Britannica Concise 2005 - читать бесплатно онлайн полную версию книги автора Encyclopedia Britannica (ч. 131)

Redding

^ . GrdnafMch ^

Sun Valley Teton $ &

[ l", 7.5,770 O.ff,

IDAHO ld F a> I' - $

Pocetelio. A %

k - Gannett*--^ ’T^h>

JPea/e '•04 ft^

Sakakaweap^^r it|d Forks

Beulah. NORTH DAKOTA 1° *

a, n- » i / Detroit

flilesCity Dickinson Mandan® BlSmarck - Fargo, Lakes

\ Ch * White Butte r J^estownT V ^

^ y lL.^^^^3/500 ft. - V SA/ahnatnn

v » Wahpeton i_

J i/*-- To -- J

roadus Mobridge^f Oahe ^Aberdeen r

,V.V jBig Stone

Spearfish SOUTH DAKOTA Lake

Gillette* BLACK^T Z. c.

•Thermopolis Newcastle*

WYOMING

HofS^ringf^ 1

Wor

.Fort Bragg

GREAT

Ukiah*\

Carson

Ipark^ySink

GRE

NEVADA

u Boundary i

Monterey

Santa R^rCT^’ f ® Carson City

Naa(t> ® ' Tahoe

Berkeley V Sacramento RA o,^ *Ely

San Francisco* • Oakland Boundary D f\ o 1 IN

Palo Alto* , Peak Wheeler A

SanJose ^Modesto *13,140ti flea*

Santa Cruz* ' r-jFL Tonopah 13,0,65 ft.

.. * Los Banos • •Salinas

! » rs .Fresno Tr. ■%, Lowest point m

wr V ib ssa c " 1

CALIFORNIA^ ^ X

SantaMari^J; t^T G<

Lompoc* $ Bdulde?[ZX CA^ 0 ^

. . . ‘A MOJAVE CityJ ^ \ ty

Santa Barbara _ DESERT .Kingman ;

L Lo™ 9 Beac*j ,PaSa * Sa " Bernardino 66 "' 65 * Lake Ha.asn •

SantaAna * Ri “ ers j de XGn pM ott ~ yW“f° w ''

San Clemente* PS(mJ5grtAgs Sg

Oceanside* Escondido feBlythe San Diego, ^

Redfield

e. -Rapid C,, Pierre * -

twFps' 'l >

.tri^ ,

, rs s,,- GREAT DIVIBSS

GreltSaltn 'V* Lu s^ ■% ^NBASIN

/ Lofce T)gSfin.Q, freen River. Raw | ins . R

SALTLAKE 5C- * Evanston Rock Springs ( S r , '

Salt Lake City® >, . *=T-r+ \° > L ^Chienne^

nrcoDT 0rem * QUINTA MTS a -.Steamboat^ 5® V Onallala.

DESERT Provo '©ivernal ' ^ 1 c. ^Fort Collins ^

R ' ah " aW . GrandJct Aspcn ® D enver D '■0

' Co,orado Bur " n ^V *

NEBRASKA

Fremont

^Srand Island

Lincoln®

San Luis

v t j^. Moab '~~^ A 14,433 ft ^.Springs. Mount* Goodland Junction City Topeka

Montrose COLORADO Su ^% t - Jl» s * Salina. ^ COLORADO g ’Pueblo KANSAS

^^lurango.% Alamosa. || ydf&lin^P •^” ia

i Sg._TrioJdad " Jltdge City ' AV

Farmington I Black-Mesa * Liberal Winfield^

1 f

‘Glen Canyon '

Dam , \ IN

PLATEAU ^ S ClMno X G "y ,n ° n * r yr7= Tr\ ^-^^svllle^ |

n^TT 1” \ s T \S»r ’

M a " UP

Chula Vistt

r r*\ Las Ve 9 as

Albuquerque *

\k NEW

MEXICO )Cloyis.

Conchas J Amarillo *

Lake I 7,

PA CIFIC OCEAN

.Enid c[g rEmore ^

z „ o kl ahoma

°. kla . h c=„ CltV ® W

0 A Elk City - • Norman-

^awtorrj *^oAlest^ fie ef * Duncan

loswell LLANO .Lubbock -"IjasWtriatls^

ESTACADO \ \ Texoma Paris*

„ ,, v Sulphur Springs

Snyder FortWorth^ n0 *V^ ar ^od

•Abilene Arlington* Dalla f >. -o Tyler •

TEXASry \t \ l

^•EStgrto ■ WacoA-^ Buffalo

A’., .Temple ! ..

sv v-A \Colle§q4. l4o Bryan** Station

Austin^^

Aot&W^^,* 1

Freeport*

Crystal City Victoria

<2 VyjoM*jTL«fcM^

X \^L^m/Matagorda

Nuevo Laredo^* Laredo # * Corpus Christi

Kingsville PADRE ISLAND

Fakon /Baffin ^Reservoir \Bay

Grande City cAllen^Harlingen *Monterrey • Brownsville

Matamoros

1971

MESABI

MINN.

•St. Cloud

Mille Bacs f Laker '

Alpena

4 Lake

.®St. Paul #EauClaire -Wausau US Huron

Minneapolis WISCONSIN. * B » Mir HIP AM

.Mankato Appleton ^ MICHIGAN

Rochester"

\ * Austin

. La Crosse Sheboygan,

§r -no,

Decprah* / Madison®

Muskegon

Racine

Bay City' •Saginaw

Milwaukee * -.jjjJSIb Fllnt Lansing®

Ann Arbor

Kalamazoo

Benton Harbor

IOWA

\ watp rI o oI)u b u q u e \R o c kfordii $ l 1

M Ame“ t0W ' E S°g n .

BS Moines *Moline * . FortWayne

pmwa, ILLII\IOIS Kankakee INDIANA

7T i Bur " n ’ t0 " Peoria Danville K “ k " m “* ^Jh|nci<

Macomb Champaign*,? 1 Richmond,

vL iOw fuL . . Springfield ® Indianapolis® *Germai

.StJoseph. Hannibal. 3 3 MattnynV

MISSOURI -^EffinohamZ /

• Independence r . ,. •Vandalia

Kansas f c* Louts .iEastjSt. Loms^

City ffl| nffnr( , nn • ^Mount Vernon .

Jefferson Belleville R *Evansyifle—^\ Louisvl,l ^ rrv/ .ii ilt ,

City SteVL X.u„JiCr^*Owensbo>o • Perryvllle

3 Biddeford

bfROMMCK^ Concord®. Manchester . k °we». dg6

.Ss 9ara Rochester N.Y. 6 V Cape Cod

•Buffalo lthaca . * Hartford® ®& d p?R Ce Binghamton*p ou J hkeepsje . CONN. R.l.

.Jamestown ^ Bridgeport* * New Haven

lorco' ^

oil j VX frie r*™ \

Monroe^ q ^ ' 3 ( Newark New York City

Jersey City..

LONG ISLAND

Allentown.

N.J. . Asbury Park . ® Trenton

yfekMjg^.

Gary ^ outh Bend .Defiance Akron/ „ ^ ung |j^ oll f ge /

lifW^/VVa^ne#i: w .OHIO #Canton / ittsbu . r 9 h A Harrisburg

Marion Steubenville Johnstown^* p.p.

.Bellefontaine •Wheeling Hagerstown • Baltimore ~f L Kokomo _ Mimrip ^Columbus 1 \ MD.* ® Dover

Arlington.® ®Annapolis Alexandria* ‘Washington, D.C.

Philadelphia • Atlantic City

^Columbus •

Dayton Morgantown

■ ,ti„Si^ ariet,r >

^Bloiimington^^ incinnat |^ !ir| °^ n W^yA^^f/ eder i c k s burg.

t-T VonovS . Carb “" d ‘ la

i IMe (\ L of the)

Ozarks

Springfield* . v ,.

West Plains

New Madrid

Fayetteville ARKA || SAS [fTA Forre:

■Cairo

KENTUCKY

Bawling Greenv/Glasgow/

•Hopkinsville

Clarksville KnoxvilItU/ Nfshvilic- ® Murf ^ ro £ N # Columbia. • Athens »0 H3S:

’tpmm \

.Searcy .Memphis TENN. Chattanoogar rest Citv*^/ 7 ./^ A.tJd

Jackson.

Won Charleston .Charlolesville $f ( jj^ apel

Fra tX* Lexm3,on # b

Louisville, n ^ V\“r il+ftoanos, Portsmouth**®Virginia Beach

-^Ow^pbofpX/ rryvlHe^^^^^^ — ^o^n6lceW^ —V— 0 utn Chesapeake

Martinsville* •fisnwlfy' 3 ~D ismal

Greensbonrv / 0 r

Winston-Salem* aps|Hi » ® Ra|eigh

*Mt. Mitchell 6,684 ft:

Bosk ^' ,r » s

° r Mf? .

Hot Springs, , . y< . y, -

•Mur, rae S bor>™ Bluff Clarksdala fj

. ) Greenville ^ bus M

^Texarkana'

.Huntsville

»k.

Charlotte Greenville • Spartanburg V Y FJ^rOn^e.

N. CAROLINA

Fayetteville

^ r Htt

Cape Hatteras

Ne/Berff . Morehead City

• Wilmington Cape

• El Dorado

VMind en )/l ( >

^ f ^-^AiMonroe

Shreveport Vicksburg f VjdaWiitod^s /*f^ Qfbson

CbrTnth • > Gai "“» ite Greenwood p | bia *. C ”"» a V Fear

Muscle Shoals . * ® S 'Myrtle Beach

Tupelo ^Gadsden. *" Atlanta Aug ust a > CAROLINA Georgetown

.Birmingham .^.rleston

/Tuscaloosa Macon,

• M illedgevil le v

. Alexandria De Ridder

LA.

Natchez \r;

Bunkie

9 f rYB o g a iu sa W"

Baton Rouge® * u

Beaumont .Lake •Lafayette ammon a) xi^PerfArthutr

MISS.

^tty y Se|

^/jGPnton Vueriman /Jackson

.Laurel

.ndalusiV

VDubhp

Port Royal Savannah

vo /

ALABAMA oiumbus

GEORGIA

Montgomery *Americus

Greenville Mohy^V-^A^yci^s'^runswick

'^/nH.iu.^f* I / (•Blakely) l Okeferwkee

’Hattiesburg Anda ^?l_Lf—\ Valdosta* ;

TTjldCj^ Tallahassee® T Y- •Jacksonville - SI TC \ \4St.Augustine

Biloxi Xv V^/Sainlsville .

A TLANTIC OCEAN

.Daytona Beach

Morgan City

Ocala*

Eustis

Cape Canaveral

•Galveston

Gulf of Mexico

_ . Orlando* Titusville

Sarasota .

FLORIDA * Melbourne

Clearwater j amna .VeroBeach

St. Petersburg ' ampa FortPi9rca

Bradenton*. Lake y

Okeechobee^E^ ?

Fort Myers'firerg/ddes. Fort Lauderdale Naples Hialeab.*. Holl '™ ood Miami Mia” 1 B »»'

\ 1

West Palm Beach

t> 2002 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1972 I United States Military Academy ► Universal Time

providing marine troops for seizure and defense of advanced bases and with conducting operations on land and in the air in connection with naval campaigns. It is also responsible for providing detachments for service aboard certain types of naval vessels, as well as security forces for naval shore installations and U.S. diplomatic missions in foreign countries. The corps specializes in amphibious landings, such as those on Japanese-held islands in World War II. Marines have served in every major U.S. naval action since 1775, usually being the first or among the first to fight. In 2000 there were some 175,000 Marines on active duty.

United States Military Academy known as West Point Institu¬ tion for the training of commissioned officers for the U.S. Army. Founded in 1802 at the fort at West Point, N.Y., it is one of the oldest service acad¬ emies in the world. It was established as an apprentice school for mili¬ tary engineers and was, in effect, the first U.S. school of engineering. It was reorganized in 1812, and in 1866 its educational program was expanded considerably. Women were first admitted in 1976. The four-year course of college-level education and training leads to a bachelor of sci¬ ence degree and a commission as second lieutenant in the Army. West Point has trained such leaders as Ulysses S. Grant, William T. Sherman, Robert E. Lee, Stonewall Jackson, Jefferson Davis, John Pershing, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Douglas MacArthur, Omar Bradley, and George Patton.

United States Naval Academy known as Annapolis Institution for the training of commissioned officers for the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps. It was founded at Annapolis, Md., in 1845 and reorganized in 1850-51. Women were first admitted in 1976. Graduates are awarded the degree of bachelor of science and a commission as ensign in the Navy or as second lieutenant in the Marine Corps. Annapolis has produced many notable Americans, including George Dewey, Richard E. Byrd, Ches¬ ter Nimitz, William F. Halsey, Jr., A.A. Michelson, Hyman Rickover, Jimmy Carter, Ross Perot, and several astronauts.

United States Navy Major branch of the U.S. military forces, charged with defending the nation at sea and maintaining security on the seas wher¬ ever U.S. interests extend. The Continental Navy was established by the Continental Congress in 1775. It was disbanded in 1784, but the harass¬ ment of U.S. merchant ships by Barbary pirates prompted Congress to establish the Department of the Navy in 1798. The navy took part in the War of 181 2 and was later important in the Union victory in the American Civil War. Sea victories during the Spanish-American War (1898) led to a period of steady growth. In World War I, its duties were limited to troop transport, minelaying, and escorting merchant ships. The Japanese attack on the naval base at Pearl Harbor (1941) led to U.S. entry into World War II, in which, in addition to antisubmarine and troop transport duties, the navy conducted amphibious assaults in the Pacific theater and along the European coast. Aircraft carriers proved decisive in battles with Japanese forces in the Pacific, and they are still the backbone of the navy’s fleets. Since World War II it has remained the largest and most powerful navy in the world. The Department of the Navy, a branch of the Department of Defense, is headed by a secretary of the navy. The navy includes the U.S. Marine Corps and, during wartime, the U.S. Coast Guard. In 2000 there were almost 400,000 Navy personnel on active duty, excluding the Marine Corps and Coast Guard. See also U.S. Naval Academy.

United States Steel Corp. Leading U.S. producer of steel and related products. It was founded in 1901 by Charles M. Schwab, Elbert H. Gary, and J.P. Morgan to consolidate Andrew Carnegie’s Carnegie Steel Co., Gary’s Federal Steel Co., and other steel and metal companies. As chair¬ man of the board, Gary dominated the corporation in its early years, orga¬ nizing price agreements among steel producers and opposing unions. An antitrust suit against U.S. Steel went as far as the Supreme Court, which ruled in 1920 that it was not a monopoly in restraint of trade. The corpo¬ ration recognized the United Steelworkers of America in 1936. The largest U.S. steel producer, U.S. Steel diversified into oil and gas in the later 20th century as well as into chemicals, mining, construction, and transporta¬ tion. In 1986 the holding company USX Corp. was established to oversee it and other operating units. U.S. Steel Group was spun off from USX in 2002 and again became an independent, publicly traded corporation.

United Steelworkers (USW) historic labour union representing workers in steel, aluminum, and other metallurgical industries for much of the 20th century. In the U.S. it grew out of the Steel Workers Orga¬ nizing Committee (SWOC), established jointly in 1936 by the Commit¬ tee for Industrial Organization (see AFL-CIO) and the Amalgamated Association of Iron, Steel, and Tin Workers. Under Philip Murray it devel¬

oped into a powerful union. In 1942 SWOC became the United Steel¬ workers of America (USWA), of which Murray served as president until his death in 1952. The USWA absorbed the Aluminum Workers of America in 1944 and by the mid-1950s had more than one million mem¬ bers. It won unprecedented benefits in the postwar period but saw its membership and power decline as the U.S. steel industry shrank from the 1970s onward. In 2005 the USWA combined with the Paper, Allied- Industrial, Chemical and Energy Workers International Union (PACE) and was renamed the United Steel, Paper and Forestry, Rubber, Manufactur¬ ing, Energy, Allied Industrial and Service Workers International Union (USW). The USW represents workers in the United States and Canada.

Unity (School of Christianity) Religious movement founded in 1889 by Charles Fillmore (1854-1948) and his wife, Myrtle Fillmore (1845-1931), in Kansas City, Mo., U.S. Believing that spiritual healing had cured Myrtle of tuberculosis, the couple began to endorse spiritual healing. Until 1922, Unity was a member of the International New Thought Alliance. Unlike some New Thought groups, Unity embraces practical Christianity and modem medicine. It has no definite creed and is interdenominational. Its Silent Unity service helps people through coun¬ seling and prayer, responding to 2.5 million requests for aid a year via mail, telephone, and Internet. Unity publishes magazines and books, and it conducts classes for prospective Unity ministers.

unity-of-science view See unified science

universal In metaphysics, epistemology, and logic, a general category, such as a property or relation, considered as distinct from the particular things that instantiate or exemplify it. The problem of universals concerns the question of what sort of being should be ascribed to such categories (e.g., is there any such thing as redness apart from particular red things?). The debate over the status of universals stems from Plato’s theory of forms. Whereas Plato held that forms (universals) exist independently of particu¬ lars, Aristotle argued that forms exist only in the particulars in which they are exemplified. See also realism.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights Declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. Drafted by a committee chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt, it was adopted without dissent but with eight abstentions. Among its 30 articles are definitions of civil and political rights (including the rights to life, liberty, and a fair trial) as well as defi¬ nitions of economic, social, and cultural rights (including the right to social security and to participation in the cultural life of one’s commu¬ nity), all of which are owed by UN member states to those under their jurisdiction. It has acquired more juridical status than originally intended and has been widely used, even by national courts, as a means of judg¬ ing compliance with member states’ human-rights obligations. The dec¬ laration has been the foundation of the work of nongovernmental ORGANIZATIONS SUCh as AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL.

Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) Organi¬ zation founded by Marcus Garvey in 1914. Organized in Jamaica, it was influential in urban African American neighbourhoods in the U.S. after Garvey’s arrival in New York City in 1916. It was dedicated to racial pride, economic self-sufficiency, and the formation of an independent black nation in Africa. After Garvey’s 1923 conviction on charges of fraud, the UNIA lost influence, but it proved to be a forerunner of black nationalism.

Universal Pictures U.S. film studio. Formed by Carl Laemmle in 1912, it became a top producer of popular, low-budget serials in the 1920s and of horror movies in the 1930s. Its later films include the Abbott and Cos¬ tello comedies and the Doris Day-Rock Hudson bedroom farces. The stu¬ dio was bought by MCA in 1962, and in 1966 it became a division of Universal City Studios (now simply Universal Studios), the largest pack¬ ager of television series.

Universal Product Code (UPC) Standard bar code used to identify grocery and other retail merchandise. In the UPC system, the five digits on the left are assigned to a particular manufacturer or maker and the five digits on the right are used by that manufacturer to identify a specific type or make of product.

Universal Resource Locator See URL Universal Serial Bus See USB

Universal Time Mean (solar) time of the Greenwich meridian (0° lon¬ gitude). Universal Time replaced the designation Greenwich Mean Time in 1928; since 1972 it has been based on international atomic time, a uni-

Universalism ► Ur I 1973

form time derived from the frequences of certain atomic transitions and measured by an atomic clock. For most purposes, it is now identical to Greenwich Mean Time.

Universalism Belief in the salvation of all souls. Arising as early as the time of Origen and at various points in Christian history, the concept became an organized movement in North America in the mid-18th cen¬ tury. It maintains the impossibility that a loving God would bestow sal¬ vation on only a portion of humankind while dooming the rest to eternal punishment. It stresses the use of reason in religion and the modification of belief in light of the discoveries of science. Thus, the miraculous ele¬ ments of traditional Christianity are rejected, and Jesus, while a worthy teacher and model, is not held to be divine. Universalist and Unitarian churches in the U.S. merged in 1961 (see Unitarianism).

universe Whole cosmic system of matter and energy of which Earth is a part. Its main constituents are the galaxies, within which are stars and stellar groupings and nebulae (see nebula). Earth’s Sun is one star among the billions of stars in the Milky Way Galaxy. All atoms, subatomic par¬ ticles, and everything they compose are also part of the universe. The uni¬ verse is governed by four fundamental forces: the strong force, the weak force, the electromagnetic force, and gravitation. Numerous theories have been proposed for the origin and structure of the universe. See also big bang; cosmology; expanding universe; steady-state theory.

university Institution of higher education, usually comprising a liberal arts and sciences college and graduate and professional schools that con¬ fer degrees in various fields. A university differs from a college in that it is usually larger, has a broader curriculum, and offers advanced degrees in addition to undergraduate degrees. The first true university was the University of Bologna, founded in the 11th century; the first in northern Europe was the University of Paris, which served as a model for the uni¬ versities of Oxford, Cambridge, Heidelberg, and others. One of the first modern universities, in which secular objectivity and rationalism replaced religious orthodoxy, was the University of Halle (founded 1694 in Halle, Ger.). The liberalism of Halle was adopted by Gottingen, Berlin, and many other German universities. The German model of the university as a com¬ plex of schools and research institutes also exerted a worldwide influ¬ ence. The growth of universities in the U.S., where most colleges had been established by religious denominations, was greatly spurred by the Mor¬ rill Act of 1862.

UNIX Vyii -niks\ Operating system for digital computers, developed by Ken Thompson of Bell Laboratories in 1969. It was initially designed for a single user (the name was a pun on the earlier operating system Multics). The C language was subsequently developed specifically for UNIX, and the system was rewritten almost entirely in C; it was improved by the addition of multiprogramming and time-sharing capabilities and enhanced portability. UNIX is very popular in universities, where it is used mostly on scientific and engineering workstations, and it is used on most of the servers of Internet service providers. Because its modular construction allows it to be easily modified, it has been improved in many ways by academic and industrial institutions (see Linux).

Unkei Vun-,ka\ (b. 1148?—d. 1223) Japanese sculptor. He established a style of realistic and dynamic Buddhist sculpture that had an immense impact on Japanese art for centuries. Commissioned by the Kamakura sho- gunate, he made statues for the Kofuku and Todai temples in Nara and is best remembered for the nearly 26-ft (8-m) tall guardian figures at Todai temple’s Great South Gate. He later produced many portrait sculptures.

Unkiar Skelessi, Treaty of See Treaty of Hunkar Lkelesi

Unser, Bobby and Al in full Robert William Unser and Alfred Unser (respectively b. Feb. 20, 1934, Albuquerque, N.M., U.S.; b. May 29, 1939, Albuquerque, N.M., U.S.) U.S. automobile-racing drivers. The Unser brothers were born into a family of drivers and began driving at an early age. Both won the Pikes Peak hill climb and various U.S. Auto¬ mobile Club races before competing in the Indianapolis 500, which Bobby won in 1968, 1975, and 1981, and Al in 1970, 1971, 1978, and 1987. Al’s son Al Unser, Jr. (b. 1962), won the same race in 1992 and 1994.

Unterwalden Yiin-tor-.val-donX Former canton, central Switzerland. It was ruled after 1173 by the Habsburg counts. In 1291, with Uri and Schwyz, it formed the Everlasting League, which became the nucleus of the Swiss Confederation. In 1340 it divided into two sovereign half can¬ tons, Nidwalden and Obwalden; in 1803 they became demicantons hav¬ ing equal rights.

untouchable Former classification of various low-status persons and those outside the Hindu caste system in Indian society. The term Dalit is now used for such people (in preference to Mohandas K. Gandhi’s term, Harijan, which was considered condescending by the Dalit themselves), and their plight is recognized by the Indian constitution and by legisla¬ tion. The groups traditionally considered untouchable included people whose occupations or habits of life involved activities considered to be polluting, such as taking life for a living (e.g., fishermen); killing or dis¬ posing of dead cattle or working with their hides; coming into contact with human waste (e.g., sweepers); and eating flesh of cattle, pigs, or chickens. Many untouchables converted to other religions to escape dis¬ crimination. Indian law now categorizes the Dalit under the term sched¬ uled castes and accords them certain special privileges.

upanayana V.u-po-'no-yo-noX Hindu initiation ritual, restricted to the three upper varnas. It marks a male’s entrance into the life of a student and his acceptance as a full member of the religious community. After a ritual bath, the boy, aged 5-24, is dressed as an ascetic and brought before his guru, who invests him with various symbolic articles. The initiate receives a sacred thread, worn throughout his life, that identifies him as twice-born, the second birth being effected by receipt of a mantra. Obser¬ vance of upanayana is decreasing and is now largely confined to the Brah¬ man class.

Upanishad \u-'pa-ni-,shad\ Any of 108 speculative texts of the Vedas that contain elaborations in poetry and verse. They are believed to have been composed since 500 bc, based on teachings circulated since 1000 bc. They represent the final stage in the tradition of the Vedas, and the teach¬ ing based on them is called Vedanta. Generally the Upanishads are con¬ cerned with the nature of reality, the individual soul (atman), and the universal soul (Brahman) and with the theory of the transmigration of souls and the nature of morality.

upasaka Ui-'pa-so-koV Lay devotee of the Buddha. Originally the term applied to followers of the Buddha who were not ordained as bhiksus; today it is normally applied, mainly in Southeast Asia, to pious individuals who visit the local monastery on the weekly holy days and who undertake spe¬ cial vows. They support the sangha with regular offerings and observe the five precepts expected of all Buddhists: to abstain from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, and using intoxicants.

UPC See Universal Product Code

Updike, John (Hoyer) (b. March 18, 1932, Shillington, Pa., U.S.) U.S. writer. He attended Harvard University and in 1955 began a long association with The New Yorker. His works are known for careful crafts¬ manship and for their subtle depiction of American middle-class life. His famous “Rabbit” tetralogy— Rabbit, Run (1960), Rabbit Redux (1971), Rabbit Is Rich (1981, Pulitzer Prize), and Rabbit at Rest (1990, Pulitzer Prize)—follows a very ordinary American man through the decades of the later 20th century. A Jewish novelist named Bech is the subject of three other novels. Updike’s other fiction includes The Centaur (1963), Of the Farm (1965), Couples (1968), The Witches ofEastwick{ 1984; film, 1987), and In the Beauty of the Lilies (1996). He has also published short- story collections, including Pigeon Feathers (1962), several volumes of reviews and essays, and light verse.

Upper Canada See Canada West Upper Volta See Burkina Faso

Uppsala \ , up-,sa- l la\ City (pop., 2001 est.: 191,110), Sweden. Located north of Stockholm, it lies near a village which was originally the capital of the ancient pre-Christian kingdom of Svea. By the 13th century it was an important commercial centre. Relinquishing its political primacy to Stockholm, it remained the seat of the archbishop of Sweden; its Gothic cathedral (erected from the 13th—15th centuries) is Sweden’s largest. It is also an educational centre, the site of Sweden’s oldest university, Upp¬ sala University (founded 1477). It is now an industrial city and transpor¬ tation hub. Carolus Linnaeus lived there.

'Uqab, Battle of Al- See Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa

Uqsur, Al- See Luxor

Ur Vor, ur\ Ancient city and district, Sumer, southern Mesopotamia. It was situated on a former channel of the Euphrates River in what is now south¬ ern Iraq. One of the oldest cities of Mesopotamia, it was settled some¬ time in the 4th millennium bc. In the 25th century bc it was the capital of

1974 I uracil ► Urban II

southern Mesopotamia under its first dynasty. Though it later declined, it again became important around the 22nd century bc. It is mentioned in the Bible (as Ur of the Chaldees) as the early home of Hebrew patriarch Abraham (c. 2000 bc). In subsequent centuries it was captured and destroyed by many groups, including the Elamites and Babylonians. Neb¬ uchadrezzar II restored it in the 6th century bc. Excavations, especially in the 1920s and ’30s, uncovered remains of great archaeological value.

Northeastern facade (the ascents partly restored) of the ziggurat at Ur, southern Iraq.

HIRMER FOTOARCHIV, MUNCHEN

uracil \'yur-3-,sil\ Organic compound of the pyrimidine family, often called a base, consisting of a ring containing both nitrogen and carbon atoms. It occurs in combined form in many important biological molecules, includ¬ ing RNA and several coenzymes active in carbohydrate metabolism. Dur¬ ing synthesis of an RNA strand from DNA, uracil pairs with adenine. It or its corresponding nucleoside or nucleotide may be prepared from RNA by selective techniques of hydrolysis.

Ural \'yur-3l\ Mountains Mountain range, Russia and Kazakhstan. Generally held to constitute the boundary between Europe and Asia, the range extends north-south for some 1,550 mi (2,500 km) from just south of the Kara Sea to the Ural River. The mountains average 3,000^4,000 ft (915-1,220 m) in elevation; the highest peak is Mount Narodnaya at 6,217 ft (1,895 m). The Central and Southern Urals contain one of the largest industrial regions of Russia, producing metal goods, chemicals, and machinery; that region developed rapidly during World War II (1939-45), when many industrial plants were moved from the western part of the Soviet Union to prevent their destruction by the Germans.

Ural River River, Russia and Kazakhstan. Rising at the southern end of the Ural Mountains, it flows southwest to cross through western Kaza¬ khstan to the Caspian Sea at Atyrau. It is 1,509 mi (2,428 km) long and drains an area of 91,500 sq mi (237,000 sq km). Its lower course is navi¬ gable.

Uralic \yu-'ra-lik\ languages Family of more than 30 languages spo¬ ken by some 25 million people in central and northern Eurasia. A primary division is between the Finno-Ugric languages, which account for most of the languages and speakers, and the Samoyedic languages. The latter lan¬ guages have historically been spoken in the forest region of northern Siberia and in the tundra and coastal zones from the Ob to the White Sea and east into the Taymyr Peninsula. The known languages are Nganasan, Enets, Nenets, Selkup, Kamas (which became extinct in the late 20th cen¬ tury), and Mator (which became extinct in the 19th century). Of the other languages that are still spoken,

Nenets, which has 25,000 speakers and is still being learned by children, is the most viable. The Samoyedic languages share little vocabulary with Finno-Ugric. At its very earliest stages Uralic most probably included the ancestors of the Yukaghir lan¬ guages, still sometimes included with the Paleo-Siberian languages.

uraninite Vyu-'ra-no-.nltV Uranium dioxide (U0 2 ), a major oxide mineral of uranium. Uraninite is radioactive and usually forms black, gray, or brown crystals that are moderately hard and generally opaque. The ele¬ ments uranium and radium were first

Uraninite in pitchblende from Great Bear Lake, Northwest Territories, embedded (for display) in a larger mass of feldspar from Grafton Center, N.H.

COURTESY OF THE FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, CHICAGO; PHOTOGRAPH, JOHN H. GERARD

extracted from uraninite ore from what is now the Czech Republic. It has also been mined in Germany and Canada, and in the Colorado Plateau (U.S.). See also pitchblende.

uranium Chemical element of the actinide series (with many transition element properties), chemical symbol U, atomic number 92. A dense, hard, silvery white metal that tarnishes in air, it is isolated from such ores as pitchblende. Until the discovery of the first transuranium element in 1940, uranium was believed to be the heaviest element. Radioactivity was dis¬ covered in uranium by A.-H. Becquerel. All its isotopes are radioactive; several have half-lives long enough to permit determination of the age of the Earth by uranium-thorium-lead dating and uranium-234-uranium-238 dating. Nuclear fission was discovered in 1938 in uranium bombarded with neutrons, and the self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction, the atomic bomb, and the generation of nuclear power followed. Uranium has various valences in compounds, some of which have been used as colours in ceramic glazes, in lightbulb filaments, in photography, and as dyes and mordants.

uranium-234-uranium-238 dating Method of age determina¬ tion that makes use of the radioactive decay of uranium-238 to uranium- 234; the method can be used for dating sediments from either a marine or a playa lake environment. Because this method is useful for the period c. 100,000-1.2 million years before the present, it helps in bridging the gap between the carbon- 14 dating method and the potassium-argon dat¬ ing method.

uranium-thorium-lead dating or common-lead dating

Method of dating very old rocks by means of the amount of common lead they contain. Common lead is any lead from a rock or mineral that con¬ tains a large amount of lead and a small amount of the radioactive pre¬ cursors of lead (i.e., the isotopes uranium-235, uranium-238, and thorium- 232). By this method, the age of the Earth has been estimated to be c. 4.6 billion years. This figure is in good agreement with the age of meteorites and the age of the Moon as determined independently.

Uranus or Ouranus Vyur-s-nos, yu-'ra-nosN Ancient Greek personifi¬ cation of heaven. When Gaea emerged from Chaos, she produced Uranus, the mountains, and the sea. Her subsequent union with Uranus produced the Titans, the Cyclopes, and the Hecatoncheires. Uranus despised his off¬ spring and hid them in Gaea’s body. In response to her appeal for ven¬ geance, Cronus castrated Uranus. From the drops of blood that fell on Earth were born the Furies, the Giants, and the ash-tree nymphs called Meliai. His severed genitals floated on the sea, producing a white foam from which sprang Aphrodite. Uranus also consorted with Clymene, Hem- era, Hestia, and Nyx.

Uranus Seventh planet from the Sun. It was discovered in 1781 by Wil¬ liam Herschel (see Herschel family) and named for the Greek god personi¬ fying heaven. A blue-green gas giant, it has almost 15 times the mass of Earth and over 50 times its volume. It is less dense than Earth; the grav¬ ity at the top of its atmosphere is 11 % weaker. Its equatorial diameter is 31,800 mi (51,100 km). Uranus has 10 sharply defined narrow, dark rings, with broad dust bands between them; the rings consist mainly of boulder- size chunks of dark material. Uranus also has at least 27 moons (most named after Shakespearean characters) and a magnetic field about as strong as Earth’s. The planet rotates once every 17 hours around an axis that, unusually, is almost parallel to the ecliptic; from Earth it appears to spin on its side. It takes 84 years to orbit the Sun, at a mean distance of 1.78 billion mi (2.87 billion km). It has no solid surface; its fluid interior is thought to consist of a mixture of rock, ices, and gas, with little or no rocky core. Its upper atmosphere is mostly hydrogen and helium; the blue-green colour comes from absorption of red light by the small amount of methane present.

Urartu \u-'rar-,tu\ Ancient kingdom around Lake Van, southwestern Asia. Today the region is divided among Armenia, eastern Turkey, and northwestern Iran. The kingdom flourished c. 13th—7th century bc, enjoy¬ ing considerable power in the Middle East in the 9th-8th century. Archaeological finds date from the time of King Shalmaneser I (c. 1274- 45) of Assyria. Repeatedly attacked by Assyrian kings, Urartu declined in the late 8th century. It ceased to exist after invasions by Cimmerians, Scythians, and Medes in the 7th century bc.

Urban II orig. Odo of Chatillon-sur-Marne (b. c. 1035, Chatillon- sur-Marne, or Lagery, or Lagny, Champagne, France—d. July 29, 1099, Rome) Pope (1088-99). The prior of a Cluniac monastery, he was made

Urban VI ► urination I 1975

cardinal by Pope Gregory VII, whose reforms he furthered. Elected pope in 1088, Urban secured his authority against the antipope Clement 111 and strengthened the role of the papacy in the reform movement. He called for the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont (1095) in response to the appeal of Alexius I Comnenus, promoted the union of the Eastern and Western churches, and supported the Christian reconquest of Spain from the Moors.

Urban VI orig. Bartolomeo Prignano (b. 1318, Naples—d. Oct. 15, 1289, Rome) Pope (1378-89). Archbishop of Acerenza (1363) and Bari (1377), he became papal chancellor for Gregory XI, whom he was chosen to succeed. This election of an Italian appeased the Romans, who wanted to end the French-dominated Avignon papacy, but his harsh reforms soon angered the French cardinals, prompting them to elect the antipope Clement VII, beginning the Western Schism (1378). Europe was divided in its loyalties, and Urban warred with Naples when its queen backed Clement. Strife over the schism reduced the Papal States to anar¬ chy, and Urban’s death may have been from poisoning.

urban climate Any set of climatic conditions that prevails in a large metropolitan area and that differs from the climate of its rural surround¬ ings. Urban climates are distinguished from those of less built-up areas by differences of air temperature, humidity, wind speed and direction, and amount of precipitation. These differences are attributable in large part to the altering of the natural terrain through the construction of artificial structures and surfaces. For example, tall buildings, paved streets, and parking lots affect wind flow, precipitation runoff, and the local energy balance.

urban planning Programs pursued as a means of improving the urban environment and achieving certain social and economic objectives. Evi¬ dence of urban planning can be found in the ruins of ancient cities, includ¬ ing orderly street systems and conduits for water and sewage. During the Renaissance, European city areas were consciously planned to achieve circulation of the populace and provide fortification against invasion. Such concepts were exported to the New World, where William Penn, in founding the city of Philadelphia, developed the standard gridiron plan— the laying out of streets and plots of land adaptable to rapid change in land use. Modem urban planning and redevelopment arose in response to the disorder and squalor of the slums created by the Industrial Revolution. The urban planner best known for his transformation of Paris was Georges-Eugene Haussmann. City planners imposed regulatory laws estab¬ lishing standards for housing, sanitation, water supply, sewage, and pub¬ lic health conditions, and introduced parks and playgrounds into congested city neighbourhoods. In the 20th century, zoning—the regula¬ tion of building activity according to use and location—came to be a key tool for city planners. See also Pierre-Charles V Enfant.

Urbino majolica Vmo-'ja-li-koX Italian tin-glazed earthenware made in the city of Urbino, which dominated the market from c. 1520. Early wares, mostly dishes, are painted in a range of colours, dominated by brilliant yellow, orange, and brown, and decorated with narrative scenes typically covering the entire surface, a style known as istoriato. Scenes are taken from the Bible, mythology. Classical and contemporary history, and poetry. Later wares were decorated in a style called grotesque, adapted from motifs found in Roman excavations. Production declined in the late 17th century. See also majolica.

Urdu \'ur-du\ language Indo-Aryan language used by Muslims in India and Pakistan. In the sociopolitical realm, Urdu and Hindi are differ¬ ent languages, but the colloquial basis of both is identical, and as a writ¬ ten language Urdu differs from Hindi principally in its greater acceptance of Persian-Arabic vocabulary and in some syntactic features. It is written in the Arabic alphabet with modification of some letters to denote specifi¬ cally Indo-Aryan sounds. As Pakistan’s official language, Urdu has been promoted as a token of national unity, though less than 8% of Pakistanis— mainly immigrants and descendants of immigrants from India after the 1947 partition—speak it as a first language.

urea \yu-'re-o\ or carbamide One of the simplest organic compounds and the first synthesized from inorganic raw materials (see inorganic com¬ pound), by Friedrich Wohler (1800-82) in 1828. It is the diamide of car¬ bonic acid (H 2 NCONH 2 ; see amide; carbon dioxide). The chief nitrogenous end product of protein breakdown in mammals and some fishes, it occurs not only in urine but also in blood, bile, milk, and perspiration. It is one of the industrial chemicals produced in vast amounts. With its high nitrogen content and low price, it is a major agricultural fertilizer and animal-feed

ingredient. It is also used to make urea-formaldehyde plastics (including foamed plastics; see polyurethanes), to synthesize barbiturates, as a stabi¬ lizer in explosives, and in adhesives, hydrocarbon processing, and flame¬ proofing.

uremia \yu-'re-me-3\ Excess nitrogenous waste products in the blood and their toxic effects. Kidney impairment (see Bright disease; diabetes mel- utus; hypertension; kidney failure; nephritis) or disorders that hinder urine excretion (e.g., prostatic disorders) allow urea and other protein waste products to accumulate. Symptoms usually start with fatigue and loss of concentration. They may include itching and muscle twitches; dry, flaky, yellowish skin; dry mouth, metallic taste, and ammonia breath; and nau¬ sea, vomiting, diarrhea, and constipation. Advanced stages affect the ner¬ vous, cardiovascular, and respiratory systems and can lead to hypertension, seizures, heart failure, and death. If the underlying disorder cannot be treated, dialysis or kidney transplant may be required.

Urey \'yur-e\, Harold C(layton) (b. April 29, 1893, Walkerton, Ind., U.S.—d. Jan. 5, 1981, La Jolla, Calif.) U.S. scientist. He received his doctorate from the University of California at Berkeley and thereafter taught at various universities. He was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1934 for discovering deuterium and heavy water. He was a key figure in the devel¬ opment of the atomic bomb; his group worked on the gaseous diffusion pro¬ cess for separation of uranium-235. He devised methods for estimating the temperature of ancient oceans, theorized on the compositions of pri¬ mordial atmospheres, and studied the relative abundances of the elements, making fundamental contributions to a widely accepted theory of the ori¬ gin of the Earth and other planets in The Planets, (1952).

Uriburu \ l ii-re- , bu-rU\ / Jose Felix (b. July 20, 1868, Salta, Arg.—d. April 29, 1932, Paris, Fr.) Argentine soldier and dictator. Nephew of a former president, he was a firm believer in class privileges. A visit to Ger¬ many made him an ardent admirer of Prussian militarism. In 1930 he led a coup against Hipolito Irigoyen’s liberal regime, replacing the governing class with an elite representing the landed oligarchy, dissolving the leg¬ islature, and revising the laws to prohibit liberal-radicals from political participation. In 1931 he arranged a fraudulent election to ensure the oli¬ garchy’s continued control and stepped down in favour of a fellow officer, Agustrn Justo.

uric acid Vyur-ik\ Heterocyclic compound of the purine type, the end product of metabolism of the purines in nucleic acids in many animals, including humans. It is excreted by reptiles and birds as the chief nitrog¬ enous end product of protein breakdown. Small quantities are normally found in human blood; in gout, levels are abnormally high. Uric acid is used industrially in organic synthesis.

urinalysis \ l yur-3- , na-lo-s9s\ Laboratory examination of a urine sample for clinical information. Abnormal concentrations of substances normally found in urine or presence of those that are not may indicate a disorder. Colour, specific gravity, or volume changes may reveal a specific disease or injury. Significant findings include high glucose and acetone in diabe¬ tes mellitus; various nitrogen compounds, pigments, amino acids, and their metabolic products in disorders of the enzymes that act on them; uric acid in gout; and urea, albumins, and globulins in kidney disease. Hormones may be evidence of pregnancy or endocrine imbalance. Urinalysis can also detect poisons and drugs.

urinary system or renal \'re-nol\ system System that produces and discharges urine to rid the body of waste products. It consists of the kid¬ neys, which balance electrolytes in blood, retaining and adding needed ones and removing unneeded or dangerous ones for excretion; the ureters, two thin muscular tubes 10-12 in. (25-30 cm) long that move the urine by peristalsis; the hollow, muscular bladder, which receives and stores it; and the urethra, through which it leaves the body. In women the urethra is 1.5 in. (4 cm) long. In men it is longer (since it passes through the penis), about 8 in. (20 cm), and carries semen from the prostate gland as well as urine. Urinary disorders, which can lead to dehydration or edema and to a dangerous buildup of waste and toxic substances, include kidney failure, tumours, and bladder and kidney stones.

urination Process of excreting urine from the bladder (see urinary sys¬ tem). Nerve centres in the spinal cord, brain stem, and cerebral cortex control it through involuntary and voluntary muscles. The need to void is felt when the bladder holds 3.5-5 oz (100-150 ml) of urine and becomes uncomfortable at a volume of 14-15 oz (350^-00 ml). The detrusor con¬ tracts and the sphincter (muscular constriction) of the urethra relaxes to

1976 I urine ► Uruguay

empty the bladder. Normally it empties completely, but bladder stones or prostatic disorders can block outflow; poor muscle tone (especially in older women) or certain nervous system disorders can cause loss of control of urination (incontinence).

urine Liquid solution of metabolic wastes and other, often toxic, sub¬ stances filtered from plasma. The fluid in the Bowman capsule at the start of each nephron is essentially plasma without the large molecules (e.g., proteins). The concentrated fluid (final urine) that exits the kidney consists of water, urea, inorganic salts, uric acid, creatinine, ammonia, and broken- down blood pigments, including urochrome, which makes urine yellow, plus any unusual substances not reabsorbed into the blood. This is then excreted. See also hematuria; urinalysis; urinary system; urination.

URL in full Uniform Resource Locator Address of a resource on the Internet. The resource can be any type of file stored on a server, such as a Web page, a text file, a graphics file, or an application program. The address contains three elements: the type of protocol used to access the file (e.g., HTTP for a Web page, ftp for an FTP site); the domain name or IP address of the server where the file resides; and, optionally, the pathname to the file (i.e., description of the file’s location). For example, the URL http://www.britannica.com/heritage instructs the browser to use the HTTP protocol, go to the www.britannica.com Web server, and access the file named heritage.

Urmia, Lake Persian Daryacheh-ye Orumiyyeh

X.dar-ya-'che-ye-u-.ru-'me-yoV Shallow, saline lake, northwestern Iran. The largest lake in the Middle East, it covers an area that varies from 2,000 to 2,300 sq mi (5,200 to 6,000 sq km). It is about 87 mi (140 km) long and 25-35 mi (40-55 km) wide, with a maximum depth of 53 ft (16 m). There is a cluster of about 50 tiny islands at its southern part. Fed by three rivers, it has no outlet. It has been protected since 1967.

Urnfield culture Late Bronze Age culture of Europe, so called because its people placed their cremated dead in urns. This culture spread from east-central Europe and northern Italy in the 12th century bc and later to Ukraine, Sicily, Scandinavia, France, and Spain. In some areas barrows marked the graves. The culture was warlike, with fortified settlements and bronze weapons, including the slashing sword. The uniformity of the cul¬ ture and the persistence of certain pottery and metal forms apparently had great influence on Early Iron Age culture.

urogenital malformation Defect in the organs or tissues of the uri¬ nary system or in the sex organs (genitals). In polycystic kidney disease (an inherited disease), cysts of varying size enlarge one or both kidneys. Kidneys may have abnormal shapes or may be fused. In megaloureter, the ureter’s diameter is enlarged. Males may have epispadias or hypospadias, in which the urethra opens on the upper surface or the underside, respec¬ tively, of the penis, or cryptorchidism (undescended testicles), in which one or both testes have not descended from the abdomen into the scro¬ tum before birth. Female genital system malformations include agenesis of the ovaries, vagina, or uterus and abnormally shaped uterus.

urology \yu-'ra-l9-je\ Medical specialty dealing with the urinary system and male reproductive organs. It traces its origin to medieval lithologists, itinerant healers who specialized in surgical removal of bladder stones. The Spanish surgeon Francisco Diaz wrote the first treatises on urinary- tract disease (1588) and is regarded as the founder of modem urology. Most modem urological procedures originated in the 19th century. Today, urologists use bladder catheters (see catheterization), the cystoscope (to view the inside of the bladder), and various diagnostic imaging techniques; treat prostatic disorders; perform vasectomies; and may surgically remove stones in the urinary tract and cancers of the kidneys, bladder, and tes¬ ticles. Urology deals mostly with male patients; the urinary tract in females may be treated by gynecologists (see obstetrics and gynecology).

Urquiza Vur-'ke-saV, Justo Jose de (b. Oct. 18,1801, Arroyo Urquiza, Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata—d. April 11, 1870, Entre Rios province, Arg.) Argentinian soldier and statesman who helped overthrow Juan Man¬ uel de Rosas. He became governor of Entre Rios province in 1841 and allied himself with other provincial leaders to overthrow the dictatorial Rosas in 1852. As provisional dictator, he called a constitutional convention that sanctioned a constitution modeled on that of the U.S. All provinces accepted it, but the province of Buenos Aires, determined to lead the nation, refused to join the new union until 1859. Urquiza stepped down in 1860 and led the Argentinian army in the Paraguayan War. He and his sons were assassinated by a political rival. See also Bartolome Mitre.

Ursula Vor-syu-loV Saint (fl. 4th century, Rome; feast day October 21) Legendary leader of a band of virgins martyred by the Huns. The num¬ ber of virgins was originally 11, but, as the story was retold over the years, it increased to 11,000. According to the 13th-century Golden Legend , Ursula was an English princess who went on a pilgrimage to Rome with 11,000 virgins and was martyred with them on the homeward journey. Ursula is the patron saint of the order of St. Ursula (Ursulines), a con¬ gregation of nuns dedicated to educating girls.

Urubamba \,u-ru-'bam-ba\ River River, central Peru. Part of the Ama¬ zon River drainage system, it rises in the Andes Mountains and flows north¬ west for about 450 mi (725 km) to its junction with the Apurimac River, the two then forming the Ucayali River. In the Gorge of Torontoy, the river plunges from about 11,000 ft (3,400 m) above sea level to about 8,000 ft (2,400 m) in 20 mi (32 km).

Uruguay V.ii-ru-'gwlA English \'yur-3-,gwa\ officially Oriental Republic of Uruguay Country, southeastern South America. Area: 68,037 sq mi (176,215 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 3,256,000. Capi-

C^T . %

. Y0U "g A ,, Gregorio Rio Branco^ ,

.. n .. -v Santa Clara Vergara

( Nuevo Berlin ^ • •

.Mercedes . Treintay*- -

^ Trinidad • iSJ Tres

c ^ • Durazno <;

Delores^o ERIC? Lessen. C

\ ,_ jrb range . “

Carmelo ^ ° RANGE # ^

’ Suarez " Casupd ft T’ * 5 “° S

_ " i„.e* Min,s « * COSTA ATLANTICA

nnc Airpc Colonia* Mount Catedral . NATIONAL MONUMENT

n0SAireS ® ^ LasPiedras • 1,683 fE R

■ : Pando- »*San Carlos

-- 'fr,. _. Maldonado

ranuo • ban uarios

Montevideo Maldanado

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

D 2002 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Ir

tal: Montevideo. People of European ances¬ try (mostly Spanish and Italian) make up about nine-tenths of the population; most of the remainder are mestizos or people of African-European descent. Few Indians remain. Language: Spanish (official). Religions: Christianity (predomi¬ nantly Roman Catholic; also other Christians, Protestant), Judaism. Cur¬ rency: Uruguayan peso. Uruguay is the only South American country lying entirely outside the tropics. Its topography consists mainly of low plateaus and low hilly regions. The principal waterway is the Negro River; the Uruguay River forms the country’s entire western border with Argen¬ tina. Mineral and energy resources are limited. Pastures, covering almost four-fifths of the land area, support large herds of livestock raised for meat, leather goods, and wool. Chief crops include rice, sugarcane, oranges, wheat, and corn. Other important economic activities are tour¬ ism, fishing, and the manufacture of textiles and chemicals. Uruguay is a republic with two legislative houses; its head of state and government is the president. Prior to European settlement, it was inhabited mainly by the Charrua and Guarani Indians. The Spanish navigator Juan Diaz de Solis sailed into the Rio de la Plata estuary in 1516. The Portuguese established Colonia in 1680. Subsequently the Spanish established Mon¬ tevideo in 1726, driving the Portuguese from their settlement; 50 years later Uruguay became part of the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata. It gained independence from Spain in 1811. The Portuguese regained it in 1821, incorporating it into Brazil as a province. A revolt against Brazil in 1825 led to its being recognized as an independent country in 1828. It sided with Brazil and Argentina against Paraguay in the War of the Triple

Uruguay River ► Utamaro I 1977

Alliance (1864/65-70). The economy benefited from a demand for raw material during World War II (1939—45) and the Korean War (1950-53). The office of the president was abolished in 1951 and replaced with a nine-member council. The country adopted a new constitution and restored the presidential system in 1966. A military coup occurred in 1973, but the country returned to civilian rule in 1985. The 1990s brought a general upturn in the economy, largely the result of reform measures and membership in Mercosur, the Southern Common Market (1991).

Uruguay River River, southeastern South America. Rising in south¬ ern Brazil, it forms the border between Argentina and Brazil and between Argentina and Uraguay. Above Buenos Aires, it combines with the Parana River to form the great estuary of the Rio de la Plata. Its 990-mi (1,593- km) course is interrupted by rapids, but it is navigable by ocean vessels for about 130 mi (210 km) upriver from its mouth.

Uruk See Erech

Uriimqi \iE-'riem-'che\ or Urumchi \u-'rum-'che\ or Wu-lu-mu- ch'i Vwu-'lii-'mu-'cheV City (pop., 1999 est.: 1,258,457), capital of Xin¬ jiang autonomous region, northwestern China. Situated along the northern face of the Tien Shan, it first came under Chinese control in the 7th-8th centuries and became an important centre for caravans en route to Turki- stan. The Uighurs had control from c. 750 until the resumption of Chi¬ nese rule in the 18th century. The city was held by Muslim rebels in 1864-76. When the province of Xinjiang was established in 1884, Uriimqi became its capital. It grew rapidly into the greatest city and centre of trade in Central Asia. It is located in a coal-mining and petroleum-producing area; its chief manufactures include iron and steel, agricultural machin¬ ery, and chemicals.

Urundi See Ruanda-Urundi U.S. See United States

U.S. News & World Report Weekly newsmagazine published in Washington, D.C. U.S. News was founded in 1933 by David Lawrence (1888-1973) to cover important domestic events; he founded World Report in 1945 to treat world news. The two magazines were merged in 1948. From its start, U.S. News & World Report had a somewhat more conservative editorial viewpoint than its larger rivals, Time and Newsweek, and it paid less attention to sports and the arts. In 1984 it was bought by real-estate developer Mortimer B. Zuckerman, who later purchased the New York Daily News. Surveys of higher education are published annu¬ ally in the popular “America’s Best Colleges” rankings.

U.S.S.R. See Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

USA Today National U.S. daily general-interest newspaper, the first of its kind. Launched in 1982 by Allen Neuharth, head of the Gannett news¬ paper chain, it reached a circulation of one million within a year and sur¬ passed two million in the 1990s. Initially considered gimmicky and insubstantial, it gradually developed a reputation for higher quality while increasing its circulation and advertising revenues at a time when few papers were experiencing growth. The features that originally set it apart—abundant colourful graphics, very brief stories, and a concentra¬ tion on sports and celebrity—have influenced other newspapers.

USB in full Universal Serial Bus Type of serial bus that allows peripheral devices (disks, modems, printers, digitizers, data gloves, etc.) to be easily connected to a computer. A “plug-and-play” interface, it allows a device to be added without an adapter card and without reboo¬ ting the computer (the latter is known as hot-plugging). The USB stan¬ dard, developed by several major computer and telecommunications companies, supports data-transfer speeds up to 12 megabits per second, multiple data streams, and up to 127 peripherals.

Usman dan Fodio Xii-'sman-'dan-fo-'de-oX (b. December 1754, Maratta, Gobir, Hausaland—d. 1817, Sokoto, Fulani empire) Fulani mys¬ tic, philosopher, and revolutionary reformer. In a jihad (holy war) between 1804 and 1808, he created a new Muslim state, the Fulani empire, in what is now northern Nigeria. He stimulated the growth of Islam throughout the region and founded the important Sokoto caliphate. He also produced a large body of writings in Arabic and Fula that continue to enjoy wide circulation and influence.

Ussuri \u-'sur-e\ River Chinese Wusuli Jiang or Wu-su-li Chiang River, eastern Asia. Formed by the confluence of two rivers ris¬ ing in the Sikhote-Alin Mountains of extreme southeastern Siberia (Rus¬

sia), it flows north, marking part of the border between Russia and China and joining the Amur River near Khabarovsk. It is 565 mi (909 km) long. In the 1960s, and especially in 1969, Soviet and Chinese forces clashed over large sections of the river border. A limited agreement was reached on navigational use of the river in 1977.

Ustinov \ , yus-t9- I nof\ / Sir Peter (Alexander) (b. April 16, 1921, London, Eng.—d. March 28, 2004, Genolier, Switz.) British actor, direc¬ tor, author, and playwright. He made his professional stage debut at age 17, in which he displayed his talents for vocal mimicry and age affecta¬ tion, and landed his first major screen role in The Goose Steps Out{ 1942). His film appearances include Lola Montes (1955), Spartacus (1960, Acad¬ emy Award), Topkapi (1964, Academy Award), and a recurring role as Hercule Poirot in movies based on Agatha Christie’s mysteries, beginning with Death on the Nile (1978). He both starred in and directed Billy Budd (1962), among other films. Lady L (1965), with Sophia Loren and Paul Newman, was probably his best-received directorial effort. He wrote suc¬ cessful plays such as The Love of Four Colonels (1951) and Romanoff and Juliet (1956) and won Emmy Awards for his television performances in The Life of Samuel Johnson (1957), Barefoot in Athens (1966), and A Storm in Summer (1970). Ustinov also wrote several novels and the auto¬ biographical works Dear Me (1977), Ustinov at Large (1993), and Usti¬ nov Still at Large (1994). Noted for his humanitarian efforts, he served as ambassador at large for UNICEF from 1969 until his death. Ustinov was knighted in 1990.

Usumacinta River \ l ii-su-ma- , sen-ta\ River, southeastern Mexico and northwestern Guatemala. Rising in northwestern Guatemala, it is formed by the confluence of the Salinas (or Chixoy) and Pasion rivers. It flows northwest and forms a section of the border between Guatemala and Mexico. It then empties into the Grijalva River in Mexico. With the Sali¬ nas River, it is about 600 mi (1,000 km) long.

Usumbura See Bujumbura

usury \'yii-zha-re\ In law, the crime of charging an unlawfully high rate of interest. In Old English law, the taking of any compensation whatso¬ ever was termed usury. With the expansion of trade in the 13th century, the demand for credit increased, necessitating a modification in the defi¬ nition of the term. In 1545 England fixed a legal maximum interest, a practice later followed by other Western nations.

Utah State (pop., 2000: 2,233,169), western U.S. It covers 84,904 sq mi (219,901 sq km); its capital is Salt Lake City. Utah is bordered by Idaho to the north, Wyoming to the northeast, Colorado to the east, Arizona to the south, and Nevada to the west. At Four Corners, in the southeast, Utah meets Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona at right angles, the only such meeting of states in the nation. Utah contains the Great Salt Lake and parts of the middle Rocky Mountains and Uinta Mountains. The western third of the state is a broad desert-like area. About 70% of the land is owned by either the federal or the state government. The region was inhabited as early as 10,000 bc. In c. ad 400 the Pueblo Indians lived throughout Utah; they were followed by other groups, including the Shoshone, Ute, and Paiute Indians. Spanish missionaries visited there in the late 18th cen¬ tury. It passed to Mexico in 1821. U.S. pioneer Jim Bridger was the first white man to see the Great Salt Lake, in 1824. The area’s first permanent settlers were Mormons, who were led to the valley of the Great Salt Lake in 1847 by Brigham Young. Acquired by the U.S. after the Mexican War, the region was organized as the Utah Territory in 1850; it had been reduced to the area of the present state by 1868. A conflict between Mor¬ mon authorities and the U.S. government known as the Utah War occurred in 1857-58, and statehood was denied until the Mormons renounced polygamy. When they did, Utah entered the Union in 1896 as the 45th state. The Mormon church has officially been politically neutral since the early 20th century, and the influence of economic blocs has become more important. Utah has large reserves of coal and petroleum and is the world’s largest producer of beryllium. Major industries include agricul¬ ture and tourism.

Utamaro \u-ta-'ma-ro\ orig. Kitagawa Nebsuyoshi (b. 1753, Japan—d. Oct. 31,1806, Edo) Japanese printmaker and painter. He moved from a provincial town to Edo (now Tokyo) in his youth; his early work included many illustrated books. One of the greatest ukiyo-e artists, he is known especially for his masterfully composed portraits of sensuous female beauties. Unlike other ukiyo-e artists, who favoured prints of women in groups, Utamaro concentrated on half-length single portraits.

1978 I Ute ► Utrillo

Ute \"yut\ North American Indians living mostly in Colorado and Utah, U.S. Their language belongs to the Numic branch of the Uto-Aztecan lan¬ guage family, and their name means “hill people.” Their traditional home¬ land included western Colorado, eastern Utah (whose name derives from Ute), and parts of New Mexico. They eventually joined into a loose con¬ federation of seven bands. Until the 19th century, the Ute had no horses and lived in small family clusters, subsisting by food collecting. They were virtually indistinguishable from the Southern Paiute. When the Ute acquired horses in the early 1800s, they became organized as loose bands of hunters, often targeting livestock. After the Indian wars of 1864-70, most Ute were settled on reservations. At the turn of the 21st century, they numbered more than 5,000.

uterine Yyii-ta-ranV bleeding Abnormal bleeding from the uterus not related to menstruation. Most common in the first few years after menarche and as menopause approaches, it is thought to occur when malfunctioning ovaries reduce blood estrogen levels. A malfunctioning hypothalamus or pitu¬ itary gland may also cause hormonally induced uterine bleeding, as can birth-control pills or hormone-replacement therapy. Some tumours pro¬ duce estrogen and can alter the menstrual cycle, causing bleeding. Tumours in the uterus often bleed easily. Other causes include injury to the uterus, stress, obesity, chronic illness, psychological problems, and blood and car¬ diovascular disorders. Treatment is directed toward the underlying cause.

uterine cancer Malignant tumour of the uterus. Cancers affecting the lining of the uterus (endometrium) are the most common cancers of the female reproductive tract. Risk factors include absence of pregnancy, early age of first menstruation (before age 12), late onset of menopause (after age 52), obesity, diabetes, and estrogen replacement therapy. Addi¬ tional risk factors are a personal history of breast or ovarian cancer, age (over age 40), and a family history of uterine cancer. Whites are more likely to develop uterine cancer than are blacks. The major symptom is vaginal bleeding or discharge. Treatment may begin with simple or radi¬ cal hysterectomy. Some uterine cancers are treated in part by hormonal therapy, radiation therapy, or chemotherapy.

uterus or womb Inverted-pear-shaped organ of the female reproduc¬ tive system, in which the embryo and fetus develop during pregnancy. Lying over and behind the bladder, it is 2.5-3 in. (6-8 cm) long and about 2.5 in. (6 cm) across at the top, where the fallopian tubes enter it; at the other end, the cervix extends down into the vagina. The uterine lining (endometrium), a moist mucous membrane, changes in thickness during the menstrual cycle (see menstruation), being thickest at ovulation in readi¬ ness for a fertilized EGG. The uterine wall, about 1 in. (2.5 cm) thick, expands and becomes thinner as a fetus develops inside. The cervix expands to about 4 in. (10 cm) for delivery. Disorders of the uterus include infections, benign and malignant tumours, prolapse, endometriosis, and fibroids (leiomyomas; see muscle tumour).

'Uthman ibn 'Affan Nuth-'man-.i-bon-af-'fanV (d. June 17, 656, Medina, Arabia) Third caliph of the Umayyad dynasty. Bom into the pow¬ erful Umayyad clan of Mecca, he became a wealthy merchant before con¬ verting to Islam; he was the first convert of high social and economic standing. He married a daughter of Muhammad. On the death of 'Umar ibn al-Khattab (644), ‘Uthman was chosen as his successor. His reign as caliph was marked by nepotism and personal profit, and he made many enemies. His accomplishments included centralizing the administration of the caliphate and establishing an official version of the Qu’ran. His death at the hands of rebels marked the beginning of the first fitnah.

Utica \'yu-ti-ko\ Ancient Phoenician settlement, North Africa. Consid¬ ered the oldest Phoenician settlement, it was located in what is now mod¬ ern Tunisia. After its founding (c. 8th century bc), it grew rapidly and was second in importance only to Carthage. Made the capital of the Roman province of Africa after the Third Punic War (149-146 bc), it later declined after the emperor Augustus rebuilt Carthage. Excavations have uncovered Phoenician graves dating from the 8th century bc and a substantial resi¬ dential section of the Roman city. See also Punic Wars.

utilitarianism Ethical principle according to which an action is right if it tends to maximize happiness, not only that of the agent but also of everyone affected. Thus, utilitarians focus on the consequences of an act rather than on its intrinsic nature or the motives of the agent (see conse- quentialism). Classical utilitarianism is hedonist, but values other than, or in addition to, pleasure (ideal utilitarianism) can be employed, or—more neutrally, and in a version popular in economics—anything can be regarded as valuable that appears as an object of rational or informed

desire (preference utilitarianism). The test of utility maximization can also be applied directly to single acts (act utilitarianism), or to acts only indi¬ rectly through some other suitable object of moral assessment, such as rules of conduct (rule utilitarianism). Jeremy Bentham’s Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789) and John Stuart Mill’s Utili¬ tarianism (1863) are major statements of utilitarianism.

Uto-Aztecan X.yii-to-'az-.te-konX languages Family of more than 30 American Indian languages spoken in pre-Columbian times from the northern Great Basin to Central America. Geographically, Uto-Aztecan can be divided into a northern and a southern branch. The northern branch, spo¬ ken from Oregon and Idaho to southern California and Arizona, includes the languages of the Northern and Southern Paiutes, Utes, Northern and Eastern Shoshone, Comanche, and Hopi. The southern branch includes the languages of the O’odham (Pima and Papago) in Arizona, and of a number of Mexican Indian peoples, including the Tarahumara of Chihuahua, the Yaqui of northwestern Mexico and Arizona, and the Cora and Huichol of Nayarit and Jalisco; its southernmost extension includes Nahuatl.

utopian socialism Political and social idea of the mid-19th century. Adapted from such reformers as Robert Owen and Charles Fourier, uto¬ pian socialism drew from early communist and socialist ideas. Advocates included Louis Blanc, noted for his theory of worker-controlled “social workshops,” and John Humphrey Noyes, founder of the Oneida Community in the U.S. Utopian settlements were also attempted by religious groups such as the Mennonites, Shakers, and Mormons. See also Brook Farm.

Utrecht YiB-.trekt, 'yii-.trektN City (pop., 2001 est.: 256,420), central Netherlands. The site of successive Roman, Frisian, and Frankish for¬ tresses, it became an episcopal see in 696 under St. Willibrord. It was most prosperous during the 11th and 12th centuries, when it was an impor¬ tant commercial centre. In 1527 it was transferred to Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and became part of the Habsburg dominions. It was ruled by Spain until the 1570s, when it became a centre of Protestant resistance. It was the site of the signing of the Union of Utrecht (1579), which established a league of northern Dutch provinces against Spain; the league was the basis of the future Netherlands kingdom. Occupied by the French (1795-1813), it was the residence of Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland (1806-10). The only Dutch pope, Adrian VI, was born in Utre¬ cht. It is a transportation, financial, and insurance centre.

Utrecht, Peace of (1713 -14) Series of treaties concluding the War of the Spanish Succession. One series was signed between France and other European powers; another series was signed between Spain and other powers. France concluded treaties with Britain, the Dutch Republic, Prus¬ sia, Portugal, and Savoy, in which it ceded various territories, including regions in Canada, to Britain. France also recognized Queen Anne as the British sovereign, acknowledged Frederick I’s royal title, and recognized Victor Amadeus II as king of Sicily. Spain ceded Gibraltar to Britain. In a separate accord, the asiento agreement, Spain gave Britain the exclusive right to supply the Spanish colonies with African slaves for 30 years. Emperor Charles VI concluded a separate peace with France in the Treaty of Rastatt and Baden. The Spanish succession was settled in favour of the Bourbon Philip V. The treaties gave Britain the largest portion of colonial and commercial spoils and made it the leader in world trade.

Utrecht school Principally a group of three Dutch painters from Utrecht —Dirck van Baburen (c. 1590-1624), Gerrit van Honthorst, and Hendrik Terbrugghen —who were greatly influenced by Caravaggio’s art during travels to Rome. They used their newly learned technique in art¬ work with primarily religious subject matter, but also produced brothel scenes and pictures in sets, such as five works devoted to the senses. The numerous candles, lanterns, and other sources of artificial light in their paintings also differentiate them from Caravaggio, who never used such devices. Honthorst enjoyed the widest reputation at the time, but Terbrug¬ ghen is now considered the most talented and versatile of the group.

Utrillo \tE-tre-'yo,\ English Xyti-'tri-loV Maurice (b. Dec. 25, 1883, Paris, Fr.—d. Nov. 5, 1955, Le Vesinet) French painter. When he became an alcoholic in his teens, his mother, the painter and model Suzanne Val¬ adon, encouraged him to take up painting as therapy; it soon became his obsession. He had no formal artistic training and was interested prima¬ rily in reproducing what he saw as faithfully as possible. Most of his compositions depict the old, deteriorating houses and streets of the Mont¬ martre district of Paris. His best work is that of his “white period” (c. 1908-14), so called for his lavish use of zinc white in heavy layers to build up aging, cracked walls. See photograph on opposite page.

Uttar Pradesh ► Uzi submachine gun I 1979

Uttar Pradesh Vu-tor-pro-'dashX formerly United Provinces of Agra and Oudh State (pop., 2001: 166,197,921), north-central India. It is bordered by Nepal, the states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Raja¬ sthan, Haryana, and Uttaranchal, and Delhi national capital territory and covers an area of 93,933 sq mi (243,286 sq km); its capital is Lucknow. The state, the most populous in the country, lies largely in the plains formed by the Ganges and Yamuna rivers. The region was the setting of two great Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana, and the scene of the rise of Buddhism after the 6th century bc. It was ruled by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka in the mid-3rd century bc, the Gupta dynasty (c. ad 320-c. 415), and King Harsa (606-647). The Mughals gained control in the 16th century, at which time the city of Agra became a chief centre. The British arrived in the late 18th century; by the 1830s they held sway and eventu¬ ally formed the North-Western Provinces, to which Oudh was later annexed. The area was the main scene of the Indian Mutiny of 1857. The current province was formed in 1902 and became a state of India in 1947. In 2000 the northern portion of it was made into the state of Uttaranchal. Uttar Pradesh is a major silica-producing state, yet agriculture is its most important economic sector. Its noted tourist meccas are Agra and Varanasi.

Uttaranchal State (pop., 2001 prelim.: 8,479,562), northern India. It is bordered by Tibet (China) and Nepal and the states of Uttar Pradesh, Hary¬ ana, and Himachal Pradesh and covers an area of 19,739 sq mi (51,125 sq km); its capital is Dehra Dun. The state lies in the Himalayas, and some of India’s highest peaks rise in its northern areas. The upper reaches of the Ganges (Ganga) and Yamuna rivers flow southward through the state. In the south are hill resorts such as Mussoorie, Naini Tal, and Ranikhet. The area now constituting Uttaranchal was a part of Uttar Pradesh state after Indian independence in 1947 until it was made into a separate state in 2000. The population is mostly engaged in agriculture, although tour¬ ism is also important.

Uvarov \U- , var-9f\ / Sergey (Semyonovich), Count (b. Sept. 5, 1786, Moscow, Russia—d. Sept. 16, 1855, Moscow) Russian adminis¬ trator. Uvarov served as a diplomat (1806-10), head of the St. Petersburg educational district (1811-22), and deputy minister of education (1832) before being named minister of education in 1833 under Tsai - Nicholas I. In an influential report, Uvarov declared that education must adhere to the “principles of orthodoxy, autocracy, and nationality,” which was adopted as an ideology rooted in loyalty to dynastic rule, traditional religious faith, and glorification of the Russian homeland. Uvarov was also president of the Academy of Science from 1818 until his death.

uveitis \,yu-ve-'I-t3s\ Inflammation of the uvea, the middle coat of the eyeball. Anterior uveitis, involving the iris or ciliary body (containing the muscle that adjusts the lens) or both, can lead to glaucoma and blindness. Posterior uveitis, involving the choroid (which contains the eye’s blood supply), can cause bleeding, lens clouding, and eyeball atrophy. Granu¬ lomatous uveitis (persistent inflammation with a grainy surface) causes

vision impairment, pain, watery eyes, and sensitivity to light; non¬ granulomatous uveitis causes less pain and sensitivity, with a better chance of recovery. Causes include generalized infections and other dis¬ eases, allergic reactions, and injury. Rarely, the uninjured eye also has symptoms, with a risk of blindness in both eyes. Treatment aims to elimi¬ nate infection, reduce inflammation, and preserve vision.

Uxmal Viiz-'mal, ush-'mal\ Ancient city, Yucatan state, southeastern Mexico. It was the chief city of the later Maya empire (600-c. 900 ad). After c. 1000, major construction in the city ceased, although it continued to be occupied and was a participant in the political League of Mayapan. When the league ended, Uxmal, like the other great cities of the north, was abandoned (c. 1450). Maya ruins include a pyramid, palace, and quadrangle.

Impasse Coffin, oil on cardboard by Maurice Utrillo, c. 1910; in the National Museum of Modern Art, Paris.

Uygur See Uighur

Uzbekistan \uz-,be-ki-'stan\ officially Republic of Uzbekistan

Country, Central Asia. The autonomous republic of Qoraqalpoghiston (Karakalpakstan) is within its borders. Area: 172,700 sq mi (447,400 sq

km). Population (2005 est.): 26,593,000. Capital: Tashkent. The Uzbeks constitute three-fourths of the population; Russians, Tajiks, Kazakhs, Tatars, and Karakalpaks make up the remainder. Languages: Uzbek (official), Russian, Tajik, Kazakh. Religions: Islam (predominantly Sunni); also Eastern Orthodox. Currency: sum. Uzbekistan lies largely between the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers. Although it contains fertile oases and high mountain ranges in the south and east, almost four-fifths of the country consists of flat, sunbaked lowlands. Two-thirds of the Aral Sea extends into Uzbekistan. It is a major producer and exporter of natu¬ ral gas and has sizable reserves of petroleum, coal, and various metallic ores. It is a leading grower of cotton and also produces fruits and veg¬ etables and Karakul sheep. It is the main manufacturer of machinery and heavy equipment in Central Asia. It is a republic with one legislative body; its head of state is the president, and the head of government is the prime minister. A grandson of Mongol leader Genghis Khan received the terri¬ tory as his inheritance in the 13th century. The Mongols ruled over a number of Turkic tribes, who would eventually intermarry with the Mon¬ gols to form the Uzbeks and other Turkic peoples of Central Asia. In the early 16th century a federation of Mongol-Uzbeks invaded and occupied settled regions, including an area called Transoxania that would become the permanent Uzbek homeland. By the early 19th century the region was dominated by the khanates of Khiva, Bukhara, and Kokand, all of which eventually succumbed to Russian domination. The Uzbek S.S.R. was cre¬ ated in 1924. In June 1990 Uzbekistan became the first Central Asian republic to declare sovereignty. It achieved full independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. Its economy subsequently became the strongest in Central Asia.

Uzi submachine gun \'ii-ze\ Compact automatic weapon used throughout the world as a police and special-forces firearm. It was named for its designer, Uziel Gal, an Israeli officer who developed it after the Arab-Israeli War of 1948. It is 25.6 in. (650 mm) long with its folding metal butt fully extended. The barrel is only 10 in. (260 mm) long. When loaded with a 25- or 32-round magazine of 9-mm pistol ammunition, it weighs about 9 lbs (4 kg). It has also been made in miniature versions as short as 18 in. (460 mm).

1980 I V-l missile ► Vairocana

V-l missile or flying bomb or buzz bomb German missile of World War II. The forerunner of modern cruise missiles, it was about 25 ft (8 m) long and had a wingspan of about 18 ft (5.5 m). It was launched from catapult ramps or sometimes from aircraft; it carried an explosive warhead of almost 1,900 lbs (850 kg) and had an average range of 150 mi (240 km). More than 8,000 V-ls were launched against London in 1944^15, and a smaller number against Belgium. See also V-2 missile.

V-2 missile German liquid-fueled ballistic missile of World War II, fore¬ runner of modem space launch vehicles (see also rocket) and long-range missiles. Developed starting in 1936 under Wernher von Braun, it was fired against Paris, Great Britain, and Belgium in 1944 and 1945. After the war, the U.S. and the Soviet Union captured large numbers of V-2s and used them in research that led to the development of their missile and space-exploration programs. See also V-l missile.

Vaal \'val\ River River, South Africa. Rising in Mpu¬ malanga province, it flows west 750 mi (1,210 km), form¬ ing part of the boundary between Mpumalanga and Free State provinces, to empty into the Orange River in Northern Cape province. It is primarily used for irrigation.

vaccine Preparation containing either killed or weakened live microorganisms or their toxins, introduced by mouth, by injec¬ tion, or by nasal spray to stimulate production of antibodies against an infectious agent. This confers immunity to that agent, since the B lymphocytes remain sensitized to it and respond to later infection by producing more antibodies. The first vaccine, against smallpox, was introduced by Edward Jenner in 1798. Vaccines have been developed against diseases caused by bacteria (e.g., typhoid, whooping cough, tuber¬ culosis) and by viRUSes (e.g., measles, influenza, rabies, poliomyelitis). Effec¬ tiveness varies, and a small percentage of people have adverse reactions. Those with immunodeficiency disorders should not receive live vaccines.

vacuole Vvak-yo-.wolV Space within a cell that is empty of cytoplasm, lined with a membrane, and filled with fluid. Especially in protozoans, vacuoles perform functions such as storage, ingestion, digestion, excre¬ tion, and expulsion of excess water. The large central vacuoles often found in plant cells enable them to attain a large size without accumulating the bulk that would make metabolism difficult.

vacuum Space in which there is no matter or in which the pressure is so low that any particles in the space do not affect any processes being car¬ ried on there. It is a condition well below normal atmospheric pressure and is measured in units of pressure (the pascal). A vacuum can be created by removing air from a space using a vacuum pump or by reducing the pres¬ sure using a fast flow of fluid, as in Bernoulli's principle.

vacuum tube Electron tube consisting of a sealed glass or metal enclo¬ sure from which the air has been withdrawn. It was used in early elec¬ tronic circuitry to control a flow of electrons. In the first half of the 20th century, vacuum tubes allowed the development of radio broadcasting, long-distance telephone service, television, and the first electronic digital computers, which were the largest vacuum-tube systems ever built. Tran¬ sistors have replaced them in virtually all applications, but they are still occasionally used in display devices for television sets and computers (cathode-ray tubes), in microwave ovens, and as high-frequency transmit¬ ters on space satellites.

Vadim \va-'dem\ (Plemiannikov), Roger (b. Jan. 26, 1928, Paris, France—d. Feb. 11, 2000, Paris) French film director. After working briefly as a stage actor in the mid-1940s, he began his film career as an assistant on Juliette (1953). He directed and cowrote the highly success¬ ful erotic film And God Created Woman (1956), which established his wife, Brigitte Bardot, as a sex symbol. He duplicated this winning formula with two later wives, Annette Stroyberg in Dangerous Liaisons (1959) and Jane Fonda in Barbarella (1968), and his lover, Catherine Deneuve, in Vice and Virtue (1962).

Vadodara Wo-'do-do-.raV or Baroda Xbo-'ro-doV City (pop., 2001 pre¬ lim.: 1,306,035), southeastern Gujarat state, west-central India. It was known by many different names before receiving its present one in 1971. The earliest record of the city dates from a charter of ad 812, and during the succeeding centuries it came under various rulers, including those of the Muslim Delhi sultanate and the Mughal dynasty. Its varied products include cotton textiles, chemicals, machinery, and furniture.

Vaduz \fa-'diits\ City (pop., 1997 est.: 5,000), capital of Liechtenstein. Located on the Rhine River, it was greatly damaged in 1499 in a war between the Swiss and Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, but it was sub¬ sequently rebuilt. The Liechtenstein family gained possession in the early 18th century. It is a flourishing tourist centre and the residence of the rul¬ ing prince, whose castle overlooks the town. The town’s Furst Liechten- steinische Gemaldegalerie displays parts of the world-famous art collection of the princes of Liechtenstein.

Vaganova \v9-'ga-n9-v9\, Agrippina (Yakovlevna) (b. July 6, 1879, St. Petersburg, Russia—d. Nov. 5, 1951, Leningrad) Russian ballet dancer and teacher. In 1897 she joined the Mariinsky Theatre company, where she worked until 1917. She began teaching at the Leningrad Choreographic (formerly Imperial Ballet) school in 1921 and became its director in 1934. Her system of ballet instruction combined clas¬ sic technique with the athletic, acrobatic post- Revolution style. She wrote the widely used textbook Fundamentals of the Classic Dance (1934).

vagina \v9-'jl-n9\ Genital canal in females. Together with the cavity of the uterus, it forms the birth canal. In most vir¬ gins, its external opening is partially closed by a thin fold of tissue (hymen), which has various forms, not all of which sig¬ nificantly obstruct the opening. The vagina’s lining thickens and thins during the menstrual cycle (see menstruation) in response to estrogen from the ovaries, being thickest and most elastic during ovulation and pregnancy. Its normally slightly acid environment discourages disease-causing microorganisms. Thick, elastic muscle walls accommodate movement of the penis during intercourse and passage of a child during delivery. A mucuslike fluid seeps through them for lubrication during sexual arousal. Vaginal disorders include bacterial and fungal infections (e.g., sexually transmitted diseases, Candida), vaginitis, sores (see ulcer), and prolapse.

vaginitis V.va-js-'nI-tssV Inflammation of the vagina. The chief symptom is a whitish or yellowish vaginal discharge. Treatment depends on the cause: appropriate drugs for sexually transmitted diseases (often from Gard- nerella bacteria or trichomonads) or yeast infections; estrogen cream for atrophy of the vaginal lining, which may dry out after menopause; and avoidance of any chemicals found to trigger irritation or allergy.

vagrancy Act of wandering about without employment or identifiable means of support. Traditionally a vagrant was thought to be one who was able to work for his maintenance but preferred instead to live idly, often as a beggar. Punishment ranged from branding and whipping to conscrip¬ tion into the military services and transportation to penal colonies. In the U.S., laws against vagrancy were used by police and prosecutors to pro¬ scribe a wide range of behaviours. Many such laws were struck down as unconstitutionally vague, thus largely decriminalizing vagrancy, though in the 1990s many local laws were implemented to curtail aggressive panhandling, begging, and other activities by vagrants on city streets.

Vah Vvak\ River River, western Slovakia. Rising in the Tatra Moun¬ tains, it flows west and south for 242 mi (390 km) before entering the Danube River at Komarno. There are numerous hydroelectric-power sta¬ tions along it.

Vail Town (pop., 2000: 4,531), west-central Colorado, U.S. Located in the Rocky Mountains west of Den¬ ver, it was founded as a resort town in 1962 and built in the style of an Alpine village. The skiable terrain around Vail Mountain extends for 15 sq mi (39 sq km), making Vail the largest ski resort in North America.

Vairocana \vi-'ro-ch9-n9\ In Mahayana and tantric Buddhism, the supreme buddha who is the cosmic Dainichi Nyorai ("Great Sun Buddha") counterpart of Sakyamuni in his by Unkei, lacquered wood sculpture, teaching mode. He is the most ^ ^ ^5; in the Enjo-ji, Nara, Japan prominent of the five self-born bud- ASUKA ' EN _

Vaisheshika ► valence I 1981

dhas, those who were born as humans to propagate the dharma. Though without canonical basis, Vairocana holds a special place in Tibetan Bud¬ dhism and has a special role in the Avatamsaka-sutra, in which he is the solar buddha who is both the ultimate reality of the cosmos and the one who pervades its component parts.

Vaisheshika Wl-'sha-shi-koV One of the six orthodox systems, or dar- shans, of Indian philosophy. Founded c. 2nd-3rd century ad, it fused with Nyaya in the 11th century, forming the Nyaya-Vaisheshika school. Vaisheshika attempts to identify, inventory, and classify the entities that present themselves to human perception. It lists seven categories of being. It holds that the universe’s smallest, indivisible, indestructible unit is the atom, which is made active through God’s will, and that all physical things are a combination of the atoms of earth, water, fire, and air.

Vaishnavism VvIsh-no-.vi-zomV Worship of Vishnu as the supreme deity, as well as of his incarnations, mainly Rama and Krishna. Vaish¬ navism is one of the major forms of modern Hinduism, along with Shaivism and Shaktism, and is probably the most popular and most widely practiced. Characterized by an emphasis on bhakti, its goal is to escape from the cycle of birth and death in order to enjoy the presence of Vishnu. The philo¬ sophical schools into which Vaishnavism is divided are distinguished by their varying interpretations of the relationship between individual souls and God, and include aspects of monism and dualism.

Vaishya \'vlsh-ya\ Third highest of the four varnas of India. Tradition¬ ally described as commoners, Vaishyas are connected with productive labour, such as trade, agriculture, and pastoralism. According to legend, they sprang from the thighs of Prajapati, after the Brahmans and the Ksha- triyas but before the Shudras. Like the two higher classes, they are “twice- born” (see upanayana). They are credited historically with favouring the rise of the reformist religious beliefs of Buddhism and Jainism. In modern times they have become a symbol of middle-class prestige, and many rise to higher classes.

Vajiravudh \,va-je-ra-'vud\ or Phramongkutklao V.pra-.moq-kut- 'klau\ or Rama VI (b. Jan. 1, 1881, Bangkok, Siam—d. Nov. 26, 1925, Bangkok) King of Siam (Thailand; 1910-25). Educated at Oxford, Vajira¬ vudh undertook numerous social reforms as king, including making monogamy the only legal form of marriage. In 1921 he made primary education free and compulsory. He alienated both liberals and conserva¬ tives at home but was successful in foreign policy, restoring full fiscal autonomy to Siam. A prolific writer and translator, he introduced West¬ ern forms to Thai literature, translated William Shakespeare’s works, and composed about 50 original plays.

Vajpayee, Atal Bihari (b. Dec. 15, 1924, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India) Leader of India’s pro-Hindu Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and prime minister of India in 1996 and from 1998 to 2004. Politically active as a teenager, he was briefly jailed by British colonial authorities. He was first elected to parliament in 1957 as a member of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh, a forerunner of the BJP. He served as foreign minister in the late 1970s and helped formally establish the BJP in 1980. In 1992 he was one of the few Hindu leaders to speak out against the destruction of the historic Babri Masjid mosque by anti-Muslim extremists. Elected prime minister in May 1996, he was unable to form a government and resigned after 13 days. In 1998 and 1999 he was again elected prime minister as head of a BJP-led coalition. In May 1998 nuclear weapons tests ordered by Vajpayee drew international condemnation and economic sanctions. In 2000 his govern¬ ment began an extensive program of divestment of public funds from several key state-run industries. Under his leadership India achieved steady economic growth and became a world leader in information tech¬ nology. In 2004 his coalition was defeated in parliamentary elections, and he resigned from office.

vajra Vvoj-roV Five-pronged ritual object extensively employed in the ceremonies of Tibetan Buddhism. It is fashioned out of brass or bronze, the four prongs at each end curving around the central fifth to form a lotus- bud shape. In Sanskrit the word means both thunderbolt and diamond: like a thunderbolt it cuts through ignorance, and like a diamond it destroys but is itself indestructible. Originally a symbol of Indra, it was used to conquer the non-Buddhist deities of Tibet. In ritual use, it is often employed in conjunction with a bell in the execution of mudras.

Vajrayana V.voj-ro-'ya-noN Form of tantric Buddhism that emerged in India in the first millennium ad and spread to Tibet, where it is the pre¬ dominant tradition in Tibetan Buddhism. Philosophically, Vajrayana is a

blend of the Yogacara and Madhyamika disciplines. It aims to recapture the enlightenment experience of the Buddha Gautama, and it places spe¬ cial emphasis on the notion that enlightenment arises from the realization that seemingly opposite principles are in truth one. It introduced innova¬ tions involving the use of mantras and mandalas as aids to meditation, and, in rare cases, the use of yogically disciplined sexual activities.

Vakataka Vva-ko-to-kcA dynasty Indian ruling house that originated in the central Deccan in the mid-3rd century ad. The Vakataka empire is believed to have extended from Malwa and Gujarat in the north to the Tungabhadra in the south and to have spanned the peninsula from west to east. In the 4th century the Vakatakas were allied by marriage to the Gupta dynasty, and Gupta cultural influence was significant. The Vakata¬ kas are noted for having encouraged arts and letters.

Valdemar Vval-do-maA I known as Voldemar the Great (b. Jan. 14, 1131, Denmark—d. May 12, 1182, Denmark) King of Denmark (1157-82). On ascending the throne, he ended more than 25 years of civil wars, and he defeated the Wends (Slavs) by 1169, freeing Danish ships from piracy. He acknowledged the overlordship of Frederick I Barbarossa and accepted his antipope Victor IV; he later acknowledged Pope Alex¬ ander III (c. 1165) and rejected Frederick. He gained church approval for hereditary rule by his dynasty, the Valdemars, and in 1181 he allied with Frederick as an equal, aided by the marriage of their children.

Valdemar IV Atterdag Vat-t9r-,dag\ (b. c. 1320, Denmark—d. Oct. 24, 1375, Schleswig) King of Denmark (1340-75). A son of King Chris¬ topher II, he sought to free Danish lands from foreign domination. He sold Estonia (1346), gained control of Zealand (1349), and subdued a revolt in Jutland (1350). By regaining Skane from Sweden, he completed the reunification of his father’s kingdom (1360). His aggressive foreign policy led to conflict with Sweden, North German principalities, and the Hanseatic League, which defeated him in 1368, forcing him to concede trading privileges but allowing his kingdom to remain intact. The mar¬ riage of his daughter Margaret to the Norwegian king Haakon VI made possible the unification of Denmark and Norway.

Valdes \val-'des\ or Peter Waldo (d. c. 1205) French religious leader. A successful merchant, Valdes (Peter Waldo was a later form of his name) underwent a religious conversion, gave away his wealth, and began to preach a doctrine of voluntary poverty in Lyon around 1170. In 1179 his vow of poverty was confirmed by Pope Alexander III, but he was subse¬ quently forbidden to preach by Pope Lucius III. In 1182 or 1183 Valdes and his followers—called the Poor, or the Poor of Lyon—were excom¬ municated for violating the ban on preaching and were banished from the city. They were formally condemned at a church council in 1184 along with other heretics, including the Cathari, against whom Valdes had ear¬ lier preached. The severe persecution of the so-called Waldenses in the 13th century forced them to begin traveling and teaching in secret. Dur¬ ing the Protestant Reformation, the Waldenses accepted Genevan forms of worship and church organization.