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Suzdal Vsiiz-doA Medieval principality, between the Oka River and the Upper Volga, northeastern Russia. Ruled by a branch of the Rurik dynasty during the 12th-14th centuries, it united with Rostov and in the 12th cen¬ tury with Vladimir. Suzdal-Vladimir achieved great political and eco¬ nomic importance, but in the 13th—14th centuries it disintegrated into small principalities, which ultimately were absorbed by Moscow. See also Vladimir-Suzdal school.

Suzman \'suz-man\, Helen orig. Helen Gavronsky (b. Nov. 7, 1917, Germiston, S.Af.) South African legislator. Bom in the Transvaal to Lithuanian immigrants, she graduated from the University of Witwa- tersrand, where she later taught economic history (1945-52). Elected to Parliament in 1953, she and 11 others formed the Progressive Party to oppose apartheid. Suzman alone of the group was reelected in 1961; until 1974 she often cast the lone vote against an increasing number of apart¬ heid measures. In 1978 she received the UN Human Rights award. Until her retirement in 1989, she remained a significant voice in the South Afri¬ can Parliament.

Svalbard Vsfal-,bar\ Archipelago, Norway. Located in the Arctic Ocean, north of the Arctic Circle, Svalbard consists of nine main islands, the largest being Spitsbergen (formerly West Spitsbergen). The islands are mountainous, with glaciers and snowfields covering nearly 60% of the area. The islands were first visited in modern times by the Dutch in 1596. In the early 20th century many countries, including the U.S., debated ownership of mineral rights there. Officially a Norwegian possession since 1920, the islands have been the site of many scientific polar expeditions (beginning in 1773). The population changes seasonally but numbers about 3,000; there are no indigenous inhabitants. Longyearbyen is the administrative centre.

Svealand \'sva-3-,land\ Region, south-central Sweden. Stretching across the breadth of the country, it covers an area of 31,212 sq mi (80,844 sq km). Settled as early as the Stone Age, it was the original home of the Svear, a people who gave Sweden its name, and it was the political and cultural centre from which Sweden developed and later secured its inde¬ pendence. Its diversified economy includes agriculture, manufacturing, forestry, and mining.

Svedberg \'svad-,bar y ,\ English Vsved-.bsrgV The(odor) (b. Aug. 30, 1884, Flerang, near Gavle, Swed.—d. Feb. 25, 1971, Orebro) Swedish chemist. He won a Nobel Prize in 1926 for his studies in the chemistry of colloids and for his invention of the ultracentrifuge (see centrifuge), which has become invaluable to research in biochemistry and other areas. Svedberg used it to determine precisely the molecular weights of highly complex proteins (e.g., hemoglobin). Later he made studies in nuclear chemistry, contributed to the improvement of the cyclotron, and helped his student Arne Tiselius (1902-71) develop electrophoresis.

Sverdlov Vsv y erd-lof\, Yakov (Mikhaylovich) (b. June 3, 1885, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia—d. March 16, 1919, Moscow) Soviet politi¬ cian. A Bolshevik organizer and agitator in the Urals, he was often arrested and exiled. In the Russian Revolution of 1917, he headed the Bolshevik secretariat and helped plan and execute the October coup that brought the Bolsheviks to power. As titular head of state, he worked closely with Vladimir Lenin to consolidate power in the Communist Party’s Central Committee. His untimely death at age 33 from an infectious illness left a void in the party hierarchy that was filled by Joseph Stalin in 1922.

Sverdlovsk See Yekaterinburg

Svevo Vzva-voV Italo orig. Ettore Schmitz (b. Dec. 19, 1861, Tri¬ este, Austrian Empire—d. Sept. 13, 1928, Motta di Livenza, Italy) Ital¬ ian writer. Though family financial difficulties forced him to leave school and become a bank clerk, he read on his own and began to write. A Life (1892), revolutionary in its analytical, introspective treatment of an inef¬ fectual hero, was ignored on publication, as was As a Man Grows Older

(1898). He gave up writing until, encouraged by James Joyce (then living in Trieste), he produced his most famous novel. Confessions of Zeno (1923), a brilliant work in the form of a patient’s statement for his psy¬ chiatrist. He died in an auto accident. Two short-story collections, essays, dramatic works, correspondence with Eugenio Montale, and his unfinished Further Confessions of Zeno (1969) were published after his death. He is regarded as a pioneer of the psychological novel.

Svyatoslav I Vsvya-to-slofA (d. 972) Grand prince of Kiev (945-72). The greatest of the Varangian princes of early Russian history, he defeated the Khazar and other peoples in the northern Caucasus (963-965) and conquered the Bulgars (967). Hoping to found a Russo-Bulgarian empire, he refused to cede his conquest to the Byzantines until their army defeated him and forced the surrender of Balkan territory (971). He was killed in an ambush on his way back to Kiev.

Swabia German Schwaben \'shvab- 3 n\ Duchy, medieval Germany, and current administrative district. The duchy of Swabia was nearly coex¬ tensive with modern Baden-Wtirttemberg, Hesse, and western Bavaria states, as well as parts of eastern Switzerland and Alsace. The Suevi and Alemanni tribes occupied the area from the 3rd century, and the region was known as Alemannia until the 11th century. In the 7th century Irish missionaries began to introduce Christianity. From c. 10th century it became one of the five great tribal duchies of early medieval Germany. It was ruled by the Hohenstaufen dynasty c. 1077-1268, after which the duchy was divided. Several alliances of cities, known as the Swabian Leagues, were formed in the 14th— 16th centuries. The region was a ter¬ ritorial division of the Holy Roman Empire in the 16th-19th centuries. Its chief cities included Augsburg, Freiburg, Konstanz, and Ulm. Created in 1934, the administrative district is coextensive with the eastern portion of the larger historic region of Swabia and has an area of 3,859 sq mi (9,994 sq km) and a population (2002 est.) of 1,767,193.

swage Vswaj, 'swej\ Perforated cast-iron or steel block with grooved sides, used by metalworkers for shaping their work by holding it on the work (or the work on it) and striking with a hammer or sledge. Swage blocks are used in heading bolts and swaging bars by hand.

Swahili \swa-'he-le\ language Bantu language spoken in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, and Congo (Kinshasa). It is spoken as a first language by more than 2 million people and as a second language by some 60 mil¬ lion. Standard Swahili is based on the Unguja (kiUnguja) dialect of Zan¬ zibar, which was spread far inland in the 19th century by entrepreneurs seeking ivory and slaves. Its use was perpetuated by the European colo¬ nial governments that occupied East Africa toward the end of the century. Modem Swahili is usually written in the Latin alphabet, though Swahili literature in Arabic script dates to the early 18th century. Among Bantu languages, Swahili is remarkable for the number of loanwords it has absorbed, especially from Arabic.

swallow Any of 74 species (family Hirundinidae) of songbirds found nearly worldwide. Swallows are 4-9 in. (10-23 cm) long, with long, pointed, narrow wings; a short bill; small, weak feet; and sometimes a forked tail. The dark upper plumage may have a metallic blue or green sheen. Swallows capture insects on the wing. They nest in tree holes, burrow into sandbank, or plaster mud nests to walls. Some species (e.g., the common swallow, Hirundo rustica) are long-distance migrants; all have a strong homing instinct.

The swallows of California’s San Juan Capistrano Mission are cliff swallows ( Petrochelidon pyrrho- nota ). See also martin.

swallowing or deglutition

N.de-.glii-'tish-onV Act that moves food from the mouth to the stomach. The tongue pushes liquid or chewed food mixed with saliva into the pharynx. Reflex takes over as the soft pal¬ ate rises to close off the nasal cavity; the larynx rises and the epiglottis covers the trachea, interrupting breathing. Pressure in the mouth and phar¬ ynx pushes food toward the esophagus, whose upper sphincter opens to let food in and closes to prevent backflow. Breathing resumes as the lar-

Hirundimdae) of songbirds found

Common swallow (Hirundo rustica).

STEPHEN DALTON-NATURAL HISTORY PHOTOGRAPHIC AGENCY/EB INC.

1852 I swallowtail butterfly ► Swaziland

ynx lowers. As peristalsis pushes food to the stomach, the lower esoph¬ ageal sphincter opens and then closes to prevent reflux. Painful swallowing is usually caused by inflammation; other problems are caused by blockage or disorders affecting the motions of swallowing.

swallowtail butterfly Any of more than 500 species (genus Papilio, family Papilionidae) of butterflies found worldwide except in the Arctic. Some have tail-like extensions of the hind wing. Colour patterns vary with species, sex, season, and sometimes location (see tiger swallowtail). Most adults have yellow, orange, red, green, or blue markings on an iridescent black, blue, or green background. The brightly coloured larvae eat foli¬ age. Some have markings resembling a snake’s head, and many discharge a bad-smelling substance when disturbed. The giant swallowtail (P. cre- sphontes ), with a wingspan of 4-5.5 in. (10-14 cm), is the largest but¬ terfly in the U.S. and Canada.

swami See sadhu and swami

Swammerdam Vsvam-or-.danA, Jan (b. Feb. 12, 1637, Amsterdam, Neth.—d. Feb. 15, 1680, Amsterdam) Dutch naturalist. An adept micros- copist, in 1658 he became the first person to observe and describe red blood cells. In his General History of Insects he accurately described and illustrated the life histories and anatomy of many insect species and clas¬ sified insects into four major divisions, three of which have been more or less retained in modern classification. He studied tadpole and adult frog anatomy and described the ovarian follicles of mammals. His improved techniques for injecting wax and dyes into cadavers had important con¬ sequences for the study of human anatomy. He showed that muscles alter in shape but not in size during contraction.

swamp Freshwater wetland ecosystem characterized by poorly drained mineral soils and plant life dominated by trees. Swamps have a sufficient water supply to keep the ground waterlogged, and the water has a high- enough mineral content to stimulate decay of organisms and to prevent the accumulation of organic materials. They are found throughout the world. See also marsh.

port; thereafter it grew steadily with industry, and by the mid-19th cen¬ tury it was the focus of the world copper trade. The city centre was almost totally destroyed by German bombing in 1941 but has been redeveloped, and Swansea is now the chief shopping and service hub for southwestern Wales. The poet Dylan Thomas was born there.

SWAPO See South West Africa People's Organization

Swarthmore College Private liberal arts college in Swarthmore, Pa., near Philadelphia. It was founded by a group of Quakers in 1864. Con¬ sistently ranked as one of the best colleges in the U.S., it offers bachelor’s degree programs in a wide variety of disciplines. It participates in an exchange program with Bryn Mawr and Haverford colleges and the Uni¬ versity of Pennsylvania.

swastika Equilateral cross with its arms bent at right angles, all in the same rotary direction, usually clockwise. It is used widely throughout the world as a symbol of prosperity and good fortune. In India, it continues to be the most common auspicious symbol of Hindus and Jains, as well as for Buddhists, for whom it symbolizes the Buddha’s feet or footprints. In China and Japan, where it traveled with the spread of Buddhism, it has been used to denote plurality, prosperity, and long life. It occurs as a motif in early Christian and Byzantine art, as well as in Maya and Navajo art. The counterclockwise swastika, suggested as a general anti-Semitic sym¬ bol in 1910 by the German poet and nationalist Guido von List, was adopted as the symbol of the Nazi Party at its founding in 1919-20.

Swazi Vswa-ze\ or Swati Vswa-te\ Bantu-speaking people inhabiting the grasslands of Swaziland and neighbouring regions of South Africa and Mozambique. With the Zulu and the Xhosa, the Swazi (numbering more than two million) form the southern Nguni ethnolinguistic group. They are chiefly agriculturalists and pastoralists. The highest traditional politi¬ cal, economic, and ritual powers are shared by a hereditary male ruler and his mother. The king’s wives and children are settled in royal villages, diplomatically dispersed throughout the territory.

Swaziland officially Kingdom of Swaziland Country, southern Africa. Area: 6,704 sq mi (17,364 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 1,032,000. Capitals: Mbabane (administrative and judicial), Lobamba (leg-

swan Long-necked, heavy-bodied, big-footed waterfowl (genus Cygnus,

family Anatidae). Among waterfowl, swans are the largest and fastest, both swimming and flying; at about 50 lbs (23 kg), the mute swan (C. olor ) is the heaviest flying bird. Swans dabble in shallows for aquatic plants. Five all-white, black-legged species live in the Northern Hemi¬ sphere; a black and a black-necked species live in the Southern Hemi¬ sphere. Males (cobs) and females (pens) look alike. Swans mate for life. The cob keeps guard while the pen incubates, on average, six eggs on a heap of vegetation; the young (cygnets) are tended for several months. Their graceful form when swimming has made swans emblems of beauty for centuries.

Mute swan (Cygnus olor) and cygnet

ARTHUR W. AMBLER-THE NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCIETY COLLECTION/PHOTO RESEARCHERS

Swan, Sir Joseph (Wilson) (b. Oct. 31, 1828, Sunderland, Durham, Eng.—d. May 27, 1914, Warlingham, Surrey) English physicist and chemist. By 1871 he had invented the dry photographic plate, an impor¬ tant improvement in photography. He had already produced an early elec¬ tric lightbulb (1860), and in 1880, independently of Thomas Alva Edison, he produced a carbon-filament incandescent electric lamp. He also pat¬ ented a process for squeezing nitrocellulose through holes to form fibres, a process that became widely employed in the textile industry.

Swan River Ephemeral river, southwestern Western Australia. It flows 224 mi (360 km) west to the Indian Ocean. Called the Avon in its upper course, it is known as the Swan only along its lower 60-mi course. Perth lies near its mouth. The river is dry during much of the summer and autumn. In 1829, western Australia’s first free settlement was made on its banks.

Swansea Vswan-ze\ Welsh Abertawe X.a-bor-'tau-oV Seaport and county (pop., 2001: 223,293), southern Wales. Lying along the Bristol Channel, it is the second largest city in Wales. It dates from the 12th cen¬ tury. Until the early 18th century it was a small market town and coal

islative), Lozitha and Ludzidzini (royal). Some four-fifths of the population is Swazi and about one-tenth is Zulu, with a small number of other minorities. Languages: Swazi (Swati), English (both official). Religions: Christianity (predominantly other [African, unaffiliated] Chris¬ tians; also Protestant, Roman Catholic); also traditional beliefs. Currency: lilangeni. The landlocked country is composed of high, middle, and low

sweat gland ► sweet pea I 1853

velds, culminating in the Lubombo escarpment in the east. Fauna includes hippopotamuses, antelopes, zebras, and crocodiles. Four major rivers, including the Komati, flow through the country and irrigate citrus and sugarcane estates. Mineral resources include asbestos and diamonds. Swa¬ ziland is a monarchy with two legislative houses; its head of state and government is the king, assisted by the prime minister. Stone tools and rock paintings indicate prehistoric habitation in the region, but it was not settled until the Bantu- speaking Swazi people migrated there in the 18th century and established the nucleus of the Swazi nation. The British gained control in the 19th century after the Swazi king sought their aid against the Zulu. Following the South African War, the British governor of Transvaal administered Swaziland; his powers were transferred to the British high commissioner in 1906. In 1949 the British rejected the Union of South Africa’s request to control Swaziland. The country gained lim¬ ited self-government in 1963 and achieved independence in 1968. In the 1970s new constitutions were framed based on the supreme authority of the king and traditional government. Although the kingdom remained in place in the early 21st century, steps were being taken to establish a con¬ stitution. Swaziland has one of the highest rates of HIV infection in the world, with some two-fifths of the population infected.

sweat gland Either of two types of perspiration glands in the skin. Eccrine sweat glands, controlled by the sympathetic nervous system, use evaporation to cool the skin by secreting water when body temperature rises. Apocrine sweat glands, usually associated with hair follicles, are concentrated in the underarms and genital region. Starting at puberty, hor¬ mones stimulate them to continuously secrete a fatty sweat. Certain spe¬ cialized glands, such as mammary glands and wax-secreting glands of the ear canal, probably developed from this type of gland.

sweat lodge Hut or lodge used for ritual purification. Its use origi¬ nated with Native Americans—for whom it remains a significant ceremony—but it is now common among other non-Indian groups who recognize its health as well as spiritual benefits. The structure of the sweat lodge is usually made of bent saplings and skin or blanket coverings and is heated by steam from water poured on hot stones. A ceremony typi¬ cally surrounds the lodge’s construction and use. Some groups believe the lodge becomes a symbolic centre in which the six cardinal directions, the past and present, and the human and spiritual worlds are connected.

Sweden officially Kingdom of Sweden Country, eastern Scandi¬ navian Peninsula, northern Europe. Area: 173,860 sq mi (450,295 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 9,024,000. Capital: Stockholm. The population is largely homogeneous, although there are Finnish and Sami (Lapp) minori¬ ties and 10% of the inhabitants are immigrants or their descendents. Lan¬ guage: Swedish (official). Religions: Christianity (predominantly Protestant; also Roman Catholic); also Islam. Currency: Swedish krona. Sweden has three traditional regions: mountainous Norrland covers about three-fifths of the country and has vast forests and large ore deposits; Svealand has undulating glacial ridges and contains most of the country’s 90,000 lakes; and Gotaland comprises the stony Smaland highlands and the rich Skane plains. About 15% of Sweden lies north of the Arctic Circle. The economy is largely based on services, heavy industries, and interna¬ tional trade. Sweden has large deposits of iron ore; industries include mining, lumbering, steel manufacturing, and tourism. Agricultural prod¬ ucts include grains, sugar beets, potatoes, and livestock. One of the world’s richest countries, Sweden is known for its comprehensive social welfare system. It is a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary state with one legislative house; its chief of state is the king, and the head of government is the prime minister. The first traces of human life in Swe¬ den date from about 9000 bc. During the Viking era (9th-10th century ad), the Swedes controlled river trade in eastern Europe between the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea; they also raided western European lands. Sweden was loosely united and Christianized in the 11th- 12th century. It con¬ quered the Finns in the 12th century, and in the 14th century it united with Norway and Denmark under a single monarchy. Sweden broke away in 1523 under Gustav I Vasa. In the 17th century it emerged as a great European power in the Baltic region, but its dominance declined after its defeat in the Second Northern War (1700-21). It became a constitutional monarchy in 1809 and united with Norway in 1814; it acknowledged Norwegian independence in 1905. Sweden maintained its neutrality dur¬ ing both World Wars. It was a charter member of the UN but abstained from membership in NATO and did not join the European Union until 1995. A new constitution drafted in 1975 reduced the monarch’s powers to those of a ceremonial chief of state. In 1997 Sweden began the con¬

troversial shutdown of its nuclear power industry. By the early 21st century it had emerged as a European centre of telecom¬ munications and information technology.

Swedenborg, Emanuel (b. Jan. 29, 1688, Stockholm, Swed.—d. March 29, 1772, London, Eng.) Swedish scientist, theologian, and mys¬ tic. After graduating from the University of Uppsala, he spent five years abroad studying the natural sciences. On his return he began publication of Sweden’s first scientific journal, Daedelus Hyperboreas, and Charles XIII appointed him assessor with the Royal Board of Mines. His writing gradually shifted toward philosophy of nature and metaphysics, in concert with his growing belief that the universe had a basically spiritual struc¬ ture. In 1744 he had a vision of Christ, and in 1745 he received a call to abandon worldly learning. He spent the rest of his career interpreting the Bible and relating what he had seen in his visions. He maintained that God was the power and life within all creatures and that the Christian Trinity represented the three essential qualities of God: love, wisdom, and activity. He believed redemption consisted in humankind’s being recre¬ ated in God’s image through Christ’s glorification. He published more than 30 works, including The True Christian Religion (1771). Societies were soon founded to propagate his pantheistic teaching, notably the New Jerusalem Church, established in London in 1787. Swedenborgians came to the U.S. in the 1790s. See pantheism.

Swedenborgians See New Church

Swedish language National language of Sweden and one of two official languages of Finland, spoken by about nine million people. It belongs to the East Scandinavian group of the Germanic languages and is

closely related to Norwegian and Danish. Its history from the Com¬ mon Scandinavian period (600- 1050) until c. 1225 is known chiefly from inscriptions in runic writing. Modem Swedish is usually dated from 1526, when a translation of the New Testament was first printed. The standard language began to emerge in the 17th century, based largely on the Svea dialects spoken in Stock¬ holm. Swedish, like Norwegian, has two tonal word accents.

sweet pea Annual plant (Lathyrus odoratus ) of the pea family (see legume), native to Italy and widely

) •'

Sweet pea (Lathy rus odoratus)

SVEN SAMEUUS

1854 I sweet potato ► swing

cultivated elsewhere for its beautiful, fragrant flowers. The long (4-6 ft, or 1.2-2 m), vinelike stem climbs by means of tendrils and bears feath¬ erlike leaves. White, pink, red, violet, or purple flowers, reminiscent of butterflies in shape, are borne singly or in clusters of two to four. The fruit is a hairy pod about 2 in. (5 cm) long. Hundreds of varieties of sweet pea have been developed. The plant was the subject of important genetics experiments by Reginald Crundall Punnett and William Bateson.

sweet potato Food plant ( Ipomoea batatas', family Convolvulaceae) native to tropical America and widely cultivated in tropical and warm temperate climates. Botanically unrelated to the white, or Irish, potato or the yam, sweet potatoes are oblong or pointed oval, tuberous roots. Skin colour ranges from light buff to brown to purplish red; the pulp may be white (highest in starch) to orange (also high in carotene) to purple. Long, trailing plant stems bear funnel-shaped flowers tinged with pink or rose violet. Sweet potatoes are served baked or mashed and used as pie fill¬ ing.

sweet William Garden plant ( Dianthus barbatus) in the pink family, grown for its clusters of small, brightly coloured flowers. It usually grows as a biennial, with seed sown the first year producing spring¬ flowering plants the second year. The plants grow about 2 ft (60 cm) high and produce numerous flowers with fringed petals in white, pink, or rose to violet, sometimes also bicoloured.

sweetbrier or eglantine Small, prickly wild rose ( Rosa eglanteria, or R. rubiginosa ) with fragrant foli¬ age and numerous small pink flow¬ ers, native to Europe and western Asia. Widely naturalized in North America, it grows along roadsides and in pastures from eastern Canada southwest to Tennessee and Kansas. The shrub form, which can grow 6 ft (2 m) high, is useful for screening out traffic noise and beautifying highways.

Sweyn \'svan\ I or Sweyn Forkbeard (d. Feb. 3, 1014, Gainsbor¬ ough, Lincolnshire, Eng.) King of Denmark (c. 987-1014) and Viking conqueror of Norway and England. He rebelled against his father, Harald Bluetooth (987), chasing him from Denmark. With Swedish and Norwe¬ gian allies, he defeated Olaf I Tryggvason (c. 1000), becoming virtual ruler of Norway. Sweyn led raids on England in 1003-04 and became king after a successful military campaign in 1013, forcing Ethelred II into exile. Nor¬ way reverted to Norwegian rule after Sweyn’s death, but the Anglo- Danish empire continued under his son Canute the Great.

swift Any of about 75 species (family Apodidae) of birds found almost worldwide. The fastest of small birds, swifts can fly at 70 mph (110 kph). They are 4-9 in. (9-23 cm) long and have long wings, a chunky dark body, a broad head, and a short, wide, slightly curved bill. The tail may be short or long and deeply forked. Swifts capture insects, drink, bathe, and sometimes mate on the wing. The feet, incapable of perching, are used to cling to vertical surfaces. Swifts use their sticky saliva to glue the nest to a cave wall, the inside of a chimney, or a tree hollow.

Swift, Gustavus Franklin (b. June 24, 1839, West Sandwich, Mass., U.S.—d. March 29, 1903, Chicago, Ill.) U.S. meatpacker. Swift started as a butcher’s helper at age 14 and by 1859 was operating his own butcher shop. In 1872 he became the partner of a Boston meat dealer; three years later he transferred their cattle-buying operations to Chicago. Believing profits would increase if fresh meat rather than live cattle were shipped from Chicago, he had a refrigerator car designed and made his first ship¬ ment in 1877. With his brother he formed Swift & Co. (1885). During his 18 years as president, its capitalization rose from $300,000 to $25 mil¬ lion. Like his rivals Philip D. Armour and Nelson Morris, Swift was a leader in byproduct utilization, entering related businesses such as soap, glue, fertilizer, and margarine.

Swift, Jonathan (b. Nov. 30, 1667, Dublin, Ire.—d. Oct. 19, 1745, Dublin) Irish author, the foremost prose satirist in English. He was a stu¬ dent at Dublin’s Trinity College during the anti-Catholic Revolution of 1688 in England. Irish Catholic reaction in Dublin led Swift, a Protestant, to seek security in England, where he spent various intervals before 1714. He was ordained an Anglican priest in 1695. His first major work, A Tale of

a Tub (1704), comprises three satiric sketches on religion and learning; he also became known for religious and political essays and impish pam¬ phlets written under the name “Isaac Bickerstaff.” Reluctantly setting aside his loyalty to the Whigs, in 1710 he became the leading writer for the Tories because of their support for the established church. Journal to Stella (written 1710-13) consists of letters recording his reactions to the changing world. As a reward for writ¬ ing and editing Tory publications, in 1713 he was awarded the deanery of St. Patrick’s Cathedral, Dublin. He spent nearly all the rest of his life in Ireland, where he devoted himself to exposing English wrongheadedness and their unfair treatment of the Irish.

His ironic tract “A Modest Proposal”

(1729) proposes ameliorating Irish poverty by butchering children and selling them as food to wealthy English landlords. His famously brilliant and bitter satire Gulliver’s Travels (1126), ostensibly the story of its hero’s encounters with various races and societies in remote regions, reflects Swift’s vision of humanity’s ambiguous position between bestiality and rationality.

swimming In recreation and sports, the propulsion of the body through water by combined arm and leg motions. Swimming is popular as an all- around fitness routine and as a competitive sport. It has been included in the modern Olympic Games since their inception in 1896. Events include freestyle (crawl-stroke) races at distances of 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, and 1,500 m; backstroke, breaststroke, and butterfly races at 100 and 200 m; individual medley races at 200 and 400 m; freestyle relays, 4 x 100 m and 4 x 200 m; and the medley relay, 4 x 100 m. Long-distance swim¬ ming competitions, usually of 15-37 mi (24-59 km), are generally held on lakes and inland waters.

swimming cat See Turkish van cat

Swinburne, Algernon Charles (b. April 5,1837, London, Eng.—d. April 10, 1909, Putney, London)

English poet and critic. After attend¬ ing Eton and the University of Oxford, Swinburne lived on an allowance from his father. His verse drama Atalanta in Calydon (1865) first showed his lyric powers. Poems and Ballads (1866), containing some of his best work, displays his pagan¬ ism and masochism and provoked controversy; a second series (1878) was less hectic and sensual. His verse is marked by emphatic rhythms, much alliteration and inter¬ nal rhyme, and lush subject matter.

His health collapsed in 1879 and he spent his last 30 years under a friend’s guardianship. His early poetry is noted for innovations in prosody, but his later poetry is con¬ sidered less important. Among his outstanding critical writings are Essays and Studies (1875) and monographs on William Shakespeare (1880), Victor Hugo (1886), and Ben Jonson (1889).

swine fever See hog cholera

swing Jazz played with a steady beat using the harmonic structure of popular songs and the blues as the basis for improvisations and arrange¬ ments. The popular music of the U.S. from about 1930 to 1945 (years sometimes called the swing era), swing is characterized by syncopated rhythmic momentum with equal stress accorded to the four beats of a measure. Larger jazz bands required some arranged material, and Fletcher Henderson, Duke Ellington, and Count Basie were the primary innovators

Jonathan Swift, detail of an oil painting by Charles Jervas; in the National Por¬ trait Gallery, London.

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY,

LONDON

Algernon Charles Swinburne, waterco¬ lour by Dante Gabriel Rossetti, 1862; in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge.

COURTESY OF THE FITZWILLIAM MUSEUM, CAMBRIDGE

Swiss chard ► Sydney I 1855

of big-band swing. In smaller ensembles, improvised instrumental solos generally follow a rendering of the melody.

Swiss chard See chard

switching theory Theory of circuits made up of ideal digital devices, including their structure, behaviour, and design. It incorporates Boolean logic (see Boolean algebra), a basic component of modern digital switch¬ ing systems. Switching is essential to telephone, telegraph, data process¬ ing, and other technologies in which it is necessary to make rapid decisions about routing information. See also queuing theory.

Switzerland officially Swiss Confederation Country, central Europe. Area: 15,940 sq mi (41,284 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 7,519,000. Capitals: Bern (administrative), Lausanne (judicial). The popu¬ lation is German, French, and Italian. Languages: German, French, Italian,

Romansh (all official, with Romansh used locally). Religions: Christianity (Roman i ■■ f ■■ . 4 '° mi Catholic, Protestant); also Islam. Currency:

-----^2- Swiss franc. Switzerland is divided into

three regions: the meadow-covered Jura Mountains; the central Mittelland, a rich agricultural and urbanized area; and the lofty crags of the Alps. It is one of the world’s major financial cen¬ tres; its economy is based largely on international trade and banking, as well as light and heavy industries. Manufactures include watches, preci¬ sion instruments, machinery, and chemicals. Tourism and agriculture are also important; products include grains, sugar beets, fruits and vegetables, dairy products, chocolate, and wine. Despite diverse ethnic groups, reli¬ gions, and languages, Switzerland has maintained the world’s oldest democracy for some 700 years. It is a federal state with two legislative houses; its head of state and government is the president of the federal council. The original inhabitants were the Helvetians, who were conquered by the Romans in the 1st century bc. Germanic tribes penetrated the region from the 3rd to the 6th century ad, and Muslim and Magyar raiders ven¬ tured in during the 10th century. It came under the rule of the Franks in the 9th century and the medieval empire (later the Holy Roman Empire) in the 11th century. In 1291 three cantons formed an anti-Habsburg league that became the nucleus of the Swiss Confederation. It was a centre of the Ref¬ ormation, which divided the confederation and led to a period of political and religious conflict. The French organized Switzerland as the Helvetic Republic in 1798. In 1815 the Congress of Vienna recognized Swiss inde¬ pendence and guaranteed its neutrality. A new federal state was formed in 1848 with Bern as the capital. Switzerland remained neutral in both World War I and World War II and has continued to defend this neutrality. It joined the European Free Trade Association in 1960, but it has opted against joining the European Union. It joined the United Nations in 2002.

Swope, Gerard (b. Dec. 1, 1872, St. Louis, Mo., U.S.—d. Nov. 20, 1957, New York, N.Y.) U.S. business leader. After graduating from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, he joined Western Electric in 1895 and became a director in 1913. He was made president of General Elec¬ tric Co.’s international subsidiary in 1919 and greatly increased the com¬ pany’s foreign business. As president of General Electric (1922-39, 1942- 44), he expanded its line of consumer products and pioneered profit sharing and other employee benefit programs. He also served on the Department of Commerce’s Business Advisory Council, and his ideas and support underlay such important New Deal programs as the National Recovery Administration and Social Security.

sword Hand weapon consisting of a long metal blade fitted with a handle or hilt. Roman swords had a short, flat blade and a hilt distinct from the blade. Medieval European swords were heavy and equipped with a large hilt and a protective guard, or pommel. The blade was straight, double- edged, and pointed. The introduction of firearms did not eliminate the sword but led to new designs; the discarding of body armour required the swordsman to be able to parry, and the rapier, a double-edged sword with a narrow, pointed blade, came into use. Swords with curved blades were used in India and Persia and were introduced into Europe by the Turks, whose scimitar, with its curved, single-edged blade, was modified in the West to the cavalry sabre. Japanese swords are renowned for their hardness and extreme sharpness; they were the weapon of the samurai. Repeating firearms ended the value of the sword as a military weapon, though its con¬ tinued use in duels led to the modem sport of fencing. See also kendo.

sword dance Folk dance by men, with swords or two-handled blades, expressing themes such as human and animal sacrifice for fertility, battle mime, and defense against evil spirits. It originated in Greek and Roman times. A sword dance appeared in Germany in 1350 and later was part of the court ballet when mock battles were staged. The Scottish sword dance is a descendant of the early crossed-sword dances, and the Morris dance retains remnants of the sword dance. Outside of Europe, such dances are found in India, Borneo, and the Balkans.

swordfish Species ( Xiphias gladius) of prized food and game fish, found in warm and temperate oceans worldwide. A slender, scaleless fish, it has a tall dorsal fin and a long extension of the snout, used for slashing at prey. The “sword” is flat, rather than rounded as in marlins. The sword¬ fish is also distinguished by its lack of teeth and pelvic fins. It is purplish or bluish above, silvery below, and grows as large as 15 ft (4.5 m) and 1,000 lb (450 kg). Though a popular food fish, it may have dangerous levels of mercury concentrated in its flesh.

Sybaris Ysi-bd-rssX Ancient Greek city, southern Italy, on the Gulf of Tarentum. Founded c. 720 bc by Achaeans and known for its wealth and luxury (hence, the English word sybarite ), it was one of the oldest cities of Magna Graecia. Twice razed by the Crotoniates (510 bc and c. 448 bc), it attempted rebuilding and relocating but never regained its importance.

Sycaminum See Haifa

sycamore \'si-k3-,m6r\ Any of several distinct trees called by the same name though in different genera and families. In the U.S. the term refers to the American plane tree or buttonwood ( Platanus occidentalis), a hardy street tree. The sycamore maple, or mock plane (Acer pseudoplatanus), is sometimes also called simply sycamore. The biblical sycamore, actually the sycamore FIG (Ficus sycomorus ), was used by the ancient Egyptians to make mummy cases.

Sydenham \'si-d 3 n-9m\, Thomas (b. 1624, Wynford Eagle, Dorset, Eng.—d. Dec. 29, 1689, London) British physician. His Observationes medicae (1676) was a standard textbook for two centuries, noted for its detailed observations and the accuracy of its records. His treatise on gout (1683) is considered his masterpiece. He was among the first to explain the nature of hysteria and St. Vitus dance (Sydenham chorea) and to use iron to treat iron-deficiency anemia. Sydenham also named scarlet fever and differentiated it from measles, first used laudanum (a solution of opium in alcohol) as a medication, and helped popularize the use of qui¬ nine for malaria.

Sydney City (pop., 2001: 3,997,321), capital of New South Wales, Aus¬ tralia. Located on Australia’s southeastern coast, it is the oldest and larg¬ est city in Australia and a major commercial and manufacturing centre. It was founded in 1788 as a penal colony (see Botany Bay) and quickly became a major trading centre. It is built on low hills surrounding one of the world’s finest natural harbours, which supports extensive port facili-

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ties. It is dominated by Sydney Harbour Bridge, one of the biggest single¬ span bridges in the world, and the Sydney Opera House. The city is widely known for its water sports, recreational facilities, and cultural life. It is the site of the Universities of Sydney (1850) and New South Wales (1949), and Macquarie University (1964). Sydney was the host of the 2000 Sum¬ mer Olympic Games.

Sydney Opera House Performing-arts centre on the harbour in Syd¬ ney, Australia. Its dynamic, imaginative design by Danish architect Jpm Utzon (b. 1918) won a competition in 1957 and brought Utzon interna¬ tional fame. Construction posed a variety of problems, many resulting from the bold design consisting of a series of glittering white shell-shaped roofs. After several years of research, Utzon gave the vaults a more spheri¬ cal geometry, making them easier and more economical to build. The roofs are made up of precast concrete sections held together by cables. The centre finally opened in 1973.

Sydow \'se-do,\ Swedish VsiE-dov\, Max von orig. Carl Adolf von Sydow (b. April 10, 1929, Lund, Swed.) Swedish actor. After studying at Stockholm’s Royal Dramatic Theatre School (1948-51), he became a noted stage actor in Malmo and Stockholm. He is best known for his dour, brooding characterizations in Ingmar Bergman’s films, notably The Sev¬ enth Seal (1957), The Virgin Spring (1960), Winter Light (1963), Shame (1968), and The Passion of Anna (1969). His numerous U.S. and inter¬ national movies include The Greatest Story Ever Told (1965), The Exor¬ cist (1973), Pelle the Conqueror { 1988), What Dreams May Come (1998), and Minority Report (2002).

syllable Segment of speech usually consisting of a vowel with or with¬ out accompanying consonant sounds (e.g., a, I, out, too, cap, snap, check). A syllabic consonant, like the final n sound in button and widen, also constitutes a syllable. Closed (checked) syllables end in a consonant, open (free) syllables in a vowel. Syllables play an important role in the study of speech and in phonetics and phonology.

syllogism Vsi-lo-ji-zomX Form of argument that, in its most commonly discussed instances, has two categorical propositions as premises and one categorical proposition as conclusion. An example of a syllogism is the following argument: Every human is mortal (every M is P); every phi¬ losopher is human (every S is M); therefore, every philosopher is mortal (every S is P). Such arguments have exactly three terms (human, philoso¬ pher, mortal). Here, the argument is composed of three categorical (as opposed to hypothetical) propositions, it is therefore a categorical syllo¬ gism. In a categorical syllogism, the term that occurs in both premises but not in the conclusion (human) is the middle term; the predicate term in the conclusion is called the major term, the subject the minor term. The pattern in which the terms S, M, and P (minor, middle, major) are arranged is called the figure of the syllogism. In this example, the syllogism is in the first figure, since the major term appears as predicate in the first premise and the minor term as subject of the second.

syllogistic \,si-b-'jis-tik\ Formal analysis of the syllogism. Developed in its original form by Aristotle in his Prior Analytics c. 350 bc, syllogistic represents the earliest branch of formal logic. Syllogistic comprises two domains of investigation. Categorical syllogistic confines itself to cat¬ egorical propositions and their variation with respect to modalities. Non- categorical syllogistic is a form of logical inference using whole propositions as its units, an approach traceable to the Stoics but only fully developed by John Neville Keynes (1852-1949).

Sylvester II orig. Gerbert of Aurillac (b. c. 945, near Aurillac, Auvergen, France—d. May 12, 1003, Rome) First French pope (999- 1003). Renowned as a scholar of logic and mathematics, he became arch¬ bishop of Reims (991) and of Ravenna (c. 998). Appointed pope by his former student, Otto III, Sylvester worked closely with Otto, strengthen¬ ing papal authority in distant states such as Kiev and Norway as well as in Italy. He denounced SIMONY, demanded clerical celibacy, and limited the power of the bishops. He wrote textbooks on mathematics, the sci¬ ences, and music and the philosophical work De rationali et de ratione uti (“Concerning the Rational and the Use of Reason”). According to leg¬ ends that emerged shortly after his death, his great learning was the result of magical arts or the Devil’s coaching.

symbiosis Any of several living arrangements between members of two different species, including commensalism, mutualism, and parasitism. The species involved are called symbionts. In commensalism, one species (the commensal) obtains nutrients, shelter, support, or locomotion from the

host species, which is substantially unaffected (e.g., remoras obtain loco¬ motion and food from sharks). In mutualism, both species benefit. Many mutualistic relationships are obligative; neither species can live without the other (e.g., protozoans in the gut of termites digest the wood ingested by the termites).

symbol Element of communication intended to represent or stand for a person, object, group, process, or idea. Symbols may be presented graphi¬ cally (e.g., the red cross and crescent for the worldwide humanitarian agency) or representationally (e.g., a lion representing courage). They may involve associated letters (e.g., C for the chemical element carbon), or they may be assigned arbitrarily (e.g., the mathematical symbol °o for infinity). Symbols are devices by which ideas are transmitted between people sharing a common culture. Every society has evolved a symbol system that reflects a specific cultural logic; and every symbolism func¬ tions to communicate information between members of the culture in much the same way as, but more subtly than, conventional language. Symbols tend to appear in clusters and to depend on one another for their accretion of meaning and value. See also semiotics.

symbolic interactionism See interactionism

Symbolism In art, a loosely organized movement that flourished in the 1880s and ’90s and was closely related to the Symbolist movement in lit¬ erature. In reaction against both Realism and Impressionism, Symbolist paint¬ ers stressed art’s subjective, symbolic, and decorative functions and turned to the mystical and occult in an attempt to evoke subjective states of mind by visual means. Though aspects of Symbolism appear in the work of Paul Gauguin, Vincent van Gogh, and the Nabis, its leading expo¬ nents were Gustave Moreau, Odilon Redon, and Pierre Puvis de Chavannes. Though associated primarily with France, it flourished all over Europe, had great international impact, and influenced 20th-century art and lit¬ erature.

Symbolist movement Literary movement that originated with a group of French poets in the late 19th century, spread to painting and the theatre, and influenced Russian, European, and American arts of the 20th century. Reacting against the rigid conventions of traditional French poetry, as seen in the precise description favoured by the Parnassian poets, Symbolist poets sought to convey individual emotional experience through the subtle, suggestive use of highly metaphorical language. The arcane and indirect meaning of the symbol is evoked as a substitute for the increasingly attenuated sense of collective and universal meanings. Principal Symbolist poets included the Frenchmen Stephane Mallarme, Paul Verlaine, and Arthur Rimbaud, and the Belgian poet Emile Verhaeren. Many Symbolists were also identified with the Decadent movement. Just as Symbolist painters avoided concrete representation in favour of fan¬ tasy and imagination, Symbolist dramatists relied on myth, mood, and atmosphere to reveal only indirectly the deeper truths of existence.

Symington Vsi-miq-tonV William (b. October 1763, Leadhills, Lanarkshire, Scot.—d. March 22, 1831, London, Eng.) British engineer. Educated for the ministry, he became a mechanic instead. He created a working model of a steam-driven road carriage in 1786 and first used steam for marine purposes the following year. In 1801-02 he developed a successful steam-driven paddle wheel and used it to propel one of the first practical steamboats, the Charlotte Dundas. Though his engine was used successfully on the Forth and Clyde Canal in 1802, cautious man¬ agers caused the project to be abandoned in 1803.

symmetry In geometry, the property by which the sides of a figure or object reflect each other across a line (axis of symmetry) or surface; in biology, the orderly repetition of parts of an animal or plant; in chemis¬ try, a fundamental property of orderly arrangements of atoms in molecules or crystals; in physics, a concept of balance illustrated by such funda¬ mental laws as the third of Newton's laws of motion. Symmetry in nature underlies one of the most fundamental concepts of beauty. It connotes balance, order, and thus, to some, a type of divine principle.

Symonds Vsi-msndzX, John Addington (b. Oct. 5, 1840, Bristol, Gloucestershire, Eng.—d. April 19, 1893, Rome) English essayist, poet, and biographer. He traveled extensively for his health, finally settling in Switzerland. His chief work, Renaissance in Italy (1875-86), is a series of extended essays on cultural history. His writings include translations, travel sketches, and studies of personalities such as Percy B. Shelley, Ben Jonson, Sir Philip Sidney, Michelangelo, and Walt Whitman. His poetry served primarily as a release from his difficult emotional life. A Problem

Symons ► syndicalism I 1857

in Greek Ethics (written 1871) and A Problem in Modern Ethics (1881) were among the first serious works treating homosexuality.

Symons Vsi-monzV Arthur (William) (b. Feb. 28, 1865, Mil¬ ford Haven, Pembrokeshire,

Eng.—d. Jan. 22, 1945, Wittersham,

Kent) English poet and critic. He contributed to The Yellow Book, an avant-garde journal, and edited The Savoy (1896). His Symbolist Move¬ ment in Literature (1899), the first English work championing the French Symbolist movement in poetry, summed up a decade of interpreta¬ tion and influenced William Butler Yeats and T.S. Eliot. His poetry, mainly disillusioned in feeling, appears in such volumes as Silhou¬ ettes (1892) and London Nights (1895). He also translated the poetry of Paul Verlaine and wrote travel pieces. After a nervous breakdown in 1908, he produced little apart from Confessions (1930), a moving account of his illness.

symphonic poem or tone poem Musical work for orchestra inspired by an extramusical story, idea, or “program,” to which the title typically refers or alludes. It evolved from the concert overture, an over¬ ture not attached to an opera or play yet suggestive of a literary or natu¬ ral sequence of events. Franz Liszt, who coined the term, wrote 13 such works. Famous symphonic poems include Bedrich Smetana’s The Moldau (1879), Claude Debussy’s Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun (1894), Paul Dukas’s The Sorceror’s Apprentice (1897), Richard Strauss’s Don Quixote (1897), and Jean Sibelius’s Finlandia (1900).

symphony Long musical composition for orchestra, usually in several movements. The term (meaning “sounding together”) came to be the stan¬ dard name for instrumental episodes, and especially overtures, in early Italian opera. The late-17th-century Neapolitan opera overture, or sinfo- nia, as established especially by Alessandro Scarlatti c. 1780, had three movements, their tempos being fast-slow-fast. Soon such overtures began to be performed by themselves in concert settings, like another forerun¬ ner of the symphony, the concerto grosso. The two merged in the early 18th century in the symphonies of Giovanni Battista Sammartini (1700/ 01-75). In c. 1750 German and Viennese composers began to add a minuet movement. Joseph Haydn, the “father of the symphony,” wrote more than 100 symphonies of remarkable originality, intensity, and brilliance in the years 1755-95; since Haydn, the symphony has been regarded as the most important orchestral genre. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart wrote about 35 original symphonies. Ludwig van Beethoven’s nine symphonies endowed the genre with enormous weight and ambition. Later symphonists include Franz Schubert, Felix Mendelssohn, Robert Schumann, Anton Bruckner, Johannes Brahms, Antonin Dvorak, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, and Gustav Mahler; their 20th-century successors include Ralph Vaughan Williams, Jean Sibelius, Dmitry Shostakovich, and Witold Lutoslawski.

symposium In ancient Greece, an aristocratic banquet at which men met to discuss philosophical and political issues and recite poetry. It began as a warrior feast. Rooms were designed specifically for the proceedings. The participants, all male aristocrats, wore garlands and leaned on the left elbow on couches, and there was much drinking of wine, served by slave boys. Prayers opened and closed the meetings; sessions sometimes ended with a procession in the streets. In Plato’s famous Symposium, an imagi¬ nary dialogue takes place between Socrates, Aristophanes, Alcibiades, and others on the subject of love. Aristotle, Xenophon, and Epicurus wrote symposium literature on other subjects.

synagogue In Judaism, a community house of worship that also serves as a place for assembly and study. Though their exact origins are uncer¬ tain, synagogues flourished side by side with the ancient Temple cult; they existed long before Jewish sacrifice and the established priesthood were terminated with Titus’s destruction of the Second Temple (ad 70). There¬ after, synagogues took on even greater importance as the unchallenged focal point of Jewish life. There is no standard synagogue architecture. A

typical synagogue contains an ark (where the scrolls of the Law are kept), an “eternal light” burning before the ark, two candelabra, pews, a bimah (see bema), and sometimes a ritual bath ( mikvah ).

synapse \'si-,naps\ Site of transmission of electric nerve impulses between two nerve cells or between a nerve cell and a gland or muscle cell. At chemical synapses, impulses are transmitted across microscopic spaces via chemical substances called neurotransmitters. In electric syn¬ apses, direct communication between nerve cells whose membranes are fused is possible because ions flow between the cells through channels. Electric synapses are found mainly in invertebrates and lower vertebrates; they transmit messages faster than chemical synapses. Chemical trans¬ mission seems to have evolved in large, complex vertebrate nervous sys¬ tems, in which multiple messages must be transmitted over long distances.

Synchromism Ysiq-kro-.mi-zonA Art movement concerned with the purely abstract use of colour. Founded in Paris in 1912-13 by the U.S. artists Stanton Macdonald-Wright and Morgan Russell, Synchromism (“colours together”) was based on theories of colour with analogies to musical patterns. It has much in common with the Orphism of Robert Delaunay. The first Synchromist work, Russell’s Synchromy in Green (1913), was exhibited at the Salon des Independants in 1913. Synchromism briefly attracted several other U.S. artists, including Thomas Hart Benton.

synchronized swimming Swimming sport in which the movements of one or more swimmers are synchronized with a musical accompani¬ ment. The sport developed in the U.S. in the 1930s and was admitted as an Olympic event (solo and duet only) in 1984; in 1996 the rules were changed to allow only teams of eight women. Teams are judged on com¬ pulsory and optional routines.

synchrotron Vsiq-kre-.tranV Cyclic particle accelerator in which the par¬ ticle is confined to its orbit by a magnetic field. The strength of the mag¬ netic field increases as the particle’s momentum increases. An alternating electric field in synchrony with the orbital frequency of the particle pro¬ duces acceleration. Synchrotrons are named according to the particles they accelerate. The Tevatron, a proton synchrotron at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in Illinois, U.S., produces the highest particle energies achieved so far.

synchrotron radiation Electromagnetic radiation emitted by charged particles that are moving at speeds close to that of light when their paths are altered. It is so called because it is produced by high-speed particles in a synchrotron. Such radiation is highly polarized (see polarization) and continuous. Its intensity and frequency depend on the strength of the mag¬ netic field that alters the path of the particles, as well as on the energy of those particles. Synchrotron radiation at radio frequencies is emitted by high-energy electrons as they spiral through magnetic fields in space, such as those around Jupiter. Synchrotron radiation is emitted by a variety of astronomical objects, from planets to supernova remnants to quasars.

syncope Vsiq-k3-pe\ Effect of temporary impairment of blood circula¬ tion to a part of the body. It is often used as a synonym for fainting, which is loss of consciousness due to inadequate blood flow to the brain. Pale¬ ness, nausea, sweating, and then pupil dilation, yawning, deep rapid breathing, and rapid heartbeat usually precede it. It lasts from under a minute to several minutes and may be followed by headache, confusion, and a weak feeling. The cause may be physical (e.g., heart failure, low blood sugar) or emotional (e.g., fear, anxiety). Abnormal vagus or auto¬ nomic nerve response can cause fainting (without preceding symptoms) triggered by ordinary activities such as urination, swallowing, coughing, or standing up or by pressure on the pulse point in the neck. Local syn¬ cope is coldness and numbness in a small area, especially the fingers, from diminished blood flow.

syndicalism Vsin-di-ko-.li-zomN Movement advocating direct action by the working class to abolish the capitalist order, including the state, and to replace it with a social order based on the syndicat, a free association of self-governing producers. Developed as a doctrine by leaders of the French trade union movement at the end of the 19th century, syndicalism was strongly influenced by the traditional anarchism and antiparliamen- tarianism of the French working class. Syndicalists looked forward to victory in a class war, after which society would be organized around the syndicats. These bodies would coordinate their activities through a labour exchange, which would function as an employment and economic plan¬ ning agency. At the peak of its influence, before World War I, the move¬ ment had in excess of one million members in Europe, Latin America,

1858 I Synge ► Syria

and the U.S. After the war, syndicalists tended to drift toward the Soviet model of communism or to be lured by the ostensible benefits offered by labour unions and democratic reforms. See also corporatism.

Synge VsiqX, John Millington (b. April 16, 1871, Rathfarnham, near Dublin, Ire.—d. March 24, 1909, Dublin) Irish playwright. After study¬ ing languages and music in Dublin and France, he met William Butler Yeats, who advised Synge to go to the west coast of Ireland to draw material from life. From 1899 to 1902 he spent his summers on the Aran Islands, observing the people and learning their language; he based his first plays, In the Shadow of the Glen (1903) and Riders to the Sea (1904), on island¬ ers’ stories. His travels on the Irish west coast inspired his most famous play. The Playboy of the Western World (1907); its unsentimental treat¬ ment of Irish character traits caused riots at its opening at the Abbey The¬ atre. His unfinished Deirdre of the Sorrows was performed in 1910. A poetic dramatist of great power, he was a leading figure of the Irish liter¬ ary RENAISSANCE.

synodic \so-'na-dik\ period Time required for a body in the solar sys¬ tem to return to the same or about the same position relative to the Sun as seen from Earth. The Moon’s synodic period is the time between succes¬ sive recurrences of the same phase (e.g., the period between one full moon and the next). A planet’s synodic period is the time required for Earth to overtake it as both go around the Sun or (in the case of fast-moving Mer¬ cury or Venus) for the other planet to overtake Earth. See also sidereal PERIOD.

syntax Arrangement of words in sentences, clauses, and phrases, and the study of the formation of sentences and the relationship of their com¬ ponent parts. In English, the main device for showing this relationship is word order; for example, “The boy loves his dog” follows standard subject-verb-object word order, and switching the order of such a sen¬ tence would change the meaning or make the sentence meaningless. Word order is much more flexible in languages such as Latin, in which word endings indicate the case of a noun or adjective; such inflections make it unnecessary to rely on word order to indicate a word’s function in the sentence.

synthesizer Machine that electronically generates and modifies sounds, frequently with the use of a digital computer, for use in the composition of electronic music and in live performance. The synthesizer generates wave forms and then subjects them to alteration in intensity, duration, frequency, and timbre. It may use subtractive synthesis (removing unwanted compo¬ nents from a signal containing a fundamental and all related overtones), additive synthesis (building tones from signals for pure sine-wave tones), or other techniques, most importantly whole-sound sampling (digital recording of sounds, usually from acoustic instruments). The first synthe¬ sizer was developed c. 1955 by RCA. Compact, commercially viable syn¬ thesizers, generally with pianolike keyboards, were produced in the 1960s by Robert Moog (born 1934), Donald Buchla (born 1937), and others. With transistor technology, these soon became portable and cheap enough for practical performance use, and such instruments became fixtures in rock bands, often displacing electric pianos and organs. See also MIDI.

synthetic ammonia process See Haber-Bosch process

syphilis \'si-fa-bs\ Sexually transmitted disease caused by the spirochete Treponema pallidum. Without treatment, it may progress through three stages: primary, characterized by a chancre and low fever; secondary (weeks to months later; only half of those infected display symptoms), with a skin and mucous-membrane rash, lymph node swelling, and bone, joint, eye, and nervous system involvement; and tertiary. The tertiary stage follows a latency period that can last years, and only one-fourth of those infected display tertiary symptoms. These can be benign or incapacitat¬ ing and even fatal; almost any part of the body may be attacked. Syphilis can spread to a fetus from an infected mother. Other species of Treponema cause similar but milder, nonsexually transmitted forms of syphilis (see yaws). Several blood tests can detect syphilis, even during latency. Anti¬ biotic treatment is effective.

Syr Darya \,sir-d3r-'ya\ ancient Jaxartes River River, Central Asia, in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Kazakhstan. Formed by the confluence of two headstreams in the fertile Fergana Valley, it flows west-northwest for 1,374 mi (2,212 km) to empty into the Aral Sea. Its lower course is on the eastern edge of the Kyzylkum desert. It is the longest river in Central Asia but carries less water than does the Amu Darya. It is used extensively for hydroelectric power and irrigation.

Syracuse Italian Siracusa ancient Syracusae Seaport city (pop., 2001 prelim.: 121,000), eastern coast of Sicily, Italy. Founded in 734 bc by Greeks from Corinth, it was seized by Hippocrates of Gela in 485 bc and ruled by tyrants until a revolution established a democratic govern¬ ment c. 465 bc. In 413 bc, during the Peloponnesian War, Syracuse defeated an Athenian invasion force. Under the rule of Dionysius I the Elder (405-367 bc), it became the most powerful of the Greek cities, fighting three wars against rival Carthage. Syracuse fell to Rome in 211 bc. It was sacked by Frankish invaders in ad 280 and captured by Arabs in 878; its importance waned in medieval times. Now the commercial centre for an agricultural district, it also supports the fishing and tourist industries. It has many examples of medieval and Renaissance architecture as well as Greek and Roman ruins. It is the birthplace of Theocritus and Archimedes.

Syracuse City (pop., 2001: 147,306), central New York, U.S. The site, at the southern end of Lake Oneida, was once the territory of the Onon¬ daga Indians and the headquarters of the Iroquois Confederacy. The area was visited by the French in the 17th century. Indian hostility and the swampy location precluded settlement until the establishment of a trad¬ ing post in 1786. Soon a saltworks based on its brine springs began operation; it supplied most of the nation’s salt until 1870. An important port on the Erie Canal, Syracuse serves as a distribution centre for the central New York agricultural region. It also manufactures pharmaceuti¬ cals and electronics. It is the site of Syracuse University (1870) and the Everson Museum of Art (founded 1896).

Syria officially Syrian Arab Republic Country, Middle East, along the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Area: 71,498 sq mi (185,180 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 17,794,000. Capital: Damascus. Arabs are

the main ethnic group, and Kurds are the largest minority. Languages: Arabic (offi¬ cial), Kurdish, Armenian. Religions: Islam o , so , 10 0 mi

(predominantly Sunni); also Christianity, —--—- 160km

Druze. Currency: Syrian pound. Syria con¬ sists of a coastal zone with abundant water supplies, a mountain zone that includes the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and a portion of the Syrian Desert. The Euphrates River is its most important water source and only navigable river. Syria has a mixed economy based on agriculture, trade, and min¬ ing and manufacturing. Crops include cotton, cereals, fruits, tobacco, and livestock. The main mineral resources are petroleum, natural gas, and iron ore; manufactures include textiles, cement, and steel. Syria is a republic with one legislative house; its head of state and government is the presi¬ dent, who by law must be a Muslim. The legal system is based largely on Islamic law. The area that now comprises Syria has been inhabited for several thousand years. From the 3rd millennium bc it was under the con¬ trol variously of Sumerians, Akkadians, Amorites, Egyptians, Hittites,

Syrian Desert ► Szymborska I 1859

Assyrians, and Babylonians. In the 6th century bc it became part of the Persian Achaemenian Empire, which fell to Alexander the Great in 330 bc. Seleucid rulers governed it (301-c. 164 bc); then Parthians and Nabataean Arabs divided the region. It flourished as a Roman province (64 bc-ad 300) and as part of the Byzantine Empire (300-634), until Arab Muslims invaded and established control. Thereafter the region was ruled by vari¬ ous Muslim dynasties. It came under the Ottoman Empire in 1516, which held it, except for brief periods, until the British invaded in World War I (1914-18). After the war it became a French mandate; it was fully inde¬ pendent by 1946. It united with Egypt in the United Arab Republic (1958— 61). During the Six-Day War (1967), it lost the Golan Heights to Israel. Syrian troops frequently clashed with Israeli forces in Lebanon during the 1980s and ’90s. Hafiz al-Assad’s long regime (1971-2000) also was marked by antagonism toward Syria’s neighbours Turkey and Iraq.

Syrian Desert Arid wasteland, Middle East. It extends over much of northern Saudi Arabia, eastern Jordan, southern Syria, and western Iraq. Largely covered by lava flows, it formed a nearly impenetrable barrier between the populated areas of the Levant and Mesopotamia until modern times; several major highways and oil pipelines now cross it.

syrinx See panpipe

system of equations or simultaneous equations In algebra, two or more equations to be solved together (i.e., the solution must sat¬ isfy all the equations in the system). For a system to have a unique solu¬ tion, the number of equations must equal the number of unknowns. Even then a solution is not guaranteed. If a solution exists, the system is con¬ sistent; if not, it is inconsistent. A system of linear equations can be rep¬ resented by a matrix whose elements are the coefficients of the equations. Though simple systems of two equations in two unknowns can be solved by substitution, larger systems are best handled with matrix techniques.

systems analysis In information processing, a phase of systems engi¬ neering. The principal objective of the systems-analysis phase is the speci¬ fication of what the system needs to do to meet the requirements of end users. In the systems-design phase such specifications are converted to a hierarchy of charts that define the data required and the processes to be carried out on the data so that they can be expressed as instructions of a computer program. Many information systems are implemented with generic software, rather than with such custom-built programs.

systems ecology Branch of ecosystem ecology (the study of energy budgets, biogeochemical cycles, and feeding and behavioral aspects of ecological communities) that attempts to clarify the structure and func¬ tion of ecosystems by means of applied mathematics, mathematical mod¬ els, and computer programs. It concentrates on input and output analysis and has stimulated the development of applied ecology: the application of ecological principles to the management of natural resources, agricul¬ tural production, and problems of environmental pollution.

systems engineering Technique of using knowledge from various branches of engineering and science to introduce technological innova¬ tions into the planning and development stages of a system. Systems engineering was first applied to the organization of commercial telephone systems in the 1920s and ’30s. Many systems-engineering techniques were developed during World War II in an effort to deploy military equip¬ ment more efficiently. Postwar growth in the field was spurred by advances in electronic systems and by the development of computers and information theory. Systems engineering usually involves incorporating new technology into complex, man-made systems, in which a change in one part affects many others. One tool used by systems engineers is the flowchart, which shows the system in graphic form, with geometric fig¬ ures representing various subsystems and arrows representing their inter¬ actions. Other tools include mathematical models, probability theory, statistical analysis, and computer simulations.

systems programming Development of computer software that is part of a computer operating system or other control program, especially as used in computer networks. Systems programming covers data and program management, including operating systems, control programs, network software, and database management systems.

Szczecin \'shchet-,shen\ German Stettin \shte-'ten\ Seaport (pop., 2000 est.: 416,500), near the mouth of the Oder River, northwestern

Poland. A Slavic fishing and commercial centre for centuries, it was annexed to Poland by Mieszko I in the 10th century. Szczecin joined the Hanseatic League in 1360. It passed to Sweden in 1648 and to Prussia in 1720 and remained under German control until it was transferred to Poland after World War II. During the war the port was completely destroyed and the city greatly depopulated. Under Polish administration the port and city were rebuilt, and Szczecin is now part of Poland’s larg¬ est port complex. It is a cultural hub of western Poland, and several insti¬ tutions of higher education are located there.

Szechenyi Vsa-chen-yiV Istvan, Count (b. Sept. 21, 1791, Vienna, Austrian Empire—d. April 8, 1860, Dobling, near Vienna) Hungarian reformer and writer. Born to an aristocratic Hungarian family, he fought against Napoleon and then traveled extensively in Europe. He returned to Budapest to found the Hungarian National Academy of Sciences (1825) and wrote several works that called for economic reforms and urged the nobility to pay taxes to modernize Hungary. He led projects that improved roads, made the Danube River navigable to the Black Sea, and built the first suspension bridge at Budapest. In the 1840s he lost his following to the more radical Lajos Kossuth. Entering the cabinet in 1848, Szechenyi lost his sanity when conflict with Vienna erupted; he was removed to an asylum near Vienna and later committed suicide.

Szechwan See Sichuan

Szell Vsel, 'zel\, George (b. June 7, 1897, Budapest, Hung., Austria- Hungary—d. July 30, 1970, Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.) Hungarian-born U.S. conductor. He made his debut as a pianist at age 11, and before his 20th birthday he had appeared with the Berlin Philharmonic as pianist, con¬ ductor, and composer. He established himself as an opera conductor in various German cities, including Berlin (1924-30) and Prague (1930-36). When World War II broke out, he settled in the U.S., conducting at the Metropolitan Opera (1942-46) and then serving as musical director of the Cleveland Orchestra (1946-70). There he imposed stern discipline but won his players’ devotion by his own fierce dedication. Under his direc¬ tion the orchestra became known for its precision in playing and was con¬ sidered one of the world’s finest.

Szent-Gyorgyi \sant-'jorj, sant-'jor-je\, Albert (b. Sept. 16, 1893, Budapest, Hung., Austria-Hungary—d. Oct. 22, 1986, Woods Hole, Mass., U.S.) Hungarian-born U.S. biochemist. His discoveries about the roles played by certain organic compounds, especially vitamin C, in the oxidation (see oxidation-reduction) of nutrients by cells brought him a 1937 Nobel Prize. He found and isolated an organic reducing agent from plant juices and adrenal gland extracts and showed it was identical to vitamin C. His work on intermediates in the cell laid the foundation for the elucidation of the tricarboxylic acid cycle by Hans Adolf Krebs. In later years he worked on the biochemistry of muscular action (demonstrating the role of ATP) and of cell division.

Szilard \'zi-,lard\, Leo (b. Feb. 11, 1898, Budapest, Hung., Austria- Hungary—d. May 30, 1964, La Jolla, Calif., U.S.) Hungarian-born U.S. physicist. He taught at the University of Berlin (1922-33), then fled to England (1934-37) and the U.S., where he worked at the University of Chicago from 1942. In 1929 he established the relation between entropy and transfer of information, and in 1934 he helped develop the first method of separating isotopes of artificial radioactive elements. He helped Enrico Fermi conduct the first sustained nuclear chain reaction and con¬ struct the first nuclear reactor. In 1939 he was instrumental in establish¬ ing the Manhattan Project, in which he helped develop the atomic bomb. After the first use of the bomb, he promoted the peaceful uses of atomic energy and the control of nuclear weapons, founding the Council for a Livable World. In 1959 he received the Atoms for Peace Award.

Szymborska \shim-'b6r-sk3\, Wisfawa (b. July 2, 1923, Bnin, Pol.) Polish poet. From 1953 to 1981 Szymborska was on the staff of the weekly Zycie Literackie (“Literary Life”), gaining a reputation as a poet, book reviewer, and translator of French poetry. Her first two volumes of poetry were attempts to conform to Socialist Realism. Later poems, notable for their precise and concrete language and ironic detachment, express her dissatisfaction with communism and explore philosophical, moral, and ethical issues. A selection of her poems was published in English trans¬ lation as View with a Grain of Sand (1995). She received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1996.

1860 I T cell ► Tabriz

T cell With the B cell, one of the two main types of white blood cell, essen¬ tial parts of the immune system. T cells originate in the bone marrow, mature in the thymus, and travel in the blood to other lymphoid tissues, such as the spleen, tonsils, and lymph nodes. Through receptor molecules on their surfaces, T cells directly attack invaders (antigens) by binding to them and helping remove them from the body. Because the body contains millions of T and B cells, many of which carry unique receptors, it can respond to virtually any antigen. See also antibody, immunology.

T Tauri Vte-'t6r-I\ star Any of a class of very young stars with masses less than about twice the Sun’s. Characterized by unpredictable changes in brightness, they represent an early stage in stellar evolution, having only recently been formed by the gravitational con¬ densation of interstellar gas and dust. The energy by which they shine derives from the gravitational col¬ lapse itself. These young stars, though now contract¬ ing more slowly, are still relatively unstable and will remain so until their interior temperatures become high enough to support nuclear fusion for energy gen¬ eration. More than 500 T Tauri stars have been observed.

T1 Type of broadband telecommunications connection (see broad¬ band technology) used especially to connect Internet service providers to the Internet’s infrastructure. Developed by Bell Labs in the 1960s, the “T-carrier systems” offer entirely digital, full-duplex exchange of data over traditional wire, coaxial cable, optical fibre, microwave relay, or other communications media. The T1 lines carry about 1.5 megabits of data per second, while the related T3 lines carry over 40. However, such systems are generally too expensive for individual network users, who turn instead to ISDN lines, cable modems, DSL connections, or some form of wireless or satellite system for high-speed Internet access.

Ta hsueh See Da xue T'a-li-mu Ho See Tarim River Ta-lien See Dalian

Ta-wen-k'ou culture See Dawenkou culture Ta Yu See Da Yu

Taaffe Vta-foV Eduard, count von (b. Feb. 24, 1833, Vienna, Austria—d. Nov. 29, 1895, Ellischau, Bohemia, Austria-Hungary) Aus¬ trian politician and prime minister (1868-70, 1879-93). A boyhood friend of the future emperor Francis Joseph, he entered the civil service in 1852 and rose rapidly, serving as governor of upper Austria, minister of the interior (1867, 1870-71, 1879), governor of Tirol (1871-79), and prime minister. In his second term as premier, he forged a conservative coali¬ tion that restored a degree of order among the Austrian Empire’s quar¬ reling nationalities by granting concessions to the Polish and Czech nationalists and bringing them into the Habsburg civil service.

Taal \ta-’al, 'tal. Lake formerly Lake Bombon Lake, southwestern Luzon, Philippines. It covers an area of 94 sq mi (244 sq km) and occu¬ pies a volcanic crater less than 10 ft (3 m) above sea level. Volcano Island (984 ft or 300 m), which rises from the lake and is also called Taal Vol¬ cano, contains another small crater (Yellow Lake). The volcano has erupted 25 times since 1572, most recently in 1970. Located within a national park, the lake is a major tourist attraction.

Tabari \'ta-ba-re\, al- in full Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (b. c. 839, Amol, Iran—d. 923, Baghdad, Iraq) Muslim scholar, Qur’anic commentator, and historian. After studying in Islamic centres of learning in Iraq, Syria, and Egypt, he wrote the compendious Commentary on the Qur'an (see TAFSlR), in which he annotated Islam’s holy book with all of the juridical, lexicographical, and historical explanations transmitted in the Hadith. His other major work was the History of Proph¬ ets and Kings, which charted the history of human civilization from cre¬ ation to the fall of the Umayyad dynasty.

Tabasco \t3-'bas-ko\ State (pop., 2000: 1,891,829), southeastern Mexico. It covers an area of 9,756 sq mi (25,267 sq km), and its capital is Villahermosa. Pre-Columbian Indian cultures included those of the Quiche, Olmec, Tabasca, and Nahua peoples. The area was first visited by Europeans in 1518; in 1519 Hernan Cortes clashed with the Indians, who were partially subdued in the 1530s and ’40s. Tabasco became a state in

Agriculture, forestry, beekeeping, commercial fishing, and cattle¬ raising provided much of the state’s income before petroleum exploita¬ tion began in the 1960s. The state is now a major oil producer.

Tabernacle In Jewish history, the portable sanctuary constructed by Moses as a place of worship for the Hebrew tribes during the period of wandering that preceded their arrival in the Promised Land. Elaborately described in Exodus, it was divided into an outer room, the “holy place,” and an inner room, the Holy of Holies, which housed the Ark of the Cov¬ enant. With the erection of the Temple of Jerusalem, the Tabernacle no longer served a purpose. In modern Roman Catholicism and Eastern Ortho¬ doxy, the tabernacle is the receptacle on the church altar in which the con¬ secrated elements of the Eucharist are stored.

tabla \'ta-bl3\ Pair of small drums, the principal per¬ cussion in Hindustani music of northern India. The higher-pitched daya, played with the right hand, is a roughly cylindrical one-skinned drum, usually wooden, normally tuned to the raga’s tonic. The baya, played with the left hand, is a deep kettledrum usually of copper; its pitch varies with pressure from the heel of the player’s hand. A disk of black tuning paste on the membrane of each drum gives it harmonic overtones.

table Article of furniture used in the Western world since at least the 7th century bc, consisting of a flat slab of stone, metal, wood, or glass supported by trestles, legs, or a pillar. Though tables were used in ancient Egypt, Assyria, and Greece, only during the Middle Ages, with the growing formality of life under feudalism, did tables increasingly take on social significance. Tables with attached legs appeared in the 15th century. The draw top was invented in the 16th century, making it possible to double the table length. Increasing contact with the East in the 18th century led to increas¬ ing specialization in the design of occasional tables.

Table Bay Inlet, Atlantic Ocean, forming the harbour of Cape Town, South Africa. It is 12 mi (19 km) long and 8 mi (12 km) wide. Although less sheltered than other bays along the coast, it became a port of call for ships traveling to India and the East because of the availability of fresh water. The shore was permanently settled by the Dutch in 1652.

table tennis or (trademark) Ping-Pong Game similar to lawn ten¬ nis that is played on a tabletop with wooden paddles and a small, hollow, plastic ball. The object is to hit the ball so that it goes over the net and bounces on the opponent’s half of the table in such a way as to defeat the opponent’s attempt to reach and return it. Both singles and doubles games are played. A match consists of the best of any odd number of games, each game being won by the player or team who first reaches 11 points or who, after 10 points each, gains a two-point lead. Invented in England in the early 20th century, it soon spread throughout the world. Since the mid-1950s, East Asian countries have dominated the sport. It has been an Olympic sport for both men and women since 1988.

taboo Prohibition against touching, saying, or doing something for fear of immediate harm from a supernatural force. The term is of Polynesian origin and was first noted by Capt. James Cook during his 1771 visit to Tonga, but taboos have been present in virtually all cultures. They may include prohibitions on fishing or hunting at certain seasons, eating cer¬ tain foods, interacting with members of other social classes, coming into contact with corpses, and (for women) performing certain activities dur¬ ing menstruation. Although some taboos can be traced to evident risks to health and safety, there is no generally accepted explanation of most oth¬ ers; most authorities agree that they tend to relate to objects and actions that are significant for the maintenance of social order.

Tabriz \ta-'brez\ City (pop., 1996: 1,191,043), northwestern Iran. Earth¬ quakes and invasions by Arabs, Turks, and Mongols have damaged the city numerous times. The Turkic ruler Timur conquered it in 1392. During the next 200 years control passed several times between Safavid Iran and the Ottoman Empire. During the 18th—19th centuries it passed between the Ottomans and the Russian Empire, and the same powers fought over it in World War I (1914-18). In the 1850s a schismatic Shfite religious leader known as the Bab (“Gateway”) and 40,000 of his followers were executed there. It was damaged during the Iran-Iraq War (1980-90). Notable ancient sites include the 15th-century Blue Mosque, renowned for the splendour of its blue tile decoration, and the remains of the 12-sided tomb of Mongol leader MahmOd Ghazan.

Tabriz school ► Taff Vale case I 1861

Tabriz school School of miniaturist painting founded by the Mongol Il-Khans early in the 14th century. Reflecting the penetration of East Asian traditions into Islamic painting, early Tabriz works were characterized by light, feathery brush strokes, gentle colouring, and an attempt to create the illusion of spatiality. The school reached its peak just as the Il-Khans were being conquered by the Islamic Timurids (1370-1506). It continued to be active in this period, though it was overshadowed by the workshops in Shiraz and Herat.

Tachism Vta-.shi-zomN (from French, tache: “spot”) Style of painting practiced in Paris after World War II and through the 1950s. Like its U.S. equivalent, action painting, it featured the intuitive, spontaneous gesture of the artist’s brush stroke. The Tachists, including Hans Hartung and Georges Mathieu, produced large works of sweeping brush strokes and of drips, blots, stains, and splashes of colour. Tachism was part of the postwar movement known as Art Informel, inspired by U.S. Abstract Expressionism.

tachycardia \,ta-ki-'kar-de-3\ Heart rate over 100 (as high as 240) beats per minute. When it is a normal response to exercise or stress, it is no danger to healthy people, but when it originates elsewhere, it is an arrhyth¬ mia. Symptoms include fatigue, faintness, shortness of breath, and feeling the heart thumping. It may subside within minutes or hours with no last¬ ing ill effects, but in serious heart, lung, or circulatory disease it can pre¬ cede atrial fibrillation or heart attack and demands immediate medical attention. Tachycardias can be treated by an electric shock to the heart, by antiarrhythmic drugs, and by pacemakers.

tachyon \'ta-ke-,an\ Hypothetical subatomic particle whose velocity is always greater than that of light. Its existence appears consistent with the theory of relativity. Just as an ordinary particle such as an electron can exist only at speeds less than that of light, a tachyon can exist only at speeds greater than that of light. At such speeds, its mass would be real and positive. On losing energy, a tachyon accelerates; the faster it trav¬ els, the less energy it has. The existence of tachyons has not been estab¬ lished experimentally.

Tacitus \'ta-s3-tos\ in full Publius Cornelius Tacitus (b. ad 56— d.

c. 120) Roman orator, public official, and historian. After studying rheto¬ ric, he began his career with a minor magistracy, eventually advancing to the proconsulate of Asia, the top provincial governorship (112-113). In 98 he wrote De vita Julii Agricolae, a biographical account of his father- in-law, governor of Britain; and De origine et situ Germanorum (known as the Germania ), describing the people of the Roman frontier on the Rhine. His works on Roman history are the Histories , concerning the empire from ad 69 to 96, and the later Annals, dealing with the empire from ad 14 to 68; the latter effectively diagnoses the decline of Roman political freedom he had described in the Histories. Only parts of each are extant. Tacitus is regarded as perhaps the greatest historian and one of the greatest prose stylists to write in Latin.

Tacoma City and seaport (pop., 2000: 193,556), western Washington, U.S. Located on Puget Sound, Tacoma was settled in 1864 and grew to become a lumbering and port city. Docks and wharves line its waterfront. A boat-building centre, the city also has smelters, foundries, and electro¬ chemical plants. It is a gateway to Mount Rainier National Park and is connected by bridge to the Olympic Peninsula recreation areas. It is the seat of the University of Puget Sound (1888) and Pacific Lutheran Uni¬ versity (1890).

Taconic Orogeny Uo-'ka-nik-o-'ra-jo-neV Mountain-building event that affected the Appalachian Geosyncline along the eastern coast of the U.S. Evidence for the orogeny is most pronounced in the northern Appa¬ lachian Mountains, but its effects can be noted as far away as Tennessee and Georgia. Events ascribed to it include the development of New York’s Taconic Range and Vermont’s Green Mountains. Originally thought to have occurred at approximately the Ordovician-Silurian boundary (c. 443 million years ago), it is now generally considered to have consisted of several pulses from the mid-Ordovician to the early Silurian Period.

Taconic Range Part of the Appalachian mountain system, northeastern U.S. The range extends 150 mi (240 km) from southern Vermont to north¬ ern New York. Mount Equinox (3,816 ft [1,163 m]) in southwestern Ver¬ mont is the highest peak. In Massachusetts the mountains form the western section of the Berkshire Hills. Taconic State Park, in New York, is a popular mountain recreation area.

taconite Yta-ks-.nlA Low-grade iron formation (e.g., in Minnesota). Recovery of the iron requires fine grinding and concentration of iron¬

bearing phases (see mineral processing), which are then formed into pel¬ lets suitable for blast furnaces. As high-grade deposits of iron ore have become depleted, taconite deposits have increased in importance.

tactics In warfare, the art and science of fighting battles. It is concerned with the approach to combat, placement of troops, use made of weapons, vehicles, ships, or aircraft, and execution of movements for attack or defense. In general, tactics deal with the problems encountered in actual fighting. Tactical thinking attempts to coordinate personnel with the exist¬ ing weapons technology and apply both to the terrain and enemy forces in a way that uses the fighting force to best advantage. Deployment involves placing each type of weapon where it can do the most damage to the enemy or provide the most protection to one’s own forces. Timing and direction of attack are also important considerations. At sea, direc¬ tion was especially crucial in the era of wind-powered warships. In recent wars, timing has been a crucial factor in mounting airborne strikes that take advantage of the element of surprise. See also strategy.

Tadema, Lawrence Alma- See Lawrence Alma-Tadema Tadmor See Palmyra

tadpole or polliwog Aquatic larval stage of frogs and toads. Tad¬ poles have a short, oval body, broad tail, small mouth, and no external gills. Most are herbivorous, but those of some species are predatory or even cannibalistic. Tadpole metamorphosis follows a pattern of gradual development of forelimbs and hind limbs, resoiption of the tail, shorten¬ ing of the intestine, disappearance of the gills, and development of the lungs. On completion of metamorphosis, the young frog or toad emerges onto land.

tae kwon do Vtl-'kwan-'dcA Korean martial art resembling karate. It is characterized by the use of high standing and jump kicks as well as punches and is practiced for sport, self-defense, and spiritual develop¬ ment. In sparring, blows are stopped just short of contact. Based on ear¬ lier forms of Korean self-defense, tae kwon do was formalized and named in 1955. It became an Olympic sport in the year 2000.

Taegu \'ta-'gU\ Metropolitan city (pop., 2000: 2,473,990), capital of North Kyongsang province, southeastern South Korea. For centuries the administrative, economic, and cultural centre of South Korea, it devel¬ oped during the Choson dynasty (1392-1910) into one of the country’s three big market cities. It has important textile industries but is best known for the apples grown in the surrounding area, which are exported through¬ out East and Southeast Asia. The area attracts visitors to its several parks, ancient pagodas, and the 9th-century Buddhist temple containing the Tri- pitaka. It is home to many universities and colleges.

T'aejo See Yi Song-gye

Taejon Vta-'j6n\ Metropolitan city (pop., 2000: 1,365,961), capital of South Ch’ungch’ong province, southeastern South Korea. It was a poor village until rail connections spurred development in the early 1900s. During the Korean War (1950-53) it was a temporary capital of South Korea, and 70% of the city was destroyed; it has since been rebuilt. The manufacture of cotton textiles, machinery, and chemicals has been devel¬ oped. Chungnam National University and several other colleges are located there.

Taeuber Vt6i-bor\, Conrad; and Barnes Taeuber, Irene orig. Irene Barnes (respectively b. June 15, 1906, Hosmer, S.D., U.S.—d. Sept. 11, 1999, Nashua, N.H.; b. Dec. 25, 1906, Meadville, Mo.—d. Feb. 24, 1974, Hyattsville, Md.) U.S. demographers, statisticians, and social scientists. Working for various government agencies, the couple devel¬ oped a scholarly approach to the census that helped found the science of demography and made them authorities on population movements in the U.S. Their books The Changing Population of the United States (1958) and The Population of Japan (1958) are considered classics in demogra- phy.

Taewon-gun Vta-'wsn-'guM (b. 1821—d. 1898) Father of the last rul¬ ing Korean king, Kojong (r. 1864-1907), and regent (1864-73). As regent, Taewon-gun inaugurated reforms to strengthen the central government. He also modernized Korea’s armies. He opposed concessions to Japan or the West but was kidnapped and held in China three years, during which time his power and many of his reforms were eliminated.

Taff Vale case (1900-01) Successful trial in Britain of a suit brought by the Taff Vale Railway Company against the Amalgamated Society of

1862 I Tafilalt ► Tagus River

Railway Servants (ASRS). In August 1900 the ASRS struck for higher wages but settled within two weeks when the company used strikebreak¬ ers. The company sued the union for violating the Protection of Property Act, and the courts held that a union could be sued for damages caused by a strike, effectively eliminating the strike as a weapon of organized labour. Opposition to the decision spurred the growth of the Labour Party and led to the passage of the Trade Disputes Act of 1906, which nullified the decision’s effect.

Tafilalt \,ta-fi-'lalt\ Oasis, southeastern Morocco. The country’s largest Saharan oasis, it covers 533 sq mi (1,380 sq km). It comprises six forti¬ fied villages and palm groves stretching for some 30 mi (50 km) along the Wadi Ziz. Its old capital was the prosperous Berber stronghold of Sijil- massa, founded in ad 757 on the Saharan caravan route and finally destroyed in the 19th century. The oasis is noted for its groves of date palms.

tafsir \taf-'ser\ Science of explanation and interpretation of the Qur’an. It arose after the death of Muhammad to deal with ambiguity, variant read¬ ings, defective texts, and apparent contradictions in the scripture. Start¬ ing from mere personal speculation, tafsir developed into a system of systematic exegesis of the Qur’an’s text, proceeding verse by verse and sometimes word by word. Early efforts relied on the Hadlth, later giving rise to a more dogmatic type of tafsir. The most comprehensive work was compiled by the scholar al-TABARl. Some Muslim modernists have employed tafsir as a vehicle for reformist ideas.

Taft, Robert A(lphonso) (b. Sept. 8, 1889, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.—d. July 31, 1953, New York, N.Y.) U.S. politician. The son of Wil¬ liam H. Taft, he served in the Ohio legislature before being elected to the U.S. Senate (1939-53). He became known as a strong advocate of tradi¬ tional conservativism and earned the nickname “Mr. Republican.” He opposed centralizing power in the federal government and cosponsored the Taft-Hartley Act to restrict organized labour. An isolationist, he opposed U.S. involvement in postwar international organizations. He was a favourite-son candidate for president at Republican Party national con¬ ventions, especially in 1948 and 1952, but internationalists in the party opposed his conservative views. After the election of Dwight Eisenhower, Taft became Senate majority leader and Eisenhower’s chief adviser in the Senate.

Taft, William Howard (b. Sept. 15, 1857, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.—d. March 8, 1930, Washington, D.C.)

27th president of the U.S. (1909-13).

He served on the Ohio superior court (1887-90), as U.S. solicitor general (1890-92), and as U.S. appellate judge (1892-1900). He was appointed head of the Philippine Commission to set up a civilian gov¬ ernment in the islands and was the Philippines’ first civilian governor (1901-04). He served as U.S. secre¬ tary of war (1904-08) under Pres.

Theodore Roosevelt, who supported Taft’s nomination for president in 1908. He won the election but became allied with the conservative Republicans, causing a rift with party progressives. He was again the nominee in 1912, but the split with Roosevelt and the Bull Moose Party resulted in the electoral victory of Woodrow Wilson. Taft later taught law at Yale University (1913-21), served on the National War Labor Board (1918), and was a supporter of the League of Nations. As chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1921-30), he introduced reforms that made the court more efficient. His important opinion in Myers v. U.S. (1926) upheld the president’s authority to remove federal officials.

Taft-Hartley Act officially Labor-Management Relations Act

(1947) U.S. legislation that restricted labour unions. Sponsored by Sen. Robert A. Taft and Rep. Fred A. Hartley, Jr., the act amended much of the pro-union Wagner Act (1935) and was passed by a Republican-controlled Congress over the veto of Pres. Harry S. Truman. It allowed employees the right not to join unions (outlawing the CLOSED shop) and required

advance notice of a labour strike, authorized an 80-day federal injunction when a strike threatened national health or safety, narrowed the definition of unfair labour practices, specified unfair union practices, restricted union political contributions, and required union officials to take an oath pledg¬ ing they were not communists. See also Landrum-Griffin Act.

Tagalog \t9-'ga-tag\ Any member of the largest cultural-linguistic group in the Philippines. They are the dominant population of Manila and of several provinces near the city. Most are Roman Catholic, and most are farmers; their main cash crops are sugarcane and coconuts. Manila’s dominance has given the urban Tagalog economic leadership in the Phil¬ ippines. The Tagalog language is the basis of Pilipino, the national lan¬ guage.

Tagalog language Austronesian language of the Philippines, spoken as a first language by about 17 million people on the island of Luzon and by at least half a million immigrant Filipinos. As the language of Manila, the capital and chief city of the Philippines, Tagalog has long had an importance outside its own speech area. With vocabulary enrichment from other Philippine languages, it has been made the basis of Pilipino, the national language; widely used in education and the media, Pilipino is now understood by more than 60% of the Philippine population. Though a script ultimately of South Asian origin was in use for Tagalog in the 16th century (see Indic writing systems), all recent literature in the language has utilized adaptations of the Latin alphabet.

Taglioni \tal-'yo-ne\, Marie (b. April 23, 1804, Stockholm, Swed.—d. April 24, 1884, Marseille, Fr.) Italian ballet dancer. She trained with her dancer-choreographer father, Filippo Taglioni (1777-1871), and made her debut in Vienna in 1822. In her father’s ballet La Sylphide , introduced at the Paris Opera in 1832, she became one of the first to dance on pointe. She created a delicate new style, marked by floating leaps and balanced poses such as the arabesque, that typified the early 19th-century Roman¬ tic style. Her diaphanous white skirts would evolve into the tutu worn by most classical ballerinas. She toured throughout Europe and, after leav¬ ing the Opera in 1837, danced with the Imperial Ballet in St. Petersburg; she retired from dancing in 1847.

Tagore Vta-,g6r,\ English \ta-'g6r\ / Debendranath (b. May 15, 1817, Calcutta, India—d. Jan. 19, 1905, Calcutta) Hindu philosopher and religious reformer. Born into a wealthy landowning family, he was edu¬ cated in both Eastern and Western philosophy. Striving to purge Hindu¬ ism of abuses, he spoke vehemently against suttee and tried to bring education within the reach of all. He was active in the Brahmo Samaj. In his zeal to erase idolatry and undemocratic practices, he rejected the Vedas as deficient in dictating guidelines for human behaviour. Failing to find a middle path between radical rationalism and Brahman conservatism, he retired from public life. He was known as the Great Sage. Rabindranath Tagore was his son.

Tagore, Rabindranath (b. May 7, 1861, Calcutta, India—d. Aug. 7, 1941, Calcutta) Bengali poet, writer, composer, and painter. The son of Debendranath Tagore, he published several books of poetry, including Manasi, in his 20s. His later religious poetry was introduced to the West in Gitanjali (1912). Through interna¬ tional travel and lecturing, he intro¬ duced aspects of Indian culture to the West and vice versa. He spoke ardently in favour of Indian indepen¬ dence; as a protest against the Mas¬ sacre of Amritsar, he repudiated the knighthood he had received in 1915.

He founded an experimental school in Bengal where he sought to blend Eastern and Western philosophies; it became Vishva-Bharati University (1921). He was awarded the 1913 Nobel Prize for Literature.

Tagus River \'ta-gos\ Spanish Rio Tajo \'ta-ho\ Portuguese Rio Tejo Vre-u-'ta-zhuX Longest waterway of the Iberian Peninsula. It rises in east¬ ern central Spain and flows west across Spain and Portugal for 626 mi (1,007 km) to empty into the Atlantic Ocean near Lisbon. It covers the heart of the two nations, and is of vital economic importance. Dams har-

William Howard Taft, 1909.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

Rabindranath Tagore.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, INC.

Taha Hussein ► taiga I 1863

ness it for irrigation and hydroelectric power, and large artificial lakes have been created. Navigable for about 100 mi (160 km) in its lower courses, it supplies a fine natural harbor at Lisbon.

Taha Hussein or Taha Husayn \'ta-ha-hu-'san\ (b. Nov. 14, 1889, Maghaghah, Egypt—d. Oct. 28, 1973, Cairo) Egyptian writer. Though blinded by an illness at age two, he became a professor of Arabic litera¬ ture at the secular University of Cairo, where his bold views often enraged Islamic religious conservatives. An outstanding figure of the modernist movement in Egyptian literature, he wrote novels, stories, criticism, and social and political essays. Outside Egypt he is best known for his auto¬ biography, the two-part Al-Ayyam, published in English as An Egyptian Childhood (1932) and The Stream of Days (1943), which was the first modern Arab literary work to be acclaimed in the West.

Tahiti Island, Society Islands, French Polynesia, central South Pacific Ocean. The largest of the Society Islands, it occupies an area of 402 sq mi (1,042 sq km) in their eastern group. Papeete, the capital of French Polynesia, is on Tahiti. The island’s interior is mountainous, rising to 7,339 ft (2,237 m) at Mount Orohena; its towns are located on the coastal plain. Long inhabited by Polynesians, it was visited by British Capt. Sam¬ uel Wallis in 1767 and in 1768 by Louis-Antoine de Bougainville, who claimed it for France. The first permanent European settlers were English missionaries who arrived in 1797. It became a French colony in 1880 and is now part of the self-governing overseas territory of French Polynesia. Continued French nuclear testing in the area has angered the inhabitants and brought calls for independence. Tourism is economically important.

Tahoe, Lake Lake on the California-Nevada border in the northern Sierra Nevada, U.S. The lake, which occupies a fault basin, covers 193 sq mi (500 sq km). It is 22 mi (35 km) long by 10 mi (16 km) wide and lies at an elevation of 6,229 ft (1,899 m).

Its water level has varied during sea¬ sons of drought in recent decades.

Fed by numerous small streams, the intensely blue lake and the surround¬ ing national forests have been devel¬ oped as popular tourist resorts.

TahtawT Uah-'ta-.weV Rifa'ah Rafi' al- (b. 1801, Tahta, Egypt—d.

1873, Egypt) Egyptian teacher and scholar. Beginning in 1826, he spent five years in Paris as a religious teacher for a group of Egyptian stu¬ dents and later was appointed head of a state language school (1836) and a translation bureau (1841) in Cairo.

In these capacities he played a cen¬ tral role in bringing Western science and methods to Egypt. Under the anti-Western administration of khedive 'Abbas I (1848-54), he was sent to teach school in Khartoum, Sudan, but later returned to resume his work in translation and education.

Tai \'tl\ Any member of the dominant group of mainland Southeast Asia. They include the Thai, or Siamese (in Thailand), the Lao (in Laos and Thailand), the Shan (in Myanmar), the Lti (primarily in Yunnan province, China), the Yunnan Tai (in Yunnan), and the tribal Tai (in Vietnam). All speak Tai languages, and most are Buddhists of the Theravada school. The status of Tai women is high. The Tai number about 76 million.

Tai See Shan

Tai, Lake Chinese Tai Hu Vtl-'hiiN or T'ai Hu Lake, between Zhejiang and Jiangsu provinces, eastern China. Roughly crescent-shaped, it covers an area of 850 sq mi (2,200 sq km). It lies in a plain and is served by a maze of natural and man-made waterways, some dating from the 7th cen¬ tury ad. Several islands in the eastern section were traditionally famous Daoist and Buddhist religious sites. The area’s great natural beauty attracts many tourists.

Tai Chi Chuan Chinese taijiquan or t'ai-chi-ch'uan

Vtl-'je-'chwanN Ancient Chinese form of exercise or of attack and defense. As exercise, it is designed to provide relaxation in the process of body conditioning, which it accomplishes partly by harmonizing the principles of yin-yang. It employs flowing, deliberate movements with carefully pre¬

scribed stances and positions. As a mode of attack and defense, it resembles kung fu and is properly considered a martial art. Dating to the 3rd century ad, Tai Chi Chuan consists of two major schools, the Wu and the Yang. Depending on the school, the number of exercises varies from 24 to more than 100.

T'ai-chung \ , ti-'chuq\ City (pop., 2002 est.: 990,041), west-central Tai¬ wan. Most of the old town was tom down under the Japanese occupation (1895-1945) and replaced by a planned modern city. An agricultural cen¬ tre since the early 19th century, it is a major market for the rice, sugar, and bananas produced in the surrounding area. In the 1970s an interna¬ tional seaport was developed west of the city, and T’ai-chung was des¬ ignated an export-processing zone to encourage foreign investment. It is also a cultural centre, with various institutions of higher education. In 1999 it suffered one of Taiwan’s worst earthquakes.

T'ai Hsu See Tai Xu

Tai languages Family of closely related languages spoken in South¬ east Asia and southern China by more than 80 million people. According to a widely used classification, Tai comprises three branches. The South¬ western group includes Thai, the national language of Thailand; north¬ eastern Thai and Lao, spoken in eastern Thailand and Laos; Pak Tay (South Thai), spoken in southern Thailand; Shan, spoken in eastern and northern Myanmar; and Tai Dam (Black Tai) and Tai Don (Tai Khaw, or White Tai), spoken mainly in North Vietnam. The Central group includes Nung and South Zhuang, a dialect chain in northern Vietnam and China’s Guangxi province; and Tay (Tho), spoken in the same area. The North¬ ern group includes Buyi and North Zhuang, a dialect chain spoken in Guangxi, Guizhou, and Yunnan, China. All Tai languages are tone lan¬ guages. Most scholars believe the Tai family is related to a number of other languages spoken by minority peoples of southern China and north¬ ern Vietnam. Together with Tai, the entire group has been named the Kadai or Tai-Kadai family.

T'ai-nan Vtl-’nan \ formerly Dainan City (pop., 2002 est.: 742,574), southwestern Taiwan. It is one of the oldest urban settlements on the island. The Han Chinese settled there as early as 1590. The Dutch arrived in the city in 1623 and stayed until they were driven out in 1662 by Zheng Chenggong, who made it his capital. It remained the island’s capital when the Qing dynasty reestablished Chinese control over Taiwan (1683). Under Chinese rule in the 19th century, it grew into a prosperous city and was the commercial and educational centre of Taiwan. After the transfer of the capital to Taipei in 1891, it became primarily commercial. It expanded dur¬ ing the Japanese occupation (1895-1945). Today it is a major market and tourism centre.

T'ai-tsu See Taizu T'ai-tsung See Taizong

Tai Xu or T'ai Hsii Vti-’shueX orig. Lu Peilin (b. Jan. 8, 1890, Hai- ning, Zhejiang province, China—d. March 17, 1947, Shanghai) Chinese Buddhist monk and philosopher. After training as a Buddhist monk near Ningbo, he helped organize the Association for the Advancement of Bud¬ dhism (1912). In 1921 he began publication of the influential journal Hai- chaoyin (“The Voice of the Sea Tide”). Heavily influenced by Sun Yat- sen and the revolution of 1911, he sought to reform the education of monks and promoted social welfare activities. From 1925 to 1941 he traveled extensively to promote the formation of national and international Bud¬ dhist organizations in Japan, Europe, the U.S., and South and Southeast Asia.

Taieri River \'ti-3-re\ River, southeastern South Island, New Zealand. It rises in the Lammerlaw Range and flows 179 mi (288 km) north and southeast in a great arc, across plains and around the Rock and Pillar Range, to enter the Pacific Ocean near Dunedin. Gorges are found in both the upper and lower reaches.

taiga \'ti-go\ or boreal forest Open coniferous forest (see conifer) growing on swampy ground that is commonly covered with lichens. It is the characteristic vegetation of the subpolar region of northern Eurasia (principally Russia, including Siberia, and Scandinavia) and northern North America, bounded by the colder tundra to the north and the warmer temperate zone to the south. Spruces and pines are the dominant trees. Soil organisms are protozoans, nematodes, and rotifers; larger invertebrates (e.g., insects) that decompose plant litter are lacking, so humus accumu¬ lates very slowly. The taiga is rich in fur-bearing animals (e.g., sable, fox.

Lake Tahoe in Toiyabe National Forest, Nevada.

JOHN F. SHRAWDER/SHOSTAL

1864 I Taiga ► Taiwan

and ermine) and is home to elks, bears, and wolves. Siberian taiga alone accounts for 19% of the world’s forested area and possibly 25% of total forest volume. Despite the remoteness of the taiga, it is a major source of lumber for construction, and huge expanses have been clear-cut.

Taiga, Ike no See Ike no Taiga taijiquan See t'ai chi ch'uan

tail Extension of the vertebral column beyond the trunk, or any slender projection resembling such a structure. In fishes and other animals living completely or partly in water, it is very important to movement through water. Many tree-dwelling animals (e.g., squirrels) use the tail for balance and as a rudder when leaping; in some (e.g., certain monkeys), it is adapted for grasping. Birds’ tail feathers aid in flight maneuverability. Other animals use their tails for defense (e.g., porcupines), social signals (e.g., dogs and cats), warning signals (e.g., deer and rattlesnakes), and hunting (e.g., alligators).

Tain Bo Cuailgne See Cattle Raid of Cooley, The

Taine \'ten\, Hippolyte (-Adolphe) (b. April 21, 1828, Vouziers, Ardennes, France—id. March 5,1893, Paris) French thinker, critic, and his¬ torian. Taine came to believe as a youth that knowledge must be based on sense experience, observation, and controlled experiment, a conviction that guided his career. Teaching at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris (1864-83), he earned a reputation as one of the most esteemed exponents of 19th- century French positivism with his attempts to apply the scientific method to the study of the humanities. His works include a History of English Lit¬ erature (1863-64), containing an explanation of his approach to cultural and literary history and his scientific attitude toward criticism; On Intelli¬ gence (1871), a study in psychology; and his monumental historical analy¬ sis Les Origines de la France contemporaine, 3 vol. (1876-99).

Taino VtI-no\ Extinct Arawak Indian group of the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean Sea. They also inhabited Puerto Rico and the eastern tip of Cuba. They grew cassava and corn (maize), hunted birds and small animals, and fished. They were skillful at working stone and wood. Their society consisted of three tiers—nobles, commoners, and slaves—and they were ruled by hereditary chiefs and subchiefs; religious beliefs cen¬ tred on a hierarchy of nature spirits and ancestors. They became extinct within 100 years of the Spanish conquest.

Taipei \'tl-'pa\ City, special (province-level) municipality (pop., 2005 est.: 2,622,472), and seat of government of the Republic of China (Tai¬ wan). Founded in the early 18th century, it became an important centre of overseas trade in the mid-19th century. When Taiwan was proclaimed a province of China in 1886, Taipei was later made the capital, and it retained that designation under Japanese rule (1895-1945). In 1949 it became the administrative centre of the Chinese Nationalist government. It was designated a special municipality in 1967. Taipei is the commer¬ cial, financial, industrial, and transportation centre of Taiwan. Its many educational institutions include the National Taiwan University (1928). The city’s National Palace Museum houses one of the world’s largest col¬ lections of Chinese artifacts. The Taipei 101 building became the world’s tallest building upon completion of its framework in 2003.

Taiping Vtl-'piqX Rebellion (1850-64) Large-scale rebellion against the Qing dynasty in China. The peasants, having suffered floods and fam¬ ines in the late 1840s, were ripe for rebellion, which came under the lead¬ ership of Hong Xiuquan. Hong’s visions convinced him he was the younger brother of Jesus, and he saw it as his duty to free China from Manchu rule. He preached the brotherhood and sisterhood of all people under God; property was to be held in common. His followers’ militant faith unified a fiercely disciplined army that swelled to more than a mil¬ lion men and women (women were treated as equals by Taiping rebels). They captured Nanjing in 1853 and renamed it Tianjing (“Heavenly Capi¬ tal”). Their attempts to capture Beijing failed, but an expedition into the upper Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) valley scored many victories. Hong’s idiosyncratic Christianity alienated both Western missionaries and the Chinese scholar-gentry. Without the gentry, the Taiping forces were unable to govern the countryside or supply their cities effectively. The leadership strayed from its original austerity and descended into power struggles that left Hong without competent help. In 1860 an attempt to take Shanghai was repelled by U.S.- and British-led forces, and by 1862 Chinese forces under Zeng Guofan had surrounded Nanjing. The city fell in 1864, but almost 100,000 of the Taiping followers preferred death to capture. Sporadic resistance continued elsewhere until 1868. The rebel¬

lion ravaged 17 provinces, took some 20 million lives, and left the Qing government unable to regain an effective hold over the country. See also Li Hongzhang; Nian Rebellion.

Taira Kiyomori Vtl-ra-.ke-yo-'mo-reX (b. 1118, Japan—d. March 21, 1181, Kyoto) Leader of the powerful Taira family and the first member of the warrior class (samurai) to rule Japan. The Taira family had made itself useful to the imperial court quelling pirates on Japan’s Inland Sea. In 1156, when the retired emperor Sutoku (see insei) enlisted the aid of the Minamoto warrior family to help in a rebellion against the reigning emperor Go-Shirakawa, Kiyomori supported Go-Shirakawa and defeated the Minamoto. The Minamoto staged a comeback in 1159-60, but Kiy¬ omori defeated them again, executing all the Minamoto males except the children Minamoto Yoritomo and Minamoto Yoshitsune, who would later overthrow him. Temporarily victorious, Kiyomori received the highest court rank and manipulated the throne by marrying his daughters into the imperial family. The Taira forces took on the effete ways of the aristocrats and were no match for the frontier-hardy Minamoto, who defeated them in 1185. See also Gempei War; Kamakura period.

Taisho period (1912-26) Period in Japanese history corresponding to the reign of the Taisho emperor, Yoshihito (1879-1926). It followed the Meiji period and represented a continuation of Japan’s rise on the interna¬ tional scene and liberalism at home. Politically, the country moved toward broader representational government. The tax qualification for voting was reduced, enfranchising more voters, and was eliminated in 1925. Party politics flourished, and legislation favourable to labour was passed. Japan continued to push China for economic and political concessions and entered into treaties with Western nations that acknowledged its interests in Korea, Manchuria, and the rest of China. Rural Japan did not fare as well as urban Japan, and an economic depression at the end of the Taisho period caused much suffering. See also Showa period.

Tait, Archibald C(ampbell) (b. Dec. 21, 1811, Edinburgh, Scot.—d. Dec. 3, 1882, Addington, Surrey, Eng.) English cleric. The son of Pres¬ byterian parents, he became an Anglican while studying at the University of Oxford. In 1836 he became a deacon and for five years he was also a curate at two villages near Oxford. In 1842 he succeeded Thomas Arnold as headmaster of Rugby School, and in 1849 he became dean of Carlisle Cathedral. He became bishop of London in 1856; in that position he stressed reconciliation between evangelical churchmen and those who supported the Oxford movement. As archbishop of Canterbury (from 1868), he oversaw the disestablishment of the Anglican Church of Ireland and the passage of the Burials Act (1880), which allowed non-Anglican burial services in Anglican churchyards.

Taiwan formerly Formosa Island, western Pacific Ocean, off south¬ eastern China, and since 1949 the principal component of the Republic of China (which also includes Matsu and Quemoy islands and the Pesca¬ dores). Area: 13,972 sq mi (36,188 sq km), including its outlying islands. Population (2005 est.): 22,725,947. Administrative centre: Taipei. Han Chi¬ nese constitute virtually the entire population. Languages: Mandarin Chi¬ nese (official); Taiwanese, Fukien, and Hakka dialects also spoken. Religions: Buddhism, Daoism, Confucianism, Christianity. Currency: new Taiwan dollar. Lying 100 mi (160 km) off the Chinese mainland, Tai¬ wan is composed mainly of mountains and hills, with densely populated coastal plains in the west. It has one of the highest population densities in the world and is a leading industrial power of the Pacific Rim, with an economy based on manufacturing industries, international trade, and ser¬ vices. Leading exports include nonelectrical and electrical machinery, electronics, textile products, plastic articles, and transportation equipment. Taiwan is a major producer of Chinese-language motion pictures. It is a republic with one legislative branch; its chief of state is the president, and the head of government is the premier. Known to the Chinese as early as the 7th century, the island of Taiwan was widely settled by them early in the 17th century. In 1646 the Dutch seized control of the island, only to be ousted in 1661 by a large influx of Chinese refugees, supporters of the Ming dynasty. Taiwan fell to the Manchu in 1683 and was not open to Europeans again until 1858. In 1895 it was ceded to Japan following the first Sino-Japanese War. A Japanese military centre in World War II, it was frequently bombed by U.S. planes. After Japan’s defeat it was returned to China, which was then governed by the Nationalists. When the com¬ munists took over mainland China in 1949, the Nationalist Party govern¬ ment fled to Taiwan and made it their seat of government, with Gen. Chiang Kai-shek as president. Since then, both the Nationalist government and the People’s Republic of China (mainland China) have considered

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3 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannic

Taiwan a province of China. In 1954 Chiang and the U.S. signed a mutual defense treaty, and Taiwan received U.S. support for almost three decades, develop¬ ing its economy in spectacular fashion. It was recognized as the representative of China in the UN until 1971, when it was replaced there by the People’s Republic. Martial law in Taiwan, in effect since 1949, was lifted in 1987, and travel restrictions with main¬ land China were removed in 1988. In 1989 opposition parties were legal¬ ized. The relationship with the mainland grew increasingly close in the 1990s, but it again became strained over the future status of Taiwan after Chen Shui-bian (Ch’en Shui-pian) was elected president in 2000.

Taiwan Strait or Formosa Strait Arm of the northwestern Pacific Ocean. Lying between the coast of China’s Fujian province and the island of Taiwan, it is about 100 mi (160 km) wide. The strait connects the South China Sea and East China Sea.

Taiyuan Vti-'ywanX or T'ai-yiian City (pop., 1999 est.: 1,768,530), capital of Shanxi province, China, lying on the Fen River. Known since the time of the Zhou dynasty, it was a strategic centre and administrative capi¬ tal in the time of the Mongols (12th-14th century). It was the scene of a massacre in 1900 of foreign missionaries during the Boxer Rebellion and was one of the first areas to oppose the emperor in 1911. Invaded by the Japanese in 1937, it was again besieged by communist forces in 1948- 49. One of the greatest industrial cities in China, it produces cement, iron and steel, and coal. It also is an education and research centre. There are notable cave temples from the Tang and Yuan eras in the area.

Taizong

Taizu orT'ai-tsu Vtl-'dzu\ (b. 927, Luoyang, China—d. Nov. 14, 976, Kaifeng) First emperor of the Song dynasty, who began the unification of China, which his brother would complete. Initially a general for the founder of the Later Zhou dynasty (951-960), he was induced by his

troops to take over when the dynasty was left in the hands of a child suc¬ cessor. An upright man, Taizu forgave minor faults while holding his offi¬ cials accountable in important matters. He had his ministers submit rough drafts of papers for his review, and he frequently traveled about incog¬ nito to observe conditions among his people. He reformed the Chinese examination system to prevent favouritism and began to award larger num¬ bers of degrees. He gradually moved the administration of the prefectures from the military to civil officials. At his death, a solid foundation had been laid for the future development of the dynasty.

Taj Mahal Vtazh-mo-'halX Mausoleum complex on the southern bank of the Yamuna River, outside Agra, India. It was built by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife, Mumtaz Mahal, who died in 1631. The Taj complex, begun c. 1632, took 22 years to complete. At its centre lies a square garden area bounded by two smaller, oblong sections, one comprising the mausoleum and the other an entrance gateway. The mau¬ soleum, of pure-white marble inlaid with semiprecious stones, is flanked by two red sandstone buildings, a mosque on one side and an identical building for aesthetic balance on the other. It stands on a high marble plinth with a minaret at each corner. It has four identical facades, each with a massive central arch 108 ft (33 m) high, and is surmounted by a bulbous double dome and four domed kiosks. Its interior, with fine, restrained stone decoration, centres on an octagonal chamber containing the marble tombs, enclosed by a perforated marble screen, with sar¬ cophagi below. Regarded as one of the world’s most beautiful buildings, it was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1983. Steps have been taken since the late 1990s to reduce air pollution that has damaged the facade of the building.

Tajikistan \ta-ji-ki-'stan\ officially Republic of Tajikistan Country, Central Asia. Area: 55,300 sq mi (143,100 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 6,849,000. Capital: Dushanbe. The majority of the population are Tajiks;

Uzbeks make up a large minority. Lan¬ guage: Tajik (official). Religion: Islam (predominantly Sunni). Currency: somoni. Tajikistan is a mountainous country; about half of its territory lies at elevations above 10,000 ft (3,000 m), with the Pamirs dominating the east. The entire region is prone to seismic activity. The Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers cross it and are used for irrigation. Cotton, cattle, fruits, vegetables, and grains are raised. Heavy industries include coal mining, petroleum and natural gas extraction, metalworking, and nitrogen fertilizer production. Notable light industries are cotton milling, food processing, and textiles. Tajikistan is a republic with two legislative houses; the chief of state is the president, and the head of government is the prime minister. Settled by Persians c. the 6th century bc, Tajikistan was part of the empires of the Persian Achaemenian

1866 I Tajumulco Volcano ► Tallapoosa River

dynasty and of Alexander the Great and his successors. In the 7th-8th cen¬ tury ad it was conquered by the Arabs, who introduced Islam. The Uzbeks controlled the region in the 15th—18th centuries. In the 1860s the Russian Empire took over much of Tajikistan. In 1924 it became an autonomous republic under the administration of the Uzbek S.S.R., and it gained union republic status in 1929. It achieved independence with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. Civil war raged through much of the 1990s between government forces and an opposition composed mostly of Islamic mili¬ tants. A peace agreement was reached in 1997.

Tajumulco \,ta-hu-'mul-ko\ Volcano Volcanic mountain, western Guatemala. Part of a mountain range that extends into Guatemala from southern Mexico, it is the highest peak in Central America, 13,845 ft (4,220 m) high. It is thought to sit atop the remains of an older volcano.

Takebe Katahiro (b. 1664, Edo, Japan—d. Aug. 24, 1739, Edo) Japa¬ nese mathematician of the wasan (“Japanese calculation”) tradition who extended and disseminated the mathematical research of his teacher Seki Takakazu. He served successively two shoguns, Tokugawa Ienobu and Tokugawa Yoshimune (see Tokugawa period). Takebe became a pupil of Seki at the age of 13 and, together with his brother Kataaki, remained with him until his death in 1708. The brothers were the main craftsmen of Seki’s project (launched 1683) to record mathematical knowledge in an encyclopaedia. The Taisei sankei (“Comprehensive Classic of Math¬ ematics”), in 20 volumes, was finally completed by Takebe Kataaki in 1710. It gives a good picture of Seki’s skill at reformulating problems, as well as Takebe Katahiro’s ability to correct, perfect, and extend his master’s intuitions.

Takemitsu \ta-ke-'mit-su\, Toru (b. Oct. 8, 1930, Tokyo, Japan—d. Feb. 20, 1996, Tokyo) Japanese composer. In 1951 he founded Tokyo’s Experimental Laboratory to promote an integration of Japanese music with contemporary European developments. Soon acknowledged as Japan’s leading composer, he explored avant-garde techniques such as serialism, aleatory music, graphic notation, and electronic music, combin¬ ing them with traditional Japanese motives and instruments (e.g., Novem¬ ber Steps , 1967, for biwa, shakuhachi , and orchestra). He created an individual sound world in which silence itself is an important element.

Takfir wa al-Hijrah Uak-'fer-wal-'hij-r S\ Arabic "Excommunica¬ tion and [Holy] Flight" Name given by Egyptian authorities to a radical Islamic group calling itself the Society of Muslims. It was founded in 1971 by a young agronomist, ShukrI Mustafa, who had been arrested in 1965 for distributing Muslim Brotherhood leaflets and was released from prison in 1971. Appealing to those who saw mainstream society—from which the group sought to flee (see Hijrah) —as weak, corrupt, and un-Islamic, it engaged in acts of terrorism and was initially thought to be behind the assassination of Anwar el-Sadat. The group soon dissolved, partly because of the extreme rigour of its doctrine, and is noteworthy because its actions initiated the repression of fundamentalist groups by security services in Egypt in the late 1970s.

Takla Makan \,ta-klo-m3-'kan\ Desert Chinese Taklimakan Shamo or T'a-k'o-la-ma-kan Sha-mo Desert, forming the greater part of the Tarim Basin, west-central China. One of the world’s largest sandy wastes, it is about 600 mi (965 km) across, with an area of 105,000 sq mi (272,000 sq km). It is flanked by high mountain ranges, including the Kunlun Mountains, whose rivers penetrate the desert 60-120 mi (100-200 km) before drying up in its sands. Its wind-blown sand cover is as much as 1,000 ft (300 m) thick and has formed such features as pyramidal dunes that can reach heights of 1,000 ft (300 m).

Taksin Ytak-sin\ or Phraya Taksin (b. April 17, 1734, Ayutthaya—d. April 6, 1782, Thon Buri) Thai general and later king (1767-82) who reunited Siam (Thailand) after its defeat by Myanmar (Burma). While Taksin was a provincial governor, his troops were among those besieged by the forces of Myanmar in 1766-67, but he escaped and raised new troops. He drove out the invaders and defeated other contenders for the throne, then extended his power into neighbouring states. A better con¬ queror than ruler, he was deposed and probably executed in 1782.

Talbot, William Henry Fox (b. Feb. 11, 1800, Melbury Abbas, Dor¬ set, Eng.—d. Sept. 17, 1877, Lacock Abbey, near Chippenham, Wiltshire) English chemist and pioneer photographer. In 1840 he developed the cal- otype, an early photographic process that improved on the daguerreotype; it involved the use of a photographic negative from which multiple prints could be made. In 1835 he published his first article documenting a pho¬

tographic discovery, that of the paper negative. His The Pencil of Nature (1844-46) was the first book with photographic illustrations. Talbot also published many articles on mathematics, astronomy, and physics.

talc Common silicate mineral that is distinguished from almost all other minerals by its extreme softness. Its soapy or greasy feel accounts for the name soapstone, given to compact aggregates of talc with other rock¬ forming minerals. Soapstones have been used since ancient times for carvings, ornaments, and utensils. Resistant to most reagents and to mod¬ erate heat, they are especially suitable for sinks and countertops. Talc is also used in lubricants, leather dressings, toilet and dusting powders, and certain marking pencils; as a filler in ceramics, paint, paper, roofing mate¬ rials, plastic, and rubber; as a carrier in insecticides; and as a mild abra¬ sive in the polishing of cereal grains.

Talcahuano \,tal-ka-'wa-no\ City (pop., 2002 est.: 245,000), south- central Chile. Lying on a small peninsula that forms the southwestern shore of Concepcion Bay, it is a major port and the site of Chile’s main naval station. It is also an important commercial, fishing, and manufac¬ turing centre. The Peruvian ironclad Hudscar , captured by Chile during the War of the Pacific (1879), is moored in the harbour.

Taliban \,ta-le-'ban\ Political and religious faction and militia that came to power in Afghanistan in the mid-1990s. Following the Soviet Union’s 1989 withdrawal from Afghanistan (see Afghan Wars), the Taliban (Per¬ sian: “Students”)—whose name refers to the Islamic religious students who formed the group’s main recruits—arose as a popular reaction to the chaos that gripped the country. In 1994-95, under the leadership of Mul¬ lah Mohammad Omar, the Taliban extended its control in Afghanistan from a single city to more than half the country, and in 1996 it captured Kabul and instituted a strict Islamic regime. By 1999, the Taliban con¬ trolled most of Afghanistan but failed to win international recognition of its regime because of its harsh social policies—which included the almost complete removal of women from public life—and its role as a haven for Islamic extremists. Among these extremists was Osama bin Laden, the expatriate Saudi Arabian leader of Al-Qaeda, a network of Islamic mili¬ tants that had engaged in numerous acts of terrorism. The Taliban’s refusal to extradite bin Laden to the U.S. following the September 1 1 attacks in 2001 prompted the U.S. to attack Taliban and Al-Qaeda forces in Afghani¬ stan, driving the former from power and sending the leaders of both groups into hiding. See also Islamic fundamentalism.

Taliesin \,ta-le-'e-sin\ Home, as well as architectural school, of Frank Lloyd Wright. Located near Spring Green, Wis., it was begun in 1911 and was rebuilt after fires in 1914 and 1925. Taliesin West, near Scottsdale, Ariz., was begun in 1938 as a winter home for Wright and his students. Both structures were continually renovated and added to until Wright’s death in 1959, after which they continued to be occupied by members of the Wright Foundation. Wright, of Welsh descent, named them after the renowned Welsh poet (fl. 6th century ad).

talk show Radio or television program in which a well-known person¬ ality interviews celebrities and other guests. The late-night programs hosted by Johnny Carson, Jay Leno, David Letterman, and Conan O’Brien have emphasized entertainment, incorporating interludes of music or com¬ edy. Other talk shows have focused on politics (see David Susskind), con¬ troversial social issues or sensationalistic topics (Phil Donahue), and emotional therapy (Oprah Winfrey). See also Merv Griffin; Larry King; Jack Paar.

Tallahassee City (pop., 2000 est.: 150,624), capital of Florida, U.S. Originally an Appalachee Indian village, the area attracted Spanish set¬ tlers after the visit of Hernando de Soto in 1539. Tallahassee became the capital of the Florida Territory in 1824 and of the state in 1845. During the American Civil War it was the only capital of a Confederate state east of the Mississippi not captured by Union forces. Today it is a wholesal¬ ing and distribution point for the surrounding lumber, cotton, and cattle¬ raising industries. Educational institutions include Florida State University (founded 1851).

Tallahatchie River River, northern Mississippi, U.S. It rises in Tip¬ pah county and flows southwest 230 mi (370 km) to join the Yalobusha River and form the Yazoo River. The Tallahatchie is navigable for about 100 mi (160 km). Its upper section is sometimes called the Little Talla¬ hatchie River.

Tallapoosa River River, Georgia and Alabama, U.S. Rising in north¬ western Georgia, the Tallapoosa flows southwest for about 268 mi (431

Tallchief ► Tambo I 1867

km) before joining the larger Coosa River just north of Montgomery, Ala., to form the Alabama River. Three private power dams have created reser¬ voirs, including Lake Martin, for river control, power, and recreation.

Tallchief, Maria (b. Jan. 24, 1925, Fairfax, Okla., U.S.) U.S. ballet dancer of Native American descent.

Tallchief studied with Bronislava Nijinska before joining the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo (1942^-7). She joined the New York City Ballet in 1948 and became its prima ballerina, creating leading roles in many bal¬ lets choreographed for her by George Balanchine (her husband from 1946 to 1952), including Sym- phonie concertante (1947), Caracole (1952), and Pas de dix (1955). She left the company in 1965, became artistic director of the Lyric Opera Ballet in Chicago, and founded the Chicago City Ballet in 1980.

Talleyrand \ta-le-'ra n \ (-Peri- gord), Charles-Maurice de (b.

Feb. 2, 1754, Paris, France—d. May 17, 1838, Paris) French statesman.

Ordained a priest, he became bishop of Autun in 1788. Elected to repre¬ sent the clergy at the Estates-General (1789), he became the “bishop of the Revolution” by calling for confis¬ cation of church property to fund the new government and supporting the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Excommunicated by the pope in 1790, he was sent to England as an envoy in 1792. He was expelled from France during the Reign of Terror, lived in the U.S. (1794-96), then returned to serve in the Directory as foreign minister (1797-99). He was forced to resign briefly for involvement in bribery scandals, including the XYZ Affair. Adept at political survival, he supported Napoleon and again became foreign minister (1799-1807) and later grand chamberlain (1804- 07). He resigned in opposition to Napoleon’s policy toward Russia but continued to advise him, arranging his marriage with Marie-Louise of Aus¬ tria. As Napoleon faced defeat, Talleyrand secretly worked to restore the monarchy; in 1814 he was appointed foreign minister to Louis XVIII and represented France at the Congress of Vienna. Forced by ultraroyalists to resign (1815), he later became involved in the July Revolution of 1830 and served as ambassador to Britain (1830-34).

Tallinn Yta-lon \formerly (until 1918) Revel Vra-vol\ Seaport city (pop., 2001: 399,850), capital of Estonia. It is located on the Gulf of Finland. A fortified settlement existed there from the late 1st millennium bc and a town in the 12th century ad. In 1219 it was captured by the Danes, who built a new fortress. Trade flourished after it joined the Hanseatic League in 1285. In 1346 it was sold to the Teutonic Order, and in 1561 it passed to Sweden. Russia captured it in 1710, and it remained a Russian city until 1918, when it became the capital of independent Estonia. From 1940 to 1991 Estonia was a republic of the U.S.S.R. During World War II the city was occupied by German forces and was severely damaged. Rebuilt, it again became the capital of independent Estonia in 1991. It is a major commercial and fishing port, an industrial centre, and the cultural focus of Estonia, with numerous educational institutions. Historical structures include a medieval city wall and a 13th-century church.

Tallis Vta-bsV Thomas (b. c. 1505—d. Nov. 23,1585, Greenwich, Lon¬ don, Eng.) British composer. An organist at abbeys and churches from 1532, by 1543 he was a gentleman of the Chapel Royal, as both organist and composer. Though a Catholic, he was one of the first to write hymns in English for the Anglican church. During Mary I’s Catholic reign, he wrote Latin masses, but he remained in favour after Elizabeth I’s accession. His powerful Lamentations of Jeremiah are regarded as his greatest body of work; his 40-part motet Spem in alium is his most famous piece. He also wrote three masses and about 40 other motets. In 1575 Tallis and his pupil William Byrd were given the first exclusive license to print music in England.

Talma \tal-'ma\, Francois-Joseph (b. Jan. 16, 1763, Paris, France—d. Oct. 19, 1826, Paris) French actor and theatre manager. He made his debut at the Comedie-Francaise in 1787. Influenced by the painter

Jacques- Louis David, he became an early advocate of historical costuming, and he created a sensation by appearing onstage in a Roman toga. After political dissension split the company (1789), the pro-republican Talma established a rival troupe. He developed realism in his staging and insisted on a naturalistic rather than a declamatory acting style. In 1799 his troupe was reunited with the Comedie-Frangaise; as head of the company, he became recognized as the supreme tragedian of the era, winning the admi¬ ration of Napoleon.

Talmud Ual-'miid, 'tal-modX In Judaism, the systematic amplification and analysis of passages of the Mishna, the Gemara, and other oral law, includ¬ ing the Tosefta. Two Talmuds exist, produced by two different groups of Jewish scholars: the Babylonian Talmud (c. ad 600) and the Palestinian Talmud (c. ad 400). The Babylonian Talmud is more extensive and thus more highly esteemed. Both Talmuds formulate their own hermeneutics to convey their theological system by defining the Torah and by demonstrat¬ ing its perfection and comprehensive character. The Talmud remains a text of central importance, particularly in Orthodox Judaism. Intensive modern Talmudic scholarship is pursued in Israel and the U.S. See also Halakhah.

Talmud Torah Ual-'miid-to-'ra, 'tal-mod-'to-roV Religious study of the Torah in search of the God who makes himself known in that work. It focuses on learning God’s message for contemporary times through inquiry into the books of Hebrew scripture or those that record the origi¬ nal oral Torah of Sinai, the Mishna, Midrash, and Talmuds. Talmud Torah is also the name given to an elementary school under Jewish auspices that places special emphasis on religious education.

tamarin Any of about 25 species of long-tusked marmosets in the gen¬ era Leontopithecus (or Leontideus, according to some authorities) and Saguinus. Tamarins are 8-12 in. (20-30 cm) long, excluding the 12-16- in. (30-40-cm) tail. The emperor tamarin ( Saguinus imperator ) has long, grizzled, gray fur; a reddish tail, and a long white moustache. The three species of Leontopithecus are endangered. See also golden lion tamarin.

tamarind Vta-mo-rondX Evergreen tree ( Tamarindus indica ) of the pea family (see legume), native to tropi¬ cal Africa and cultivated elsewhere as an ornamental and for its edible fruit. The tree grows about 80 ft (24 m) tall and has featherlike leaves. It bears small clusters of yellow flow¬ ers and plump pods that do not split open. The soft, brownish edible pulp contains 1-12 large, flat seeds that are used in Oriental foods, bever¬ ages, and medicines.

Tamaulipas \,ta-mau-'le-pas\

State (pop., 2000: 2,753,222), north¬ eastern Mexico. Located on the Gulf of Mexico, it covers 30,650 sq mi (79,384 sq km). The capital is Ciudad Victoria. Though largely mountain¬ ous, it has extensive, fertile plains in the north and a sandy, lagoon-dotted coastal zone. Large areas are irrigated, and agriculture is the main eco¬ nomic activity; products include sorghum, soybeans, sugarcane, cotton, coffee, and fruit. Fisheries and copper mining also are important. It pro¬ duces one-third of Mexico’s natural gas and large quantities of crude oil.

Tamayo \t3-'mI-o\, Rufino (b. Aug. 26, 1899/1900, Oaxaca, Mex.—d. June 24, 1991, Mexico City) Mexican painter and graphic artist. He stud¬ ied at Mexico City’s School of Fine Arts and then taught at the National Museum of Archaeology (1921-26). He preferred easel painting to the monumental proportions and political rhetoric of Jose Clemente Orozco, Diego Rivera, and David Alfaro Siqueiros. His distinctive style blended Cubism and Surrealism with Mexican folk-art subjects involving semiab¬ stract figures, still lifes, and animals in vibrant colours. From 1936 he lived principally in New York City. In 1950 an exhibition at the Venice Biennale brought him international recognition. He designed murals for Mexico City’s Palace of Fine Arts (1952-53) and UNESCO’s Paris head¬ quarters (1958). In 1974 he donated his collection of pre-Hispanic art to his native Oaxaca.

Tambo, Oliver (b. Oct. 27, 1917, Bizana, near Johannesburg, S.Af.) President (1969-91) of South Africa’s African National Congress (ANC). In 1944, with Nelson Mandela and others, he cofounded the Youth League

Tamarind (Tamarindus indica)

WALTER DAWN

1868 I tambourine ► Tan Cheng Lock

of the ANC. He became the ANC’s deputy president in 1958 and was forced into exile in Zambia when it was banned in 1960. He was elected ANC president in 1969 after the death of Albert Lutuli. He returned to South Africa in ill health in 1990 and yielded the party presidency to Mandela.

tambourine Small frame drum with one skin nailed or glued to a shal¬ low circular frame, into which jingles or pellet bells are set. It is held with one hand and struck with the other, or simply shaken. Tambourines were played in ancient Mesopotamia, Greece, and Rome, especially in religious contexts, and they have long been prominent in Middle Eastern folk and religious use. Crusaders took them to Europe in the 13th century.

Tamburlaine See Timur Tamerlane See Timur

Tamil Vta-mol, 'ta-mslN Any member of a people originally of southern India who speak the Tamil language. The Tamil have a long history of achievement; sea travel, city life, and commerce seem to have developed early among them. They traded with the ancient Greeks and Romans. They have the oldest cultivated Dravidian language and a rich literary tra¬ dition. They are mostly Hindus (the Tamil area in India is a centre of tra¬ ditional Hinduism). Sri Lanka has two distinct Tamil populations, the so-called Ceylon Tamil and the Indian Tamil. Tensions between the Cey¬ lon Tamil and the Sinhalese Buddhist majority prompted a Tamil guerrilla insurgency in the 1980s that continued into the 21st century. The Tamil number about 57 million, with 3.2 million living in Sri Lanka.

Tamil language Dravidian language spoken by more than 63 million people. It is an official language of Tamil Nadu state in India and one of the official languages of Sri Lanka. Large Tamil-speaking communities also reside in Malaysia and Singapore, South Africa, and the Indian Ocean islands of Reunion and Mauritius. The earliest Tamil inscriptions date from c. 200 bc; literature in the language has a 2,000-year history. Tamil script is descended from the southern Indian Pallava script (see Indic writ¬ ing systems). Tamil has several regional dialects. Brahman and non- Brahman caste dialects, and a marked division between literary and colloquial forms (see diglossia).

Tamil Nadu Vta-msl-'na-dii \ formerly Madras \m9-'dras\ State (pop., 2001 prelim.: 62,110,839), southeastern India. Lying on the Bay of Bengal, its coastline includes the enclaves of Pondicherry and Karaikal (both parts of Pondicherry union territory); it is also bordered by Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh states. Tamil Nadu covers an area of 50,216 sq mi (130,058 sq km), and its capital is Chennai (Madras). Its interior includes the fertile Kaveri River delta. By the 2nd century ad the region was occupied by Tamil kingdoms. The Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar ruled the southern regions from 1336 to 1565. The Portuguese entered the area in 1498, only to be displaced by the Dutch in the 16th— 17th centuries. The British estab¬ lished a settlement in 1611, which expanded to become the separate presi¬ dency of Madras, which lasted from 1653 to 1946. The state of Tamil Nadu was formed in 1956. It is one of India’s most industrialized states, manu¬ facturing vehicles, electrical equipment, and chemicals.

Tamiris Uo-'mir-osV, Helen orig. Helen Becker (b. April 24, 1905, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Aug. 4,

1966, New York City) U.S. choreog¬ rapher, modem dancer, and teacher.

In 1930 she founded her own com¬ pany and school, which she directed until 1945. Many of her own works, such as Walt Whitman Suite (1934), drew on American themes. From 1945 to 1957 she choreographed Broadway musicals, including Annie Get Your Gun (1946), Touch and Go (1949; Tony Award for choreogra¬ phy), and Fanny (1954). In 1960 she and her dancer-husband, Daniel Nagrin, founded the Tamiris-Nagrin Dance Company.

Tammany Yta-ma-neV Hall Executive committee of the Demo¬ cratic Party in New York City. The group was organized in 1789 in opposition to the Federalist Party’s ruling “aristocrats.” The Society of

Tammany was incorporated in 1805 as a benevolent body; its name derived from a pre-Revolutionary association named after the benevolent Indian chief Tammanend. The group became identified with the city’s Democratic Party. The makeup of the society was substantially altered in 1817 when Irish immigrants, protesting Tammany bigotry, forced their right to membership and benefits. Tammany later championed the exten¬ sion of the franchise to white propertyless males. Nevertheless, the soci¬ ety’s appeal to particular ethnic and religious minorities, the doling out of gifts to the poor, and the bribing of leaders of rival political factions, among them the notorious boss William Marcy Tweed, made the name Tammany Hall synonymous with political corruption. Its power was great¬ est in the late 19th and early 20th century; it declined in the 1930s under the reforms of Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt and Mayor Fiorello La Guardia.

Tam muz \'ta- l muz\ Mesopotamian god of fertility. He was the son of Enki, god of water, and Duttur, a per¬ sonification of the ewe. Worship of Tammuz was centered around two yearly festivals, one in the early spring in which his marriage to the goddess Inanna symbolized the fer¬ tilization of nature for the coming year, and one in summer when his death at the hands of demons was lamented. He is thought to be the precursor of several later deities associated with agriculture and fer¬ tility, including Ninsun, Damu, and Dumuzi-Abzu.

tamoxifen \ta-'mak-si-,fen\ Syn¬ thetic hormone, marketed as Nolva¬ dex, that prevents the binding of estrogen to estrogen-sensitive breast cancer cells. Initially used to prevent recurrences of breast cancer after successful treatment, it was later found to prevent first occurrences in women at high risk. The most seri¬ ous side effect is an increased risk of thrombosis, which may require patients to take an anticoagulant as well. Studies on its effectiveness against breast and other cancers continue.

Tampa City (pop., 2000: 303,447), west-central Florida, U.S. Located on the northeastern end of Tampa Bay, the U.S. Army established Fort Brooke on the site in 1824 to oversee the removal of the Seminole Indi¬ ans. The town was incorporated in 1855. Tampa developed as a cigar¬ making centre after the town’s first cigar factory was established (1886). It now has a wide range of industries and is a major distribution centre. It is a winter and fishing resort and major tourist destination; attractions include Busch Gardens.

Tampa Bay Inlet, Gulf of Mexico, western Florida, U.S. The bay is 25 mi (40 km) long and 7-12 mi (11-19 km) wide, and it serves the recre¬ ational and commercial activities of Saint Petersburg on the western shore and Tampa on the northeast. Hernando de Soto began his travels through the southeastern U.S. region when he reached Tampa Bay in 1539. Tampa Bay is spanned by the 15-mi (24-km) Sunshine Skyway Bridge.

Tampico \tam-'pe-ko\ Port and city (pop., 2000: 295,442), southeastern Tamaulipas state, northeastern Mexico. It lies on the Panuco River and is almost surrounded by swampland and lagoons. It grew around a Fran¬ ciscan monastery founded c. 1532. Destroyed by pirates in 1683, it was not resettled until 1823. It was occupied briefly by U.S. troops (1846) during the Mexican War and by the French in 1862. Until 1901 it was a second-rate port with a reputation for unsanitary conditions. It grew with the rapid exploitation of surrounding petroleum resources to become the most modem port in Mexico and one of the country’s leading seaports. It is also a seaside resort.

Tan Cheng Lock \'tan-'cheq-T6k\ (b. April 5, 1883, Malacca, Straits Settlements—d. Dec. 8, 1960, Malacca) Malaysian Chinese community leader and politician. Born to a wealthy Chinese family, he campaigned against “pro-Malay” policies and in favour of equal rights for all ethnic groups, whether immigrant or indigenous. After World War II, he sup¬ ported the British proposal for a unitary state with common citizenship, which the Malays rejected. During the Malayan Emergency, he cooperated

Helen Tamiris.

COURTESY OF THE DANCE COLLECTION, NEW YORK PUBUC LIBRARY, ASTOR, LENOX AND TILDEN FOUNDATIONS

Tammuz, alabaster relief from Ashur, c. 1500 bc; in the Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Germany

FOTO MARBURG-ART RESOURCE/EB INC.

Tan Malaka ► Tang dynasty I 1869

with the British to promote national unity. In 1949 he was chosen to head the Malayan Chinese Association, the first full-fledged centrist Malayan Chinese political party, and he continued as its head after Malayan inde¬ pendence in 1957.

Tan Malaka Vtan-ma-'la-kaV Ibrahim Datuk (b. 1894—d. April 16, 1949, Blitar, Java, Indon.) Indonesian communist leader. A schoolteacher, he became a communist after returning from Europe in 1919. He was exiled by the Dutch for trying to incite a general strike in 1922 but returned to Java in 1944 and, competing with Sukarno for control of the Indonesian nation¬ alist movement, created a coalition that briefly came to power in 1946. He was imprisoned later that year on charges of attempting a coup. In 1948, while the Dutch and Indonesians were at war, he proclaimed himself head of Indonesia. Forced to flee the invading Dutch, within a few months he was captured and executed by Sukarno’s supporters.

Tana, Lake Lake, Ethiopia. The country’s largest lake, its surface area covers more than 1,400 sq mi (3,620 sq km). It forms the main reservoir for the Blue Nile (see Nile River), which pours from it over a lava barrier, dropping 138 ft (42 m) to form Tisisat Falls. Coptic monasteries were built on two of its islands during the Middle Ages.

Tana River \'ta-na\ River, Kenya. The country’s longest river, it rises in the Aberdare Range and flows in a curve northeast, east, and south 440 mi (708 km) to the Indian Ocean. It is navigable by small craft for about 150 mi (240 km) upstream.

Tana River Vta-ns\ River, northeastern Norway. It flows 224 mi (360 km) north and northeast to empty into Tana Fjord, an inlet of the Arctic Ocean on the northeastern coast of Norway. The river forms a section of the boundary between Norway and Finland.

tanager \ta-na-jar\ Any of 200-220 species (family Emberizidae) of New World songbirds inhabiting forests and gardens. Most species are 4-8 in. (10-20 cm) long and have a short neck. Bills vary in shape, but all are slightly toothed and hooked. Tanagers have brilliant plumage in reds, yellows, greens, blues, and black, sometimes strikingly patterned. Most species are arboreal; most eat fruit, and some eat insects. The scar¬ let, summer, and western tanagers breed in temperate North America. The hepatic tanager breeds from Arizona to central Argentina. Most other spe¬ cies are chiefly tropical.

Tanagra Vta-no-gro, to-'na-groN Ancient town, Boeotia, eastern central Greece. First occupied by an Athenian clan, it became the chief town of the eastern Boeotians, with lands extending to the Gulf of Euboea. It was the scene of the Athenian defeat by the Spartans in 457 bc during the first Peloponnesian War. Finely modeled terra-cotta statuettes, known as Tana¬ gra figures, were made there c. 340-150 bc and exported to Mediterra¬ nean countries.

Tanagra figure Any of the small terra-cotta figures dating primarily from the 3rd century bc and named after the site in Boeotia, Greece, where they were found. The statuettes, mostly of well-dressed young women standing or sitting, were all formed from molds and originally were cov¬ ered with a white coating and then painted. On their discovery in the 19th century, they became enormously popular and were extensively and expertly forged.

Tanaka \'ta-na-ka\, Kakuei (b. May 4, 1918, Kariwa, Niigata prefec¬ ture, Japan—d. Dec. 16, 1993, Tokyo) Prime minister of Japan (1972- 74). As prime minister, Tanaka pushed through many government construction projects and was responsible for the economic revitalization of much of western Japan and for establishing diplomatic relations with the People’s Republic of China. In 1976 he was charged with accepting, while prime minister, $2 million from Lockheed Aircraft Corp. to influ¬ ence All Nippon Airways to buy Lockheed jets; he was convicted in 1983. However, he remained powerful in the Liberal-Democratic Party until he retired from politics in 1990.

Tanaka Tomoyuki (b. April 16,1910, Osaka, Japan—d. April 2,1997, Tokyo) Japanese film producer. Tanaka was associated for nearly 60 years with Japan’s Toho Studios, for which he produced more than 200 films. Of these, his best known are the 22 films in the Godzilla series, begin¬ ning with Godzilla, King of the Monsters in 1954 and ending with Godz¬ illa vs. Destroyer in 1995. He also produced films for renowned director Kurosawa Akira.

Tanana Yta-no-.noV River River, east-central Alaska, U.S. Rising from two headstreams fed by glaciers high in the Wrangell Mountains, the

Tanana flows northwest 550 mi (885 km) to join the Yukon River; it is the Yukon’s chief southern tributary. The Tanana was first explored by Rus¬ sian traders in the mid-19th century. Its valley was an important gold- producing area in the 1904 gold rush; it is also a lumbering district and one of Alaska’s major farming regions. The Alaska Highway follows it for nearly its entire course.

Tananarive See Antananarivo

Tancred \'taq-krad\ (d. Feb. 20, 1194, Palermo) King of Sicily (1190— 94), the last of the Norman rulers. He rebelled twice (1155, 1161) against his uncle William I of Sicily, and he gained the Sicilian throne after the death of William II. He gave in to the demand of Richard I (the Lionheart) in 1191 for the legacy left him by William II and the return of the dowry of his sister Joan, William’s widow, after Richard occupied Messina. Emperor Henry VI sought to wrest the Sicilian throne from Tancred, unsuc¬ cessfully besieging Naples in 1191 and marching on Sicily again in 1194. Tancred died before his arrival, and Henry was crowned king.

Tandy, Jessica See Hume Cronyn and Jessica Tandy

Taney, Roger B(rooke) (b. March 17, 1777, Calvert county, Md., U.S.—d. Oct. 12, 1864, Washington,

D.C.) U.S. jurist. A lawyer from 1801, he served in Maryland’s leg¬ islature before being named state attorney general (1827-31). He was appointed U.S. attorney general in 1831 by Pres. Andrew Jackson and achieved national prominence by opposing the Bank of the United States. In 1833 Jackson nominated him to serve as secretary of the trea¬ sury, but his appointment was rejected by the Senate. In 1835 Jack- son selected him to serve as associ¬ ate justice on the Supreme Court of the United States, and after the death of Chief Justice John Marshall, Jack- son sought to have him confirmed as chief justice. Despite powerful resis¬ tance led by Henry Clay, John C. Cal¬ houn, and Daniel Webster, Taney was sworn in as chief justice in March 1836. His tenure (1836-64) remains the second longest in the Supreme Court’s history. He is remembered principally for the Dred Scott decision (1857), in which he argued that a slave was not a citizen and could not sue in a federal court, that Congress had no power to exclude slavery from the territories, and that blacks could not become citizens. He is also noted for his opinion in Abelman v. Booth (1858), which denied state power to obstruct the processes of the federal courts, and in Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge (1837), which declared that rights not specifically conferred by a charter could not be inferred from the language of the document. Though he considered sla¬ very an evil, he believed its elimination should be brought about gradu¬ ally and chiefly by the states in which it existed.

tang See surgeonfish

Tang dynasty or T'ang \'taq\ dynasty (618-907) Chinese dynasty that succeeded the short-lived Sui and became a golden age for poetry, sculpture, and Buddhism. The Tang capital of Chang'an became a great international metropolis, with traders and embassies from Central Asia, Arabia, Persia, Korea, and Japan passing through. A Nestorian Christian community also existed there, while mosques were established in Guang¬ zhou (Canton). The economy flourished in the 8th-9th centuries, with a network of rural market towns growing up to join the metropolitan mar¬ kets of Chang’an and Luoyang. Buddhism enjoyed great favour, and there were new translations of the Buddhist scriptures and growth of indigenous sects, including Chan (see Zen). Poetry was the greatest glory of the period; nearly 50,000 works by 2,000 poets survive. Foreign music and dance became popular, and ancient orchestras were revived. The Tang government never completely controlled the northern Chinese border, where nomad tribes made constant incursions; periodic rebellions from the mid-8th century onward also weakened its power (see An Lushan Rebellion). In its later years, the government’s focus was on eastern and southeastern China rather than Central Asia. See also Taizong; Wu Hou.

Roger B. Taney, photograph by Mathew Brady.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

1870 I Tanganyika ► Tanizaki Jun'ichiro

Tanganyika V.tan-gsn-'ye-ksV, Lake Lake, central Africa. Located on the boundary between Tanzania and Congo (Kinshasa), it is the longest freshwater lake in the world, 410 mi (660 km) long, and the second deep¬ est, 4,710 ft (1,436 m) deep. Fed by several rivers, it tends to be brack¬ ish. Oil palms and rice grow along its steep shores; hippopotamuses and crocodiles abound. It was first visited by Europeans, searching for the source of the Nile, in 1858.

Tange \'tan-ga\ Kenzo (b. Sept. 4, 1913, Osaka, Japan—d. March 22, 2005, Tokyo) Japanese architect. Tange worked in the office of Maekawa Kunio before setting out on his own. His first major commission involved the reconstruction of Hiroshima. In addition to planning the city, he helped design Hiroshima’s Peace Memorial Park, and its peace centre (1950) and museum (1952) are among his best-known early works. His Kagawa pre- fectural offices in Takamatsu (1958) were a particularly fine blend of the modern and traditional. In 1959 Tange and his students published the Bos¬ ton Harbor project, launching the Metabolist school. His work in the 1960s took on more boldly dramatic forms, and he became a master at manipu¬ lating complex geometries; his National Gymnasiums for Tokyo’s 1964 Olympic Games are exemplary. During 1966-70 he designed the master plan for the Japan World Exposition (Expo 70), which was held in Osaka. More-recent works include the New Tokyo City Hall Complex (1991) and the Tokyo Dome Hotel (2000). Also influential as a writer, teacher, and town planner, Tange was awarded the Pritzker Architecture Prize in 1987.

tangent See trigonometric function

tangent line Vtan-jont\ In geometry, a line that intersects a circle exactly once; in calculus, a line that touches a curve at one point and whose slope is equal to that of the curve at that point. Particularly useful as approximations of curves in the immediate vicinity of the point of tan- gency, tangent lines are the basis of many estimation techniques, includ¬ ing linear approximation. The numerical value of the slope of the tangent line to the graph of a function at any point equals that of the function’s derivative at that point. This is one of the keystones of differential calculus. See also differential geometry.

tangerine Small, thin-skinned variety of the mandarin orange species {Citrus reticulata deliciosa ) of the rue family (citrus family). Probably native to Southeast Asia, today it is cultivated in subtropical regions worldwide, especially southern Europe and the southern U.S. The tree is smaller than other orange trees, with slender twigs and lance¬ shaped leaves. The fruit is slightly flattened at each end and has a loose, reddish orange peel. Easily separated segments of tender, juicy, richly fla¬ voured pulp are abundant in vitamin C. Oil from the fragrant skin is a characteristic ingredient in several flavourings and liqueurs. The tanger¬ ine crossed with the grapefruit produced the hybrid known as the tangelo.

Tangier \tan-'jir\ French Tanger \ta n -'zha\ Arabic Tanjah \'tan-jo\ ancient Tingis Seaport city (pop., 1994: 521,735), northern Morocco. Located at the western end of the Strait of Gibraltar, it was first known as an ancient Phoenician trading post and later became a Carthaginian and then a Roman settlement. After five centuries of Roman rule, it was captured successively by the Vandals, Byzantines, and Arabs. It fell to the Portuguese in 1471; it later passed to the British, who gave it up to Morocco in 1684. When the rest of Morocco became a French protector¬ ate in 1912, Tangier was granted special status; in 1923 it officially became an international city, governed by an international commission. It remained an international zone until it was integrated in 1956 with the independent kingdom of Morocco. It became a free port and royal sum¬ mer residence in the 1960s. The old town is dominated by a Casbah (cita¬ del) and the Great Mosque. It is a busy port and trade centre; industries include tourism, fishing, and textiles, especially carpets.

tango Spirited Spanish flamenco dance; also a South American ballroom dance. It evolved into a ballroom dance in Buenos Aires, Arg., possibly influenced by the Cuban habanera. It was made popular in the U.S. by Vernon and Irene Castle, and by 1915 it was being danced throughout Europe. Early versions were fast and exuberant; these were later modi¬

fied to the smoother ballroom step, characterized by long pauses and stylized body positions and danced to music in 4 A time.

Tangun \'tan-'gun\ Mythological first king of the Koreans, whose reign began in 2333 bc. According to one legend, Tangun’s father descended from heaven to rule earth from a mountaintop. When a bear and a tiger expressed the wish to become human, he ordered them into a cave for 100 days; after the tiger grew impatient and left, the bear was trans¬ formed into the beautiful woman who became Tangun’s mother. Bud¬ dhism and Daoism credited Tangun with establishing a national religion and originating the Korean maxim “Hongik-ingan” (“Love humanity”).

His birthday is a school holiday.

Tangut \'tan-'gut\ People histori¬ cally living in southern Inner Mon¬ golia at the terminus of the Silk Road.

They engaged in irrigated agriculture and pastoralism and acted as middlemen in trade between Central Asia and China. They adopted Bud¬ dhism as their state religion, created their own writing system, and in 1038 proclaimed their kingdom of Xi Xia, which survived nearly 200 years.

Tanguy \ta n -'ge\, Yves (b. Jan. 5, 1900, Paris, France—d. Jan. 15, 1955 Waterbury, Conn., U.S.) French painter. In 1923, after serving in the mer¬ chant marine, he was inspired to start painting when he saw the works of Giorgio de Chirico, though he had no formal art training. He joined the Surrealist group in 1925 and participated in all their major exhibitions. He developed a unique style, reminiscent of Salvador Dali’s, depicting strange, amorphous creatures and unidentifiable objects set in barren, brightly lit landscapes with infinite horizons. Despite their smooth, pains¬ taking detail, his pictures have a timeless, dreamlike quality (e.g.. The Invisibles, 1951). He emigrated to the U.S. in 1939.

Tanimbar Islands Uo-'nim-.bar, 'ta-nom-.barN Group of about 30 islands, southeastern Moluccas, Indonesia. It includes the large island of Jamdena, 70 mi (113 km) long by 28 mi (45 km) wide, and the nearby islands of Larat and Selaru. Though there is a lack of fresh water, the soil supports com, rice, coconut palms, and fruits. The Dutch claimed the group in 1639 but did not establish rule until 1900. After World War II, the islands became part of Indonesia.

Tanis Vta-n9s\ biblical Zoan Ancient city, Egypt. Its remains are located in the Nile River delta. Capital of a province of Lower Egypt and, under the 21st and 22nd dynasties (c. 1075-c. 700 bc), of the whole country, it was important as one of the ports nearest to the Asian seaboard. In 1939 several intact royal tombs containing silver coffins, gold masks, and gold and silver jewelry were excavated within the ancient main temple enclosure.

Tan it \'ta-nit\ Chief goddess of Carthage, the equivalent of Astarte. She first appeared around the 5th century bc. Though she seems to have had some connection with the heavens, she was also a mother goddess and symbol of fertility. She was the consort of Baal Hammon, chief god of Carthage, whose cult she eventually eclipsed. Archaeological evidence suggests that children, probably firstborn, were sacrificed both to her and to Baal Hammon. Outside Carthage, Tanit also enjoyed a following on Malta, on Sardinia, and in Spain.

Tanizaki Jun'ichiro X.ta-ne-'za-ke-'jim-e-.che-roV (b. July 24, 1886, Tokyo, Japan—d. July 30, 1965, Yugawara) Japanese novelist. Though his earliest short stories have affinities with those of Edgar Allan Poe and the French Decadents, Tanizaki later turned to exploring more traditional Japanese ideals of beauty. His novels include Some Prefer Nettles (1928— 29), which tells of marital unhappiness that is in fact a conflict between the new and the old, with the implication that the old will win; and his masterpiece, The Makioka Sisters (1943-48; film, 1983), which describes, in the leisurely style of classical Japanese literature, the inroads of the harsh modern world on traditional society. His writings are characterized by eroticism and ironic wit.

Tangerine (Citrus reticulata deliciosa)

GRANT HEILMAN—EB INC.