Britannica Concise 2005

Wankel Vvaq-kalV Felix (b. Aug. 13, 1902, Lahr, Ger.—d. Oct. 9, 1988, Lindau, W.Ger.) German engineer and inventor. In 1954 he com¬ pleted the design of his distinctive engine, with an orbiting rotor in the shape of a curved equilateral triangle, which does the work done by the pistons in traditional reciprocating internal-combustion engines. Its advantages include light weight, few moving parts, compactness, low ini¬ tial cost, fewer repairs, and relatively smooth performance. The first unit was tested in 1957, and from 1967 Japanese automobile company Mazda produced and developed the engine for a series of sports cars.

Wankie National Park See Hwange National Park

Wannsee \'van-,za\ Conference (Jan. 20, 1942) Meeting of Nazi officials in the Berlin suburb of Wannsee to plan the “final solution” to the “Jewish question.” It was attended by 15 Nazi senior bureaucrats led

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2028 I wapiti ► Warburg family

by Reinhard Heydrich, head of the SS and Gestapo, and included Adolf Eichmann, chief of Jewish affairs for the Reich Central Security Office. It marked a turning point in Nazi policy toward the Jews. An earlier idea, to deport all of Europe’s Jews to Madagascar, was abandoned as imprac¬ tical in wartime. Instead, the newly planned final solution would entail rounding up all Jews throughout Europe, transporting them eastward, and organizing them into labour gangs. The final protocol of the Wannsee Conference never explicitly mentioned extermination, but, within a few months after the meeting, the first gas chambers were installed at Aus¬ chwitz and Treblinka. See also Holocaust.

wapiti \'wa-p3-te\ Species ( Cervus canadensis ) of North American deer, often considered the same species as the red deer. Once common, the wapiti is now confined to the Rocky Mountains and southern Canada. It is the second-largest living deer spe¬ cies (the moose is first). Males may stand taller than 5 ft (1.5 m) at the shoulder and weigh up to 1,100 lbs (500 kg). The coat is brown, pale on the rump, and long and shaggy on the shoulders and neck. The male’s five- tined antlers tower almost 4 ft (1.2 m) above his head. Wapiti live in large bands in winter and in small groups in summer. See also elk.

war State of conflict, generally armed, between two or more entities.

It is characterized by intentional vio¬ lence on the part of large bodies of individuals organized and trained for that purpose. On the national level, some wars are fought internally between rival political factions (civil war); others are fought against an external enemy. Wars have been fought in the name of religion, in self-defense, to acquire territory or resources, and to further the political aims of the aggressor state’s leadership.

War Communism (1918-21) Soviet economic policy applied by the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War. Its chief features were the expro¬ priation of private business and the nationalization of industry, as well as the forced requisition of surplus grain and other food products from the peasantry. These measures caused a rapid decline in agricultural produc¬ tion, labour productivity, and industrial output. Real wages declined by two-thirds, and uncontrolled inflation made paper currency worthless. By 1921 public discontent resulted in strikes and protests, culminating in the Kronshtadt Rebellion. In response, the Bolsheviks adopted the less-radical New Economic Policy.

war crime Any violation of the laws of war, as laid down by interna¬ tional customary law and certain international treaties. At the end of World War II, the part of the London Agreement signed by the U.S., Britain, the Soviet Union, and France established three categories of war crime: con¬ ventional war crimes (including murder, ill treatment, or deportation of the civilian population of occupied territories), crimes against peace, and crimes against humanity (political, racial, or religious persecution against any civilian population). The charter also provided for an international military tribunal to try major Axis war criminals. It further stated that a defendant’s position as head of state would not free him from account¬ ability, nor would having acted on orders or out of military necessity. German and Japanese war criminals were tried before Allied tribunals in NUrnberg and Tokyo in 1945-46 and 1946-48, respectively, and in the 1990s tribunals were created for the prosecution of war crimes commit¬ ted in Rwanda and the territory of the former Yugoslavia. See also Geneva Convention; genocide; Hague Convention; NOrnberg trial.

War Hawk Member of the U.S. Congress who advocated war with Britain (1811). The term was applied by opponents to newly elected Southern and Western congressmen who strongly promoted U.S. expan¬ sion into the Northwest and Canada and vigorously protested British aid to Indians. The anti-British fervour of the War Hawks, who included Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun, helped cause the War of 1812.

War of 1812 U.S.-British conflict arising from U.S. grievances over oppressive British maritime practices in the Napoleonic Wars. To enforce its blockade of French ports, the British boarded U.S. and other neutral

ships to check cargo they suspected was being sent to France and to impress seamen alleged to be British navy deserters. The U.S. reacted by passing legislation such as the Embargo Act (1807); Congress’s War Hawks called for expulsion of the British from Canada to ensure frontier security. When the U.S. demanded an end to the interference, Britain refused, and the U.S. declared war on June 18, 1812. Despite early U.S. naval victories, notably the duel between the Constitution and the Guer- riere , Britain maintained its blockade of eastern U.S. ports. A British force burned public buildings in Washington, D.C., including the White House, in retaliation for similar U.S. acts in York (Toronto), Can. The war became increasingly unpopular, especially in New England, where a separatist movement originated at the Hartford Convention. On Dec. 24, 1814, both sides signed the Treaty of Ghent, which essentially restored territories captured by each side. Before news of the treaty reached the U.S., its vic¬ tory in the Battle of New Orleans led it to later proclaim the war a U.S. victory. See also Battle of Chateauguay; Chippewa; Thames; Isaac Hull; Fran¬ cis Scon Key; Oliver Perry.

War of Independence, U.S. See American Revolution War of the Three Henrys See War of the Three Henrys

War Powers Act (Nov. 7, 1973) Law passed by the U.S. Congress over the veto of Pres. Richard Nixon. The act restrained the president’s ability to commit U.S. forces overseas by requiring the executive branch to consult with and report to Congress before involving U.S. forces in foreign hostilities. Widely considered a measure for preventing “future Vietnams,” it was nonetheless resisted or ignored by subsequent presi¬ dents, most of whom regarded it as an unconstitutional usurpation of their executive authority.

Warbeck, Perkin (b. 1474?, Tournai, Flanders—d. Nov. 23, 1499, London, Eng.) Flemish impostor, pretender to the throne of Henry VII. The son of a local official in Flanders, while working as a servant in Ireland in 1491, he was misidentified as royalty while dressed in his master’s rich silks and was soon persuaded to impersonate Richard, duke of York, who was presumed to have been murdered with his brother in the Tower of London in 1483. Encouraged by several monarchs and other Yorkist enemies in both England and Europe, he gathered forces and supporters on the continent for an invasion. After abortive attempts in 1495 and 1496, he landed in Cornwall in 1497 but was captured and hanged when he tried to escape.

warble fly Any of several dipteran species (botfly family Oestridae or the family Hypodermatidae), widespread in Europe and North America. The warble flies Hypoderma lineatum and H. bovis, also called cattle grubs or heel flies, are large, heavy, and beelike. They deposit their eggs on the legs of cattle. The larvae penetrate the skin, migrate through the body, and produce a lump, or warble, on the animal’s back. Mature grubs emerge and drop to the ground to pupate. Warbles contain breathing holes, which reduce the hide’s commercial value. One species ( Oedemagena tarandi) is a reindeer pest that also causes economic losses.

warbler Any songbird of almost 350 Old World species (family Sylvi- idae) or about 120 New World species (family Parulidae, see wood war¬ bler). Old World warblers, found in gardens, woodlands, and marshes, have a slender bill adapted for gleaning insects from foliage. They occur mainly from Europe and Asia to Africa and Australia, but a few (e.g., the gnatcatcher) live in the Americas. They are drab greenish, brownish, or black and 3.5-10 in. (9-26 cm) long. See also blackcap, blackpoll warbler,

GNATCATCHER, WOOD WARBLER.

Warburg \'var-,burk,\ English Vwor-.borgV Otto (Heinrich) (b. Oct. 8, 1883, Freiburg im Breisgau, Ger.—d. Aug. 1, 1970, West Berlin, W.Ger.) German biochemist. In the 1920s, after earning doctorates in chemistry and medicine, he investigated the process by which oxygen is consumed in the cells of living organisms, introducing the technique of measuring changes in gas pressure for studying the rates at which slices of living tissue take up oxygen. His search for the cell components involved in oxygen consumption led to identification of the role of the cytochromes. He was awarded a 1931 Nobel Prize for his research. He was the first to observe that the growth of cancer cells requires much less oxygen than that of normal cells.

Warburg family orig. Del Banco family Family of eminent bank¬ ers, philanthropists, and scholars. A Jewish family apparently of Italian origin, they settled in the German town of Warburgum in 1559, and branches subsequently settled in Scandinavia, the U.S., and Britain.

? m

Male wapiti (Cervus canadensis).

ALAN CAREY

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Ward ► Warren I 2029

Simon Elias Warburg (1760-1828) founded the first Jewish community in Sweden. Among the family’s bankers were Moses Marcus Warburg (d. 1830) and his brother Gerson (d. 1825), who founded the Hamburg bank of M.M. Warburg & Co. (1798), and James Paul Warburg (1896-1969), a member of Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Brain Trust. The family’s schol¬ ars included Nobel Prize-winning biochemist Otto Warburg. Among the U.S. philanthropists were Frieda Schiff Warburg (1876-1958) and her sons, patrons of art and music.

Ward, Barbara (Mary), Baroness Jackson (of Lodsworth)

(b. May 23, 1914, York, Eng.—d. May 31, 1981, Lodsworth) British economist and writer. After studying economics at the University of Oxford, she became a writer and editor at The Economist (from 1939). She married Robert Jackson in 1950. She was an influential adviser to the Vatican, the UN, and the World Bank, and she wrote numerous articles and books on the worldwide threat from poverty among less-developed countries (she advocated the transfer of wealth from rich to poor coun¬ tries) and the importance of conservation; her books, which reached a wide audience, included The Rich Nations and the Poor Nations (1962), Spaceship Earth (1966), Only One Earth (with Rene Dubos, 1972), and Progress for a Small Planet (1980).

warfare See air warfare, amphibious warfare, biological warfare, chemi¬ cal WARFARE, ECONOMIC WARFARE, HOLY WAR, NAVAL WARFARE, PSYCHOLOGICAL WAR¬ FARE, TOTAL WAR, TRENCH WARFARE

warfarin Vwor-fo-ronX Anticoagulant drug, marketed as Coumadin. Originally developed to treat thromboembolism (see thrombosis), it inter¬ feres with the liver’s metabolism of vitamin K, leading to production of defective coagulation factors. Warfarin therapy risks uncontrollable hem¬ orrhage, either spontaneously or from any cut or bruise; it requires fre¬ quent checks to maintain the proper level in the blood. In high concentrations, warfarin is used as a rodent poison, causing death by internal bleeding.

Warfield, Paul (b. Nov. 28, 1942, Warren, Ohio, U.S.) U.S. football player. He compiled an outstanding record at Ohio State University. As a wide receiver for the Cleveland Browns (1964-69, 1976-77), he helped lead them to four league championship games. With the Miami Dolphins (1970-74) he played in three Super Bowl games (1972-74). In his 13-year career he caught 427 passes for 8,565 yd, averaging a near-record 20.1 yd per catch.

Warhol, Andy orig. Andrew Warhola (b. Aug. 6, 19287, Pitts¬ burgh?, Pa., U.S.—d. Feb. 22, 1987, New York, N.Y.) U.S. artist and filmmaker. The son of Czech immigrants, Warhol graduated from the Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pittsburgh, in 1949. He then went to New York City, where he worked as a commercial illustrator. Warhol began painting in the late 1950s and received sudden notoriety in 1962, when he exhibited paintings of Campbell’s soup cans, Coca-Cola bottles, and wooden replicas of Brillo soap-pad boxes. By 1963 he was mass- producing these purposely banal images of consumer goods by means of photographic silk screen prints; he then began printing endless variations of portraits of celebrities in garish colours. The silk screen technique was ideally suited to Warhol, for the repeated image was reduced to a dehu¬ manized cultural icon that reflected both the supposed emptiness of American material culture and the artist’s emotional distance from the practice of his art. Warhol’s work placed him in the forefront of the emerging Pop art movement in the United States. As the 1960s progressed, Warhol devoted more of his energy to filmmaking. His “underground” films are known for their inventive eroticism, plotless boredom, and inor¬ dinate length (up to 25 hours). Throughout the 1970s and until his death he continued to produce prints depicting political and Hollywood celeb¬ rities, and he involved himself in a wide range of advertising illustrations and other commercial art projects. He was one of the most famous and important American cultural figures of the late 20th century, and the effects of his conceptions of art and celebrity continue to be felt.

warlord In China, an independent military commander in the early 20th century. Warlords, supported by provincial military interests or foreign powers, ruled various parts of China following the death of Yuan Shikai, first president of the Republic of China. In southeastern China Sun Yat- sen and the Nationalist Party gained the backing of a warlord based in Guangzhou (Canton). In northern China three leading warlords emerged: Zhang Zuolin, a Japanese-backed bandit in Manchuria; Wu Peifu, a tra¬ ditionally educated officer in central China; and Feng Yuxiang, who seized Beijing in 1924. The Nationalist Party consolidated its control in the south

and, under Chiang Kai-shek, swept northward, reuniting the country in 1928. Numerous local warlords continued to exert de facto power over their own domains until the Japanese invasion during what became World War II. See also Northern Expedition.

Warner, Pop orig. Glenn Scobey Warner (b. April 5, 1871, Springfield, N.Y., U.S.—d. Sept. 7, 1954, Palo Alto, Calif.) U.S. college football coach. At the Carlisle (Pa.) Indian School (1898-1904, 1906-15), he coached Jim Thorpe, one of football’s greatest players. He also coached at the University of Pittsburgh (1915-23) and Stanford University (1924- 32). Warner perfected the single- and double-wing formations (now rarely used); these and other innovations helped refine the modem game. In 46 seasons (1895-1940) his teams won 312 games, lost 104, and tied 32.

Warner, W(illiam) Lloyd (b. Oct. 26, 1898, Redlands, Calif., U.S.—d. May 23, 1970, Chicago, Ill.) U.S. sociologist and anthropolo¬ gist. He studied with Alfred L. Kroeber and A.R. Radcliffe-Brown and later taught at the universities of Chicago and Michigan. His studies of the American class system have been widely influential. In the late 1930s he produced a five-volume study of Newburyport, Mass.; his other books include A Black Civilization (1937), The Social Life of a Modern Com¬ munity (1941), and The Living and the Dead (1959).

Warner Bros. Inc. U.S. film studio. Beginning in Pennsylvania as movie distributors and theatre owners in 1903, the four Warner brothers started producing their own films in 1913 and moved to Hollywood in 1917. They founded Warner Brothers Pictures Inc. in 1923, with Harry Warner (b. 1881—d. 1958) as president in New York, Albert Warner (b. 1884—d. 1967) as treasurer, and Sam Warner (b. 1888—d. 1927) and Jack Warner (b. 1892—d. 1978) as studio managers in Hollywood. In the mid 1920s they helped develop the important Vitaphone sound process. With the release of The Jazz Singer (1927), the first feature film with synchro¬ nized music and dialogue, the studio’s success was assured. Warner Broth¬ ers went on to produce gangster films starring James Cagney and Edward G. Robinson, adventure movies with Errol Flynn, and mystery dramas with FIumphrey Bogart. After his brothers retired, Jack became president (1956- 72). See also AOL Time Warner Inc.

warrant In law, authorization in writing empowering a person to per¬ form an act or execute an office. Arrest warrants are necessary (except in certain circumstances) for an arrest to be considered legal. Search war¬ rants entitle the holder to enter and search a property. Both are classes of judicial warrants. To obtain them, a complainant must provide an affida¬ vit setting forth facts sufficient to satisfy the belief that a crime has been committed and that the accused is the guilty party (or, in the case of the search warrant, that the place to be searched will yield the expected evi¬ dence). Nonjudicial warrants include tax warrants (which provide the authority to collect taxes) and land warrants (which entitle the holder to a specific tract of public land).

Warrau \wo-'rau\ or Guarauno Group of nomadic South American Indians who in modern times inhabit the swampy Orinoco River delta in Venezuela and areas eastward into Guyana. Some live in Suriname. They subsist mainly by fishing, hunting, and gathering, though they practice some agriculture in the drier regions. The Mauritia palm is a staple: they make a fermented drink from its sap and bread from its pith, eat its fruit, and fashion its fibre into clothing and hammocks. Their priestly ceremonies and complex social classes are unusual among hunters and gatherers.

Warren Town (pop., 2000:

11,360), eastern Rhode Island, U.S.

Located near Providence, it was settled in 1632 and was originally part of Massachusetts. In 1747 Rhode Island annexed it. It was pil¬ laged and burned by the British dur¬ ing the American Revolution. It is now a summer resort.

Warren, Earl (b. March 19, 1891,

Los Angeles, Calif., U.S.—d. July 9,

1974, Washington, D.C.) U.S. jurist and politician. He graduated from law school at the University of Cali¬ fornia, then served as a county dis¬ trict attorney (1925-39), state

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2030 I Warren ► Warsaw Uprising

attorney general (1939—43), and governor of the state for three terms (1943-53). He was criticized for interning Japanese citizens in camps dur¬ ing World War II. His only electoral defeat came in 1948, when he ran for vice president on the Republican ticket with Thomas Dewey. In 1953 Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower appointed Warren chief justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, a post he held until 1969. This was a period of sweeping changes in U.S. constitutional law. Under his leadership the court proved to be strongly liberal. Among Warren’s notable opinions are those in Brown v. Board of Education (1954), which held that segration in public education was unconstitutional; Reynolds v. Sims (1964), which declared the “one man, one vote” principle requiring state legislative reapportionment (1964); and Miranda v. Arizona (1966), which held that police must inform an arrestee of his right to remain silent and to have counsel present (appointed for him if he is indigent) and that a confession obtained in defi¬ ance of these requirements is inadmissible in court. After the assassination of Pres. John F. Kennedy, he chaired the Warren Commission.

Warren, Harry orig. Salvatore Guaragna (b. Dec. 24, 1893, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.—d. Sept. 22, 1981, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. song¬ writer. The youngest of 12 children, Warren was self-taught musically. He toured with brass bands and carnivals from age 15. After a few years as a song plugger in Tin Pan Alley, he began contributing tunes to Broadway musicals, including “You’re My Everything” and “I Found a Million Dol¬ lar Baby in a Five-and-Ten-Cent Store.” In 1932 he moved to Hollywood, where he collaborated on films such as Gold Diggers of1933 (1933), 42nd Street (1933), Down Argentine Way (1940), and Sun Valley Serenade (1941; with “Chattanooga Choo-Choo”), and he received Academy Awards for the songs “Lullaby of Broadway,” “You’ll Never Know,” and “On the Atchison, Topeka and the Santa Fe.” Between 1935 and 1950 he wrote more top-10 hit songs than any other songwriter.

Warren, Joseph (b. June 11, 1741, Roxbury, Mass.—d. June 17, 1775, Bunker Hill, Mass.) American Revolutionary leader. He was a physician in Boston. He was active in patriot causes after passage of the Stamp Act (1765) and helped draft the Massachusetts colonial grievances called the Suffolk Resolves (1774). As a member of the Massachusetts Committee of Public Safety, he sent Paul Revere on his ride to Lexington. He was made a major general in the Revolutionary army and died in the Battle of Bunker Hill.

Warren, Mercy Otis orig. Mercy Otis (b. Sept. 25, 1728, Barnsta¬ ble, Mass.—d. Oct. 19, 1814, Plymouth, Mass., U.S.) U.S. poet, drama¬ tist, and historian. The sister of James Otis, she received no formal education but nevertheless became a woman of letters and a friend and correspondent of leading political figures. She commented on the issues of the day in political satires, plays, and pamphlets. Though a defender of the American Revolution, she opposed the Constitution, arguing that power should rest with the states. Her most significant work, History of the Rise, Progress, and Termination of the American Revolution (3 vol., 1805), covered the period from 1765 to 1800.

Warren, Robert Penn (b. April 24, 1905, Guthrie, Ky., U.S.—d. Sept. 15, 1989, Stratton, Vt.) U.S. novelist, poet, and critic. Warren attended Vanderbilt University, where he joined the Fugitives, a group of poets who advocated the agrarian way of life in the South. Later he taught at several colleges and universities and helped found and edit The South¬ ern Review (1935-42), possibly the most influential American literary magazine of the time. His writings often treat moral dilemmas in a South beset by the erosion of its traditional rural values. His best-known novel is All the King’s Men (1946, Pulitzer Prize; film, 1949). The short-story volume The Circus in the Attic (1948) contains the notable “Blackberry Winter.” He won Pulitzer prizes for poetry in 1958 and 1979 and became the first U.S. poet laureate in 1986.

Warren Commission officially President's Commission on the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy (1963-64) Group appointed by Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson to investigate the circum¬ stances surrounding John F. Kennedy’s slaying and the shooting of his assassin, Lee Harvey Oswald. It was chaired by Earl Warren and included two U.S. senators, two U.S. congressmen, and two former public offi¬ cials. After months of investigation, it reported that Kennedy was killed by Oswald’s rifle shots from the Texas School Book Depository and that Oswald’s murder by Jack Ruby two days later was not part of a conspiracy to assassinate Kennedy. Its findings were later questioned in a number of books and articles and in a special congressional committee report in 1979, though no conclusive contradictory evidence was found.

Warring States period Chinese Zhangou (475-221 bc) In Chi¬ nese history, a period in which small feuding kingdoms or fiefdoms struggled for supremacy. The period was dominated by seven or more small feuding Chinese kingdoms. It was the age of Confucian thinkers Mencius and Xunzi, the time when many of the government institutions and cultural patterns that would characterize China for the next 2,000 years were established. The term Warring States (Sengoku) is also used in Japan for a period (1482-1558) during the Muromachi period that was marked by almost constant warfare among rival daimyo seeking to con¬ solidate and increase their landholdings.

Wars of the Roses See Wars of the Roses

Warsaw City (pop., 2001 est.: 1,610,471), capital of Poland, on the Vistula River. Founded c. 1300, it flourished as a trade centre, came under Polish control in 1526, and became the capital in 1596. During the late 18th century it expanded rapidly, but it was destroyed in 1794 by the Rus¬ sians. In 1807 it was made the capital of the Duchy of Warsaw by Napo¬ leon. Taken by the Russians in 1813, it was the centre of Polish insurrections in 1830-31 and 1860. It was occupied by the Germans in World War I and again in World War II, when its large Jewish popula¬ tion revolted in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising (1943). The Warsaw Upris¬ ing in 1944 was unsuccessful, and the Germans virtually destroyed the city. Modem Warsaw, rebuilt after the war, now houses government bod¬ ies, including the Sejm (parliament); it is also an industrial and educa¬ tional centre. Among its historic buildings are a 14th-century Gothic cathedral and a medieval castle.

Warsaw, Duchy of or Grand Duchy of Warsaw Independent Polish state (1807-15), created by Napoleon. Established by the Treaties of Tilsit in 1807 after the Poles had helped Napoleon defeat Prussia, it consisted originally of the major portion of the central Polish provinces that Prussia had taken in the 1790s. For Napoleon’s second war against Russia (1812), the Duchy of Warsaw supplied nearly 98,000 men, but Napoleon’s defeat in Russia also sealed the fortunes of the duchy. In 1813 the Russians assumed control of it. Later the Congress of Vienna divided it into three parts: the Grand Duchy of Poznan; the free Republic of Krakow; and the Congress Kingdom of Poland, which was joined to Rus¬ sia by making the Russian emperor its king.

Warsaw Ghetto Uprising (April 19-May 16, 1943) Revolt by Pol¬ ish Jews under Nazi occupation against deportation to the Treblinka exter¬ mination camp. By July 1942 the Nazis had herded 500,000 Jews from surrounding areas into the ghetto in Warsaw. Though starvation killed thousands each month, the Nazis began transferring more than 5,000 Jews a day to rural “labour camps.” When word reached the ghetto in early 1943 that the destination was actually the gas chambers at Treblinka, the newly formed Jewish Fighting Organization (ZOB) attacked the Nazis, killing 50 in four days of street fighting and causing the deportations to halt. On April 19 Heinrich Himmler sent 2,000 SS men and army troops to clear the ghetto of its remaining Jews. For four weeks the ZOB and guer¬ rillas fought with pistols and homemade bombs, destroying tanks and killing several hundred Nazis, until their ammunition ran out. Not until May 8 did the Nazis manage to take the ZOB headquarters bunker. Many of the surviving ZOB fighters took their own lives to avoid being cap¬ tured. The battle raged until May 16, when the SS chief declared “The Warsaw Ghetto is no more.” During the 28 days of the uprising, more than 40,000 Jews were either killed or deported.

Warsaw Pact or Warsaw Treaty Organization Military alli¬ ance of the Soviet Union, Albania (until 1968), Bulgaria, Czechoslova¬ kia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania, formed in 1955 in response to West Germany’s entry into NATO. Its terms included a uni¬ fied military command and the stationing of Soviet troops in the other member states. Warsaw Pact troops were called into action to suppress uprisings in Poland (1956), Hungary (1956), and Czechoslovakia (1968). The alliance was dissolved in 1991 after the collapse of the Soviet bloc, and Soviet troops departed. Several Warsaw Pact members later joined NATO.

Warsaw Uprising (August-October 1944) Insurrection in Warsaw in World War II that failed to prevent the pro-Soviet Polish administration from gaining control of Poland. In July 1944, as Soviet troops approached Warsaw, the Polish underground was encouraged to stage an uprising against the Germans. Though wary of Soviet promises of self- government, the Polish home army of 50,000 troops attacked the weak¬ ened German force and gained control of most of Warsaw in four days.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

wart ► Washington i 2031

German reinforcements then bombarded the city with air and artillery attacks for 63 days. The approaching Red Army halted, and the Soviets refused to allow aid from the Allies to the beleaguered Poles, who were forced to surrender when their supplies ran out in October; the Germans then deported the rest of the city’s population and destroyed most of the city itself. During the fighting, some 300,000 Poles died. By allowing the Polish home army to be eliminated, the Soviets diminished potential resis¬ tance to their establishing political domination of Poland in 1945.

wart or verruca Wo-'rii-koX Well-defined growth on the skin, usually caused by a papillomavirus, which triggers overproduction of epidermal cells. This may lead to a single long-standing wart, profuse local spread (especially in moist areas), or warts in various parts of the body. The most common type is a round bump with a dry, rough surface. Warts are usu¬ ally painless except in pressure areas, such as the sole of the foot (plan¬ tar wart). Genital warts are merely a nuisance unless they become large or numerous enough to interfere with urination, defecation, or childbirth, but some viral strains are associated with cervical cancer. Warts are con¬ sidered contagious. They may be removed by applying acids, cryother¬ apy, electrocautery, or surgery; they sometimes disappear spontaneously.

Warta \'var-ta\ River River, west-central Poland. It rises northwest of Krakow and flows northwest 502 mi (808 km) before joining the Oder River. The Warta is the second longest river lying entirely in Poland; about half of its length is navigable. Its lower course, formerly in Germany, is in a region assigned to Poland by the Potsdam Conference in 1945.

Wartenburg, Johann Yorck von See Johan, Graf Yorck von Wartenburg

warthog Large-headed species (Phacochoerus aethiopicus) of pig (ungulate family Suidae), inhabiting open and lightly forested areas of Africa. Warthogs, about 30 in. (76 cm) high, are blackish or brown, with a coarse mane from the neck to the midback. The male has two pairs of bumps (warts) on the face. Both sexes have tusks. The tusks on the lower jaw are weapons; those on the upper jaw curve upward and inward in a semicircle, growing to more than 24 in. (60 cm) in some males. The long tufted tail is held high when the animal runs. Warthogs live in groups, feeding on grass and other vegetation.

Warwick \'war-ik\ Town and district (pop., 2001: 125,962), adminis¬ trative and historic county of Warwickshire, central England. Known for its historic castle, it grew up at a crossing place on the River Avon and was fortified c. 915. By 1086 it was a royal borough, and William I ordered the castle to be enlarged. The present-day castle dates mainly from the 14th and 15th centuries. With its virtually intact structure and its fine col¬ lections of paintings and armour, the castle has become a major tourist attraction. The town, which grew around the castle, is a market centre and has light industry.

Warwick Vwar-ik\, Earl of orig. Richard Neville (b. Nov. 22, 1428 —d. April 14, 1471, Barnet, Hertfordshire, Eng.) English nobleman influential in the Wars of the Roses. Son of the earl of Salisbury, he became through marriage (1449) the earl of Warwick and acquired vast estates. With his father, he helped the Yorkists win the Battle of St. Albans (1455). Appointed captain of Calais, in 1460 he crossed to England to defeat and capture Henry VI at Northampton. In 1461 he was routed by the Lancas¬ trians, but he recovered to march on London with York’s son Edward, soon crowned Edward IV. Warwick was the virtual ruler during Edward’s early reign (1461-64), but tensions between the two mounted, and in 1469 Warwick engineered a revolt in northern England that forced Edward to flee to Flanders in 1470. Warwick joined the Lancastrians and restored Henry VI to the throne, earning his later nickname “the Kingmaker.” He was killed by Edward’s forces at the Battle of Barnet.

Warwickshire \'war-ik-,shir\ Administrative (pop., 2001: 505,885) and historic county, central England. As an administrative and geographic unit, the county dates from the 10th century, with the historic county town of Warwick lying roughly at its centre. In Saxon times Warwickshire

formed a border zone between the kingdoms of Wessex and Mercia. Dur¬ ing the Middle Ages two major centres grew up in the county, at Warwick and Kenilworth. Historical structures surviving in the area include Nor¬ man and early English churches, along with buildings at Stratford-upon- Avon associated with William Shakespeare. The Battle of Edgehill (1642), the first serious clash of the English Civil Wars, was fought in Warwick¬ shire near the Oxfordshire border. Farming, dairy farming, fruit growing, market gardening, and coal mining are important economic activities.

Wasatch \'w6-,sach\ Mountains Range of the south-central Rocky Mountains. They extend about 250 mi (400 km) from southeastern Idaho to central Utah, U.S. The highest peak is Mount Timpanogos (12,008 ft [3,660 m]). The Timpanogos Cave National Monument is within the range.

Washington State (pop., 2000: 5,894,121), northwestern U.S. Wash¬ ington is bounded by the Canadian province of British Columbia to the north, Idaho to the east, Oregon to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It covers an area of 68,139 sq mi (176,479 sq km); its capital is Olympia. The state contains the Cascade Range, which includes Mount Rainier and Mount Saint Helens, and the Olympic Mountains. The Strait of Juan de Fuca and Puget Sound extend inland into the state from the Pacific Ocean. Cape Alva, the most westerly point of the coterminous U.S., is in Washington, as is the Columbia River. The area was inhabited by Pacific Coast Indians, including the Chinook and Nez Perce, when the region was visited by Spanish, Russian, British, and French explorers (1543-1792). Claimed by the Spanish and British, it was crossed by the Lewis and Clark Expedition in 1805. Spain surrendered to the U.S. its territories north of California in 1819. Until the 1840s, international agreement permitted citizens of both the U.S. and Britain to settle in what was known as Oregon Country. An 1846 treaty with Great Britain set the present Washington- Canada boundary; the Oregon Country was added to the U.S. and renamed the Territory of Oregon in 1848. Washington received territorial status in 1853 and was reduced to its present size in 1863. It was admitted to the Union as the 42nd state in 1889. In the late 1890s it was the main stag¬ ing point for gold miners going to the Alaskan and Yukon strikes. The greatest stimulus to its 20th-century progress came with the development of hydroelectric power and the work on the Bonneville and Grand Cou¬ lee dams. Its important manufactures include aircraft building and ship¬ building. Expanding trade with Pacific Rim countries, high technology, and tourism add to the economy.

Washington, Booker T(aliaferro) (b. April 5, 1856, Franklin county, Va., U.S.—d. Nov. 14, 1915, Tuskegee, Ala.) U.S. educator and reformer. Born into slavery, he moved with his family to West Virginia after emancipation. He worked from age nine, then attended (1872-75) and joined the staff of the Hampton (Va.) Normal and Agricultural Insti¬ tute. In 1881 he was selected to head the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, a new teacher-training school for African Americans, and he successfully transformed it into a thriving institution (later Tuskegee Uni¬ versity). He became perhaps the most prominent African American leader of his time. His controversial conviction that African Americans could best gain equality in the U.S. by improving their economic situation through education rather than by demanding equal rights was termed the Atlanta Compromise. His books include Up from Slavery (1901).

Washington, D.C. City (pop., 2000: 572,059), capital of the U.S. It is coextensive with the District of Columbia. Situated at the navigational head of the Potomac River, between Maryland and Virginia, it has an area of 69 sq mi (179 sq km). The site was chosen by George Washington in 1790 as a political compromise that satisfied both Northern and Southern states. Designed by Pierre-Charles V Enfant, it is one of the few cities in the world planned expressly as a national capital. The federal government occupied it in 1800. British troops burned the city (1814) during the War of 1812. With the annexation of Georgetown in 1878, the city became coterminous with the District of Columbia. Significant buildings include the Capitol, White House, and Library of Congress. The Washington Monu¬ ment, Lincoln Memorial, Jefferson Memorial, and Vietnam Veterans Memo¬ rial are among the most famous of the city’s more than 300 memorials and statues. The Smithsonian Institution is in Washington, as are numer¬ ous other cultural and educational institutions and foreign embassies. The economy is based on national and international political activities, scien¬ tific research, and tourism.

Washington, Denzel (b. Dec. 28, 1954, Mount Vernon, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. film actor. A graduate of Fordham University, he began his career as a stage actor. Featured in the television series St. Elsewhere (1982-88),

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2032 I Washington ► Wassermann

he also appeared in movies from 1981 and won acclaim for his roles in Cry Freedom (1987), Glory (1989, Academy Award), and Mississippi Masala (1991). Praised for his portrayal of the title character in Spike Lee’s Malcolm X (1992), he became one of the most popular leading men of the 1990s in films such as Philadelphia (1993), Devil in a Blue Dress (1995), and He Got Game (1998). For his performance in Training Day (2001), Washington became only the second African American to win an Oscar for best actor. In 2002 he made his directorial debut with Antwone Fisher.

Washington, Dinah orig. Ruth Lee Jones (b. Aug. 29, 1924, Tus¬ caloosa, Ala., U.S.—d. Dec. 14, 1963, Detroit, Mich.) U.S. singer. Wash¬ ington sang in church choirs as a child. She joined Lionel Hampton’s band in 1943, embarking on a solo career in 1946. Her recordings encompassed a wide variety of idioms including rhythm and blues, jazz, and country music; her “What a Difference a Day Makes” (1959) was a pop hit. Known as “Queen of the Blues,” she combined precise diction and intonation with an alternately gentle and brassy vocal timbre, and her voice was remark¬ able for its clarity and projection. She had remarkable vocal control. Even after she crossed over to the popular (pop) music market, in which she had her greatest commercial success, Washington retained many of her earlier fans because of her passionate, supple style.

Washington, George (b. Feb. 22, 1732, Westmoreland county, Va.—d. Dec. 14, 1799, Mount Vernon, Va., U.S.) American Revolution¬ ary commander-in-chief (1775-83) and first president of the U.S. (1789— 97). Born into a wealthy family, he was educated privately. In 1752 he inherited his brother’s estate at Mount Vernon, including 18 slaves; their ranks grew to 49 by 1760, though he disapproved of slavery. In the French and Indian War he was commissioned a colonel and sent to the Ohio Ter¬ ritory. After Edward Braddock was killed, Washington became commander of all Virginia forces, entrusted with defending the western frontier (1755- 58). He resigned to manage his estate and in 1759 married Martha Dan- dridge Custis (1731-1802), a widow. He served in the House of Burgesses (1759-74), where he supported the colonists’ cause, and later in the Con¬ tinental Congress (1774-75). In 1775 he was elected to command the Continental Army. In the ensuing American Revolution, he proved a bril¬ liant commander and a stalwart leader, despite several defeats. With the war effectively ended by the capture of Yorktown (1781), he resigned his commission and returned to Mount Vernon (1783). He was a delegate to and presiding officer of the Constitutional Convention (1787) and helped secure ratification of the Constitution in Virginia. When the state electors met to select the first president (1789), Washington was the unanimous choice. He formed a cabinet to balance sectional and political differences but was committed to a strong central government. Elected to a second term, he followed a middle course between the political factions that later became the Federalist Party and the Democratic Party. He proclaimed a policy of neutrality in the war between Britain and France (1793) and sent troops to suppress the Whiskey Rebellion (1794). He declined to serve a third term (thereby setting a 144-year precedent) and retired in 1797 after delivering his “Farewell Address.” Known as the “father of his coun¬ try,” he is universally regarded as one of the greatest figures in U.S. his¬ tory.

Washington, Harold (b. April 15, 1922, Chicago, Ill., U.S.—d. Nov. 25, 1987, Chicago) U.S. politician and mayor of Chicago (1983-87). He practiced law and served as a city attorney (1954-58). He was elected successively to the Illinois legislature (1965-76), the state senate (1976- 80), and the U.S. House of Representatives (1980-83). In 1983 he cam¬ paigned for mayor of Chicago on a platform of reform and an end to city patronage; with his election, he become the first African American to hold that post. He was reelected to a second term in 1987 but died soon after.

Washington, Mount Peak in the Presidential Range of the White Mountains, northern New Hampshire. Reaching an elevation of 6,288 ft (1,917 m), it is the highest point in the northeastern U.S. and is noted for its extreme weather conditions; the world’s highest wind velocity (231 mph [372 kph]) was recorded there in 1934. It is the site of Mount Wash¬ ington Observatory. The area is included in the White Mountain National Forest.

Washington and Lee University Private university in Lexington, Virginia, U.S. Founded as an academy in 1749, it is one of the oldest institutions of higher learning in the U.S. It is named for George Wash¬ ington, who presented the academy with a gift of $50,000 in 1796, and Robert E. Lee, who served as its president from 1865 to 1870. It became

coeducational in 1984. It has an undergraduate college, a law school, and a school of commerce, economics, and politics. Among its offerings are programs in engineering, environmental studies, and journalism.

Washington Birthplace National Monument, George See

George Washington Birthplace National Monument

Washington Conference officially International Conference on Naval Limitation Conference held in Washington, D.C. (1921— 22), to limit the naval arms race and negotiate Pacific security agreements. Several major and minor treaty agreements were drafted and signed: the Four-Power Pact (signed by Britain, Japan, France, and the U.S.) stipu¬ lated mutual consultation regarding any issue in the Pacific and affirmed respect for the Pacific territories of signatory nations. The Five-Power Naval Limitation Treaty (which Italy also signed) imposed proportional limits on the number of warships each signatory nation could maintain and mandated some actual disarmament; it lapsed in 1936 when Japan was refused equality with the U.S. and Britain. Another agreement regu¬ lated the use of submarines and outlawed poison gas in warfare. A Nine- Power Pact (with The Netherlands, Portugal, Belgium, and China) affirmed China’s sovereignty.

Washington Monument Obelisk in Washington, D.C., U.S., honouring George Washington, the first president of the United States. Based on a design by Robert Mills (b. 1781—d. 1855), it was built between 1848 and 1884. It is constructed of granite faced with Maryland marble and is some 555.5 ft (169.3 m) high, the world’s tallest masonry structure. Inserted in the interior walls are more than 190 carved stones presented by various individuals, cities, states, and foreign countries. It is located on grounds that are a westward extension of the Mall. The top can be reached by elevator or by an interior iron stairway. It underwent a major restoration in the 1990s and reopened in 2001.

Washington Post, The Morning daily newspaper published in Wash¬ ington, D.C., the dominant paper in the U.S. capital and one of the nation’s leading newspapers. Established in 1877 as a Democratic Party organ, it changed orientation and ownership several times and faced constant eco¬ nomic problems until financier Eugene Meyer (1875-1959) purchased it in 1933. Under the leadership of Meyer, his son-in-law Philip L. Graham (publisher from 1946 until his death in 1963), and his daughter, Katharine Graham (publisher from 1969-79), it acquired domestic and international prestige, especially in its coverage of the Watergate scandal. Donald E. Graham was named publisher in 1979. The newspaper is known for its sound and independent editorial stance and thorough, accurate reporting.

Washington University Private university in St. Louis, Mo. It was founded as a seminary in 1853 and became a university in 1857. It is a comprehensive research and teaching institution, with one of the leading medical schools in the U.S. It has a college of arts and sciences, a gradu¬ ate school, and schools of architecture, business (the Olin School), engi¬ neering and applied science, fine arts, law, and social work. Research facilities include a space science centre, a centre for the study of Islamic culture and society, and an institute for the deaf.

Washita \'wa-shi-,t6\ River River, west- and south-central Oklahoma, U.S. It rises in northwestern Texas and flows east across the Oklahoma boundary, then southeast to south-central Oklahoma, and south into the Red River. It is 626 mi (1,007 km) long. The Battle of the Washita (Novem¬ ber 1868), in which Gen. George Custer attacked a Cheyenne Indian encampment, took place near Cheyenne.

Washita River See Ouachita River

wasp Any of more than 20,000, usually winged, insect species in the order Hymenoptera. The abdomen is attached to the thorax by a slender petiole, or “waist,” and the female’s abdomen has a formidable stinger. Most species are solitary; about 1,000 species are highly social; and some may be either social or solitary. Adults feed primarily on nectar. Most solitary wasps nest in tunnels in the ground and feed larvae with para¬ lyzed insects or spiders. The paperlike nest of social wasps (family Vesp- idae) consists of chewed plant material mixed with saliva and arranged in adjacent hexagonal cells. The female lays one egg in each cell and pro¬ visions it with a macerated caterpillar. Successive generations may enlarge the nest and care for the young.

Wassermann \'va-s3r-,man,\ English Vwa-sor-manV August von (b. Feb. 21, 1866, Bamberg, Bavaria—d. March 16, 1925, Berlin, Ger.) German bacteriologist. With Albert Neisser (1855-1916) he developed a

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Wassermann ► water lily I 2033

test for the antibody to the spirochete that causes syphilis in 1906. That test, along with other procedures, is still used to diagnose syphilis. He is also noted for developing tests for tuberculosis. With Wilhelm Kolle he wrote Handbook of Pathogenic Microorganisms (6 vol., 1903-09).

Wassermann Vva-S3r- I man,\ English Vwa-sor-monV Jakob (b. March 10, 1873, Fiirth, Bavaria—d. Jan. 1, 1934, Altaussee, Austria) Ger¬ man novelist. After an unsettled youth he achieved success with such works as Die Juden von Zirndorf (1897), Caspar Hauser (1908), and Christian Wahnschaffe (1919). His popularity was greatest in the 1920s and ’30s, when he wrote The Maurizius Case (1928), treating the theme of justice with the carefully plotted suspense of a detective story, and extended the tale of a post-World War I youth into a trilogy with Etzel Andergast (1931) and Kerkhoven’s Third Existence (1934). He is fre¬ quently compared to Fyodor Dostoyevsky in both his moral fervour and his sensationalizing tendency.

Wasserstein Vwa-sor-.stlnX, Wendy (b. Oct. 18, 1950, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.—d. Jan. 30, 2006, New York, N.Y.) U.S. playwright. Wasser¬ stein earned a graduate degree at the Yale School of Drama. She won favourable notice for Uncommon Women and Others (1977), which was followed by Isn’t It Romantic (1981) and The Heidi Chronicles (1988, Tony Award, Pulitzer Prize). She became noted for her comic gift and her portrayals of single women. Her later plays include The Sisters Rosens- weig (1992), An American Daughter (1997), and Third (2005).

Wat Tyler's Rebellion See Peasants' Revolt

watch Portable timepiece designed to be worn on the wrist or carried in the pocket. The first watches appeared shortly after 1500, when the mainspring (see spring) was invented as a replacement for weights in driving CLOCKS. The progressive miniaturization of electronic components in recent decades has made possible the development of all-electronic watches, in which the necessary transistors, resistors, capacitors, and other elements are all on one or several miniature integrated circuits, or chips. Such circuitry enables them to perform several timekeeping functions and also makes possible digital readouts of the time.

water Inorganic compound composed of hydrogen and oxygen (H 2 0), existing in liquid, gas (steam, water vapour), and solid (ice) states. At room temperature, water is a colourless, odourless, tasteless liquid. One of the most abundant compounds, water covers about 75% of Earth’s surface. Life depends on water for virtually every process, its ability to dissolve many other substances being perhaps its most essential quality. Life is believed to have originated in water (the world’s oceans or smaller bod¬ ies), and living organisms use aqueous solutions (including blood and digestive juices) as mediums for carrying out biological processes. Because water molecules are asymmetric and therefore electric dipoles, hydrogen bonding between molecules in liquid water and in ice is impor¬ tant in holding them together. Many of water’s complex and anomalous physical and chemical properties (high melting and boiling points, viscos¬ ity, surface tension, greater density in liquid than in solid form) arise from this extensive hydrogen bonding. Water undergoes dissociation to the ions H + (or H 3 0 + ) and OH - , particularly in the presence of salts and other solutes; it may act as an acid or as a base. Water occurs bound (as water of hydration) in many salts and minerals. It has myriad industrial uses, including as a suspending agent (papermaking, coal slurrying), solvent, diluting agent, coolant, and source of hydrogen; it is used in filtration, washing, steam generation, hydration of lime and cement, textile process¬ ing, sulfur mining, hydrolysis, and hydraulics, as well as in beverages and foods. See also hard water; heavy water.

water bloom Dense aquatic accumulation of microscopic organisms produced by an abundance of nutrients in surface water coupled with adequate sunlight for photosynthesis. The microorganisms or the toxic substances they release may discolour the water, exhaust its oxygen con¬ tent, poison aquatic animals and waterfowl, and irritate the skin and res¬ piratory tract of humans. Single species of algae, diatoms, or dinoflagellates, reproducing every few hours, may dominate a bloom’s population; the number of individuals per quart (litre) of water, normally about 1,000, can increase to 60 million. Blooms of the dinoflagellate genus Gymnodinium cause red tides. The Red Sea is named for the occa¬ sional blooms of the alga Trichodesmium erythraeum. See also water pol¬ lution.

water buffalo or Indian buffalo Any of three subspecies of oxlike bovid (species Bubalus bubalis). Two have been domesticated in Asia since

the earliest recorded history. The animal is named for its ability to work on waterlogged land and in humid climates. The largest breeds stand 5-6 ft (1.5-1.8 m), is up to 9 ft (2.8 m) long, and may weigh over 2,000 lb (900 kg). The dull black or dark gray body has little hair. The horns spread outward and upward, measuring up to 7 ft (2 m) across. One subspecies, the swamp buffalo, is the principal draft animal of southern China and South and Southeast Asia. Another, the river buffalo, is used for dairy and meat production and draft work in southern and South Asia and Egypt. The third subspecies is the wild water buffalo, of which only a few dozen herds remain. It is larger than domestic buffaloes and is sometimes referred to as a separate species {B. arnee).

water chestnut Any of several perennial water plants of the genus Trapa (family Trapaceae), native to Europe, Asia, and Africa, or their edible, nutlike fruit. The water caltrop (T. natans) has two sets of leaves— long, feathery, rootlike, submerged leaves and a loose rosette of floating leaves attached to leafstalks 2-4 in (5-10 cm) long. The small fruit usu¬ ally has four spiny angles. The Chinese water chestnut (. Eleocharis tubero- sus or E. dulcis) is a member of the sedge family.

water clock or clepsydra Vklep-so-droX Ancient device for measur¬ ing time by the gradual flow of water. One form, used by North Ameri¬ can Indians and some African peoples, consisted of a small boat or floating vessel that shipped water through a hole until it sank. In another form, water escaped through a hole in a vessel marked with graduated lines; specimens from Egypt date from the 14th century bc. The Romans invented a clepsydra consisting of a cylinder into which water dripped from a reservoir; a float provided readings against a scale on the cylinder wall. Galileo used a mercury clepsydra to time his experimental falling bodies. See also clock.

water flea Any of about 450 species (order Anomopoda) of micro¬ scopic, mostly freshwater crusta¬ ceans distributed worldwide. Species in the genus Daphnia are ubiquitous in Europe and North America. Water fleas have a discrete head that bears antennae. The carapace (shell) encloses all or most of the body, except on the predatory giant Lep- todora (up to 0.7 in. [18 mm] long), whose carapace is just a small brood sac. Most species swim by powerful strokes of the antennae, sometimes producing a hopping-and-sinking motion. All but a few predatory spe¬ cies use specialized thoracic limbs to filter organic matter from the water. See also copepod.

water frame In textile manufacture, a spinning machine powered by water that produced a cotton yarn suitable for warp (lengthwise threads). Patented in 1769 by R. Arkwright, it represented an improvement on James Hargreaves’s spinning jenny, which produced weaker thread suitable only for weft (filling yam).

water hyacinth Any of about five species of aquatic plants that make up the genus Eichhornia of the pick¬ erel weed family (Pontederiaceae).

They are native mainly to the New World tropics. Some species float in shallow water; others are rooted in muddy streambanks and lakeshores.

All have slender rootstocks, feathery roots, rosettes of stalked leaves, and flowers arranged in spikes or clus¬ ters. The common water hyacinth (E. crassipes ) is the most widespread.

The leafstalk is spongy and inflated, and the upper lobes of its purple flowers have blue and yellow mark¬ ings. It reproduces quickly, often clogging slow-flowing streams. It is used as an ornamental in outdoor pools and aquariums.

water lily Any of the freshwater plants in eight genera that make up the family Nymphaeaceae, native to temperate and tropical regions. All are perennial except those in the genus Euryale. Most have rounded, floating, waxy-coated leaves growing atop long stalks that contain many

Water flea of the genus Daphnia (mag¬ nified about 30x)

ERIC V. GRAVE-PHOTO RESEARCHERS

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2034 I water moccasin ► watercress

air spaces. Thick, fleshy, creeping underwater stems are buried in the mud. In some species the leaves are also submerged. Showy, solitary, cuplike flowers with numerous spi¬ rally arranged petals are borne at or above the water surface on the long stalks. The genus Nymphaea includes the water lilies proper (or water nymphs). The common North American white water lily, pond lily, or toad lily is N. odorata. The LOTUS of ancient Egyptian art was usually the blue lotus ( N. caerulea). The largest water lilies are two species that make up the tropical South American genus Victoria ; the Santa Cruz water lily ( V. cruziana ) has leaves 2-6 ft (60-180 cm) in diam¬ eter. Water lilies provide food for fish and wildlife but sometimes cause drainage problems because of their rapid growth. Many varieties have been developed for ornamental use in gar¬ den pools and conservatories.

water moccasin or cotton mouth Either of two species of pit viper that inhabits marshy lowlands of the southeastern U.S. and Mexico. The U.S. species ( Agkistrodon piscivorus ) is called a cottonmouth because it threatens with the mouth open, showing the white interior. It is up to 5 ft (1.5 m) long and is completely black or brown with darker crossbands. A dangerous snake with a potentially lethal bite, it tends to stand its ground or move slowly away when alarmed. It will eat almost any small animal, including turtles, fishes, and birds. See also copperhead.

water ouzel See dipper

water pollution State resulting when substances are released into a body of water, where they become dissolved or suspended in the water or deposited on the bottom, accumulating to the extent that they over¬ whelm its capacity to absorb, break down, or recycle them, and thus inter¬ fering with the functioning of aquatic ecosystems. Contributions to water pollution include substances drawn from the air (see acid rain), silt from soil erosion, chemical fertilizers and pesticides, runoff from septic tanks, outflow from livestock feedlots, chemical wastes (some toxic) from indus¬ tries, and sewage and other urban wastes from cities and towns. A com¬ munity far upstream in a watershed may thus receive relatively clean water, whereas one farther downstream receives a partly diluted mixture of urban, industrial, and rural wastes. When organic matter exceeds the capacity of microorganisms in the water to break it down and recycle it, the excess of nutrients in such matter encourages algal water blooms. When these algae die, their remains add further to the organic wastes already in the water, and eventually the water becomes deficient in oxy¬ gen. Organisms that do not require oxygen then attack the organic wastes, releasing gases such as methane and hydrogen sulfide, which are harm¬ ful to the oxygen-requiring forms of life. The result is a foul-smelling, waste-filled body of water. See also eutrophication.

water polo Sport played in a swimming pool by teams of seven with a buoyant ball resembling a football (soccer ball). The ball may be car¬ ried or thrown, and a point is scored when the ball is placed in the oppos¬ ing team’s goal. The name derives from a mid-19th-century version of the sport in which players rode barrels and struck the ball with sticks. A rough and demanding game, it is played by both men and women. Mod¬ ern water polo was introduced as an Olympic sport in 1900.

European species are less water-dependent and lay eggs. In defense they inflate the head, strike, and release a foul secretion. Average length is about 3 ft (1 m); some Old World species reach 6 ft (1.8 m).

water-supply system Facilities for the collection, treatment, stor¬ age, and distribution of water. Ancient systems included wells, storage reservoirs, canals and aqueducts, and water-distribution systems. Highly advanced systems appeared c. 2500 bc and reached their peak in the Roman aqueduct system. In the Middle Ages, water supplies were largely neglected and epidemics caused by waterborne organisms were common. In the 17th-18th century, distribution systems utilizing cast-iron pipes, aqueducts, and pumps began to be installed. The link between polluted water and disease came to be understood in the 19th century, and treat¬ ment methods such as slow sand filtration and disinfection with chlorine were introduced. Modem reservoirs are formed usually by constructing dams near the collection point of mountain-water runoff or across rivers. After the water reaches collection points, it is treated to improve its qual¬ ity; it is then pumped either directly into a city or town’s distribution sys¬ tem or to an elevated storage location, such as a water tank. See also plumbing.

water table or groundwater table Surface of a body of under¬ ground water below which the soil or rocks are permanently saturated with water. The water table separates the groundwater zone (zone of satu¬ ration) that lies below it from the zone of aeration that lies above it. The water table fluctuates both with the seasons and from year to year because it is affected by climatic variations and by the amount of precipitation used by vegetation. It also is affected by withdrawing excessive amounts of water from wells or by recharging them artificially. See also aquifer.

marsh

present water table (wet season)

aerated

zone

stream

lake

dry-season water table

saturated

zone

Seasonal variations in groundwater levels.

© MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

waterbuck Species of antelope ( Kobus ellipsiprymnus ) that lives in herds, usually near water, on plains and floodplains and in woodlands and swamps of sub-Saharan Africa. Waterbucks are almost 5 ft (1.5 m) high at the shoulder. Males have long, heavily ridged horns that curve back¬ ward and then upward. The coarse, shaggy coat is grayish, and the rump has a white ring.

Waterbury City (pop., 2000: 107,271), western Connecticut, U.S. Located on the Naugatuck River, Mattatuck Plantation was settled in 1674 as part of Farmington, Conn., and was later incorporated (1686) as the town of Waterbury. The city of Waterbury, incorporated in 1853, was con¬ solidated with the town in 1902. In the 19th century it became the nation’s largest producer of brass products. Other manufactures include clocks, watches, and chemicals. It is the financial and commercial centre of west¬ ern Connecticut.

water resource Any of the entire range of natural waters (vapour, liq¬ uid, or solid) that occur on the Earth and that are of potential use to humans. These resources include the waters of the oceans, rivers, and lakes; groundwater and deep subsurface waters; and glaciers and perma¬ nent snowfields. Continuing increase in water use has led to growing con¬ cern over the availability and quality of water supplies.

water snake Any of 65-80 snake species of the genera Natrix and Nerodia, as well as similar snakes of the family Colubridae, found world¬ wide except in South America. Most species have a stout body with dark blotches or streaks and ridged scales. Some are simliar in appearance to venomous species. They kill fishes and amphibians with a nonvenomous bite. The New World species live in or near water and bear live young;

watercolour Painting made with a pigment ground in gum, usually gum arabic, and applied with brush and water to a surface, usually paper. The pigment is ordinarily transparent but can be made opaque by mixing with a whiting to produce GOUACHE. Transparent watercolour allows for freshness and luminosity. Whereas oil paintings achieve their effects by a building up of colour, watercolours rely on what is left out, with empty, unpainted spaces being an integral part of the work.

watercress Perennial plant ( Nasturtium officinale ) of the mustard fam¬ ily, native to Eurasia and naturalized throughout North America. It grows submerged, floating on the water, or spread over mud surfaces in cool, flowing streams. White flowers are followed by small, beanlike seedpods. Watercress is often cultivated in tanks for its young shoots, which are used

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Wateree River ► Waterton Lakes National Park I 2035

in salads. The delicate, light green, peppery-flavoured leaves are rich in vitamin C. Since watercress grown near cattle and sheep feedlots can become contaminated by feces containing cysts of the liver fluke, agent of the illness fascioliasis (liver rot), regulations specify that commercial watercress beds be protected from such pollution.

Wateree River River, central South Carolina, U.S. It enters the state from North Carolina as the Catawba River but is known as the Wateree in South Carolina. It joins the Congaree River to form the Santee River. The Wateree-Catawba River is 395 mi (636 km) long. The Wateree flows through a series of lakes and reservoirs, the largest of which is Wateree Lake, 15 mi (24 km) long.

waterfall Area where flowing river water drops abruptly and nearly vertically. A waterfall may also be termed a falls, or, when large volumes of water are involved, a cataract. Waterfalls of small height and less steepness or a series of small falls are called cascades. Still gentler stretches of river that exhibit turbulent flow and white water are called rapids.

Waterford glass Heavy cut glassware, produced in Waterford, Ire., from the 1720s to the present, characterized by thick walls, deeply incised geometric cutting, and brilliant polish. Characteristic Waterford products include Rococo chandeliers, wall lamps, sconces, bowls, and vases. After c. 1770 Waterford glassmakers gradually abandoned the Rococo style in favour of the more restrained Neoclassical style popular in England.

waterfowl Any member of the family Anatidae, web-footed birds with a broad bill containing fine plates, or lamellae; usually stocky and often long-necked, including ducks, geese (see goose), and swans. Waterfowl feed by dabbling, diving, or grazing. Most species are social and have an array of formal displays and group cohesion signals. Almost all breed in water. The female usually selects the nest site, builds the nest from any vegetation within reach, and incubates the 3-12 eggs. Shortly after hatch¬ ing, the young imprint on their mother (see imprinting). Many species are migratory.

Watergate scandal (1972-74) Political scandal involving illegal activities by Pres. Richard Nixon’s administration. In June 1972 five bur¬ glars were arrested after breaking into the Democratic Party’s national headquarters at the Watergate Hotel complex in Washington, D.C. Within a few days of their arrest at the Watergate, charges of burglary and wire¬ tapping were brought against the five and two others, including a former White House aide and G. Gordon Liddy, general counsel for the Com¬ mittee to Reelect the President. Nixon and his aides steadfastly denied that anyone in the administration had been involved, despite persistent press reports to the contrary, and in November 1972 Nixon was easily reelected. In January 1973 the trial of the burglars was held before Judge John Sirica; five pleaded guilty and two were convicted by a jury. Siri¬ ca’s direct questioning of witnesses revealed details of a cover-up by H.R. Haldeman, John D. Ehrlichman, and John W. Dean. They and Attorney General Richard G. Kleindienst resigned in April. The new attorney gen¬ eral, Elliot L. Richardson (1920-98), appointed Archibald Cox (b. 1912) as special prosecutor. A Senate committee under Samuel Ervin held tele¬ vised hearings in which the existence of tapes of conversations in the president’s office was disclosed. Cox and Ervin subpoenaed the tapes, but Nixon refused to relinquish them and ordered Cox fired (Oct. 20, 1973). Richardson resigned in protest, and the public outcry eventually forced Nixon to surrender the tapes (December 8), which revealed clear signs of his involvement in the cover-up. In July 1974 the Judiciary Committee of the House of Representatives passed three articles of impeachment against Nixon. On August 5 Nixon supplied three tapes that clearly impli¬ cated him in the cover-up. Though Nixon continued to insist that he had not committed any offenses, he resigned on Aug. 8, 1974. He was par¬ doned a month later by his successor, Gerald Ford.

Waterloo, Battle of (June 18, 1815) Final defeat of Napoleon and French forces in the Napoleonic Wars. The battle was fought near Water¬ loo village, south of Brussels, during the Hundred Days of Napoleon’s res¬ toration, by Napoleon’s 72,000 troops against the duke of Wellington’s combined Allied army of 68,000 aided by 45,000 Prussians under Geb- hard von Blucher. After the French defeated the Prussians at Ligny and held Wellington at Quatre-Bras in secondary battles on June 16, Napo¬ leon’s marshals, including Michel Ney, failed to eliminate either enemy while they were separated. Napoleon delayed his attack at Waterloo until midday, to allow the ground to dry, which enabled Bliicher’s main force to escape the pursuing French and join Wellington. Four French attacks

on the Allied centre failed to break through, and Napoleon had to move troops to meet the Prussian flanking attack. When Ney succeeded in cap¬ turing a farmhouse at the centre of the Allied line, his call to Napoleon for reinforcements was refused. Wellington and his forces, though vul¬ nerable after heavy losses, repulsed the final French assault and turned to advance against the French, forcing them into a disorganized retreat. The French suffered 25,000 killed and wounded, and 9,000 were captured; Wellington’s casualties were 15,000, and Bliicher’s were about 8,000. Four days later, Napoleon abdicated for the last time.

Waterloo, University of Public university in Waterloo, Ont., Can., founded in 1957. It has faculties of applied health sciences, arts, engi¬ neering, environmental studies, mathematics, and science, as well as schools of accounting, architecture, optometry, and urban and regional planning. Special facilities include museums of optometry and of games.

watermelon Succulent fruit of Citrullus lanatus (formerly C. vul¬ garis), in the gourd family, native to tropical Africa and cultivated on every continent except Antarctica. The vines spread across the ground with branched tendrils, deeply cut leaves, and light-yellow flowers. Each vine bears 2-15 large, reddish, white, or yellow, sweet, very juicy fruits with flat black seeds. Varieties differ in flesh color, shape, and rind thick¬ ness. The rind may be preserved as a pickle.

waterpower Power produced by a stream of water as it turns a wheel or similar device. The waterwheel, probably invented in the 1st century bc, was widely used throughout the Middle Ages and into modem times for grinding grain, operating bellows for furnaces, and other purposes. The more compact water turbine, which passes water through a series of fixed and rotating blades, was introduced in 1827. Water turbines, used originally for direct mechanical drive for irrigation, now are used almost exclusively to generate hydroelectric power.

Waters, Ethel (b. Oct. 31, 1896/1900. Chester, Pa., U.S.—d. Sept. 1, 1977, Chatsworth, Calif.) U.S. blues and jazz singer and actress. She was a professional singer by age 17, and she recorded with jazzmen such as Duke Ellington and Benny Goodman in the 1930s. She made her Broad¬ way debut in the Africana revue (1927) and later had a lead role in Black¬ birds (1930). In 1933 she appeared in Irving Berlin’s musical As Thousands Cheer, in which she sang “Heat Wave” and “Suppertime.” Her later stage successes included Cabin in the Sky (1940; film, 1943) and The Member of the Wedding (1950; film, 1952). She also acted in films such as Pinky (1949) and The Sound and the Fury (1959).

Waters, Muddy orig. McKinley Morganfield (b. April 4, 1915, Rolling Fork, Miss., U.S.—d. April 30, 1983, Westmont, Ill.) U.S. blues guitarist and singer. He grew up in the cotton country of Mississippi and taught himself harmonica as a child. He later took up guitar, eagerly absorbing the classic delta blues styles of Robert Johnson and Son House. He was first recorded in 1941 by archivist Alan Lomax (see John Lomax). In 1943 he moved to Chicago; there he broke with the country blues style by playing over a heavy dance rhythm, adopting the electric guitar and adding piano and drums while retaining a moan-and-shout vocal style and lyrics that were by turns mournful, boastful, and risque. The result came to be known as urban blues, from which sprang in large part later forms such as rock music and soul music. A surge in interest in the roots of popu¬ lar music in the early 1960s brought Waters widespread fame, and he per¬ formed internationally into the 1970s.

waterskiing Sport of planing and jumping on water skis, broad ski¬ like runners that a rider wears while being towed by a motorboat. The sport originated in the U.S. in the 1920s. International competitions have been held since 1946. Single-ski slalom competition is held on a course consisting of a specified number of buoys around which the skier must negotiate. Jumping competitions employ a ramp; skiers are judged for distance and style. Barefoot and trick skiing are also part of some com¬ petitions. A later development in waterskiing, wakeboarding began in the U.S. in the 1980s when surfers began riding their boards as they were pulled behind boats. Since the mid 1990s wakeboarding has been an event at both the Gravity Games and the X Games (see extreme sports) and has become the fastest-growing water sport worldwide.

Waterton Lakes National Park Mountain recreational area, west¬ ern Canada. Located in southwestern Alberta, it became a national park in 1895. It covers 203 sq mi (525 sq km). It adjoins the U.S. border and Glacier National Park in the U.S.; the two parks together compose the Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park, dedicated in 1932.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

2036 I waterwheel ► Watts

waterwheel Machine for tapping the energy of running or falling water (hence a prime mover) by means of a set of paddles or buckets mounted around a wheel. The force of the moving water against the paddles, or the weight of water poured into the buckets, rotates the wheel. The resulting power is transmitted to machinery via the shaft of the wheel. The waterwheel was perhaps the earliest source of mechanical energy to replace that of humans and animals, and it was first used for such tasks as raising water and grinding grain. See also waterpower.

Watie \'wa-te\, Stand orig. De Gata Ga (b. Dec. 12, 1806, Rome, Ga., U.S.—d. Sept. 9, 1871) American Indian leader. He learned English at a mission school and helped publish the Cherokee Phoenix, a tribal newspaper. In 1835 he joined three other Cherokee chiefs to sign the Treaty of New Echota, which surrendered Cherokee lands in Georgia and forced the tribe to move to Indian Territory in present-day Oklahoma. In the American Civil War he raised a mounted Cherokee rifle regiment and joined the Confederate army. He directed cavalry raids on the fields and other property of Indians who backed the Union. Promoted to brigadier general (1864), he remained loyal to the Confederacy even after the tribe ended its alliance. After the war, he went to Washington, D.C., as a rep¬ resentative of the southern Cherokee.

Watling Street Ancient Roman road in Britain. Extending from Lon¬ don to Wroxeter, it was one of the great arterial roads of Roman Britain. In the 9th century it divided Mercia. Later the name was applied to other main roads, including the London-Dover road that ran through Canter¬ bury.

Watson, Doc orig. Arthel Lane Watson (b. March 2, 1923, Stony Fork, near Deep Gap, N.C., U.S.) U.S. country music singer, banjoist, and guitarist. Blind from birth, Watson grew up on a farm and learned to play guitar, banjo, and harmonica as a child. Though he did not record profes¬ sionally until he was in his late 30s, he quickly rose to prominence with his renditions of traditional and popular tunes backed by his virtuoso flat¬ picking guitar style. He appeared at the 1963 Newport Folk Festival to great acclaim. He performed for many years with his son Merle (1949-

85).

Watson, James D(ewey) (b. April 6, 1928, Chicago, Ill., U.S.) U.S. geneticist and biophysicist. He earned his Ph.D. at Indiana University in 1950. Using X-ray diffraction techniques, he began work in Britain with Francis Crick on the problem of DNA structure. In 1952 he determined the structure of the protein coat surrounding the tobacco mosaic virus. In early 1953 he determined that the essential DNA components, four organic bases, must be linked in definite pairs, a discovery that enabled Watson and Crick to formulate a double-helix molecular model for DNA. In 1962 the two scientists and Maurice Wilkins shared the Nobel Prize. Watson’s The Double Helix (1968), a best-selling personal account of the DNA dis¬ covery, aroused controversy. He taught at Harvard University (1955-76) and served as director of the Carnegie Institute’s laboratory at Cold Spring Harbor (1968-94). See also Rosalind Franklin.

Watson, John B(roadus) (b. Jan. 9, 1878, Travelers Rest, near Greenville, S.C., U.S.—d. Sept. 25, 1958, New York, N.Y.) U.S. psy¬ chologist. Trained at the University of Chicago, Watson taught psychol¬ ogy at Johns Hopkins University (1908-20). He is remembered for codifying and publicizing behaviourism. In his epoch-making article, “Psychology as a Behaviorist Views It” (1913), he asserted that psychol¬ ogy should restrict itself to the objective, experimental study of the rela¬ tions between environmental events and human behaviour. In Behavior (1914) he argued for the use of animal subjects in studying reflexes and conditioned responses, and in Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behav¬ iorist (1919) he extended the principles and methods he employed in ani¬ mal experiments. In 1920 he left academia to enter the advertising business.

Watson, Thomas J(ohn), Sr. (b. Feb. 17, 1874, Campbell, N.Y., U.S.—d. June 19, 1956, New York, N.Y.) U.S. industrialist. He went to work for the National Cash Register Co. in 1899. In 1914 he became president of the company that in 1924 became International Business Machines Corporation (IBM), which he built into the world’s largest manufacturer of electric typewriters and data-processing equipment. Backing an aggressive research-and-development program, he assembled a highly motivated, well-trained, and well-paid staff, gave pep talks, enforced a strict dress code, and posted the now-famous “Think” sign in company offices. In the 1930s and ’40s he pursued international trade, extending IBM’s influence worldwide. Active in civic affairs, he was

noted for his efforts on behalf of the arts and world peace. His son Tho¬ mas John Watson, Jr. (1914-93), succeeded him as president (1952), chairman (1961), and CEO (1972).

Watson, Tom in full Thomas Sturges Watson (b. Sept. 4, 1949, Kansas City, Mo., U.S.) U.S. golfer. Watson attended Stanford University before becoming a professional golfer in 1971. He became one of the sport’s dominant figures in the 1970s and early ’80s, winning the British Open (1975, 1977, 1980, 1982, 1983), the Masters (1977, 1981), and the U.S. Open (1982).

Watson-Watt, Sir Robert Alexander (b. April 13, 1892, Brechin, Scot.—d. Dec. 5, 1973, Inverness) Scottish physicist. He began as a meteorologist working on devices for locating thunderstorms. As head of the radio department of Britain’s National Physical Laboratory (1935), he worked on aircraft radio location and could locate planes at a distance of about 80 mi (110 km) by beaming radio waves at them, receiving reflec¬ tions of the waves, and calculating distance by elapsed time. This led to the design of the world’s first practical radar system, a vital element in the defense of Britain against German air raids during World War II. His other contributions include a cathode-ray direction finder used to study atmospheric phenomena, research in electromagnetic radiation, and inventions used for flight safety.

Watt, James (b. Jan. 19, 1736, Greenock, Renfrewshire, Scot.—d. Aug. 25, 1819, Heathfield Hall, near Birmingham, Warwick, Eng.) Scot¬ tish engineer and inventor. Though largely self-taught, he began work early as an instrument maker and later as an engineer on the Forth and Clyde Canal. Watt’s major improve¬ ment to Thomas Newcomen’s steam engine was the use of a separate con¬ denser (1769), which reduced the loss of latent heat and greatly increased its efficiency. With Mat¬ thew Boulton he began manufacture of his new engine in 1775. In 1781 he added rotary motion (a so-called sun-and-planet gear) to replace the up-and-down action of the original engine. In 1782 he patented the double-acting engine, in which the piston pushed as well as pulled. This engine required a new method of rig¬ idly connecting the piston to the beam, a problem he solved in 1784 with an arrangement of connected rods that guided the piston rod in a perpendicular motion. His application of the centrifugal governor for automatic control of the speed of the engine (1788) and his invention of a pressure gauge (1790) virtually completed the Watt engine, which had immense consequences for the Industrial Revo¬ lution. He introduced the concept of horsepower; the watt, a unit of power, is named for him.

Watteau \va-'to,\ English \wa-'to\, (Jean-) Antoine (b. Oct. 10, 1684, Valenciennes, France—d. July 18, 1721, Nogent-sur-Marne) French painter. Son of a roof tiler in Valenciennes, he was apprenticed to a local artist. At 18 he moved to Paris, where he worked for a series of painters; one of them was a theatrical scenery painter, and much of Watteau’s work consequently embraced the artifice of the theatre, particularly the comme- dia dell'arte and the ballet. His works typified the lyrically charming and graceful Rococo style. The greatest, his Pilgrimage to the Island of Cythera, depicts pilgrims setting out for (or departing from) the mythic island of love and was his presentation piece when he was inducted into the academy in 1717. The academicians, unable to fit him into any of the recognized categories, welcomed him as a painter of fetes galantes (“elegant festivities”), an important new genre to which countless later Rococo pictures belong.

wattle See acacia

Watts, Andre (b. June 20, 1946, Niimberg, Ger.) German-born U.S. pianist. Son of an African American soldier and a Hungarian mother, he made his debut at age nine at a Philadelphia Orchestra children’s concert. He attracted wide attention when at age 16 he performed on television

James Watt, oil painting by H. Howard; in the National Portrait Gal¬ lery, London.

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, LONDON

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Watts ► wax sculpture I 2037

under conductor Leonard Bernstein. Though already a mature musician, he chose to continue study with Leon Fleischer (b. 1928). In 1976 he gave a concert that was the first live television broadcast of a solo recital in history. His surpassing technique and understated manner made him a favoured concert performer, and his popularity continued into the 21st century.

Watts, Isaac (b. July 17, 1674, Southampton, Hampshire, Eng.—d. Nov. 25, 1748, Stoke Newington, London) English Nonconformist min¬ ister, regarded as the father of English hymnody. Watts studied at the Dis¬ senting Academy at Stoke Newington, London, and he later became pastor of Mark Lane Independent (i.e.. Congregational) Chapel. His collections of sacred lyrics include Horae Lyricae (1706), Hymns and Spiritual Songs (1707), and The Psalms of David Imitated in the Language of the New Testament (1719). His hymns, numbering more than 600, became known throughout Protestant Christendom; they include “When I Survey the Wondrous Cross,” “O God, Our Help in Ages Past,” “Joy to the World,” and “Jesus Shall Reign.” A man of great erudition, he published books on a range of subjects.

Watusi See Tutsi

wave Propagation of disturbances from place to place in a regular and organized way. Most familiar are surface waves that travel on water, but sound, light, and the motion of subatomic particles all exhibit wavelike properties. In the simplest waves, the disturbance oscillates periodically (see periodic motion) with a fixed frequency and wavelength. Mechanical waves, such as sound, require a medium through which to travel, while electromagnetic waves (see electromagnetic radiation) do not require a medium and can be propagated through a vacuum. Propagation of a wave through a medium depends on the medium’s properties. See also seismic WAVE.

wave In oceanography, a ridge or swell on the surface of a body of water, normally having a forward motion distinct from the motions of the par¬ ticles that compose it. Ocean waves are fairly regular, with an identifiable wavelength between adjacent crests and with a definite frequency of oscil¬ lation. Waves result when a generating force (usually the wind) displaces surface water and a restoring force returns it to its undisturbed position. Surface tension alone is the restoring force for small waves. For large waves, gravity is more important.

wave-cut platform or abrasion platform Gently sloping rock ledge that extends from the high-tide level at a steep cliff base to below the low-tide level. It develops as a result of wave abrasion; beaches pro¬ tect the shore from abrasion and therefore prevent the formation of plat¬ forms. A platform is broadened as waves erode a notch at the base of the sea cliff, causing overhanging rock to fall. As the sea cliffs are attacked, weak rocks are quickly eroded, leaving the more resistant rocks as pro¬ trusions.

wave front Imaginary surface that represents corresponding points of waves vibrating in unison. As identical waves from the same source travel through a homogeneous medium, corresponding crests and troughs are in phase at any instant; that is, they have completed the same fraction of their periodic motion. Any surface drawn through all points of the same phase constitutes a wave front.

wave function Variable quantity that mathematically describes the wave characteristics of a particle. It is related to the likelihood of the par¬ ticle being at a given point in space at a given time, and may be thought of as an expression for the amplitude of the particle wave, though this is strictly not physically meaningful. The square of the wave function is the significant quantity, as it gives the probability for finding the particle at a given point in space and time. See also wave-particle duality.

wave-particle duality Principle that subatomic particles possess some wavelike characteristics, and that electromagnetic waves, such as light, possess some particlelike characteristics. In 1905, by demonstrating the photoelectric EFFECT, Albert Einstein showed that light, which until then had been thought of as a form of electromagnetic wave (see electromagnetic radiation), must also be thought of as localized in packets of discrete energy (see photon). In 1924 Louis-Victor Broglie proposed that electrons have wave properties such as wavelength and frequency; their wavelike nature was experimentally established in 1927 by the demonstration of their diffraction. The theory of quantum electrodynamics combines the wave theory and the particle theory of electromagnetic radiation.

waveguide Device that constrains the path of electromagnetic waves (see electromagnetic radiation). It can be used to transmit power or signals in the form of waves while minimizing power loss. Common examples are metallic tubes, coaxial cables, and optical fibres (see fibre optics). Waveguides transmit energy by propagating transmitted electromagnetic waves through the inside of a tube to a receiver at the other end. Metal waveguides are used in such technologies as microwave ovens, radar sys¬ tems, radio relay systems, and radio telescopes.

wavelength Distance between corresponding points of two consecu¬ tive waves. “Corresponding points” refers to two points or particles that have completed identical fractions of their periodic motion. In transverse waves, wavelength is measured from crest to crest or from trough to trough. In longitudinal waves, it is measured from compression to com¬ pression or from rarefaction to rarefaction. Wavelength, X, is equal to the speed v of a wave in a medium divided by its frequency f or X = v/f

Wavell Vwa-val\ (of Eritrea and of Winchester), Archibald Percival Wavell, 1st Earl (b. May 5, 1883, Colchester, Essex, Eng.—d. May 24, 1950, London) British army officer. Recognized as an excellent trainer of troops, he became British commander in chief for the Middle East in 1939. In World War II he was noted for his defeat of the numerically superior Italian armies in North Africa (1940—41) but was unable to stop the German force under Erwin Rommel in the North Africa Campaign. As commander in chief of Southeast Asia (1941-43), he failed to stop the Japanese conquests of Malaya, Singapore, and Burma (1942). Promoted to field marshal, he served as viceroy of India (1943^-7).

wax Any of a class of pliable substances, organic compounds of animal, plant, mineral, or synthetic origin, less greasy, harder, and more brittle than fats. Waxes contain mostly compounds of high molecular weight (fatty acids, alcohols, and saturated hydrocarbons). Many melt at moderate tem¬ peratures and form hard films that can take a high polish. Animal and plant waxes are esters of fatty acids and either a sterol (see steroid) or a straight-chain higher alcohol (e.g., cetyl alcohol). Animal waxes include beeswax; wool wax (lanolin), used in pharmaceuticals and cosmetics; and sperm oil and spermaceti (from sperm whales), used as lubricants. Plant waxes include carnauba wax, candelilla wax, and sugarcane wax, used in polishes. About 90% of the waxes in commerce are recovered by de¬ waxing petroleum. There are three main types: paraffin (used in candles, crayons, paper coating, and industrial polishes and as a protective seal¬ ant, lubricant, insulating agent, and antifrothing agent), microcrystalline wax (used in paper coating), and petrolatum (used in ointments and cos¬ metics). Synthetic waxes (carbowaxes), derived from ethylene glycol, are commonly blended with petroleum waxes.

wax sculpture Figures modeled or molded in beeswax, either as fin¬ ished pieces or for use as forms for casting metal (see lost-wax casting) or creating preliminary models. At ordinary temperatures, beeswax can be cut and molded easily, it melts at a low temperature, it mixes with any

Waugh Vw6\, Evelyn (Arthur St. John) (b. Oct. 28, 1903, Lon

don, Eng.—d. April 10, 1966, Combe Florey, near Taunton, Som¬ erset) English novelist. After an Oxford education, he devoted him¬ self to solitary, observant travel and the writing of novels, soon earning a wide reputation for sardonic wit and technical brilliance. His finest satiri¬ cal novels are Decline and Fall (1928), Vile Bodies (1930), Black Mischief (1932), A Handful of Dust (1934), Scoop (1938), and The Loved One (1948). He converted to Roman Catholicism in 1930, and his Catholicism is insistently reflected in his novels from then on. After ser¬ vice in World War II he led a retired life, growing increasingly conserva¬ tive and misanthropic. His later works, more serious and ambitious but written with less elan, include Brideshead Revisited (1945) and the Sword of Honour trilogy —Men at Arms (1952), Officers and Gentlemen der (1961).

Evelyn Waugh, photograph by Mark Gerson, 1964.

CAMERA PRESS

(1955), and Unconditional Surren-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

2038 I waxwing ► weathering

colouring matter and takes surface tints well, and its texture can be modi¬ fied by a variety of additives. The ancient Egyptians used wax figures of deities in their funeral rites, and the Romans used wax images as presents in the Saturnalia. Michelangelo used wax models in making preliminary sketches for his statues. Wax medallion portraits, popular in the 16th cen¬ tury, enjoyed renewed popularity in the 18th century. John Flaxman made many wax portraits and relief figures which Josiah Wedgwood translated into pottery. Exhibitions of wax figures are still popular, the most famous being those of Madame Tussaud’s museums in London and other interna¬ tional cities.

waxwing Any of three species (family Bombycillidae) of elegant¬ looking songbirds named for shiny red beads on the tips of the second¬ ary wing feathers. All species are gray-brown and have a tapering crest. The common, or Bohemian, waxwing {Bombycilla garrulus ) is 8 in. (20 cm) long and has yellow, white, and red wing markings. It breeds in northern forests of Eurasia and America. The cedar waxwing {B. cedrorum ), smaller and less colourful, breeds in Canada and the northern U.S. Flocks of wax wings may invade city parks and gardens in winter, searching for berries. The Japanese waxwing ( B. japonica ) is restricted to northeastern Asia.

Wayne, Anthony (b. Jan. 1, 1745, near Paoli, Pa.—d. Dec. 15, 1796, Presque Isle, Pa., U.S.) American Revolutionary officer. He owned a tan¬ nery before he was commissioned a colonel in the Continental Army (1776). He aided the American retreat from Canada and was given com¬ mand of Fort Ticonderoga (1776). Promoted to brigadier general (1777), he led troops in the battles of the Brandywine, Paoli, and Germantown. He led the successful storming of the British fort at Stony Point, N.Y. (1779), earning the nickname “Mad Anthony” for his boldness. He served in the Siege of Yorktown and later defeated the Indians allied with the British in Georgia. In 1792 Pres. George Washington sent Wayne to fight the Indians in the Ohio Territory, and he decisively ended Indian resis¬ tance at the Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794).

Wayne, John orig. Marion Michael Morrison (b. May 26, 1907, Winterset, Iowa, U.S.—d. June 11, 1979, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. film actor. While a member of the University of Southern California football team, he worked summers at the Fox Film Corporation as a propman and developed a friendship with director John Ford, who cast him in small parts from 1928. After his leading role in The Big Trail (1930), he played in more than 80 low-budget movies before winning acclaim for his star¬ ring role as the Ringo Kid in Ford’s Stagecoach (1939). Noted for his image as the strong, silent man, Wayne, nicknamed “Duke,” became one of the top box-office attractions in movie history. He starred in other westerns (many directed by Ford) such as Red River (1948), She Wore a Yellow Ribbon (1949), Rio Grande (1950), The Searchers (1956), Rio Bravo (1959), and True Grit (1969, Academy Award), as well as in The Quiet Man (1952), The Alamo (1960), which he also directed, Hatari! (1962), and The Green Berets (1968), which he codirected.

wazir See vizier

WCTU See Woman's Christian Temperance Union

weak force or weak nuclear force Fundamental interaction that underlies some forms of radioactivity and certain interactions between sub¬ atomic particles. It acts on all elementary particles that have a spin of Vi. The particles interact weakly by exchanging particles that have integer spins. These particles have masses about 100 times that of a proton, and it is this relative massiveness that makes the weak force appear weak at low energies. For example, in radioactive decay, the weak force has a strength about 1/100,000 that of the electromagnetic force. However, it is now known that the weak force has intrinsically the same strength as the electromagnetic force, and the two are believed to be only different mani¬ festations of a single electro weak force (see electroweak theory).

weakfish or sea trout Any of several species (genus Cynoscion ) in the drum family (Sciaenidae), carnivorous bottom-dwelling fishes along warm and tropical seashores. The name weakfish refers to their delicate mouth, which is easily tom by fishhooks. About six species inhabit North American coasts. The weakfish, or sea trout ( Cynoscion regalis), is a sport fish but is usually less than 2 ft (60 cm) long. Weakfish are caught com¬ mercially along the Middle Atlantic coastal states and are considered the most economically important species in the family. The spotted sea trout (C. nebulosus) is found along Florida’s Atlantic and Gulf coasts. Sea trouts resemble but are not related to true trouts.

weapon of mass destruction (WMD) Weapon with the capacity to inflict death and destruction indiscriminately and on a massive scale. The term has been in currency since at least 1937, when it was used to describe massed formations of bomber aircraft. Today WMDs are nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons—frequently referred to collectively as NBC weapons. Efforts to control the spread of WMDs are enshrined in international agreements such as the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty of 1968, the Biological Weapons Convention of 1972, and the Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993. See nuclear weapon; chemical warfare; bio¬ logical WARFARE.

weapons system Any integrated system for the control and opera¬ tion of a specific type of weaponry. Weapons are usually divided into two categories, strategic and tactical. Strategic weapons strike at the seat of an enemy’s military, economic, and political power, targeting cities, fac¬ tories, military bases, transportation and communications networks, and seats of government. Most nuclear weapons are part of strategic weapons systems. Tactical weapons are designed instead for offensive or defensive use at relatively short range—for example, guided missiles intended as anti¬ aircraft and antitank weapons, or other weapons used in aerial and naval combat.

weasel Any of several genera (carnivore family Mustelidae) of vora¬ cious nocturnal predators found throughout the Americas, Africa, and Eurasia. Weasels have slender bodies and necks, small flat heads, short legs, clawed toes, dense short fur, and slim pointed tails. The size and relative length of the tail vary among species. Their total length is 7-20 in.

(17-50 cm), and they may weigh 1—12 oz (30-350 g). The approxi¬ mately 10 New World and Eurasian species of Mustela are reddish brown; in cold regions, their winter coat turns white, and the pelt, especially of the stoat (M. erminea ), is called ermine. Weasels generally hunt alone, feeding on rodents, fish, frogs, and birds’ eggs.

weather State of the atmosphere at a particular place during a short period of time. It involves day-to-day changes in such atmospheric phe¬ nomena as temperature, humidity, precipitation (type and amount), air pressure, wind, and cloud cover. Most weather occurs in the troposphere, but phenomena of the higher regions of the atmosphere, such as jet streams, and geographic features, most notably mountains and large bodies of water, also affect it. See also climate.

weather forecasting Prediction of the weather through application of the principles of physics and meteorology. Weather forecasting predicts atmospheric phenomena and changes on the Earth’s surface caused by atmospheric conditions (snow and ice cover, storm tides, floods, etc.). Scientific weather forecasting relies on empirical and statistical tech¬ niques, such as measurements of temperature, humidity, atmospheric pres¬ sure, wind speed and direction, and precipitation, and computer-controlled mathematical models.

weather modification Deliberate or inadvertent alteration of atmo¬ spheric conditions by human activity, sufficient to modify the weather on a local or regional scale. Deliberate alterations include covering plants to keep them warm at night, seeding clouds to induce or augment precipi¬ tation, and firing silver-iodide particles into clouds to suppress or mitigate hail and to reduce fog at airports. Inadvertent alterations are the result of industrialization and urbanization, which have added billions of tons of carbon dioxide and other gases to the atmosphere (see acid rain, global WARMING, GREENHOUSE EFFECT).

weathering Physical disintegration and chemical decomposition of rocks, minerals, and immature soils at or near the Earth’s surface. Physi¬ cal, chemical, and biological processes induced or modified by wind, water, and climate cause the changes. Weathering is distinguished from erosion in that no transportation of material is involved. A broader appli¬ cation of erosion, however, includes weathering as a component. Weath¬ ering is also distinguished from metamorphism, which usually takes place deep in the crust at much higher temperatures and elevated pressures.

JOHN H. GERARD

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Weaver ► Webster I 2039

Weaver, James B(aird) (b. June 12, 1833, Dayton, Ohio, U.S.—d. Feb. 6, 1912, Des Moines, Iowa) U.S. politician. An advocate of the Greenback movement, he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives from Iowa (1879-81, 1885-89). He helped form the People’s Party (see Populist movement) and was its candidate for president in 1892, receiving more than 1 million popular votes and 22 electoral votes. After helping effect the party’s merger with the Democratic Party, he retired to Iowa.

Weaver, John (b. July 21, 1673, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, Eng.—d. Sept. 24, 1760, Shrewsbury) English dancer and teacher, known as “the father of English pantomime.” From 1700 to 1736 he performed and pro¬ duced his dance dramas at the Drury Lane and Lincoln’s Inn Fields the¬ atres. His libretto for The Loves of Mars and Venus (1717) was the first published dance drama and displayed the integration of plot and dance that was later developed by Jean-Georges Noverre and Gasparo Angiolini as the ballet d’action.

Weaver, Warren (b. 1894, Reedsburg, Wise., U.S.—d. 1978) U.S. mathematician. He studied at the University of Wisconsin, taught there (1920-32), and directed the Rockefeller Foundation’s Natural Science Division (1932-55). He is considered the first person to propose using electronic computers for the translation of natural languages. In a 1949 memo, he proposed that statistical techniques from the field of informa¬ tion theory could be used to enable computers to translate text from one natural language to another automatically. His proposal was based on the assumption that a document in a human language can be viewed as hav¬ ing been written in code, which can be broken like other codes.

weaving Production of fabric by interlacing two sets of yarns so that they cross each other, normally at right angles, usually accomplished with a hand- or power-operated loom. In weaving, lengthwise yarns are called warp and crosswise yarns are called weft, or filling. Most woven fabrics are made with their outer edges finished in a manner that avoids raveling (because the weft yarn turns around instead of ending in a cut end). These edges, called selvages, run lengthwise, parallel to the warp yams. The three basic weaves are plain or tabby (weft threads go over one warp thread, then under one), twill, and satin. Fancy weaves, such as pile, Jac¬ quard, dobby, and leno, require more complicated looms or special loom attachments. See also Navajo weaving.

Web See World Wide Web

Web site Collection of files and related resources accessible through the World Wide Web and organized under a particular domain name. Typi¬ cal files found at a Web site are HTML documents with their associated graphic image files (GIF, JPEG, etc.), scripted programs (in Perl, CGI, Java, etc.), and similar resources. The site’s files are usually accessed through hypertext or hyperlinks embedded in other files. A Web site may consist of a single HTML file, or it may comprise hundreds or thousands of related files. A Web site’s usual starting point or opening page, called a home page, usually functions as a table of contents or index, with links to other sections of the site. Web sites are hosted on one or more Web servers, which transfer files to client computers or other servers that request them using the HTTP protocol. Although the term “site” implies a single physical location, the files and resources of a Web site may actu¬ ally be spread among several servers in different geographic locations. The particular file desired by a client is specified by a URL that is either typed into a browser or accessed by selecting a hyperlink.

Webb, Sidney (James) and Beatrice Beatrice Webb orig. Mar¬ tha Beatrice Potter (respectively b. July 13, 1859, London, Eng.—d. Oct. 13, 1947, Liphook, Hampshire; b. Jan. 22, 1858, Gloucester, Glouc¬ estershire, Eng.—d. April 30, 1943, Liphook, Hampshire) English social¬ ist economists. Sidney was a civil service clerk when George Bernard Shaw induced him to join the Fabian Society in 1885. He wrote the first Fabian tract. Facts for Socialists (1887), and took to lecturing on social¬ ism. In 1891 he met Beatrice, author of The Cooperative Movement in Great Britain (1891), and they were married in 1892. Together they wrote the influential The History of Trade Unionism (1894) and Industrial Democracy (1897). As a member of the London County Council (1892— 1910), Sidney effected extensive reforms in public education. The Webbs cofounded the London School of Economics and helped reorganize the University of London. As a member of the Poor Laws commission (1905- 09), Beatrice wrote a report that anticipated the welfare state. In 1914 they joined the Labour Party, and Sidney wrote its influential policy statement, Labour and the New Social Order (1918). Sidney served in Parliament (1922-29) and as colonial secretary (1929-31), having been created

Baron Passfield of Passfield Corner in 1929. Impressed by the Soviet Union after their trip in 1932, the Webbs wrote Soviet Communism: A New Civilisation? (1935), in which they seemed to abandon their belief in gradual social and political evolution.

Webber, Andrew Lloyd See Andrew Lloyd Webber

Weber \'va-bar\, Carl Maria (Friedrich Ernst) von (b. Nov. 18, 1786, Eutin, Holstein—d. June 5, 1826, London, Eng.) German composer. Son of a musician and a theatre manager, and first cousin to Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s wife, he was born with a deformed hip and was never strong. He took composition lessons with Michael Haydn (1737-1806) and with Abbe Vogler (1749-1814), who recommended him for a post in Breslau (1804-06). His operas began to have success, and he took over direction of the Prague Opera (1813-16), which he saved from ruin, but finding little time for composition, he resigned. Showing signs of the tuberculosis that would kill him, he began to compose more prolifically. Appointed kapellmeister for life in Dresden, he began work on his mas¬ terpiece, the opera The Freeshooter (1821), the premiere of which made him an international star. The libretto for his next opera, Euryanthe (1823), was so clumsy that its admirable music never succeeded, and his final opera, Oberon (1826), composed for London, was a success there but not elsewhere.

Weber Vva-bsrV Max (b. April 21, 1864, Erfurt, Prussia—d. June 14, 1920, Munich, Ger.) German sociologist and political economist. Son of a wealthy liberal politician and a Calvinist mother, Weber was a compul¬ sively diligent scholar who suffered occasional nervous collapses. Insights derived from his own experience inform his most famous and controver¬ sial work, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1904-05), which examines the relationship between Calvinist (or Puritan) morality, compulsive labour, bureaucracy, and economic success under capitalism (see Protestant ethic). Weber also wrote penetratingly on social phenom¬ ena such as charisma and mysticism, which he saw as antithetical to the modern world and its underlying process of rationalization. His efforts helped establish sociology as an academic discipline in Germany, and his work continues to stimulate scholarship. Through his insistence on the need for objectivity and his analysis of human action in terms of moti¬ vation, he profoundly influenced sociological theory. His voluminous writings, mostly published posthumously, include Economy and Society (2 vol., 1922-25) and General Economic History (1923).

Weber-Fechner law See Weber's law

Webern Wa-borM, Anton (Friedrich Wilhelm von) (b. Dec. 3, 1883, Vienna—d. Sept. 15, 1945, Mittersill, near Salzburg, Austria) Aus¬ trian composer. He learned piano and cello as a child and earned a doctorate in musicology at the University of Vienna, specializing in the music of the 15th-century Flemish composer Heinrich Isaac. In 1904 he and his friend Alban Berg began composition lessons with Arnold Schoenberg, and Webern was soon combining atonality with complex counterpoint in the manner of Isaac, producing works distinctive for their extreme brevity and delicacy. While Schoenberg was developing the 12-tone method (see seri- AUSm) of composition into the 1920s, Webern was independently moving in a similar direction. After Schoenberg presented the system in 1924, Webern adopted it, composing relatively extended pieces such as the Symphony (1928), Concerto (1934), and Variations for Piano (1936). He earned a liv¬ ing most of his life as a conductor. During Austria’s occupation at the end of World War II, he was accidentally shot and killed by an American sol¬ dier. Though he was little appreciated during his lifetime, his works became highly influential internationally in the postwar decades.

Weber's law Vva-borz\ or Weber-Fechner law Vfek-nor\ In psy¬ chophysics, a historically important law quantifying the perception of change in a given stimulus. Originated by the German physiologist Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795-1878) in 1834 and elaborated by his student Gustav Theodor Fechner, the law states that the change in a stimulus that will be just noticeable is a constant ratio of the original stimulus. It was later shown not to hold for extremes of stimulation.

Webster, Benjjamin Francis) (b. March 27,1909, Kansas City, Mo., U.S.—d. Sept. 20, 1973, Amsterdam, Neth.) U.S. tenor saxophonist. Influ¬ enced by Coleman Hawkins and Johnny Hodges, he played in several impor¬ tant swing bands before joining that of Duke Ellington in 1940. After 1943 he worked mostly as the leader of small ensembles. He moved to Copen¬ hagen, Den., in 1964. His sensual, breathy tone and wide vibrato were his trademarks, and he became one of the master interpreters of jazz ballads.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

2040 I Webster ► Weed

Webster, Daniel (b. Jan. 18, 1782, Salisbury, N.H., U.S.—d. Oct. 24, 1852, Marshfield, Mass.) U.S. law¬ yer and politician. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1813-17). After moving to Boston (1816), he built a prosperous law practice and represented Massachu¬ setts in the House (1823-27). He argued several precedent-setting cases before the U.S. Supreme Court, including the Dartmouth Col¬ lege case, McCulloch v. Maryland, and Gibbons v. Ogden. Elected to the U.S. Senate (1827-41, 1845-50), he became famous as an orator for his speeches supporting the Union and opposing the nullification movement and its advocates, John C. Calhoun and Robert Y. Hayne. As U.S. secre¬ tary of state (1841-43, 1850-52) he negotiated the Webster-Ashburton Treaty to settle the Canada-Maine border dispute.

Webster, John (b. c. 1580, Lon¬ don, Eng.—d. c. 1632) British play¬ wright. Little is known of his life, but he may have been an actor who began writing plays later in his career. He collaborated with several leading dramatists, including Thomas Dekker. Webster is best remem¬ bered for the revenge tragedies The White Devil (1612) and The Duchess ofMalfi (published 1623), both of which concern the murders and bloody deeds that arise out of family quarrels among the Italian nobility. They are often considered the greatest 17th-century English tragedies apart from those of William Shakespeare.

Webster, Lake See Lake Chargoggagoggmanchauggauggag-

OGGCHAUBUNAGUNGAMAUGG

Webster, Noah (b. Oct. 16,1758, West Hartford, Conn., U.S.—d. May 28, 1843, New Haven, Conn.) U.S. lexicographer and writer. He attended Yale University and then studied law. While working as a teacher in New York, he began his lifelong efforts to promote a distinctively American education. His first step was publishing A Grammatical Institute of the English Language, including The American Spelling Book (1783), the famed “Blue-Backed Speller” that went on to sell some 100 million cop¬ ies. An ardent Federalist, he founded two pro-Federalist newspapers (1793) and wrote articles on politics and many other subjects. He pro¬ duced his first dictionary in 1806; in 1807 he began work on his landmark American Dictionary of the English Language (1828; 2nd ed. 1840). Reflecting his principle that spelling, grammar, and usage should be based on the living, spoken language, it was instrumental in establishing the dignity and vitality of American English. In 1821 Webster cofounded Amherst College. The rights to the dictionary were purchased from his estate by George and Charles Merriam, whose firm developed the Merriam-Webster dictionary series.

Webster-Ashburton Treaty (1842) Treaty between the U.S. and Britain establishing the northeastern boundary of the U.S. Negotiated by U.S. secretary of state Daniel Webster and Britain’s ambassador Lord Ash¬ burton, it also provided for Anglo-U.S. cooperation in the suppression of the slave trade. It fixed the present boundary between Maine and New Brunswick, granted the U.S. navigation rights on the St. John River, pro¬ vided for extradition in nonpolitical criminal cases, and established a joint naval system for suppressing the slave trade off the African coast.

E Wedekind Vva-do-.kintX, Frank orig. Benjamin Franklin

Wedekind (b. July 24, 1864, Hannover, Hanover—d. March 9, 1918, Munich, Ger.) German actor and playwright. He lived in Switzerland (1872-84) and then in Munich, where he worked at various jobs, including journalist and cabaret performer. He wrote plays from 1891, when his trag¬ edy The Awakening of Spring created a scandal with its theme of awakening adolescent sexuality. In his “Lulu” cycle, Earth Spirit (1895) and Pando¬ ra ’s Box ( 1904), he extended the theme of sex to the underworld of society and introduced the amoral Lulu. His plays used episodic scenes, frag¬

mented dialogue, distortion, and caricature, prefiguring the Theatre of the Absurd and forming a transition from realism to Expressionism.

Wedemeyer Vwe-do-.ml-aU, Albert C(oady) (b. July 9, 1897, Omaha, Neb., U.S.—d. Dec. 17, 1989, Ft. Belvoir, Va.) U.S. army officer. He graduated from West Point and served in China, the Philippines, and Europe until World War II. As a staff officer in the war-plans division of the U.S. War Department (1941-43), he was the principal author of the 1941 Victory Program for U.S. entry into the war and helped plan strat¬ egies such as the Normandy Campaign. He became chief of staff to Gen. Chiang Kai-shek and commander of U.S. forces in China (1944-46). He retired in 1951 and was promoted to general in 1954.

wedge In mechanics, a device that tapers to a thin edge, usually made of metal or wood, and used for splitting, lifting, or tightening, such as to secure a hammer head onto its handle. The wedge is considered one of the five simple machines. Wedges have been used since prehistoric times to split logs and rocks; for rocks, wooden wedges, caused to swell by wetting, have been used. In terms of its mechanical function, the screw may be thought of as a wedge wrapped around a cylinder.

Wedgwood, Josiah (baptized July 12, 1730, Burslem, Staffordshire, Eng.—d. Jan. 3, 1795, Etruria, Staffordshire) British pottery designer and manufacturer. His family had been potters since the 17th century. After an apprenticeship with his elder brother, he formed a partnership with another potter and finally went into business for himself. He took a sci¬ entific approach to pottery-making and was so successful that the makers of even Meissen and Sevres porcelain found their trade affected. His many innovations include development of a green glaze still popular today, the perfection of creamware, and the invention of the pyrometer. His daughter Susannah was the mother of Charles Darwin. See also Wedgwood ware; Wood family.

Wedgwood ware English stoneware made by Staffordshire factories originally established by Josiah Wedgwood. Creamware appealed to the middle class because of its high quality, durability, and affordability.

Black basaltes (from 1768), unglazed stoneware of fine texture that was ideal for imitating antique and Renaissance objects, appealed to antiquarians. Also in the Neoclassi¬ cal tradition was jasperware (from 1775), a white, matte, unglazed stoneware that could be stained.

White ornaments were applied to the coloured body, achieving the look of an antique cameo. With the help of such artists as John Flaxman, Wedg¬ wood copied many antique designs.

Production of fine Wedgwood ware continues to the present day.

weed Any plant growing where it is not wanted. On land under culti¬ vation, weeds compete with crops for water, light, and nutrients. On rangelands and in pastures, weeds are those plants that grazing animals dislike or that are poisonous. Many weeds are hosts of plant disease organisms or of insect pests. Some originally unwanted plants later were found to have virtues and came under cultivation, while some culti¬ vated plants, when transplanted to new climates, escaped cultivation and became weeds in the new habi¬ tat.

Weed, Thurlow (b. Nov. 15,

1797, Cairo, N.Y., U.S.—d. Nov. 22,

1882, New York, N.Y.) U.S. journalist and politician. He worked on vari¬ ous newspapers in upstate New York and was a leader in the Anti-Masonic movement. He was the founding editor of the Albany Evening Journal (1830-63). He helped form the Whig Party in New York and was instru-

Daniel Webster, daguerreotype by A.S. Southworth and JJ. Hawes

COURTESY OF THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW VORK CITY, GIF OF I.N. PHELPS STOKES, EDWARD S. HAWES, AUCE MARY HAWES, MARION AUGUSTA HAWES,

1937

Wedgwood jasperware vase, Stafford¬ shire, England, c. 1785; in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London

COURTESY OF THE VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, LONDON; PHOTOGRAPH, WILFRID WALTER-EB INC.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Weelkes ► Weill I 2041

mental in William Seward’s election as governor (1838) and in the presi¬ dential election of William H. Harrison (1840). He later became active in the Republican Party and was a staunch supporter of Pres. Abraham Lin¬ coln. In 1861 he was sent to England to seek support for the Union.

Weelkes Vwelks\, Thomas (baptized Oct. 25, 1576, Elsted, Sussex?, Eng.—d. Nov. 30, 1623, London) British composer and organist. He pub¬ lished his first book of madrigals in 1597 and was appointed organist at Winchester College the following year. His next two books of madrigals, his greatest, were soon published (1598, 1600), and a final volume was published in 1608. Weelkes is noted for his word painting, lively rhythms, and highly developed sense of form and structure.

weevil or snout beetle Any of about 40,000 beetle species in the largest family of beetles, Curculionidae, which is also the largest family in the animal kingdom. Most weevils have long, elbowed antennae that may fold into special grooves on the prominent snout. Many species are wingless. Most species are less than 0.25 in. (6 mm) long, are plainly coloured and marked, and feed exclusively on plants. Some species are more than 3 in. (80 mm) long. The larvae may feed on only a certain part of a plant or a single plant species; adults are less specialized. The fam¬ ily includes many destructive pests, including the boll weevil.

Wegener Wa-ga-nar\, Alfred (Lothar) (b. Nov. 1, 1880, Berlin, Ger.—d. Nov. 1930, Greenland) German meteorologist and geophysicist. After earning a Ph.D. in astronomy (1905), he became interested in pale- oclimatology and traveled to Greenland to research polar air circulation. He formulated the first complete statement of the continental drift hypoth¬ esis, which he presented in The Origin of Continents and Oceans (1915). His theory won some adherents, but by 1930 most geologists had rejected it because of the implausibility of his postulations for the driving force behind the continents’ movement. It was resurrected in the 1960s as part of the theory of plate tectonics. Wegener died during his fourth expedition to Greenland.

Wei Chung-hsien See Wei Zhongxian

Wei \'wa\ River River, north-central China. It rises in the mountains of southeastern Gansu province and flows east through Shaanxi province to join the Huang He (Yellow River). It is 537 mi (864 km) long. Its valley was the earliest centre of Chinese civilization and until the 10th century ad was the site of a succession of capital cities. In the 3rd century bc the area around the junction of the Ching and Wei rivers was the site of the first ambitious irrigation works in China.

Wei Zhongxian or Wei Chung-hsien Vwa-'jurj-she-'onN (b. 1568, Suning, Heibei province, China—d. 1627, Anhui province) Eunuch who dominated the Chinese government in 1624-27. As a close companion to the nurse of the future Tianqi emperor (r. 1620-27), Wei captured the young prince’s trust. Once on the throne, the weak and indecisive emperor let Wei become the actual ruler. Wei levied crushing taxes on the prov¬ inces, ruthlessly exploited the population, hounded his enemies, terror¬ ized the official class, and filled the government with sycophants and opportunists. He fell from power when the emperor died and hanged him¬ self to avoid trial. He is considered the most powerful eunuch in Chinese history.

Weidman VwId-monX, Charles orig. Charles Edward Weidman, Jr, (b. July 22, 1901, Lincoln, Neb., U.S.—d. July 15, 1975, New York, N.Y.) U.S. modern dancer, teacher, and choreographer. He studied at the Denishawn school and was a member of its company in the 1920s. In 1928 he cofounded with Doris Humphrey the Humphrey- Weidman school and dance company, for which he choreographed many works. His dances, often comic and satiric, employed an abstract, rhyth¬ mic pantomime. In 1945 he established his own school, and in 1948 he founded the Theatre Dance Company, for which he choreographed his major work, Fables for Our Time. He continued to teach, choreograph, and dance into the 1970s.

Weierstrass Wl-or-.shtrasV Karl (Theodor Wilhelm) (b. Oct. 31, 1815, Ostenfelde, Bavaria—d. Feb. 19, 1897, Berlin) German mathema¬ tician. He taught principally at the University of Berlin (from 1856). After many years of working in isolation, an article in 1854 initiated a string of important contributions, which he disseminated mainly through lec¬ tures. He is known for his work on the theory of functions, and he is called the father of modem analysis. His greatest influence was felt through his students, many of whom went on to make important contributions to mathematics.

weight Gravitational force of attraction on an object, caused by the presence of a massive second object, such as the Earth or Moon. It is a consequence of Isaac Newton’s universal law of gravitation, which states that the force of attraction between two objects is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. For this reason, objects of greater mass weigh more on the surface of the Earth. On the other hand, an object’s weight on the Moon is about one-sixth of its weight on Earth, even though its mass remains the same, because the Moon has less mass and a smaller radius than the Earth and therefore exerts less gravitational force. Weight W is the product of an object’s mass m and the acceleration of gravity g at the location of the object, or W = mg. Since weight is a measure of force rather than mass, the units of weight in the International System of Units are newtons (N). In common usage, weight is measured by the gram in the metric system and by the ounce and pound in the U.S. and British systems.

weight lifting Sport in which barbells are lifted competitively or as an exercise. The two main events are (1) the snatch, in which the barbell is lifted from the floor to arm’s length overhead in a single, continuous motion; and (2) the clean and jerk, in which it is lifted first to the shoulders and then, after a pause, to arm’s length overhead. Contestants are divided into 10 body-weight categories ranging from flyweight to superheavy¬ weight. Lifts may range to over 1,000 lbs (455 kg) in the heavyweight divi¬ sions. The origins of modern competition are to be found in 18th- and 19th- century strongman contests. The first three Olympic Games (1896, 1900, 1904) included weight lifting, as have all games after 1920.

weight training System of conditioning involving lifting weights, especially for strength and endurance. It may include the use of barbells and dumbbells, a Nautilus or similar machines, or a combination of these. Athletes use it to improve their performance, nonathletes use it for gen¬ eral conditioning or bodybuilding, and those recovering from an injury may use it as part of an overall rehabilitation program.

weights and measures Standard quantities by which comparisons are made between an object to be measured and a known quantity of the same kind (see measurement). Weights and measures are fundamental to the sciences, to engineering, building, and other technical matters, and to much everyday activity. See also foot; gram; International System of Units; metre; metric system; pound. See table on following page.

Weil \'vey\/ Simone (b. Feb. 3, 1909, Paris, France—d. Aug. 24, 1943, Ashford, Kent, Eng.) French mystic and social philosopher. After gradu¬ ating from the Ecole Normale Superieure, she taught philosophy in sev¬ eral girls’ schools from 1931 to 1938. To learn the psychological effects of heavy industrial labour, she took a job in 1934-35 in an auto factory, where she observed the spiritually deadening effect of machines on her fellow workers. She assisted the anti-Franco forces in the Spanish Civil War and aided the French Resistance from London from 1942. Born Jewish, she converted to Roman Catholicism in the 1940s. She died at age 34 of tuberculosis complicated by self-imposed starvation undertaken out of sympathy for those suffering in occupied France. Her posthumously pub¬ lished works, including Gravity and Grace (1947), The Need for Roots (1949), Waiting for God (1950), and Notebooks (3 vol., 1951-56) explore her own religious life and analyze the individual’s relation to the state and to God, the spiritual shortcomings of modem industrial society, and the horrors of totalitarianism.

Weill \'v!l\, Kurt (Julian) (b. March 2, 1900, Dessau, Ger.—d. April 3, 1950, New York, N.Y., U.S.) German-born U.S. composer. Son of a cantor, by age 15 he was working as a theatre accompanist. He studied composition briefly with Engelbert Humperdinck, and a conductor’s post gave him wide experience. For a master class with Ferruccio Busoni (1920), he wrote his first symphony. He gained attention with his one-act opera Der Protagonist (1925); its sparse and spiky style prefigured that of his greatest works. In 1927 he teamed with Bertolt Brecht to write The Threepenny Opera (1928) in a new “cabaret” style; the musical had enor¬ mous success in Berlin and elsewhere. In 1930 the two produced The Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny. When the Nazis took power in 1933, he fled to Paris with his wife, Lotte Lenya, where he wrote The Seven Deadly Sins (1933). In 1935 the couple immigrated to the U.S.; there he collaborated on musicals such as Knickerbocker Holiday (1938) and Lost in the Stars (1949). Two of his songs, the “Moritat” (“Mack the Knife”) from Threepenny Opera and “September Song” from Knickerbocker Holi¬ day, have remained especially popular.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

2042

Weights and Measurements 1 (British Imperial System/U.S. Customary Systei

m)

UNIT

ABBREVIATION

EQUIVALENTS IN OTHER UNITS

METRIC EQUIVALENT

OR SYMBOL

OF SAME SYSTEM

WEIGHT

Avoirdupois 2

ton

short ton

20 short hundredweight, 2000 pounds

0.907 metric ton

long ton

20 long hundredweight, 2240 pounds

1.016 metric ton

hundredweight

cwt

short hundredweight

100 pounds, 0.05 short tons

45.359 kilograms

long hundredweight

112 pounds, 0.05 long ton

50.802 kilograms

pound

lb or lb avdp also #

16 ounces, 7000 grains

0.454 kilogram

ounce

oz or oz avdp

16 drams, 437.5 grains, 0.0625 pound

28.350 grams

dram

dr or dr avdp

27.344 grains, 0.0625 ounce

1.772 grams

grain

9 r

0.037 dram, 0.002286 ounce

0.0648 gram

Troy

pound

ibt

12 ounces, 240 pennyweight, 5760 grains

0.373 kilogram

ounce

oz t

20 pennyweight, 480 grains, 0.083 pound

31.103 grams

pennyweight

dwt also pwt

24 grains, 0.05 ounce

1.555 grams

grain

9 r

0.042 pennyweight, 0.002083 ounce

0.0648 gram

Apothecaries'

pound

lb ap

12 ounces, 5760 grains

0.373 kilogram

ounce

oz ap

8 drams, 480 grains, 0.083 pound

31.103 grams

dram

dr ap

3 scruples, 60 grains

3.888 grams

scruple

s ap

20 grains, 0.333 dram

1.296 grams

grain

g r

0.05 scruple, 0.002083 ounce, 0.0166 dram

0.0648 gram

CAPACITY

U.S. liquid measure

gallon

gal

4 quarts (231 cubic inches)

3.785 liters

quart

q f

2 pints (57.75 cubic inches)

0.946 liter

pint

p f

4 gills (28.875 cubic inches

473.176 milliliters

gill

g'

4 fluid ounces (7.219 cubic inches)

118.294 milliliters

fluid ounce

fl oz

8 fluid drams (1.805) cubic inches)

29.573 milliliters

fluid dram

fl dr

60 minims (0.226 cubic inch)

3.697 milliliters

minim

min

'/60 fluid dram (0.003760 cubic inch)

0.061610 milliliter

U.S. dry measure

bushel

bu

4 pecks (2150.42 cubic inches)

35.239 liters

peck

P k

8 quarts (537.605 cubic inches)

8.810 liters

quart

2 pints (67.201 cubic inches)

1.101 liters

pint

p *

Vi quart (33.600 cubic inches)

0.551 liter

British imperial liquid and dry measure

bushel

bu

4 pecks (2219.36 cubic inches)

36.369 liters

peck

P k

2 gallons (554.84 cubic inches)

9.092 liters

gallon

gal

4 quarts (277.420 cubic inches)

4.546 liters

quart

qt

2 pints (69.355 cubic inches)

1.136 liters

pint

p f

4 gills (34.678 cubic inches)

568.26 milliliters

gill

g'

5 fluid ounces (8.669 cubic inches)

142.066 milliliters

fluid ounce

fl oz

8 fluid drams (1.7339 cubic inches)

28.412 milliliters

fluid dram

fl dr

60 minims (0.216734 cubic inch)

3.5516 milliliters

minim

min

Vso fluid dram (0.003612 cubic inch)

0.059194 milliliter

LENGTH

mile

mi

5280 feet, 1760 yards, 320 rods

1.609 kilometers

rod

rd

5.50 yards, 16.5 feet

5.029 meters

yard

yd

3 feet, 36 inches

0.9144 meter

foot

ft or'

12 inches, 0.333 yard

30.48 centimeters

inch

in or "

0.083 foot, 0.028 yard