major foreign exhi¬ bitions, he quickly built a reputation as an outstanding and original sil¬ versmith. He was the first to realize a profit from the manufacture of modern silverware and among the first to fashion steel into handsome, serviceable cutlery. By 1935 his firm had stores all over the world and carried more than 3,000 patterns. After his death the business was con¬ tinued by his son, Spren Georg Jensen (b. 1917).

Jensen \'yen-son\, Johannes V(ilhelm) (b. Jan. 20, 1873, Farsp, Den.—d. Nov. 25, 1950, Copenhagen) Danish novelist, poet, and essay¬ ist. He initially studied medicine but later turned to writing. He first made an impression as a writer of tales, including the more than 100 published under the recurring title Myths. His early writings also include a histori¬ cal trilogy. The Fall of the King (1900-01), about Christian II of Denmark. His best-known work is The Long Journey (1908-22), a series of six nov¬ els that chronicles humanity’s rise from primitive times to the time of Christopher Columbus’s arrival in the Americas. He received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1944.

Jephtha \'jef-tho\ One of the judges in ancient Israel. According to the Book of Judges, he was the son of a Gileadite and a prostitute. After being cast out by his father’s legitimate sons, he joined a band of brigands. When the Gileadites were oppressed by an Ammonite army, they asked Jephtha to aid them. He led them to victory, having first promised God a sacrifice of whatever he first saw when he left his house; his first sight happened to be his daughter. His significance in the Book of Judges is as an exem¬ plar of Israel’s fidelity to God.

Jeremiah (b. probably after 650, Anathoth, Judah—d. c. 570 bc, Egypt) Hebrew prophet and reformer, author of the book of Jeremiah. Born into a priestly family in a village near Jerusalem, he began to preach c. 627 bc, charging his fellow citizens with injustice and false worship and call¬ ing on them to reform. He accurately predicted the destruction of Judah by Babylonia. After Jerusalem fell in 586 and much of its population was carried into exile, he remained behind under the protection of its new governor. When the governor was assassinated, Jeremiah was taken to

1749, Berkeley, Gloucestershire,

Edward Jenner, detail of an oil painting by James Northcote, 1803; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY,

LONDON

Jericho ► Jespersen I 985

Egypt by Jews who feared reprisals, and he remained there until he died.

His most significant prophecy looked to a time when God would make a new covenant with Israel.

Jericho Arabic Ariha Town (pop.,

1997: 14,674), West Bank territory.

Inhabited since c. 9000 bc, it is famous in biblical tradition as the first town attacked by the Israelites under Joshua after they crossed the Jordan River. It was abandoned or destroyed several times and rebuilt in the same area. Captured by the British in 1918, it became part of the British mandate of Palestine. Incor¬ porated into Jordan in 1950, it became the site of two huge camps of Arab refugees following the first Arab-Israeli war (1948). In the Six- Day War (1967), the town was occu¬ pied by Israel, and much of the refugee population was dispersed. In 1994 it was turned over to the Palestinian Authority under an Israeli- Palestinian self-rule agreement.

Jerome, Chauncey (b. June 10, 1793, Canaan, Conn., U.S.—d. April 20, 1868, New Haven, Conn.) U.S. inventor and clockmaker. In 1824 he designed a popular bronze looking-glass clock, and he formed a company that soon became the leading U.S. clockmaker. He invented the one-day brass movement, an improvement over the wood clock. Applying mass- production techniques, he flooded the U.S. with low-priced brass clocks, which quickly spread to Europe and so astonished the English that “Yan¬ kee ingenuity” became a byword.

Jerome, Saint' (b. c. 347, Stridon, Dalmatia—d. 419/420, Bethlehem, Palestine) Church Father and biblical translator. Born into a wealthy Christian family in Dalmatia, he was educated there and in Rome. Bap¬ tized c. 366, he spent most of the next 20 years in travel. He lived two years as a hermit in the desert of Chalcis. From 377 to 379 Jerome was in Antioch, where he studied biblical texts and translated the works of Origen and Eusebius. He lived in Rome (382-85), but theological contro¬ versy and opposition to his ascetic views led him to depart for the Holy Land, and he settled in Bethlehem, where he lived until his death. Tra¬ ditionally regarded as the most learned of the Latin Fathers, he wrote numerous biblical commentaries and theological tracts on Pelagianism and other heresies. In 406 he completed his translation of the Bible into Latin, including his own translation of the Old Testament from Hebrew; Jer¬ ome’s Latin Bible is known as the Vulgate.

Jersey Largest and southernmost of the Channel Islands, in the English Channel. Area: 44.9 sq mi (116.2 sq km). Population (2002 est.): 87,400. Capital: St. Helier (pop., 2001: 28,310). Separated from Normandy in 1204, it kept its Norman law and local customs but was administered for the British king by a warden. It was given legislative authority in 1771. It is now governed by a popularly elected assembly, which is presided over by a royally appointed bailiff. There is also a lieutenant governor, who represents the British monarch. Jersey fabric and Jersey cattle take their names from the island.

Jersey Breed of small, short-horned dairy cattle that originated on Jer¬ sey in the English Channel. They are believed to have descended from French cattle. Jerseys are usually fawn- or cream-coulored, but darker shades are common. They were introduced in large numbers into England c. 1811 and into the U.S. in 1850. Adaptable to a wide range of condi¬ tions, the Jersey is found worldwide. Its milk is remarkably high in but- terfat, and it is an important breed wherever butter is produced (including New Zealand and Denmark).

Jersey City City (pop., 2000: 240,055), northeastern New Jersey, U.S. It lies opposite New York City. First settled by Dutch trappers (1618) and known as Paulus Hook, it was purchased from the Delaware Indians and established as a permanent settlement by 1660. In 1779, during the Ameri¬ can Revolution, Henry Lee won a victory there over the British. Renamed Jersey City in 1820, it is a manufacturing centre.

Jerusalem Hebrew Yerushalayim \ye- 1 rii-sha- , ll-im\ Arabic Al-Quds \al-'kiits\ City (pop., 2005 est.: 704,900), capital of Israel (see below). Located in the heart of historic Palestine, it is nestled between the West Bank and Israel. The Old City is a typical walled Middle Eastern enclosure; the modern city is an urban agglomeration of high-rises and housing complexes. It is holy to Judaism as the site of the Temple of Jerus¬ alem, to Christianity because of its association with Jesus, and to Islam because of its connection with the Mi'raj (the Prophet Muhammad’s ascension to heaven). Jewish shrines include the Western Wall. Islamic holy places include the Dome of the Rock. In 1000 bc David made it the capital of Israel. Razed by the Babylonians in the 6th century bc, it there¬ after enjoyed only brief periods of independence. The Romans devastated it in the 1st and 2nd centuries ad, banishing the Jewish population. From 638 it was ruled by various Muslim dynasties, except for short periods during the Crusades when it was controlled by Christians. Rule by the Ottoman Empire ended in 1917, and the city became the capital of the Brit¬ ish mandate of Palestine. It was thereafter the subject of competing Zion¬ ist and Palestinian national aspirations. Israel claimed the city as its capital after the Arab-Israeli War in 1948 and took the entire city during the Six- Day War of 1967. Its status as Israel’s capital has remained a point of contention: official recognition by the international community has largely been withheld pending final settlement of regional territorial rights.

Jerusalem, Council of Conference of the Christian Apostles at Jerus¬ alem c. ad 50, which decreed that Gentile Christians did not have to observe the Mosaic law of the Jews. It was occasioned by the controversy over whether circumcision was necessary for Gentile converts to Chris¬ tianity. Led by Sts. Peter the Apostle and James, the council decided the issue in favor of St. Paul and the Gentile Christians, thus helping to sepa¬ rate early Christianity from Judaism.

Jerusalem, Temple of Either of two temples that were at the centre of worship and national identity in ancient Israel. When David captured Jerusalem, he moved the Ark of the Covenant there. As the site for a temple, he selected Mount Moriah, or the Temple Mount, where it was believed that Abraham had built his altar to sacrifice Isaac. The First Temple was constructed under David’s son Solomon and was completed in 957 bc. It contained three rooms: a vestibule, the main room for reli¬ gious services, and the Holy of Holies. From the time of Josiah, it was designated as the only place for sacrifice in Judah. It was destroyed dur¬ ing the Babylonian conquest in 586 bc. When the Jews returned from exile in 538, they built the Second Temple (finished 515). Its desecration by Antiochus IV in 167 bc set off the Maccabees’ revolt, after which it was cleansed and rededicated. In 54 bc Marcus Licinius Crassus plundered the Temple. It was rebuilt and enlarged by Herod the Great; construction lasted 46 years. The Jewish rebellion in ad 66 led to its destruction by Roman legions in ad 70. All that remains is part of the Western Wall, a site of pilgrimage. The Temple Mount is now occupied by a Muslim mosque, Al-Aqsa, and the Dome of the Rock.

Jerusalem artichoke Sunflower {Helianthus tuberosus ) native to North America and grown for its edible tubers. The aboveground part of the plant is a coarse, usually multibranched, frost-tender perennial, 7-10 ft (2-3 m) tall. The numerous showy flower heads have yellow ray flow¬ ers and yellow, brownish, or purplish disk flowers. The underground tubers vary in shape, size, and colour. Jerusalem artichoke is popular as a cooked vegetable in Europe and has long been cultivated in France as livestock feed. In the U.S. it is rarely cultivated.

Jervis Bay Inlet of the Tasman Sea, southeastern New South Wales, Australia. It is about 10 mi (16 km) long and 6 mi (10 km) wide. It was discovered in 1770 and named Long Nose by Capt. James Cook, but in 1791 it was renamed for Adm. John Jervis. In 1915 it was transferred from the jurisdiction of New South Wales to the Australian Common¬ wealth to provide the Australian Capital Territory with access to the sea. The bay is a resort area and the site of the Royal Australian Naval Col¬ lege (founded 1915).

Jespersen Vyes-por-sonV, (Jens) Otto (Harry) (b. July 16, 1860, Randers, Den.—d. April 30, 1943, Roskilde) Danish linguist. He led a movement for basing foreign-language teaching on conversational speech rather than textbook study of grammar and vocabulary, helping to revo¬ lutionize language teaching in Europe. An authority on English grammar, Jespersen contributed greatly to the advancement of phonetics and lin¬ guistic theory. His many published works include Modern English Gram-

Jeremiah, detail from a fresco by Mich¬ elangelo in the Sistine Chapel, Rome, c. 1512

AUNARI—ART RESOURCE/EB INC.

986 I jester ► Jhabvala

mar, 7 vol. (1909-49), Language: Its Nature, Development, and Origin (1922), and The Philosophy of Grammar (1924). He originated Novial, an international language.

jester See fool

Jesuit \'je-zu-3t\ Member of the Roman Catholic order of religious men called the Society of Jesus. First organized by St. Ignatius of Loyola in 1534 at the University of Paris, the order was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540. It discontinued many practices of medieval religious life, such as obligatory penances and fasts and a common uniform, and instead focused on military-style mobility and adaptability. Its organization was characterized by centralized authority, probation lasting many years before final vows, and special obedience to the pope. The Jesuits served as a preaching, teaching, and missionary society, actively promoting the Counter-Reformation, and by the time of Ignatius’s death in 1556 their efforts were already worldwide. The success of their enterprise and their championship of the pope earned them much hostility from both religious and political foes. Under pressure from France, Spain, and Portugal, Pope Clement XIV abolished the order in 1773, but it was restored by Pius VII in 1814. The Jesuits have since become the largest male religious order.

Jesuit Estates Controversy Canadian dispute between Protestants and Roman Catholics after reestablishment of the Jesuit order. After the pope suppressed the Jesuits in 1773, their landholdings in Canada were transferred to the British government. The pope restored the order in 1814, and some Jesuits returned to Canada in 1842. Restitution for their land was discussed, and the Jesuits’ Estates Act (1888) gave $400,000 in com¬ pensation.

Jesus In Christianity, the son of God and the second person of the Holy Trinity. Christian doctrine holds that by his crucifixion and resurrection he paid for the sins of all mankind. His life and ministry are recounted in the four Gospels of the New Testament. He was born a Jew in Bethlehem before the death of Herod the Great in 4 bc, and he died while Pontius Pilate was Roman governor of Judaea (ad 28-30). His mother, Mary, was married to Joseph, a carpenter of Nazareth (see St. Joseph). Of his child¬ hood after the birth narratives in Matthew and Luke, nothing is known, except for one visit to Jerusalem with his parents. He began his ministry about age 30, becoming a preacher, teacher, and healer. He gathered dis¬ ciples in the region of Galilee, including the 12 Apostles, and preached the imminent arrival of the Kingdom of God. His moral teachings, outlined in the Sermon on the Mount, and his reported miracles won him a growing number of followers, who believed that he was the promised MESSIAH. On Passover he entered Jerusalem on a donkey, where he shared the Last Supper with his disciples and was betrayed to the Roman authorities by Judas Iscariot. Arrested and tried, he was condemned to death as a politi¬ cal agitator and was crucified and buried. Three days later visitors to his tomb found it empty. According to the Gospels, he appeared several times to his disciples before ascending into heaven.

jet engine Any of a class of internal-combustion engines that propel air¬ craft by means of the rearward discharge of a jet of fluid, usually hot exhaust gases generated by burning fuel with air drawn in from the atmo¬ sphere. Jets rely on the third of Newton's laws of motion (action and reac¬ tion are equal and opposite). The first jet-powered airplane was introduced in 1939 in Germany. The jet engine, consisting of a gas-turbine system, significantly simplified propulsion and enabled substantial increases in aircraft speed, size, and operating altitudes. Modem types of jet engines include turbojets, turbofans, turboprops, turboshafts, and ramjets. See air¬ plane. See also drag; gasoline engine; lift.

jet lag Period of adjustment of biological rhythm after moving from one time zone to another, experienced as fatigue and lowered efficiency. It reflects a delay in the synchronization of changes in the level of blood cortisol, the major steroid produced by the adrenal cortex (see adrenal gland), with the local day-night cycle. Duration and severity depend on how much distance is covered in how little time. Travel by jet, after which the phenomenon may persist for some days, first made it noticeable, accounting for the name.

jet stream Any of several long, narrow, high-speed air currents that flow eastward in a generally horizontal zone in the stratosphere or upper troposphere. Jet streams are characterized by wind motions that generate strong vertical shearing action, considered largely responsible for the clear-air turbulence experienced by aircraft. They also have an effect on weather patterns. Jet streams circle the Earth in meandering paths, shift¬

ing position as well as speed with the seasons. In the winter they are nearer the Equator and their speeds are higher than in the summer. There are often two, sometimes three, jet-stream systems in each hemisphere.

Jew Any person whose religion is Judaism. In a wider sense the term refers to any member of a worldwide ethnic and cultural group descended from the ancient Hebrews who traditionally practiced the Jewish religion. The Hebrew term Yehudi, translated as Judaeus in Latin and Jew in English, originally referred to a member of the tribe of Judah. In Jewish tradition, any child born of a Jewish mother is considered a Jew; in Reform Judaism a child is considered a Jew if either parent is Jewish.

Jewel Cave National Monument National monument, southwest¬ ern South Dakota, U.S. Established in 1908, it occupies an area of 2 sq mi (5 sq km). It is noted for its limestone caverns, a series of chambers joined by narrow passages. The known length of the caverns is 77 mi (124 km).

jewelry Objects designed for the adornment of the body, usually made of gold, silver, or platinum, often with precious or semiprecious stones and such organic substances as pearls, coral, and amber. Jewelry evolved from shells, animal teeth, and other objects used as adornment in prehis¬ toric times. Over the centuries it came to be a sign of social or religious rank. In Renaissance Italy, jewelry making reached the status of a fine art; many Italian sculptors trained as goldsmiths. From the 17th century the decorative function of jewelry again came to the fore, overshadowing its symbolic significance. By the 19th century, industrialization brought jew¬ elry within the reach of the middle class. Firms opened by jewelers such as Carl Faberge and Louis Comfort Tiffany achieved great success by mak¬ ing fine jewelry for the wealthy.

Jewett, (Theodora) Sarah Orne (b. Sept. 3, 1849, South Berwick, Maine, U.S.—d. June 24, 1909, South Berwick) U.S. writer. Concerned to capture the folkways of a vanishing culture, she wrote realistic sketches of aging Maine natives, whose manners, idioms, and pithiness she recorded with pungency and humour. Outstanding among her 20 volumes are Deephaven (1877), A White Heron (1886), and The Country of the Pointed Firs (1896).

jewfish Any of several large fishes of the sea bass family (Serranidae), especially Epinephelus itajara, found on the Atlantic coast of the New World tropics. They may reach a length of 8 ft (2.4 m) and a weight of about 700 lbs (320 kg). The adult is dull olive-brown with faint spots and bands and is usually solitary. The South Pacific jewfish {E. lanceolatus) may exceed 12 ft (3.7 m) in length. The Warsaw grouper ( E . nigritus) and giant sea bass ( Stereolepis gigas) are both occasionally called jewfish, and three Australian species in the genera Johnius and Glaucosoma are called jewfish.

Jewish calendar See Jewish calendar

Jewish philosophy Any of various kinds of reflective thought engaged in by those identified as being Jews. In the Middle Ages, this meant any methodical and disciplined thought pursued by Jews, whether on specifically Judaic themes or not; in modern times, philosophers who do not discuss Judaism are not ordinarily classified as Jewish philoso¬ phers. Philosophy arose in Judaism under Greek influence, though a philo¬ sophical approach may be discerned in early Jewish religious works apparently uninfluenced by the Greeks. From the Bible, the books of Job and Ecclesiastes were favourite works of medieval philosophers; the book of Proverbs introduces the concept of Wisdom ( Hokhma ), which was to have primordial significance for Jewish philosophical thought; and the Wisdom of Solomon had considerable influence on Christian theology. Major figures of Jewish philosophy include Philo Judaeus, Saadia ben Joseph, Moses Maimonides, and Benedict de Spinoza.

Jezebel Yje-za-,bel\ (d. c. 843 bc) In the Hebrew scriptures, the wife of King Ahab of Israel. The daughter of the priest-king Ethbaal of Tyre and Sidon, she persuaded Ahab to introduce the worship of the Tyrian god Baal-Melkart into Israel, thus interfering with the exclusive worship of Yahweh. The book of 1 Kings tells how she was opposed by Elijah. After Ahab’s death Jezebel’s son Jehoram became king of Israel, but Elisha encouraged a general, Jehu, to revolt. Jehoram was killed, and Jezebel was thrown from a window to her death. Dogs consumed most of her body, fulfilling a prophecy by Elijah. In history and literature she became the archetype of the wicked woman.

Jhabvala Vjab-va-b\, Ruth Prawer orig. Ruth Prawer (b. May

7, 1927, Cologne, Ger.) German-born British-U.S. novelist and screen-

Jharkhand ► jihad I 987

writer. Bom to a family of Polish Jews, she immigrated to England with her family in 1939. She married an Indian architect and moved to India, where she lived until 1975. Thereafter she lived in New York. Many of her novels, including Heat and Dust (1975, Booker Prize), are set in India. She has written original screenplays for such films as Shakespeare-Wallah (1965) and film adaptations of such novels as The Bostonians (1984), A Room with a View (1985), Howards End (1992), The Remains of the Day (1993), and The Golden Bowl (2000).

Jharkhand State (pop., 2001 prelim.: 26,909,428), northeastern India. It is bordered by Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, and Uttar Pradesh states and occupies 28,833 sq mi (74,677 sq km); its capital is Ranchi. The state lies mainly on the Chota Nagapur Plateau, a series of plateaus, hills, and valleys. Many aboriginal peoples live there. The area now constituting Jharkhand was a part of Bihar state after Indian inde¬ pendence in 1947 until it was made into a separate state in 2000. It is rich in minerals (notably copper), although most of the population is engaged in agriculture.

Jhelum Vja-lomV River River, India and Pakistan. The westernmost of the “Five Rivers” of the Punjab region, it rises in the Himalayas in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. It meanders northwest in the Pakistani- administered sector of the Kashmir region. Bending southward, it joins the Chenab River, having traveled a course of 450 mi (725 km). It is believed to be the Hydaspes mentioned by Arrian, Alexander the Great’s historian, and the Bidaspes mentioned by Ptolemy.

Jhering \'ya-riq\, Rudolf von (b. Aug. 22, 1818,Aurich, Hanover—d. Sept. 17, 1892, Gottingen, Ger.) German legal scholar. He taught Roman law at Giessen (1852-68), at Gottingen (from 1872), and at four other universities (including the University of Vienna) for briefer periods. He examined the relationship between law and social change in The Spirit of Roman Law (1852-65) and between individual and social interests in Law as a Means to an End (1877-83). He maintained that the purpose of law is to protect individual and societal interests by coordinating them and thus minimizing occasions for conflict. He is sometimes called the father of sociological jurisprudence.

Jia Xian (fl. c. 1050, China) Mathematician and astronomer active at the beginning of the greatest period of traditional Chinese mathematics. He held a relatively low military office during the reign (1022/23-1063/ 64) of Emperor Renzong of the Song dynasty. He was a pupil of math¬ ematician and astronomer Chu Yan, who contributed to the revision of the Chongtian calendar in 1023, and he served in the Imperial Astronomical Bureau. Jia’s name was mainly quoted in connection with his method of extracting roots (solutions) of polynomials of degree higher than three and with the related Jia Xian triangle, which contains the binomial coefficients for equations up to the sixth degree (see binomial theorem). This diagram is similar to Blaise Pascal’s triangle, which was discovered independently later in the West.

Jiang Jieshi See Chiang Kai-shek Jiang Jinguo See Chiang Ching-kuo

Jiang Qing Xje-'aq-'chiqV or Chiang Ch'ing orig. Li Jinhai (b.

1914?, Zhucheng, Shandong, China—d. May 14, 1991, Beijing) Third wife of Mao Zedong and member of the radical Gang of Four. Jiang mar¬ ried Mao in the 1930s but entered politics only in the 1960s. As first deputy head of the Cultural Revolution, Jiang acquired far-reaching pow¬ ers over China’s cultural life and oversaw the total suppression of a wide variety of traditional cultural activities. Arrested after Mao’s death and accused of fomenting the widespread civil unrest that characterized the Cultural Revolution, she refused to confess guilt and received a suspended death sentence that was commuted to life imprisonment. Her death was reported as a suicide.

Jiang Zemin Vje-'aq-zo-'minV (b. Aug. 17, 1926, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China) General secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP; 1989— 2002) and president of China (1993-2003). He started his career in Shang¬ hai as an engineer, received training abroad, and gradually rose through the ranks of the CCR He was named mayor of Shanghai in 1985 and chairman of China’s Central Military Commission in 1989. It is thought that Jiang was a compromise candidate to replace Zhao Ziyang as gen¬ eral secretary in June 1989 following the Tiananmen Square incident. He combined a commitment to continued free-market reform with a deter¬ mination to preserve the CCP’s monopoly on political power. After serv¬ ing the maximum two five-year terms as president, Jiang was succeeded

by Hu Jintao. He remained in charge of the Central Military Commission until stepping down in favour of Hu in 2004.

Jiangsu \je-'aq-'su\ or Chiang-su conventional Kiangsu Province (pop., 2000 est.: 74,380,000), eastern China. It lies on the Yellow Sea and is also bordered by Shandong, Anhui, and Zhejiang provinces and Shang¬ hai municipality. With an area of 39,600 sq mi (102,600 sq km), it is one of the smallest and most densely populated provinces of China, and it is also one of the wealthiest. Its capital is Nanjing (Nanking). It occupies a wide alluvial plain that is divided into two sections by the estuary of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang). Once a part of the ancient state of Wu, the region was part of the Nanjing province under the Ming dynasty (1368— 1644). It became a separate province in 1667 and served as the headquar¬ ters (1853-64) for the Taiping Rebellion. It was an important base for China’s Nationalist Party, which made Nanjing the nation’s capital from 1928 to 1937 and again from 1946 to 1949. The province was occupied by Japan during the Sino-Japanese War (1937-45) and came under com¬ munist control in 1949. It produces steel, electronics, and agricultural products.

Jiangxi \je-'aq-'she\ or Chiang-hsi conventional Kiangsi Province (pop., 2000 est.: 41,400,000), south-central China. It is bordered by Hubei, Anhui, Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong, and Hunan provinces. It has an area of 63,600 sq mi (164,800 sq km), and its capital is Nanchang. Located in the drainage basin of the Gan River, it is one of China’s richest agri¬ cultural provinces, and it is also renowned for its porcelain industry, which dates from the 11th century. The opening of the Grand Canal under the Tang dynasty (618-907) set it on the main trade route between northern and southern China. During the Mongol dynasty (1206-1368), it included part of Guangdong; its current boundaries were established in the Ming dynasty. It was taken in 1926 by Chiang Kai-shek and was fought over by the Nationalists and the communists. It was occupied by the Japanese from 1938 to 1945 and came under communist control in 1949. Agricul¬ tural production, as well as a thriving timber industry, contribute to the economy.

Jibrll \ji-'brel\ or Jabrail In Islam, the archangel who acts as interme¬ diary between God and humankind and who bore divine revelations to Muhammad and previous prophets. His biblical counterpart is Gabriel. Jibrll aided Muhammad in times of crisis and guided him during his ascent into heaven. Muslim belief holds that Jibrll appeared to Adam after his expul¬ sion from Paradise to show him how to write, raise wheat, and work iron and also that Jibrll aided Moses in delivering the Israelites from Egypt.

jicama Vhe-ko-moX Vine ( Pachyrhizus erosus, or P. tuberosus ), also called yam bean. A legume native of Mexico and Central and South America, it is grown for its edible root. The irregularly globular, brown¬ skinned tubers are white-fleshed, crisp, and juicy. There are two variet¬ ies, those with clear juice and those with milky juice. Both have a mild flavour and are eaten raw or cooked. Sometimes very young seedpods of the plant are eaten, but the mature seeds are highly toxic.

Jiddah or Jeddah City (pop., 1992: 2,046,251), western Saudi Arabia. Located on the Red Sea, it is a major port and the country’s diplomatic capital. It takes its name (which means “ancestress” or “grandmother”) from the reputed tomb of Eve, which was located there until it was destroyed by the Saudi government in 1928. Jiddah has long been a point of entry for Muslim pilgrims journeying to the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. It belonged to the Ottoman Empire until 1916, when it surren¬ dered to British forces during World War I (1914-18). It was captured by the tribal leader Ibn Sa'ud in 1925 and was incorporated into Saudi Ara¬ bia in 1927.

jigs and fixtures Components of machine-tool installations, specially designed in each case to position the workpiece, hold it firmly in place, and guide the motion of the power tool (e.g., a punch press). Jigs can also be guides for tools or templates, as in the furniture industry. Special cramping jigs that ensure squareness are set up so that, for example, a wardrobe can be glued up in one operation by power-driven rams. See also ASSEMBLY LINE, INTERCHANGEABLE PARTS, MASS PRODUCTION.

jihad \ji-‘had\ In Islam, the central doctrine that calls on believers to com¬ bat the enemies of their religion. According to the Qur’an and the HadIth, jihad is a duty that may be fulfilled in four ways: by the heart, the tongue, the hand, or the sword. The first way (known in Sufism as the “greater jihad”) involves struggling against evil desires. The ways of the tongue and hand call for verbal defense and right actions. The jihad of the sword

988 I Jili ► jitterbug

involves waging war against enemies of Islam. Believers contend that those who die in combat become martyrs and are guaranteed a place in paradise. In the 20th and 21st centuries the concept of jihad has sometimes been used as an ideological weapon in the effort to combat Western influ¬ ences and secular governments and to establish an ideal Islamic society.

Jill \je-'le\, al- (b. 1365—d. c. 1424) Islamic mystic. Little is known of his life, though he is believed to have visited India in 1387 and to have studied in Yemen (1393-1403). Influenced by Ibn al-'Arabi, he developed his doctrine of the “perfect man,” which he outlined in his Studies in Islamic Mysticism. He asserted that the perfectly moral individual can attain unity with God, a unity already experienced by Muhammad and the other prophets, and then become a channel by which the whole commu¬ nity can enjoy contact with the divine being.

Jilin Vje-'liM or Chi-lin conventional Kirin Vke-rin\ Province (pop., 2000 est.: 27,280,000), northeastern China. It is bordered by Russia and North Korea, Heilongjiang and Liaoning provinces, and Inner Mongolia. With an area of 72,200 sq mi (187,000 sq km), it is China’s most urban¬ ized province; its capital is Changchun, and its second largest city is Jilin. Its major river is the Sungari River, a tributary of the Amur. It was made a province in 1907. Occupied by the Japanese army in 1931, it became part of the puppet state of Manchukuo (1932—45). Chinese communist forces seized the province from the Nationalists in 1948. Industrialization since the late 20th century has been rapid.

Jim Crow Law Law that enforced racial segregation in the U.S. South between 1877 and the 1950s. The term, taken from a minstrel-show rou¬ tine, became a derogatory epithet for African Americans. After Reconstruc¬ tion, Southern legislatures passed laws requiring segregation of whites and “persons of colour” on public transportation. These later extended to schools, restaurants, and other public places. In 1954 the U.S. Supreme Court declared segregation in public schools unconstitutional in Brown v. Board of Education ; later rulings struck down other Jim Crow laws.

Jimenez \ke-'ma-nas,\ English \he-'ma-n9s\, Juan Ramon (b. Dec. 24, 1881, Moguer, Spain—d. May 29, 1958, San Juan, PR.) Spanish poet. His early poetry reflects the influence of Ruben Dario; this highly emo¬ tional style gave way to a more austere tone c. 1917. He achieved popu¬ larity in America with Platero and I (1917), a prose story of a man and his donkey. During the Spanish Civil War (1936-39), he allied himself with Republican forces; after their defeat he moved to Puerto Rico, where he spent most of the rest of his life. His poetic output was immense. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1956.

Jimenez de Quesada \ke-'ma-nas-tha-ka-'sa-tha\, Gonzalo (b. c. 1495, Cordoba or Granada, Spain—d. Feb. 16, 1579, Mariquita, New Granada) Spanish conquistador. He went to the New World as a colonial chief magistrate, then in 1536 he led an expedition of 900 men up the Magdalena River into the central plain of New Granada (modern Colom¬ bia), defeating the Chibcha Indians to win the land for Spain. In 1538 two rival conquistadores challenged his claim of conquest; the case was sub¬ mitted to the crown in Madrid and was inconclusively settled, but Jimenez became the most influential person in New Granada. In 1569 he set out in search of the mythical El Dorado with 500 men; he returned in 1571 with only 25 of his original company.

Jimmu Yjem-.miiV Legendary first emperor of Japan and founder of the imperial dynasty. He is credited with establishing his state in 660 bc on the plains of Yamato. (An actual state on the Yamato plains dates from the 3rd century ad.) Jimmu was believed to be a descendant of Ninigi, who was in turn the grandson of the sun goddess Amaterasu.