Britannica Concise 2005

legislative apportionment or legislative delimitation Pro¬ cess by which representation is distributed among the constituencies of a representative assembly. In ancient Athens, every citizen represented him¬ self, but throughout most of history representation has been restricted to certain social classes. With the growth of democracy, the extension of suffrage, and the rise of political parties, apportionment had to be methodi¬ cally and mathematically arranged to ensure that the distribution of leg¬ islative seats would most accurately reflect the electorate’s will. Territorial apportionment is currently the most common form. See also gerryman¬ dering, PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION.

legislature Lawmaking branch of a government. Before the advent of legislatures, the law was dictated by monarchs. Early European legisla¬ tures include the English Parliament and the Icelandic Althing (founded c. 930). Legislatures may be unicameral or bicameral (see bicameral system). Their powers may include passing laws, establishing the government’s budget, confirming executive appointments, ratifying treaties, investigat¬ ing the executive branch, impeaching and removing from office members of the executive and judiciary, and redressing constituents’ grievances. Members may be appointed or directly or indirectly elected; they may represent an entire population, particular groups, or territorial subdistricts. In presidential systems, the executive and legislative branches are clearly separated; in parliamentary systems, members of the executive branch are chosen from the legislative membership. See also Bundestag; Congress of the United States; Diet; Duma; European Parliament; Knesset; Canadian Par¬ liament.

legume Vle-.gyumX Any of about 18,000 species in about 650 genera of flowering plants that make up the order Fabales, consisting of the single family Leguminosae, or Fabaceae (the pea family). The term also refers to their characteristic fruit, also called a pod. Legumes are widespread on all habitable continents. Leaves of many members appear feathery, and flowers are almost universally showy. In economic importance, this order is surpassed only by the grass and sedge order (Cyperales). In the pro¬ duction of food, the legume family is the most important of any family. The pods are part of the diet of nearly all humans and supply most dietary protein in regions of high population density. In addition, legumes per¬ form the invaluable act of nitrogen fixation. Because they contain many of the essential amino acids, legume seeds can balance the deficiencies of cereal protein. Legumes also provide edible oils, gums, fibers, and raw material for plastics, and some are ornamentals. Included in this family are acacia, alfalfa, beans, broom, carob, clover, cowpea, lupine, mimosa, peas,

PEANUTS, SOYBEANS, TAMARIND, and VETCH.

Lehar \'la-,har\, Franz (Christian) orig. Ferencz Christian Lehar (b. April 30, 1870, Komarom, Hung., Austria-Hungary—d. Oct. 24, 1948, Bad Ischl, Austria) Hungarian composer. He began studying the violin at age 12 in Prague. In the 1890s he was a military bandmaster like his father; by the end of the decade he had moved to Vienna, where he

became a popular composer of marches and waltzes. After 1901 he con¬ centrated on orchestra conducting and on composing, notably his 40 witty and melodic operettas that embody the prewar Viennese spirit, including the popular The Merry Widow (1905), The Countess of Luxembourg (1909), and The Land of Smiles (1929).

Lehmbruck Vlam-briik\, Wilhelm (b. Jan. 4, 1881, Meiderich, Ger.—d. March 25, 1919, Berlin) German sculptor, painter, and print- maker. His youthful work was academically realistic, but he grew to admire the works of Auguste Rodin, and in 1910 he moved to Paris, where he produced paintings and lithographs as well as sculptures. He became one of the most important German Expressionist sculptors, best known for his elongated nudes, such as Kneeling Woman (1911), which suggests a resigned pessimism. He returned to Germany at the outbreak of World War I and tended wounded soldiers in a hospital. Seated Youth (1917) reveals his profound depression; he committed suicide two years later.

Leiber Vle-borN, Jerry (b. April 25, 1933, Baltimore, Md., U.S.) U.S. songwriter and producer. His family settled in Los Angeles, where he met Mike Stoller (b. 1933), who had moved there from New York. In 1950, while still in their teens, Leiber and Stoller became a songwriting and production team, among the first to produce recordings that combined pop music with rhythm and blues. Their first successful collaboration came with “Hound Dog,” recorded by Big Mama Thornton (1952) and later by Elvis Presley, who would record more than 20 of their songs. They wrote numer¬ ous songs for the Coasters, including “Yakety Yak.” Other hits include “There Goes My Baby,” “Stand by Me,” and “Love Potion Number Nine.” Their songs were recorded by the Beatles, Aretha Franklin, James Brown, and Ben E. King, among many others.

Leibniz Vllb-n3ts,\ German Vllp-nitsV Gottfried Wilhelm, Freiherr (baron) von Leibniz (b. July 1, 1646, Leipzig, Saxony—d. Nov. 14, 1716, Hannover, Hanover) German philosopher, mathematician, inventor, jurist, historian, diplomat, and political adviser. He obtained a doctorate in law at age 20. In 1667 he began working for the elector of Mainz, in which position he codified the laws of the city, among other important tasks. He served the dukes of Braunschweig-Luneburg as librar¬ ian and councillor (1676-1716). In 1700 he helped found the German Academy of Sciences in Berlin and became its first president. Though he wrote voluminously, he published little during his lifetime. In metaphys¬ ics he is known for his doctrine of the monad, according to which reality is ultimately constituted of simple substances (monads), each consisting of nothing but perception and appetite. Though each state of a monad is the cause of its succeeding state and the effect of its preceding one, there are no causal relations between monads; the appearance of causal rela¬ tions between substances is accounted for by the supposition of a “pre- established harmony” between the perceptual states of different monads. His principle of the identity of indiscemibles states that an individual x and an individual y are identical if and only if they share all the same intrinsic, non-relational properties. His Theodicy (1710) sought to recon¬ cile the goodness of God with the existence of evil in the world by assert¬ ing that only God is perfect and that the actual world is the “best of all possible worlds.” This view was famously mocked by Voltaire in his comic novel Candide. In mathematics, Leibniz explored the idea of a uni¬ versal mathematical-logical language based on the binary number system (De arte combinatoria [1666]), though all the calculating devices that he later built used the decimal system. He discovered the fundamental theo¬ rem of calculus independently of Isaac Newton; the acrimonious dispute over priority left England mathematically backward for more than a gen¬ eration before Leibniz’s superior notation and methods were adopted. He also made important contributions to optics and mechanics. He is con¬ sidered the last great polymath of Western civilization.

Leibovitz, Annie orig. Anna-Lou Leibovitz (b. Oct. 2,1949, West- bury. Conn., U.S.) U.S. photographer. She enrolled in the San Francisco Art Institute in 1967. In 1970, while still a student, she was given her first commercial assignment for Rolling Stone magazine. Leibovitz became the publication’s chief photographer in 1973, and over the subsequent decade she created images of the major personalities of contemporary rock music. In 1983 she moved to Vanity Fair magazine, which broadened her pool of subjects to include film stars, athletes, and political figures, and in 1986 she began to pursue advertising photography. Many successful mono¬ graphs of her photographs have been published.

Leicester \'les-tor\ City and unitary authority (pop., 2001: 279,921), geographic and historic county of Leicestershire, central England. Located

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1094 I Leicester ► leitmotiv

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on the River Soar, it was settled by Romans. A considerable community by Norman times, it was the site of a Norman castle and abbey built in 1143, the ruins of which still stand. King Richard III was killed near Leices¬ ter in the Battle of Bosworth Field (1485). It was incorporated in 1589 and became an industrial centre after the arrival of the railway in 1832. The University of Leicester (founded 1957) is nearby.

Leicester, Earl of See Simon de Montfort

Leicester Vles-torV Robert Dudley, earl of (b. June 24, 1532/ 33—d. Sept. 4, 1588, Cornbury, Oxfordshire, Eng.) English courtier and favourite of Elizabeth I. Imprisoned in 1553 for aiding the attempt by his father, the duke of Northumberland, to put Lady Jane Grey on the throne, he was released in 1554. Handsome and ambitious, he won Elizabeth’s affection upon her accession (1558) and was made a privy councillor in 1559. When his wife died in 1560, it was rumoured that he had murdered her in order to marry Elizabeth. He became an active suitor of Elizabeth; though he failed to win the queen’s hand, they remained close friends. In 1585 he was sent in command of an English force to assist the Nether¬ lands in its revolt against Spain; he proved incompetent and was recalled

(1587).

Leicestershire Vles-tsr-.shhA Administrative (pop., 2001: 609,579), historic, and geographic county, central England. It is located in the East Midlands region; the geographic county encompasses the entire admin¬ istrative county together with the unitary authority of Leicester. The Soar River crosses the county from south to north on its way to join the River Trent. East of the Soar valley lies a territory famous for its fox hunts. Leicestershire has a pastoral agricultural tradition and is noted for pro¬ duction of Stilton cheese. Manufacturing industries are also important, at Leicester, for example.

Leiden or Leyden \'lld- 3 n,\ Dutch \Ta-do\ Commune (pop., 1999: 117,389), western Netherlands. First mentioned in 922 as a possession of Utrecht diocese, it was governed by the court of Holland until 1420. It became a printing centre after the Elzevir family set up their press there c. 1581. The University of Leiden was founded in 1575, and the town became a centre of theology, science, and art. Leiden was the birthplace of painters Rembrandt van Rijn and Jan van Goyen, and the Pilgrims resided there for 11 years before they sailed to America in 1620.

Leif Eriksson or Leif Eriksson the Lucky Norwegian Leiv Eriks¬ son den Hepne (fl. 11th century) Icelandic explorer, possibly the first European to reach North America. The second son of Erik the Red, he was on his way back from Norway to Greenland, where he had been sent by Olaf I Tryggvason to Christianize the natives (c. 1000), when he sailed off course and landed probably at Nova Scotia, which he called Vinland. This standard account comes from the Icelandic Eiriks saga. Another account, the Groenlendinga saga, says he learned of Vinland from a man who had been there 14 years earlier and that Leif reached North America after

Leigh Vle\, Mike in full Michael Leigh (b. Feb. 20, 1943, Salford, Lancashire, Eng.) British film director and playwright. His first play. The Box Play (1965), began the process of improvisation and collaboration with his actors that became the basis of his works for stage, television, and film, which usually depict lower- and working-class life with sharp humour and pathos. He made his film debut with Bleak Moments (1971) and later directed offbeat movies such as High Hopes (1988), Life Is Sweet (1991), and Naked (1993), for which he won best director at the Cannes Film Festival. The internationally acclaimed Secrets and Lies (1996) was followed by Career Girls (1997), Topsy-Turvy (1999), and All or Noth¬ ing (2002).

Leigh, Vivien orig. Vivian Mary Hartley (b. Nov. 5, 1913, Dar¬ jeeling, India—d. July 8, 1967, London, Eng.) British actress. She made her film debut in 1934 and her London stage debut in The Mask of Virtue (1935). After a well-publicized search she was chosen for the role of Scarlett in Gone with the Wind (1939, Academy Award), which brought her great fame. Noted for her delicate beauty, she later starred in Water¬ loo Bridge (1940), That Hamilton Woman (1941), Anna Karenina (1948), and A Streetcar Named Desire (1951), for which she won an Academy Award for her portrayal of the tragically delusional Blanche DuBois. From 1940 to 1960 she was married to Laurence Olivier, with whom she appeared in a number of successful London stage productions. She starred in a 1963 Broadway musical adaptation of Tovarich, a disastrous production for which Leigh nonetheless won a Tony Award.

Leighton \'la-t 3 n\, Margaret (b. Feb. 26, 1922, Bamt Green, near Birmingham, Worcestershire, Eng.—d. Jan. 13, 1976, Chichester, West Sussex) British actress. A member of the Old Vic company, she made her London debut in 1944 and her Broadway debut in 1946. She was acclaimed for her wide range of roles in plays such as The Cocktail Party (1950) and The Applecart (1953). She received Tony Awards for her Broadway appearances in Separate Tables (1956) and The Night of the Iguana (1962). Her most notable film roles were in The Winslow Boy (1948), The Sound and the Fury (1959), and The Go-Between (1971).

Leinster \Ten-stor\ Province (pop., 2002 prelim.: 2,105,449), eastern Ireland. It covers an area of 7,645 sq mi (19,801 sq km). Its counties include Carlow, Dublin, Kildare, Kilkenny, Laoighis, Longford, Louth, Meath, Offaly, Westmeath, Wexford, and Wicklow. Its northern part, Meath, was once a separate kingdom. In the early Middle Ages, kings of Leinster fought constantly against the Uf Neill, the line of high kings whose capital was at Tara in Meath. In the late 15th and early 16th cen¬ turies, Leinster was virtually independent, under the earls of Kildare.

Leipzig Vllp-sik, 'llp-sig\ City (pop., 2002 est.: 493,052), east-central Germany. Situated in western Saxony state, it was in the 11th century a fortified town known as Urbs Libzi. It was granted municipal status by 1170, and its location on the principal trade routes of central Europe made it an important commercial centre. Several battles of the Thirty Years' War were fought near the city, which was also the site of the Battle of Leipzig (1813). Massive demonstrations in Leipzig in 1989 helped topple East Germany’s communist regime. Historic features include the University of Leipzig (1409), the 13th-century church of St. Thomas, and the annual Leipzig Fair.

Leipzig, Battle of or Battle of the Nations (Oct. 16-19, 1813) Decisive defeat for Napoleon at Leipzig, resulting in the destruction of what was left of French power in Germany and Poland. Surrounded in the city, Napoleon’s army was able only to thwart the allied attacks. As it began to retreat over the single bridge westward from the city, a fright¬ ened corporal blew up the bridge, leaving 30,000 French troops trapped in Leipzig to be taken prisoner. The battle was one of the most severe of the Napoleonic Wars; the French lost 38,000 men killed and wounded, and the allies lost 55,000.

Leipzig, University of State-supported university in Leipzig, Ger¬ many, founded in 1409. In the 1500s it was a centre of Reformation thought, and in the 18th and 19th centuries it became one of Europe’s leading literary and cultural centres, attracting such students as Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, and Richard Wagner. Between 1953 and 1990 it was named Karl Marx Uni¬ versity of Leipzig.

leishmaniasis \ l lesh-m3- , nI-9-s9s\ Human protozoal infection spread by the bite of a bloodsucking sand fly. It occurs worldwide but is espe¬ cially prevalent in tropical areas. It is caused by various species of the flagellate protozoan Leishmania, which infect rodents and canines. Vis¬ ceral leishmaniasis, or kala-azar, occurs throughout the world but is espe¬ cially prevalent in the Mediterranean area, Africa, Asia, and Latin America; it affects the liver, spleen, and bone marrow and is usually fatal if not treated. Cutaneous leishmaniasis is endemic in areas around the Mediterranean, in central and northern Africa, and in southern and west¬ ern Asia; it is also found in Central and South America and parts of the southern U.S. It is characterized by lesions on the skin of the legs, feet, hands, and face, most of which heal spontaneously after many months.

Leisler \Tls-br\, Jacob (b. 1640, Frankfurt am Main—d. May 16, 1691, New York, N.Y.) German-born colonial insurrectionist. He immigrated to New Netherland (New York) in 1660 and became a wealthy merchant. Objecting to the British unification of New York and New England (1685- 89), he led the revolt called Leisler’s Rebellion, established himself as lieutenant governor of the province (1689-91), and called the first inter¬ colonial congress (1690) to plan action against the French and Indians. When he reluctantly surrendered to a new British governor, he was charged with treason and hanged, along with his son-in-law.

leitmotiv VlIt-mo-.teA In music, a melodic idea associated with a char¬ acter or an important dramatic element. It is associated particularly with the operas of Richard Wagner, most of which rely on a dense web of asso¬ ciative leitmotifs. Most composers after Wagner (and some of his imme¬ diate predecessors) continued to use this musico-dramatic principle, but few as rigorously as he did.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Leizhou ► L'Engle I 1095

Leizhou Vla-'jo\ Peninsula or Lei-chou Peninsula conventional Luichow \'lwe-'chau\ Peninsula Peninsula off the southwestern coast of Guangdong province, southeastern China. Separated from Hainan Island by the Hainan Strait, it includes Kwangchowan, a territory leased by France from 1898 to 1945. Occupied by Japan in World War II, it was returned to Chinese control in 1946.

Leland Vle-londX, Henry Martyn (b. Feb. 16, 1843, Danville, Vt., U.S.—d. March 26, 1932, Detroit, Mich.) U.S. engineer and manufac¬ turer. Trained as a machinist, he founded Leland & Faulconer Manufac¬ turing Co. in Detroit in 1890 to build engines for automobile makers. In 1904 he merged the company into his newly founded Cadillac Motor Car Co., where he created the successful Model A Cadillac. In 1917 he founded the Lincoln Motor Co., which was purchased by Henry Ford in 1922. He was known for his rigorous standards; his innovations included the V-8 engine and adoption of the electric starter.

Lelang See Nangnang

LemaTtre Us-'me-trA, Georges (b. July 17,1894, Charleroi, Belg.—d. June 20, 1966, Louvain) Belgian astronomer and cosmologist. He served in the Belgian army during World War I, then entered a seminary and became a priest. In 1927 he became a professor of astrophysics at the University of London and proposed the big-bang model of the formation of the universe. Lemaitre’s theory, as modified by George Gamow, has become the leading theory of the universe’s origin. Lemaitre also studied cosmic rays and the three-body problem, which concerns the mathemati¬ cal description of the motion of three mutually attracting bodies in space.

LeMay, Curtis E(merson) (b. Nov. 15, 1906, Columbus, Ohio, U.S.—d. Oct. 1, 1990, March Air Force Base, Calif.) U.S. Air Force officer. He joined the Army Air Corps in 1928. In World War II he devel¬ oped advanced strategic bombardment techniques, including pattern bombing, and led bomber commands in Europe and the Pacific, where he launched firebombing raids on Japanese cities. As commander of U.S. air forces in Europe from 1945 to 1948, he directed the Berlin airlift (see Berlin blockade and airlift). From 1948 to 1957 he headed the U.S. Stra¬ tegic Air Command, building it into a global strike force. He was chief of staff of the U.S. Air Force from 1961 to 1965. In 1968 he was the vice-presidential candidate on the third-party ticket headed by George Wallace.

Lemieux \l9-'myu\, Mario (b. Oct. 5, 1965, Montreal, Que., Can.) Canadian ice-hockey player. In 1984 he made his professional debut as a member of the Pittsburgh Penguins and quickly became one of the sport’s leading offensive threats, earning the nickname “Super Mario.” He led his team to two Stanley Cup victories (1991-92). In 1992 Lemieux was found to have Hodgkin disease, but after surgery and radiation he returned to lead his team on a 17-game winning streak, an NHL record. He retired after the 1995-96 season with 613 goals and 881 assists. In 1999 he headed a group of investors that purchased the Penguins. He returned as a player in 2001, becoming the first owner-player in the history of mod¬ em sports. At the 2002 Winter Olympics he won a gold medal as a mem¬ ber of the Canadian men’s hockey team.

lemming Any of several species of small rodents belonging to the fam¬ ily Cricetidae and found primarily in northern temperate and polar regions of North America and Eurasia. Lemmings have short legs, small ears, and long, soft fur. They are 4-7 in. (10-18 cm) long, including the stumpy tail, and are grayish or reddish brown above, paler below. They feed on roots, shoots, and grasses and live in burrows or rock crevices. They are noted for regular population fluctuations, and for their periodic migrations in spring and fall. Those of the Norway lemming ( Lemmus lemmus ) are the most dramatic, because many of the migrants drown in the sea. How¬ ever, lemmings are hesitant to enter water and, contrary to legend, do not plunge into the sea in a deliberate death march.

Lemmon, Jack orig. John Uhler Lemmon III (b. Feb. 8, 1925, Boston, Mass., U.S.—d. June 27, 2001, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. actor. He attended Harvard University and acted in radio and television dramas before making his Broadway debut in 1953. He established his movie career in Mister Roberts (1955, Academy Award) and became noted for his character portrayals, often playing excitable, baffled individuals in movies such as Some Like It Hot (1959), The Apartment (1960), The Odd Couple (1968), and The Out-of-Towners (1970). His many other films include Save the Tiger (1973, Academy Award), The China Syndrome (1979), Missing (1982), and Glengarry Glen Ross (1992). He received an

Emmy Award for his portrayal of a dying college professor in the tele¬ vision film Tuesdays with Morrie (1999).

lemon Small thorny tree or spreading bush ( Citrus limon) of the rue (or citrus) family and its edible fruit.

Under the yellow outer rind or peel is the white, spongy inner peel, the source of commercial pectin. The juicy pulp is acidic and rich in vita¬ min C and contains smaller amounts of B vitamins. The climates of coastal Italy and California are espe¬ cially favourable for the cultivation of lemon trees, which in these regions produce fruit 6-10 times a year. Lemon juice enhances many dishes, and lemonade is a popular warm-weather beverage. Lemon by-products are used in beverages (citric acid), fruit jellies (pectin), and

lemon balm See balm

lemur Vle-morV In general, any of the prosimian primates (including gala¬ gos), all of which have a naked, moist tip to their muzzle; comblike, forward-directed lower front teeth; and clawlike nails on the second toes of the feet. More strictly, the name refers to the typical lemurs (the nine species in the family Lemuridae), found only on Madagascar and the Comoro Islands, which have large eyes; a foxlike face; a slender, mon¬ keylike body; and long hind limbs. All lemurs are docile and gregarious. Species range from 5 in. (13 cm) to about 2 ft (60 cm) long. The bushy tail may be longer than the body, and the woolly fur is reddish, gray, brown, or black. Most are active at night and spend most of their time in trees, eating fruits, leaves, buds, insects, and small birds and birds’ eggs. A number of species are listed as endangered.

Lena Vle-no, 'la-no \ River River, east-central Russia, one of the longest rivers in the world. From its source in a Siberian mountain lake west of Lake Baikal, it flows 2,734 mi (4,400 km) north across Russia to enter the Arctic Ocean. Its basin covers an area of 961,000 sq mi (2,490,000 sq km), and it has many tributaries, including the Vitim and Olekma rivers. The land along its upper course and tributaries is rich in minerals, includ¬ ing gold and coal. Explorers first reached its delta on the Laptev Sea in the early 1630s.

lend-lease System promulgated by Pres. Franklin Roosevelt to give aid to U.S. allies in World War II. Faced with Britain’s inability to pay cash for war materials and food, as required by U.S. law, Roosevelt asked Congress to allow repayment “in kind or property” from countries vital to U.S. defense. The Lend-Lease Act was passed in March 1941, despite arguments that it led the U.S. closer to war. Much of the $49 billion in aid went to British Commonwealth countries; the Soviet Union, China, and 40 other countries also received assistance. U.S. troops stationed abroad received about $8 billion in aid from the Allies.

L'Enfant \la n -'fa n ,\ English \'lan-,fant\, Pierre-Charles (b. Aug. 2, 1754, Paris, France—d. June 14, 1825, Prince Georges county, Md., U.S.) French-born U.S. engineer, architect, and urban planner. After studying in Paris, he volunteered as a soldier and engineer in the American Revolu¬ tionary Army. Congress made him major of engineers in 1783. In 1791 George Washington had him prepare a plan for a federal capital on the Potomac River. He designed a gridiron of blocks on which broad diago¬ nal avenues were superimposed; focusing on the Capitol and presidential mansion, the plan incorporated green spaces and provided vistas of street intersections where monuments and fountains could be placed. Though he was dismissed in 1792 for his imperious attitude and died in poverty, his plan was later generally followed.

L'Engle Vleq-golV Madeleine orig. Madeleine L'Engle Camp

(b. Nov. 29, 1918, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. author of children’s books. L’Engle pursued a career in theatre before publishing her first book, The Small Rain (1945). In A Wrinkle in Time (1962), she introduced a group of children who engage in a cosmic battle against a great evil; their adven¬ tures continue in A Swiftly Tilting Planet (1978) and other books. Her works often explore such themes as the conflict of good and evil, the nature of God, individual responsibility, and family life. She also has written adult fiction, poetry, and autobiography.

Lemon (Citrus limon )

J. HORACE MCFARLAND CO.

furniture polish (lemon oil).

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1096 I length, area, and volume ► Leo I

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length, area, and volume Dimensional measures of one-, two-, and three-dimensional geometric objects. All three are magnitudes, represent¬ ing the “size” of an object. Length is the size of a line segment (see dis¬ tance formulas), area is the size of a closed region in a plane, and volume is the size of a solid. Formulas for area and volume are based on lengths. For example, the area of a circle equals 7t times the square of the length of its radius, and the volume of a rectangular box is the product of its three linear dimensions: length, width, and height.

length of a curve Geometrical concept addressed by integral calcu¬ lus. Methods for calculating exact lengths of line segments and arcs of circles have been known since ancient times. Analytic geometry allowed them to be stated as formulas involving coordinates (see coordinate sys¬ tems) of points and measurements of angles. Calculus provided a way to find the length of a curve by breaking it into smaller and smaller line seg¬ ments or arcs of circles. The exact value of a curve’s length is found by combining such a process with the idea of a limit. The entire procedure is summarized by a formula involving the integral of the function describ¬ ing the curve.

Lenin, Vladimir (llich) orig. Vladimir llich Ulyanov (b. April 22, 1870, Simbirsk, Russia—d. Jan. 21, 1924, Gorki, near Moscow) Founder of the Russian Communist Party, leader of the Russian Revolu¬ tion of 1917, and architect and builder of the Soviet state. Born to a middle-class family, he was strongly influenced by his eldest brother, Aleksandr, who was hanged in 1887 for conspiring to assassinate the tsar. He studied law and became a Marxist in 1889 while practicing law. He was arrested as a subversive in 1895 and exiled to Siberia, where he mar¬ ried Nadezhda Krupskaya. They lived in western Europe after 1900. At the 1903 meeting in London of the Russian Social-Democratic Workers' Party, he emerged as the leader of the Bolshevik faction. In several revolution¬ ary newspapers that he founded and edited, he put forth his theory of the party as the vanguard of the proletariat, a centralized body organized around a core of professional revolutionaries; his ideas, later known as Leninism, would be joined with Karl Marx’s theories to form Marxism- Leninism, which became the communist worldview. With the outbreak of the Russian Revolution of 1905, he returned to Russia, but he resumed his exile in 1907 and continued his energetic agitation for the next 10 years. He saw World War I as an opportunity to turn a war of nations into a war of classes, and he returned to Russia with the Russian Revolution of 1917 to lead the Bolshevik coup that overthrew the provisional government of Aleksandr Kerensky. As revolutionary dictator of the Soviet state, he signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany (1918) and repulsed counter¬ revolutionary threats in the Russian Civil War. He founded the Comintern in 1919. His policy of War Communism prevailed until 1921, and to fore¬ stall economic disaster he launched the New Economic Policy. In ill health from 1922, he died of a stroke in 1924.

Leningrad See Saint Petersburg

Leningrad, Siege of (Sept. 8, 1941-Jan. 27, 1944) Prolonged siege of the city of Leningrad (now St. Petersburg) by German forces in World War II. German forces invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941 and approached Leningrad from the west and south while Germany’s Finnish allies came from the north. By November 1941 the city was almost com¬ pletely encircled and its supply lines to the Soviet interior cut off. In 1942 alone, in excess of 650,000 of Leningrad’s citizens died from starvation, disease, and shelling from distant German artillery. Sparse food and fuel supplies reached the city by barge in the summer and by sled in winter across Lake Ladoga. The supplies kept the city’s arms factories operat¬ ing and its two million inhabitants barely alive, while another one mil¬ lion children and sick and elderly people were evacuated. Soviet offensives in 1943 partially broke the German encirclement and were fol¬ lowed in January 1944 by a successful Soviet attack that drove the Ger¬ mans westward from the city’s outskirts, ending the siege.

Leninism Principles expounded by Vladimir Ilich Lenin to guide the tran¬ sition of society from capitalism to communism. The tenets of Marxism, which Lenin embraced, provided no concrete guidelines for the transi¬ tion. Lenin believed that a small, disciplined, professional group of revo¬ lutionaries was needed to violently overthrow the capitalist system, and that a “dictatorship of the proletariat” must guide society until the day when the state would wither away. That day never came, and Leninism in practice meant state control of all aspects of life by the Communist Party and the creation of the first modern totalitarian state. See also Bolshevik, Stalinism, totalitarianism.

Lenni Lenape See Delaware

Lennon, John (Winston) (b. Oct. 9, 1940, Liverpool, Merseyside, Eng.—d. Dec. 8, 1980, New York, N.Y., U.S.) British singer and song¬ writer. He wanted to be a sailor like his father but became a musician after hearing Elvis Presley’s recordings. In 1957 he formed the band that became the Beatles, and in the 1960s he achieved enormous success performing with the group and writing songs with Paul McCartney. In the mid-1960s he began working on side projects in film and music, notably with the Japanese-U.S. avant-garde artist Yoko Ono (b. 1933), whom he married in 1969. Their political activism and social ideals were reflected in much of Lennon’s early solo work, including the hit “Imagine,” and attracted the attention of the U.S. government, which sought to have him deported. After 1975 he withdrew from public life; he and Ono returned with the album Double Fantasy shortly before his murder by a deranged fan. His sons, Julian (b. 1963) and Sean (b. 1975), also became musicians.

lens Piece of glass or other transparent substance that is used to form an image of an object by converging or diverging rays of light from the object. Because of the curvature of its surface, different rays of light are refracted (see refraction) through different angles. A convex lens causes rays to converge on a single point, the focal point. A concave lens causes rays to diverge as though they are coming from a focal point. Both types cause the rays to form a visual image of the object. The image may be real—inverted and photographable or visible on a screen—or it may be virtual—erect and visible only by looking through the lens.

Lent In the Christian church, a period of penitential preparation for Eas¬ ter, observed since apostolic times. Western churches once provided for a 40-day fast (excluding Sundays), in imitation of Jesus' fasting in the wilderness; one meal a day was allowed in the evening, and meat, fish, eggs, and butter were forbidden. These rules have gradually been relaxed, and only Ash Wednesday—the first day of Lent in Western Christianity, when the penitent traditionally have their foreheads marked with ashes— and Good Friday are now kept as Lenten fast days. Rules of fasting are stricter in the Eastern churches.

lentil Small annual legume (Lens esculenta ) and its lens-shaped, protein- rich, edible seed. One of the most ancient of cultivated foods, it is a good source of vitamin B, iron, and phosphorus. Of unknown origin, the lentil is widely cultivated throughout Europe, Asia, and North Africa; though little grown in the Western Hemisphere, its inclusion in the U.S. diet is increas¬ ing. Growing 6-18 in. (15-45 cm) high, the plant has compound leaves and pale blue flowers. Animals are fed the stalks and leaves as fodder.

Lenya, Lotte orig. Karoline Blamauer (b. Oct. 18, 1900, Penzing, Austria—d. Nov. 27, 1981, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Austrian-born U.S. actress-singer. Born into poverty, Lenya worked as a dancer and actress in Zurich and later in Berlin. She married the composer Kurt Weill in 1926 and began appearing in musical dramas by Weill and his longtime col¬ laborator Bertolt Brecht, such as Mahagonny (1927) and The Threepenny Opera (1928; film, 1930). Lenya and Weill fled Nazi Germany for Paris, where she sang in Brecht’s and Weill’s Seven Deadly Sins (1933). The couple moved to New York City in 1935, and Lenya made her U.S. debut in The Eternal Road (1937). After Weill’s death, she lent her inimitably husky voice to revivals throughout the 1950s, including a long-running production of The Threepenny Opera, and she later performed in Brecht on Brecht (1962), Mother Courage and Her Children (1965), and Caba¬ ret (1966), as well as in films.

Leo (Latin: “Lion”) In astronomy, the constellation lying between Can¬ cer and Virgo; in astrology, the fifth sign of the zodiac, governing approxi¬ mately the period July 23-August 22. Its symbol, a lion, has been associated with the Nemean lion slain by Heracles. The Nemean lion was considered invulnerable because its skin was impervious to arrows, but Heracles battered it to death with a club. Zeus put the lion in the sky as a constellation.

Leo I, Saint known as Leo the Great (b. 4th century, Tuscany?—d. Nov. 10, 461, Rome; Western feast day November 10, Eastern feast day February 18) Pope (440-461). He was a champion of orthodoxy and a Doc¬ tor of the Church. When the monk Eutyches of Constantinople asserted that Jesus Christ had only a single divine nature, Leo wrote the Tome, which established the coexistence of Christ’s human and divine natures. Leo’s teachings were embraced by the Council of Chalcedon (451), which also accepted his teaching as the “voice of Peter.” Leo dealt capably with the invasions of barbaric tribes, persuading the Huns not to attack Rome (452)

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Leo III ► Leoncavallo I 1097

and the Vandals not to sack the city (455). Leo was also an exponent of the precept of papal primacy, and his personal example and letters and sermons contributed greatly to the growth of papal authority.

Leo III known as Leo the I saurian \I-'sor-e-3n\ (b. c. 675, Germanicia, Commagene, Syria—d. June 18, 742, Constantinople) Byzantine emperor (717-41), founder of the Isaurian dynasty. A high-ranking military com¬ mander, he seized the throne with the help of Arab armies who hoped to subjugate the Byzantine Empire. He then successfully defended Constan¬ tinople against the Arabs (717-718). Having crowned his son Constantine V coemperor (720), Leo used his son’s marriage to cement an alliance with the Khazars. Victory over the Arabs at Akroi'nos (740) was crucial in pre¬ venting their conquest of Asia Minor. Leo issued an important legal code, the Ecloga (726). His policy of iconoclasm (730), which banned the use of sacred images in churches, engendered a century of conflict within the empire and further strained relations with the pope in Rome.

Leo IX, Saint orig. Bruno, count von Egisheim und Dags- burg (b. 1002, Egisheim, Alsace, Upper Lorraine—d. April 19, 1054, Rome; feast day April 19) Pope (1049-54). He was consecrated bishop of Toul in 1027. He was named pope by Emperor Henry III but insisted on election by the clergy and people of Rome. His efforts to strengthen the papacy and eradicate clerical marriage and simony laid the foundation for the Gregorian reform movement. His assertion of papal primacy and his military campaign against the Normans in Sicily (1053) alienated the Eastern church. His representatives excommunicated the patriarch of Con¬ stantinople. Though Leo had already died, their act triggered the Schism of 1054.

Leo X orig. Giovanni de' Medici (b. Dec. 1, 1475, Florence—d. Dec. 1, 1521, Rome) Pope (1513-21), one of the most extravagant of the Renaissance pontiffs. The second son of Lorenzo de' Medici, he was edu¬ cated at his father’s court in Florence and at the University of Pisa. He was named a cardinal in 1492, and in 1494 he was exiled from Florence by the revolt of Girolamo Savonarola. He returned in 1500 and soon con¬ solidated Medici control of the city. As pope, he became a patron of the arts, accelerating construction of St. Peter's Basilica. He strengthened the papacy’s political power in Europe, but his lavish spending depleted his treasury. He discouraged reforms at the fifth Lateran Council, and he responded inadequately to the Reformation, excommunicating Martin Luther in 1521 and failing to address the need for change, a lapse that signaled the end of the unified Western church.

Leo XIII orig. Vincenzo Gioacchino Pecci (b. March 2, 1810, Carpineto Romano, Papal States—d.

July 20, 1903, Rome) Pope (1878—

1903). Bom into the Italian nobility, he was ordained a priest in 1837 and entered the diplomatic service of the Papal States. He was appointed bishop of Perugia in 1846 and was named a cardinal in 1853. He was elected pope in 1878, and, despite his advanced age and frail health, he directed the church for a quarter of a century. Like his predecessor, Pius IX, he opposed Freemasonry and secular liberalism, but he brought a new spirit to the papacy by adopting a conciliatory attitude toward civil governments and taking a more posi¬ tive view of scientific progress.

Leochares \le-'a-k9-,rez\ (fl. 4th century bc, Greece) Greek sculptor to whom the Apollo Belvedere is often attributed. He worked for Philip II of Macedonia and his son, Alexander the Great, and was commissioned to produce gold and ivory statues of the royal family. He is said to have worked with Scopas on the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, c. 350 bc.

Leon \la-'on\ City (pop., 2001: 130,916), northwestern Spain. The city began as the camp of a Roman legion; its name is derived from the Latin legio. Held by the Goths during the 6th and 7th centuries, it then fell to the Moors, who ruled it until 850. In the 10th century, it became the capi¬ tal of the kingdom of Leon. An industrial as well as a tourist centre, its site includes medieval churches.

Leon City (pop., 1995: 123,865), western Nicaragua. The second largest city in Nicaragua, it is the country’s political and intellectual centre. It was founded by the Spanish on the edge of Lake Managua in 1524; it was later destroyed by an earthquake and rebuilt in 1610 near the Pacific coast, northwest of Managua. Leon was the capital of Nicaragua until 1855. It has had a long political and commercial rivalry with the city of Granada. It is the burial place of poet and diplomat Ruben Dario and the seat of the University of Leon.

Leon Medieval kingdom, northwestern Spain. Leon proper included the cities of Leon, Salamanca, and Zamora—the adjacent areas of Vallodolid and Palencia being disputed with Castile, originally its eastern frontier. It began as a Christian kingdom in the early 10th century when Garcia I established his court on a former Roman legion campsite. Its rulers lost ground to the Moors during the 10th century but reconquered much ter¬ ritory in the 11th century. From 1037 to 1157 it was united with the king¬ dom of Castile, but it then regained its independence and was ruled by its own kings. It was permanently reunited with Castile in 1230. The modern autonomous community of Castile-Leon covers roughly the same area.

Leon, Arthur Saint- See Arthur Saint-Leon

Leonard, Buck orig. Walter Fenner Leonard (b. Sept. 8, 1907, Rocky Mount, N.C., U.S.—d. Nov. 27, 1997, Rocky Mount) U.S. base¬ ball player. Leonard began his professional baseball career in the Negro leagues in 1933. With his teammate Josh Gibson, he led the Homestead Grays to nine consecutive championships from 1937 through 1945. Known as a formidable home-run hitter and an outstanding first baseman, he was selected to the Negro leagues’ East-West All-Star game a record 11 times.

Leonard, Sugar Ray orig. Ray Charles Leonard (b. May 17,

1956, Rocky Mount, N.C., U.S.) U.S. welterweight and middleweight boxer. Leonard was an outstanding amateur, winning 145 of 150 bouts, including a 1976 Olympic championship. He turned professional in 1977 and gained the world welterweight title in 1979 by defeating Wilfred Benitez. He lost the title to Roberto Duran in 1980 but recaptured it from him later that year. He retired in the early 1980s with a detached retina but made a comeback in 1984. In 1987 he went into the ring as a middle¬ weight to defeat Marvin Hagler in one of boxing’s great matches. He retired again in 1991. He was resoundingly defeated in a final comeback attempt in 1997. Known for his agility and finesse, he won 36 of his 39 professional matches. He later became a television commentator.

Leonardo da Vinci \'vin-che\ (b. April 15, 1452, Anchiano, Republic of Florence—d. May 2, 1519, Cloux, France) Italian Renaissance painter, sculptor, draftsman, architect, engineer, and scientist. The son of a land- owner and a peasant, he received training in painting, sculpture, and mechanical arts as an apprentice to Andrea del Verrocchio. In 1482, hav¬ ing made a name for himself in Florence, he entered the service of the duke of Milan as “painter and engineer.” In Milan his artistic and creative genius unfolded. About 1490 he began his project of writing treatises on the “science of painting,” architecture, mechanics, and anatomy. His theo¬ ries were based on the belief that the painter, with his powers of percep¬ tion and ability to pictorialize his observations, was uniquely qualified to probe nature’s secrets. His numerous surviving manuscripts are noted for being written in a backward script that requires a mirror to be read. In 1502-03, as military architect and engineer for Cesare Borgia, he helped lay the groundwork for modern cartography. After five years of painting and scientific study back in Florence (1503-08), he returned to Milan, where his scientific work flourished. In 1516, after an interlude under Medici patronage in Rome, he entered the service of Francis I of France; he never returned to Italy. Though only some 17 completed paintings sur¬ vive, they are universally seen as masterpieces. The power of The Last Supper (1495-97) comes in part from its masterly composition. In the Mona Lisa (c. 1503-06) the features and symbolic overtones of the sub¬ ject achieve a complete synthesis. The unique fame that Leonardo enjoyed in his lifetime and that, filtered by historical criticism, has remained undimmed to the present day rests largely on his unlimited desire for knowledge, a trait that guided all his thinking and behaviour.

Leoncavallo \la-,on-ka- , val-lo\ / Ruggero (b. March 8, 1857/58, Naples, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies—d. Aug. 9, 1919, Montecatini Terme, near Florence, Italy) Italian composer. After attending Naples Con¬ servatory and earning a doctorate in literature, he toured as a pianist while writing operas. His first, Chatterton (1878), was produced with little suc-

Leo XIII, 1878

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1098 I Leone ► Leopold II

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cess, but its libretto attracted the interest of the publisher Giulio Ricordi. Giacomo Puccini’s rejection of Leoncavallo’s help with Manon Lescaut and Ricordi’s rejection of his own projects caused him in anger to write the verismo one-act opera Pagliacci (1892) for Ricordi’s rival. Though he wrote several other operas and operettas, Pagliacci was his only endur¬ ing success.

Leone \la-'o-na\, Sergio (b. Jan. 3, 1929?, Rome, Italy—d. April 30, 1989, Rome) Italian film director. After working as an assistant to Italian and U.S. directors, he made his directing debut with The Colossus of Rhodes (1961). He won a wide audience with A Fistful of Dollars (1964), the first of the violent Italian-made “spaghetti westerns”; the equally popular For a Few Dollars More (1965) and The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly (1966) also starred Cunt Eastwood. Among his other films are the epics Once upon a Time in the West (1968) and Once upon a Time in America (1984). Many of his films were at first poorly received by crit¬ ics, but Leone was eventually recognized for his meticulous care for his¬ torical accuracy and his powerful sense of visual composition.

Leonidas Ue-'a-no-dosX (d. 480 bc, Thermopylae, Locris [Greece]) King of Sparta (c. 490^180 bc). He is noted for his heroic stand against the Persians at the Battle of Thermopylae in 480. Seeing the hopelessness of the situation, he sent most of his troops in retreat and with his 300-man royal guard withstood the Persian army for two days, battling valiantly to the last man. He became the object of a hero cult at Sparta, and he stands as the epitome of bravery against overwhelming odds. The legend that Spartans never surrender derived from this episode.

Leonov Me-'a-noA, Aleksey (Arkhipovich) (b. May 30, 1934, near Kemerovo, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Soviet cosmonaut. He joined the Soviet air force in 1953 and was selected for cosmonaut training in 1959. In 1965 he became the first person to perform a spacewalk. After exiting the spacecraft (Voskhod 2) and while tethered to the ship, Leonov made obser¬ vations, took motion pictures, and practiced maneuvering in free fall before reentering the ship. A decade later he commanded the Soyuz craft that linked in orbit with the U.S. Apollo craft in July 1975.

Leontief Vle-'an-te-.eA, Wassily (b. Aug. 5, 1906, St. Petersburg, Russia—d. Feb. 5, 1999, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Russian-born U.S. econo¬ mist. After studying at the universities of Leningrad (1921-25) and Ber¬ lin (1925-28), he immigrated to the U.S. in 1931. At Harvard University (1931-75) he articulated his input-output analysis. He also described what is known as the Leontief Paradox: that capital, not labour, is the scarce factor of production in the U.S. He was awarded the 1973 Nobel Prize. From 1975 until his death he taught at New York University.

leopard or panther Big cat {Panthera pardus) of the bush and for¬ est, found throughout sub-Saharan Africa, in North Africa, and in Asia. The average leopard weighs 110-200 lbs (50-90 kg) and is about 6 ft

Leopard (Panthera pardus)

LEONARD LEE RUE III

(210 cm) long, excluding the 35-in. (90-cm) tail, and 24-28 in. (60-70 cm) high at the shoulder. The background colour is typically yellowish above and white below. The dark spots arranged in rosettes over much of the body lack a central spot, unlike those of the jaguar. The leopard is solitary and mainly nocturnal. An agile climber, it frequently stores the remains of its kills in tree branches. It generally preys on antelope and deer. It also hunts dogs and, in Africa, baboons. It sometimes takes live¬ stock and may attack humans. The leopard is considered an endangered species by the U.S. but not by the IUCN (International Union for Con¬ servation of Nature). See also cheetah; cougar; snow leopard.

leopard seal or sea leopard Species ( Hydrurga leptonyx ) of gen¬ erally solitary earless seal (family Phocidae) found in Antarctic and sub- Antarctic regions. It is the only seal that feeds on penguins, young seals, and other warm-blooded prey. It is slender and has a long head and long three-cusped cheek teeth. Named for its black-spotted gray coat, it attains a maximum length and weight (greater in the female) of about 12 ft (3.5 m) and 840 lbs (380 kg). It has a reputation for ferocity but is not known to make unprovoked attacks on humans.

Leopardi \,la-o-'par-de\, Giacomo (b. June 29, 1798, Recanati, Papal States—d. June 14, 1837, Naples) Italian poet, scholar, and philosopher. Congenitally deformed, he suffered throughout his life from chronic ail¬ ments and frustrated hopes. His usually pessimistic poetry is admired for its brilliance, intensity, and effortless musicality. His verse collections include Canzoni (1824), Versi (1826), and I canti (1831). His finest poems are probably the lyrics called “Idillii” in early editions of his poetry. Operette morali (1827; “Minor Moral Works”) is an influential philo¬ sophical exposition, mainly in dialogue form, of his doctrine of despair. He is considered among the great Italian writers of the 19th century.

Leopold I orig. Leopold-Georges-Chretien-Frederic (b. Dec. 16, 1790, Coburg, Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld—d. Dec. 10, 1865, Laeken, Belg.) First king of the Belgians (1831-65). The son of Francis, duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, he married Charlotte, daughter of the future English king George IV in 1816. After her death in 1817 Leopold contin¬ ued to live in England until elected king of the newly formed Belgium. He helped strengthen the country’s new parliamentary system and scru¬ pulously maintained Belgian neutrality. Highly influential in European diplomacy, he used marriages to strengthen his ties. In 1832 he married the daughter of Louis- Philippe. In 1840 he helped arrange the marriage of his niece, Victoria, to his nephew. Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. In 1857 he arranged the marriage of his daughter to Maximilian, archduke of Austria.

Leopold I (b. June 9, 1640 Vienna, Austria—d. May 5, 1705, Vienna) Holy Roman emperor (1658-1705). Son of Ferdinand III, Leopold was a devout Catholic destined for the church, but, when his elder brother died unexpectedly (1654), he became heir apparent to the Austrian Habsburg lands. He was crowned successively king of Hungary (1655) and of Bohe¬ mia (1656), and with his father’s death Leopold became emperor in 1658. During his lengthy reign Austria emerged from a series of struggles to become a great European power. In 1683 the Turks besieged Vienna and were repulsed; war continued until the Turks were defeated and ceded control of Hungary in the Treaty of Carlowitz (1699). Leopold also entered into the War of the Grand Alliance, but the unfavourable peace treaty ceded Strasbourg to France. He was drawn into the War of the Spanish Succession, and he died before its end. His third marriage, to Eleonore of Palatinate-Neuburg, was a happy union that produced 10 children, includ¬ ing the future emperors Joseph I and Charles VI.

Leopold II orig. Leopold-Louis-Philippe-Marie-Victor (b. April 9, 1835, Brussels, Belg.—d. Dec. 17, 1909, Laeken) King of the Belgians (1865-1909). Succeeding his father, Leopold I, he led the first European efforts to develop the Congo River basin. In 1876 he founded an associa¬ tion to explore the Congo area, with Henry Morton Stanley as his main agent. Leopold formed the Congo Free State in 1885 and ruled as its sov¬ ereign. Under Leopold, the Congo became the scene of barbarous cruelty by the colonial masters; when news of the conditions there broke c. 1905, it provoked an international scandal. Under British and U.S. pressure, the region was removed from Leopold’s personal rule and annexed to Bel¬ gium in 1908 as the Belgian Congo. Leopold was succeeded by his nephew, Albert I.

Leopold II (b. May 5, 1747, Vienna—d. March 1, 1792, Vienna) Holy Roman emperor (1790-92). Son of Maria Theresa and Emperor Francis I, he became duke of Tuscany in 1765. A practitioner of what has been

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Leopold III ► Lermontov I 1099

termed enlightened despotism, he built an efficient state government and encouraged representative institutions. In 1790 he succeeded his brother Joseph II as emperor and retained many of Joseph’s reforms. In 1792 he allied with Prussia against revolutionary France, precipitating the French Revolutionary Wars.

Leopold III orig. Leopold-Philippe-Charles-Albert-Meinrad- Hubertus-Marie-Miguel (b. Nov. 3, 1901, Brussels, Belg.—d. Sept. 25, 1983, Brussels) King of the Belgians (1934-51). He succeeded his father, Albert I, and favoured an independent foreign policy but not strict neutrality. In World War II he assumed command of the Belgian army, but he surrendered his encircled forces 18 days after the German invasion in May 1940. The Belgian government repudiated his decision to surrender and remain with his forces rather than join the government-in-exile in London. Under house arrest through the war, he later went to Switzerland (1945-50) to await resolution of the controversy. Though 58% of voters voted for his return to the throne, he abdicated in 1951 in favour of his son Baudouin.

Leopold, (Rand) Aldo (b. Jan. 11, 1887, Burlington, Iowa, U.S.—d. April 24, 1948, near Madison, Wis.) U.S. environmentalist. After attend¬ ing Yale University, he worked for the U.S. Forest Service (1909-28), mainly in the Southwest. In 1924 the country’s first national wilderness area (Gila Wilderness Area in New Mexico) was created at Leopold’s urging. From 1933 to 1948 he taught at the University of Wisconsin. A fervent campaigner for the preservation of wildlife and wilderness areas, he was a director of the Audubon Society from 1935 and became a founder of the Wilderness Society in the same year. His Game Management (1933) was followed in 1949 by the posthumous A Sand County Almanac, which eloquently called for the preservation of ecosystems. Read by millions, it strongly influenced the budding environmental movement.

Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen X.ho-ont-'sol-om-'zek- ma-,riq-3n. Prince (b. Sept. 22, 1835, Krauchenweis, Prussia—d. June 8, 1905, Berlin, Ger.) Prussian candidate for the Spanish throne. He was a member of the Swabian line of the Hohenzollern dynasty and the brother of Carol I of Romania. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck and Spain’s de facto leader, Juan Prim (1814-70), persuaded the reluctant Leopold to accept the Spanish throne, left vacant in 1868. Under French diplomatic pres¬ sure, Leopold’s candidacy was withdrawn, but Prussia refused to bow to French demands that it never be renewed. The Ems Telegram provoked the French into declaring war (see Franco-Prussian War).

Leopoldville See Kinshasa

Lepanto \le-'pan-to. Battle of (Oct. 7, 1571) Naval engagement between allied Christian forces (Venice, the pope, and Spain) and the Ottoman Turks during an Ottoman campaign to acquire the Venetian island of Cyprus. After four hours of fighting off the coast of Lepanto, Greece, the allies, under Juan de Austria, were victorious, capturing 117 galleys and thousands of men. The battle was of little practical value, since Venice would surrender Cyprus to the Turks in 1573, but it had a great impact on European morale and was the subject of paintings by Titian, Tintoretto, and Veronese.

lepidopteran \,le-p9-'dap-t3-r3n\ Any of the more than 100,000 species constituting the order Lepidoptera (Greek: “scaly wing”): butterflies, moths, and skippers. The name refers to the dusting of minute scales that covers the wings and bodies of these insects. A slender proboscis is used for sucking. Nearly all lepidopterans are plant eaters, and species are found on every continent except Antarctica. Females may lay from a few to a thousand or more eggs at a time. All lepidopterans undergo complete metamorphosis. Many types move from one region to another, sometimes crossing thou¬ sands of miles of ocean, but the only species that truly migrates—the same individuals making a two-way flight—is the monarch butterfly.

Lepidus Vle-po-dosN, Marcus Aemilius (d. 13/12 bc) Roman consul (46, 42 bc) and triumvir (43-36). After the death of Julius Caesar, Lep¬ idus controlled parts of Gaul, Spain, and Africa and wielded great influ¬ ence. He and Mark Antony opposed the republican conspirators and in 43 formed the Second Triumvirate with Octavian (later Augustus). He acquired a second Spanish province but lost Spain and Gaul to Antony and Octavian, keeping only Africa. After helping defeat Sextus Pompeius (36), he challenged Octavian, but his soldiers defected and he was forced to retire.

Lepontine Ui-'pan-.tlnV Alps Segment of the central Alps along the Italian-Swiss border. It is bordered by the Pennine Alps in the west and

southwest and the Italian lake district in the south; its highest peak. Mount Leone, rises to 11,657 ft (3,553 m) and lies at its western end. Important passes include Simplon, Saint Gotthard, Lukmanier, and San Bernardino.

leprechaun Vlep-r3-,kan\ In Irish folklore, a fairy in the form of a tiny old man wearing a cocked hat and leather apron. Solitary by nature, leprechauns lived in remote places and worked as shoemakers. Each was believed to possess a hidden crock of gold. If captured and threat¬ ened, a leprechaun might reveal the gold’s hiding place, provided his captor never took his eyes off him.

Usually the captor was tricked into glancing away, and the leprechaun vanished. The word derives from the Old Irish luchorpan (“little body”).

leprosy or Hansen disease Chronic disease of the skin, peripheral nerves, and mucous membranes of the nose, throat, and eyes, caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium leprae. In tuberculoid leprosy, cells of the immune system crowd into infected areas of the skin, forming hard nod¬ ules, or tubercles, that spread along nerve fibres. This type of reaction commonly leads to claw hand, gross deformity of the foot, and paralysis of muscles of the face, eye, and neck. In the lepromatous type, bacilli multiply freely in deep layers of the skin and spread widely through lym¬ phatic channels and along nerve fibres, causing thickening and corruga¬ tion of the skin, raising soft nodules on the ears, nose, and cheeks, and sometimes destroying the septum of the nose and the palate. Leprosy has a long history. Until the 20th century, infected people were ostracized from society or at best segregated and cared for in isolated leper colonies. Today the disease is entirely curable through multidrug therapy, though tissue damage caused before drug treatment cannot be reversed. Some 600,000 new cases arise every year, mostly in Asia, Africa, Central and South America, and the Pacific Islands. About 60 percent of new cases occur in India.

Leptis Magna modern Labdah Largest city of ancient Tripous, located near modem Al-Khums, Libya. Founded by the Phoenicians in the 6th century bc, it passed to Numidia in 202 bc but broke away in 111 bc to become an ally of Rome. The emperor Trajan made it a Roman colony. The waning of the Roman Empire caused its decline, and it was largely abandoned after the Arab conquest of ad 642. It has some of the best- preserved Roman ruins in North Africa.

lepton Vlep-tan\ Any member of a class of fermions that respond only to electromagnetic, weak, and gravitational forces and do not take part in strong interactions. Leptons have a half-integral spin and obey the Pauli exclusion principle. They can either carry one unit of electric charge or be neutral. The charged leptons are the electrons, muons, and taus. Each has a negative charge and a distinct mass. Each charged lepton has an asso¬ ciated neutral partner, or neutrino, which has no electric charge and very little if any mass.

Lerma River River, west-central Mexico. It rises southeast of Toluca and flows northwest and then south for 350 mi (560 km) to empty into Lake Chapala. The Rio Grande de Santiago, which leads from Lake Chapala to the Pacific Ocean, is sometimes considered an extension of the Lerma. With its major tributaries, it constitutes Mexico’s largest river system.

Lermontov VPer-mon-toA, Mikhail (Yuryevich) (b. Oct. 15, 1814, Moscow, Russia—d. July 27, 1841, Pyatigorsk) Russian poet and novel¬ ist. His first volume of verse, Spring, was published in 1830, the year he entered Moscow University. He left the university two years later to enter cadet school. A guards officer after graduating in 1834, he was twice exiled to regiments in the Caucasus because of his passionately libertar¬ ian verse. He became popular for having suffered for his poetry, which combined civic and philosophical themes with deeply personal motifs. His mature poems include “Mtsyri” (1840) and “Demon” (1841). His novel A Hero of Our Time (1840), a reflection on contemporary society and the fortunes of his generation, is written in superb prose, and the portrait of its alienated hero profoundly influenced later Russian writers. Like Ale¬ ksandr Pushkin, to whom he is often compared, he died in a duel. He is remembered as his country’s leading Romantic poet.

Leprechaun, from the Irish Fairy Book, by Alfred Perceval Crave, 1909.

COURTESY OF THE FOLKLORE SOCIETY LIBRARY, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON; PHOTOGRAPH, R.B. FLEMING

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Lerner, Alan Jay (b. Aug. 31, 1918, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. June 14, 1986, New York City) U.S. librettist and lyricist. Born to a prosper¬ ous retailing family, he studied at Juilliard and Harvard. He wrote more than 500 radio scripts between 1940 and 1942, the year he met the com¬ poser Frederick Loewe. The two began collaborating, and their first Broad¬ way success came with Brigadoon (1947; film, 1954). It was followed by Paint Your Wagon (1951; film, 1969). My Fair Lady (1956) was an unprecedented triumph, setting a record for the longest original run of any musical; the film version (1964) won seven Academy Awards. Their film musical Gigi (1958) received nine Academy Awards. Camelot fol¬ lowed in 1960 (film, 1967). Lerner also collaborated with Kurt Weill ( Love Life , 1948) and Burton Lane (On a Clear Day You Can See Forever , 1965; film, 1970), among others. His film scripts include An American in Paris (1951, Academy Award).

Lerwick Town (pop., 1991: 7,336), administrative centre of the Shet¬ land Islands, northern Scotland. It is on the eastern coast of the island of Mainland. Britain’s northernmost town, it originated as a fishing village and is notable for its herring catch. The North Sea oil boom of the 1970s increased port traffic, and Lerwick became an oil supply and service base. It is the seat of the Shetland Islands council area.

Les Six See Les Six Les Vingt See Les Vingt

Lesage \b-'sazh\, Alain-Rene or Le Sage (b. May 6, 1668, Sarzeau, France—d. Nov. 17, 1747, Boulogne) French novelist and playwright. He studied law in Paris but later abandoned his clerkship to devote himself to literature. His classic The Adventures of Gil Bias of Sant Wane (1715— 35), one of the earliest realistic novels, was influential in making the picaresque novel a European literary fashion. A prolific satirical dramatist, he adapted Spanish models for his early plays, including the highly suc¬ cessful comedy Crispin, Rival of His Master (1707). He also composed more than 100 comedies-vaudevilles in the tradition of Moliere.

Lesage \l9-'sazh\, Jean (b. June 10, 1912, Montreal, Que., Can.—d. Dec. 12, 1980, near Quebec, Que.) Canadian politician. He served as Canadian minister of resources and development from 1953 to 1957. In 1958 he became leader of Quebec’s Liberal Party. When the Liberals won the 1960 provincial elections, he became Quebec’s premier. He called for social and cultural reform, appointing the first minister of education and modernizing the school system and the civil service. He developed close cultural ties between Quebec and France. After the Liberals were defeated in 1966, he served as opposition leader until 1970.

lesbianism also called sapphism or female homosexuality,

the quality or state of intense emotional and usually erotic attraction of a woman to another woman. First used in the late 16th century, the word “lesbian” referred to the Greek island of Lesbos. The connotation of female homosexuality was added in the late 19th century, when an association was made with the poetry of Lesbian poet Sappho (c. 610-c. 580 bc). At the turn of the 21st century, issues of concern to lesbians in Europe and North America included legal recognition for same-sex unions, child- rearing rights, women’s health-care, taxes, inheritance, and the sharing of medical benefits with a partner.

Lesbos \'lez-,bas\ or Mytilene \,mit- 3 l- , e-ne\ or Mitilini

\,me-te-'le-ne\ Third largest island (pop., 1991: 87,151) in the Aegean Sea. It occupies an area of 630 sq mi (1,630 sq km), and with two other islands it forms a Greek department. Its main town is Mytilene. Lesbos was the birthplace of the poet Sappho and is the source of the term lesbian. Inhab¬ ited since c. 3000 bc, it was settled in c. 1050 bc by the Aetolians. After being under Persian rule (527-479 bc), it joined the Delian League. In the Peloponnesian War, it fell to Sparta (405 bc), but then it was recovered for Athens (389 bc). It later flourished under Byzantium. It was ruled by the Ottoman Empire (1462-1911) before being annexed by Greece. Fish¬ ing is important economically, as is the export of olives.

Leschetizky \,le-sh9-'tit-ske\, Theodor orig. Teodor Leszetycki

(b. June 22, 1830, Lancut, Pol., Austrian Empire—d. Nov. 14, 1915, Dresden, Ger.) Polish pianist and teacher. A prodigy, he studied in Vienna with Karl Czerny and Simon Sechter (1788-1867) from age 10 and was already a teacher by 14. In addition to performing, he became the most celebrated piano teacher of his time, first at the conservatory in St. Peters¬ burg (1852-78) and thereafter in Vienna. His students included many of the most renowned pianists of their era, including Ignacy Paderewski and Artur Schnabel.

leshy \'l y e-sh9y\ In Slavic mythology, a forest spirit. The leshy is an antic spirit who enjoys playing tricks on people, though when angered he can be treacherous. He is seldom seen, but his voice can be heard in the for¬ est laughing, whistling, or singing. He often takes the shape of a man, but his eyebrows, eyelashes, and right ear are missing, his head is pointed, and he lacks a hat and belt. In his native forest, the leshy is as tall as the trees, but the moment he steps beyond it, he shrinks to the size of grass. The leshy is familiar to most Slavs living in heavily forested areas.

Leslie, Frank orig. Henry Carter (b. March 29, 1821, Ipswich, Suf¬ folk, Eng.—d. Jan. 10, 1880, New York, N.Y., U.S.) British-U.S. illustra¬ tor and journalist. The Illustrated London News published his early sketches. He moved to the U.S. in 1848. There he founded numerous newspapers and journals, including the New York Journal (1854), Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (1855)—having changed his name in 1857—and Frank Leslie’s Boys’ and Girls’ Weekly (1866). His illustra¬ tions from Civil War battlefields earned him his greatest profits. His sec¬ ond wife, Miriam Florence Leslie (1836-1914), legally changed her name to Frank Leslie after his death and continued his business after his death, twice rescuing it from debt. When she died a wealthy woman, she left most of her estate to the feminist Carrie Chapman Catt in the service of the suffragist cause.

Lesniewski \lesh-'nyef-ske\, Stanistaw or Stanisiaw Lesh- niewski (b. March 30, 1886, Serpukhov, Russia—d. May 13, 1939, Warsaw) Polish logician and mathematician. As a professor at the Uni¬ versity of Warsaw (1919-39), he became a cofounder and leading repre¬ sentative of the Warsaw school of logic. His distinctive contribution was the construction of three interrelated formal systems, to which he gave the Greek-derived names of protothetic, ontology, and mereology.

Lesotho \b-'su-,tu, b-'so-.toV officially Kingdom of Lesotho for¬ merly Basutoland Country, southern Africa, an enclave lying within the Republic of South Africa. Area: 11,720 sq mi (30,355 sq km). Popu¬

lation (2005 est.): 2,031,000. Capital:

Maseru. Almost all of the population are Sotho, a Bantu-speaking people. Lan¬ guages: Sotho, English (both official), Zulu.

Religions: Christianity (official; Roman Catholic, other Christians, Protestant); also traditional beliefs. Currency: loti. About two-thirds of the total area is mountainous; the highest point is Mount Ntlenyana (11,424 ft [3,482 m]). The Maloti Mountains in the central northwest are the source of two of South Africa’s largest rivers, the Tugela and the Orange. Mineral resources are scant. Agriculture employs nearly two-fifths of the workforce; the chief farm products are com, sorghum, and wheat. Livestock provides exports (cattle, wool,

SOUTH AFRICA

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Lesse River ► leucite I 1101

mohair). Industries focus mainly on light manufacturing (textiles and apparel, furniture, jewelry). Lesotho is a constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses; its chief of state is the king, and the head of govern¬ ment is the prime minister. Bantu-speaking farmers began to settle the area in the 16th century, and a number of chiefdoms arose. The most powerful of them organized the Basotho in 1824 and obtained British protection in 1843 as tension between the Basotho and the South African Boers increased. It became a British territory in 1868 and was annexed to the Cape Colony in 1871. The colony’s effort to disarm the Basotho resulted in revolt in 1880, and four years later it separated from the colony and became a British High Commission Territory. It became independent in 1966. A new constitution, effective in 1993, ended seven years of mili¬ tary rule. At the beginning of the 21st century, Lesotho suffered from internal political problems and a deteriorating economy.

Lesse River Vies, 'Ie-S9\ River, southeastern Belgium. It rises in the Ardennes and meanders northwest for 52 mi (84 km), emptying into the Meuse River. It flows underground for about a mile at Han-sur-Lesse through the Grottoes of Han, renowned for their stalactites and stalag¬ mites.

Lesseps Vle-sops\, Ferdinand (-Marie), viscount de (b. Nov. 19, 1805, Versailles, France—d. Dec. 7,

1894, La Chenaie, near Guilly)

French diplomat, builder of the Suez Canal. A career diplomat, he held posts in Egypt and elsewhere until 1849. In 1854 he was authorized by the viceroy of Egypt to build a canal across the isthmus of the Suez. He organized a company in 1858, with half its capital from French people, and construction began at Port Said in 1859. The Suez Canal was offi¬ cially inaugurated in 1869. In 1879 Lesseps organized another company to build a Panama canal, but he gave up the project because of political and economic difficulties. He was prosecuted but cleared of charges of misappropriating funds, though French government members were accused of bribe taking.

Lesser Armenia See Little Armenia

Lesser Slave Lake Lake, central Alberta, Canada. Located northwest of Edmonton and south of Great Slave Lake, it occupies an area of 451 sq mi (1,168 sq km) and drains into the Athabasca River via the Lesser Slave River. Its name refers to the Slave (Dogrib) Indians, who once inhabited its shores.

Lessing, Doris (May) orig. Doris May Tayler (b. Oct. 22, 1919, Kermanshah, Iran) British novelist and short-story writer. She lived on a farm in Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) 1924^49 before settling in England and beginning her writing career. Her works, which have often reflected her leftist political activism, are largely concerned with people caught in social and political upheavals. Children of Violence (1952-69), a semiautobiographical five-novel series featuring Martha Quest, reflects her African experience and is generally considered her most substantial work. The Golden Notebook (1962), her most widely read novel, is a feminist classic. Her masterful short stories are published in several col¬ lections. Other works include a science-fiction novel sequence, two nov¬ els published under an assumed name (Jane Somers), and autobiographical works, including Under My Skin (1994).

Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim (b. Jan. 22, 1729, Kamenz, Upper Lus- atia, Saxony—d. Feb. 15, 1781, Braunschweig, Brunswick) German play¬ wright and critic. After writing several light comedies, he became a theatre critic in Berlin in 1748. His play Miss Sara Sampson (1755) was the first German domestic tragedy. After studying philosophy and aesthetics in Breslau, he wrote the influential treatise Laocoon: An Essay on the Lim¬ its of Painting and Poetry (1766). Minna von Barnhelm (1767), his fin¬ est play, marks the beginning of classical German comedy. He was adviser to the first Hamburg national theatre and published his reviews as essays on the principles of drama in Hamburg Dramaturgy (1767-69). His Wolfenbiittel Fragments (1774-78) attacked orthodox Christianity, arous¬

ing great controversy. He also wrote the tragedy Emilia Galotti (1772) and the famous dramatic poem Nathan the Wise (1779).

Lethe \'le-the\ Ancient Greek personification of oblivion. She was the daughter of Eris (Strife). Her name was also applied to a river or plain in the realm of the dead. In the Orphic mysteries it was believed that the newly dead who drank from the River Lethe would lose all memory of their past existence. The initiated were taught to drink instead from Mne¬ mosyne, the river of Memory.

Leto Vle-to\ In classical mythology, the mother of Apollo and Artemis. She was made pregnant by Zeus, and she wandered in search of a place to give birth until she found the barren island of Delos. The island was a floating rock borne about by the waves, but it was fixed to the bottom of the sea for the birth of Apollo and Artemis. In some versions, Leto’s wan¬ derings are ascribed to the jealousy of Zeus’s wife, Hera.

Letterman, David (b. April 12, 1947, Indianapolis, Ind., U.S.) U.S. television talk-show host. He began his career as a stand-up comedian and was a guest host of Johnny Carson’s Tonight Show from 1979. He hosted NBC’s post-midnight Late Night with David Letterman (1982-93), win¬ ning six Emmy Awards and great popularity with his ironic, abrasive, flip¬ pant style of interviewing, which critics viewed as a parody of talk shows. Since 1993 he hosted The Late Show with David Letterman on CBS.

letterpress printing or relief printing or typographic print¬ ing In commercial printing, process by which many copies are produced by repeated direct impression of an inked, raised surface against sheets or a continuous roll of paper. Letterpress is the oldest traditional printing technique, the only important one from the time of Johannes Gutenberg ( c. 1450) until lithography (late 18th century) and especially offset print¬ ing (early 20th century). The ink-bearing surface for a page of text was originally assembled letter by letter and line by line. The Monotype and Linotype were the first keyboard-activated typesetting machines. Letterpress can produce high-quality work at high speed, but requires much time to prepare and adjust the press. For the sake of speed, newspapers are now printed by the offset process.

Lettish language See Latvian language

lettre de cachet \ , letr 3 -d3-ka- , sha\ (French: “letter with a seal”) Let¬ ter bearing an official seal, signed by the king and countersigned by a secretary of state, used primarily to authorize someone’s imprisonment without trial. An important instrument of administration under the ancien regime in France, lettres de cachet were greatly abused in the 17th—18th century. Their use was abolished in 1790.

lettuce Cultivated annual salad plant ( Lactuca sativa ) that produces clus¬ ters of crisp, water-filled leaves. The best-known varieties are head, or cabbage, lettuce (variety capitata)', leaf, or curled, lettuce (variety crispa)’, cos, or romaine, lettuce (variety longifolia)', and asparagus lettuce (variety asparagina). Head lettuce is further divided into butter heads and crisp heads (e.g., iceberg lettuce). In the U.S, large-scale farms grow mainly crisp-head varieties, shipping them nationwide. Small- scale, local farmers raise leaf and butter-head varieties. Lettuce is an early annual crop that grows best in cool weather and with ample water.

Though usually consumed in salads, it may also be cooked.

leucine Vlu-,sen\ One of the essential amino acids, present in most com¬ mon proteins and particularly abundant in hemoglobin. One of the first amino acids discovered (1819), it is used in biochemical research and as a nutritional supplement.

leucite \'lu-,slt\ One of the most common feldspathoid minerals, potas¬ sium aluminosilicate (KAlSi 2 0 6 ). It occurs only in igneous rocks, particu¬ larly potassium-rich, silica-poor, recent lavas. Some important localities include Rome, Italy; Uganda; and Wyoming’s Leucite Hills. Leucite is used as a fertilizer in Italy (because of its high potassium content) and as a source of commercial alum.

Lesseps

CULVER PICTURES

Lettuce (Lactuca sativa, variety capitata )

DEREK FELL

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1102 I Leucothea ► Levi-Strauss

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Leucothea \lii-'ka-the-3\ In Greek mythology, a sea goddess. She is first mentioned in the Odyssey, in which she rescued Odysseus from drowning.

She was traditionally identified with Ino, daughter of Cadmus, who incurred the wrath of Hera by caring for the infant Dionysus, Zeus’s son by Semele. Hera drove Ino and her son Melicertes mad, and they leaped into the sea, where they were changed into marine deities—Ino into Leuco¬ thea, Melicertes into Palaemon. A dolphin carried Melicertes’ body to the Isthmus of Corinth, and the Isth¬ mian Games were instituted in his honour.

leukemia Cancer of blood- forming tissues with high levels of leukocytes. Radiation exposure and hereditary susceptibility are factors in some cases. In acute leukemias, anemia, fever, bleeding, and lymph- node swelling develop rapidly. Acute lymphocytic leukemia, found mostly in children, was once over 90% fatal in six months. Drug therapy can now cure more than half these children. Acute myelogenous (granulocytic) leu¬ kemia, found mostly in adults, has frequent remissions and recurrences, and few patients survive long. Chronic myelogenous leukemia most often begins in the 40s; weight loss, low fever, weakness, and other symptoms may not develop immediately. Chemotherapy helps the symptoms but may not prolong life. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia, mostly in the elderly, may be inactive for years. Survival rates are better than in myelogenous leuke¬ mia; most deaths are caused by infection or hemorrhage.

leukocyte \ l lu-ko- l sIt\ or white blood cell or white corpuscle

Any of several types of blood cells that help defend the body from infec¬ tion. The different mature forms—granulocytes, including neutrophils (heterophils), basophils, and eosinophils; monocytes, including macroph¬ ages; and lymphocytes —have different functions, including ingesting bac¬ teria, protozoans, or infected or dead body cells; producing antibodies; and regulating the action of other leukocytes. They act mostly in the tissues and are in the bloodstream only for transport. Blood normally contains 5,000-10,000 leukocytes per cu mm.

leukoderma See vitiligo

Levant \b-'vant\ Historical name for the countries along the shores of the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It was applied to the coastlands of Anato¬ lia and Syria, sometimes extending from Greece to Egypt. The term was often associated with Venetian trading ventures. It was also used as a syn¬ onym for the Middle or Near East. In the 16th—17th centuries the term High Levant referred to the Far East (East Asia). The name Levant States was given to the French mandate of Syria and Lebanon after World War I (1914-18).

level Device for establishing a horizontal plane. It consists of a small, sealed glass tube containing liquid and an air bubble; the tube is fixed horizontally in a block or frame with a smooth lower surface. When the bubble is in the middle of the glass tube, the device is on a level surface; adjustment to the horizontal is indicated by movement of the bubble. The glass tube is slightly bowed, and the level’s sensitivity is proportional to the radius of curvature.

Leveler Member of a republican faction in England during the English Civil Wars and Commonwealth. The name was coined by the movement’s enemies to suggest that its supporters wished to “level men’s estates.” The movement began in 1645-46 and demanded that sovereignty rest with the House of Commons (to the exclusion of king and lords), believing that manhood suffrage would make Parliament truly representative. The Levelers dominated the New Model Army, but the Putney debates in the army council discussing the Levelers’ new social contract (1647) ended in deadlock. The generals restored army discipline by force, ending the Levelers’ political power.

Leven Vle-vonX, Loch Lake, east-central Scotland. Roughly 3 mi (5 km) in diameter, it is one of the shallowest of the Scottish lochs, having an

average depth of 15 ft (4.5 m). It contains a subspecies of brown trout known as Loch Leven trout. Castle Island, one of the lake’s seven islands, has the ruins of a 14th-century castle where Mary, Queen of Scots, was imprisoned (1567-68).

lever Simple machine used to amplify physical force. All early people used the lever in some form, for moving heavy stones or as digging sticks for land cultivation. Balance beams for weighing were probably used in Egypt c. 5000 bc; they consist of a bar pivoted at its center with weights on one end balancing the object on the other. As early as 1500 bc people were raising water and lifting soldiers over battlements using the swape or shadoof, a long lever pivoted near one end with a platform or container hanging from the short arm and counterweights attached to the long arm.

Lever Bros. \1e-var\ British soap and detergent manufacturer. Lever Bros, was founded in 1885 by William Hesketh Lever, later Viscount Leverhulme (1851-1925), and his brother, James Darcy Lever, to make and sell soap. The first company to market wrapped bars of soap made from vegetable oil instead of tallow, Lever Bros, expanded internation¬ ally with the help of energetic advertising slogans. It built a model indus¬ trial village at Port Sunlight in 1888 and offered employee benefits such as profit sharing and free insurance. William was elected to Parliament in 1906 and became a viscount in 1922. In 1929, Lever Bros, joined an association of European companies to form Unilever.

Levertov, Denise (b. Oct. 24, 1923, Ilford, Essex, Eng.—d. Dec. 20, 1997, Seattle, Wash., U.S.) English-born U.S. poet, essayist, and politi¬ cal activist. Levertov became a civilian nurse during World War II. She married an American writer after the war and moved to the U.S., where she was associated with the Black Mountain group, which included the poets Charles Olson and Robert Duncan. Influenced by the deliberate simplicity of William Carlos Williams’s poetry, she wrote deceptively matter-of-fact verse on both personal and political themes. Among her poetry collections are Here and Now (1957), The Sorrow Dance (1967), and The Freeing of the Dust (1975).

Levesque \la-'vek\, Rene (b. Aug. 24, 1922, New Carlisle, Que., Can.—d. Nov. 1, 1987, Montreal, Que.) Canadian politician. He joined the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation in 1946, became a war corre¬ spondent in Korea in 1952, and was a television commentator from 1956 to 1959. Elected to the Quebec legislature in 1960, he joined the admin¬ istration of Jean Lesage. In 1967 he cofounded a separatist group that com¬ bined with others to form the Parti Quebecois. In 1976 his party won control of the Quebec assembly, and he became premier. He proposed an independent Quebec in economic union with the rest of Canada, an arrangement he called “sovereignty-association.” In 1980 his plan was rejected by the Quebec electorate. He resigned in 1985 because of fail¬ ing health.

Levi \'le-,vl\ In ancient Israel, the third son of the patriarch Jacob. Levi became head of the clans of religious functionaries known as Levites. Unlike the 12 tribes of Israel, the Levites were given no allotment of land when Canaan was conquered. They are thought to have performed sub¬ ordinate services associated with public worship, serving as musicians, guardians, Temple officials, judges, and craftsmen.

Levi Vla-veV Primo (b. July 31, 1919, Turin, Italy—d. April 11, 1987, Turin) Italian writer and chemist. Two years after obtaining a degree in chemistry, Levi, who was Jewish, was captured by the Nazis and sent to Auschwitz as a slave labourer. His autobiographical works —If This Is a Man, or Survival in Auschwitz (1947), The Reawakening (1963), and The Drowned and the Saved (1986)—are restrained and moving accounts of and reflections on survival in the Nazi camps. His best-known work, The Periodic Table (1975), is a collection of 21 meditations, each named for a chemical element. The lingering effects of his wartime trauma may have led to his suicide.

Levi \la-'ve\, Sylvain (b. March 26, 1863, Paris, France—d. Oct. 30, 1935, France) French scholar of Eastern religion, literature, and history. He taught at the Sorbonne (1889-94) and later for many years at the College de France (1894-1935). In 1929, with Takakusu Junjiro, he published a clas¬ sic dictionary of Buddhism. His other writings include the standard treatise The Indian Theater (1890), Nepal (1905-08), and India and the World (1926); he also carried out pioneering studies of the Tocharian languages.

Levi-Strauss \'la-ve-'straus\, Claude (b. Nov. 28, 1908, Brussels, Belg.) Belgian-French social anthropologist and leading exponent of struc¬ turalism. Levi-Strauss originally studied philosophy at the University of

Leucothea giving Dionysus a drink from the Horn of Plenty, antique bas-relief; in the Lateran Museum, Rome

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Levi Strauss & Co. ► Lewis, C. I 1103

Paris (1927-32) but went on to teach sociology at the University of Sao Paulo (1934-37) and to conduct field research on the Indians of Brazil. At the New School for Social Research in New York City (1941^15) he came under the influence of the linguist Roman Jakobson; he came to view culture as a system of communica¬ tion, analogous to a language, and constructed models based on struc¬ tural linguistics, information theory, and cybernetics to interpret them. He attempted to identify universal struc¬ tures of the mind as reflected in myths, cultural symbols, and social organiza¬ tion. From 1950 to 1974 he was director of studies at the Ecole Pra¬ tique des Hautes Etudes, and in 1959 he joined the faculty of the College de France. Among his major works are The Elementary Structures of Kin¬ ship (1949), Tristes tropiques (1955), Structural Anthropology (1961, vol. 2, 1973), and the four-volume Mythologiques (1964—71).

Levi Strauss & Co. Leading U.S. manufacturer of casual and active clothing, noted especially for its blue denim jeans. The company traces its origin to Levi Strauss (1829-1902), a Bavarian immigrant who sold dry goods to miners during the California gold rush. Hearing of the min¬ ers’ need for durable pants, he hired a tailor to make garments out of tent canvas, later substituting denim. In 1873 he and an associate received a patent for the copper riveting they used to strengthen their pants. The company’s most spectacular growth occurred after 1946, with the deci¬ sion to concentrate wholly on manufacturing clothing under its own label. In 1959 it began exporting, and during the 1960s Levi jeans became enor¬ mously popular worldwide. The company went public in 1971 and was returned to private control (by Strauss’s descendants) in 1985.

Levinas, Emmanuel (b. Dec. 30, 1905 [Jan. 12, 1906, Old Style], Kaunas, Lith.—d. Dec. 25, 1995, Paris, France) French philosopher. He studied at the Universities of Strasbourg and Freiburg and received a doc¬ torate in philosophy from the Institut de France in 1928. His philosophi¬ cal work in the 1930s helped to introduce the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger to France. Levinas’s best-known work, Totality and Infinity (1961), is a highly original phenomenological inves¬ tigation of ethics and the self that takes as its starting point the face-to- face encounter between the “I” and the “Other.” Extensively developed in Otherwise Than Being; or, Beyond Essence (1974) and other writings, this analysis challenged Western philosophical tradition by treating eth¬ ics rather than ontology as “first philosophy.” Levinas was also the author of religious studies, including Difficult Freedom: Essays on Judaism (1963) and Nine Talmudic Readings (1990).

Levine \b-'vln\, James (Lawrence) (b. June 23, 1943, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.) U.S. conductor. He debuted as a pianist at age 10 with the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra. At Juilliard he studied piano with Ros- ina Lhevinne (1880-1976) and conducting with Jean Morel (1903-75). He was assistant conductor of the Cleveland Orchestra from 1964 to 1970. A guest appearance conducting Tosca (1971) led to his appointment as principal conductor (1973) and later music director (1975) and artistic director (1986) of the Metropolitan Opera. He built the flagging Met orchestra into a virtuoso ensemble and became recognized as one of the world’s greatest conductors. He served as director of Chicago’s Ravinia Festival from 1973 to 1993.

Levinson, Barry (b. April 6, 1942, Baltimore, Md., U.S.) U.S. film director. He worked as a comedy writer for Carol Burnett and Mel Brooks in the 1970s, then made his directorial debut with Diner (1982), the first of several movies set in his native city. He followed it with The Natural (1984), Young Sherlock Holmes (1985), Tin Men (1987), and Good Morn¬ ing, Vietnam (1987). Noted for his directorial versatility, ranging from drama and crime stories to political satire, he also created the highly popular Rain Man (1988, Academy Award), Avalon (1990), Bugsy (1991), Sleepers (1996), Wag the Dog (1997), and The Perfect Storm (2000).

levirate and sororate \ , le-vo-r3t... , s6r-3-r3t\ Customs or laws regu¬ lating marriage following the death of a spouse, or in some cases during

the lifetime of the spouse. The levirate decrees a dead man’s brother to be the widow’s preferred marriage partner. In ancient Hebrew society, this practice served to perpetuate the line of a man who died childless. Often, the brother who marries his sister-in-law is a proxy for the deceased and no new marriage is contracted, since all progeny are acknowledged as the seed of the dead man. The sororate decrees the marriage of a man to his deceased wife’s sister or, under so-called sororal polygyny, to the wife’s younger sisters as they come of age. The latter was practiced by some American Indian tribes in the 19th century and continues among the Aus¬ tralian Aborigines.

Leviticus Rabbah \li-'vi-ti-k3s-ra-'ba\ (c. ad 450) Compilation of 37 compositions on topics suggested by the Old Testament Book of Leviti¬ cus. Their message is that the laws of history focus on the holy life of Israel (the Jewish people). If the Jews obey the laws of society aimed at Israel’s sanctification, then the foreordained history will unfold as Israel hopes. Israel, for its part, can affect its own destiny. Thus salvation at the end of history depends on sanctification in the here and now.

Levitt, Helen (b. Aug. 31, 1913, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. photog- rapher. She began her career in photography at age 18. Her first show, “Photographs of Children,” was held at the Museum of Modern Art in New York in 1943. It featured the subject matter—children, especially the underprivileged—and humanity that characterize much of her work. In the mid 1940s Levitt collaborated with the novelist James Agee, filmmaker Sidney Meyers, and painter Janice Loeb on The Quiet One, a prizewin¬ ning documentary about a young African American boy. For most of the 1960s she concentrated on film editing and directing. Levitt resumed her pursuit of photography in the 1970s.

Levittown Extensive suburban housing development in Hempstead, Long Island, N.Y. Developed 1946-51 by the firm of Levitt and Sons, Inc., it was an early example of a completely preplanned and mass- produced housing complex. It contained thousands of low-cost homes (with accompanying shopping centers, playgrounds, swimming pools, community halls, and schools). Levitt repeated the formula in Bucks County, Pa. (1951-55). The name Levittown became equated with simi¬ lar developments built across the country in the postwar building boom. Though once widely deplored, his towns differ from other, usually monotonous, middle-class speculative developments in their meandering roads and lush plantings.

levodopa or L-dopa Organic compound (L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylala- nine) from which the body makes dopamine, a neurotransmitter deficient in persons with parkinsonism. When given orally in large daily doses, levodopa can lessen the effects of the disease. However, it becomes less effective over time and causes abnormal involuntary movements (dyski¬ nesia).

levulose See fructose

Lewes Vlii-9s\ Town (pop., 1998 est.: 14,900), Lewes district, adminis¬ trative county of East Sussex, historic county of Sussex, England. It lies on the River Ouse 6 mi (10 km) north of the English Channel. In 1264 Simon de Montfort vanquished Henry III at the Battle of Lewes. Historic sites include the ruins of an 11th-century castle and the 16th-century Bar¬ bican House (home of Anne of Cleves). An administrative centre, Lewes has some light industry. Glyndebourne, a renowned opera centre, is nearby.

Lewin, Kurt (b. Sept. 9, 1890, Mogilno, Ger.—d. Feb. 12, 1947, New- tonville. Mass., U.S.) German-U.S. social psychologist. After training and teaching in Berlin, he immigrated to the U.S., where he taught at the Uni¬ versity of Iowa (1935—45) and later became director of a group dynam¬ ics research centre at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1945- 47). He is best known for his field theory of behaviour, which holds that human behaviour is a function of an individual’s psychological environ¬ ment. To fully understand and predict human behaviour, according to Lewin, one must view the totality of events in a person’s psychological field, or “lifespace.” His works include A Dynamic Theory of Personality (1935) and Field Theory in Social Science (1951).

Lewis, C(larence) l(rving) (b. April 12, 1883, Stoneham, Mass., U.S.—d. Feb. 3, 1964, Cambridge, Mass.) U.S. philosopher. He taught primarily at Harvard University (1920-53). His best-known works are Mind and the World Order (1929), Symbolic Logic (1932), An Analysis of Knowledge and Valuation (1947), and The Ground and Nature of the Right (1955). He maintained that knowledge is possible only where there

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is also a possibility of error. His position in epistemology represents a synthesis of empiricism and pragmatism.

Lewis, C(live) S(taples) (b. Nov. 29, 1898, Belfast, Ire.—d. Nov. 22, 1963, Oxford, Oxfordshire, Eng.) Irish-born British scholar and writer. Lewis taught first at Oxford (1925-54) and later at Cambridge (1954-63). An early volume, the critical Allegory of Love (1936) on medieval and Renaissance literature, is often considered his finest scholarly work. He became known in England and the U.S. for several series of BBC radio broadcasts during the war years on the subject of Christianity. Many of his books embrace Christian apologetics; the best known is The Screwtape Letters (1942), a satirical epistolary novel in which an experienced devil instructs his young charge in the art of temptation. Also well known are The Chronicles of Narnia (1950-56), a series of seven children’s stories (including The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe , 1950) that have become classics of fantasy; and a science-fiction trilogy, known mostly for its first volume, Out of the Silent Planet (1938).

Lewis, (Frederick) Carl(ton) (b. July 1, 1961, Birmingham, Ala., U.S.) U.S. track-and-field athlete. He qualified for the 1980 Olympics but did not participate, because of the U.S. boycott of the Moscow games. At the 1984 Olympics he won the 100-m and 200-m races, the long jump, and the 4 x 100-m relay. At the 1988 Olympics he won the long jump (becoming the first athlete ever to win that event consecutively) and the 100-m race and received a silver medal in the 200-m. In 1992 he again won the long jump and anchored the winning U.S. 4 x 100-m relay team, and in 1996 he astounded observers by winning a fourth consecutive long-jump title.

Lewis, David (Kellogg) (b. Sept. 28, 1941, Oberlin, Ohio, U.S.—d. Oct. 14, 2001, Princeton, N.J.) U.S. philosopher. He taught at the Uni¬ versity of California at Los Angeles from 1966 to 1970 and thereafter at Princeton University. A wide-ranging thinker, Lewis made important—in some cases groundbreaking—contributions to a number of fields. He was best known for his extreme realism regarding possible worlds; his defense of the IDENTITY THEORY in the PHILOSOPHY OF MIND (see also MIND-BODY PROBLEM); and his doctrine of “Humean supervenience” (named for the Enlighten¬ ment philosopher David Hume), according to which all truths about any possible world are determined by the distribution of properties attribut¬ able to specific points in space and time in that world (see supervenience). At the time of his death, he was widely considered the leading figure in ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY.

Lewis, Edward B. (b. May 20, 1918, Wilkes-Barre, Pa., U.S.—d. July 21, 2004, Pasadena, Calif.) U.S. geneticist. He received a Ph.D. (1942) in genetics from the California Institute of Technology, where he taught from 1946 to 1988. By crossbreeding thousands of fruit flies, he discov¬ ered that genes are arranged on the chromosome in the order correspond¬ ing to body segments, an orderliness now known as the colinearity principle. Lewis’s work helped explain mechanisms of general biologi¬ cal development, including the causes of deformities present at birth in humans. With Christiane Niisslein-Volhard and Eric F. Wieschaus, he was awarded a 1995 Nobel Prize.

Lewis, Jerry orig. Joseph Levitch (b. March 16, 1926, Newark, N.J., U.S.) U.S. actor, director, and producer. In 1946 he developed a nightclub comedy routine with Dean Martin (1917-95), who played the suave crooner to Lewis’s zany clown, and they appeared together in 16 movies, including My Friend Irma (1949) and Pardners (1956), before ending their partnership in 1956. Lewis then directed, produced, and acted in movies such as The Bellboy (1960) and The Nutty Professor (1963). These films, along with his collaborations with director Frank Tashlin, led many critics (especially in Europe) to regard Lewis as the comic heir to Charlie Chaplin and Buster Keaton. Since 1966 Lewis has hosted the U.S. annual Muscular Dystrophy Telethon.

Lewis, Jerry Lee (b. Sept. 29, 1935, Ferriday, La., U.S.) U.S. rock- and-roll musician. He began playing piano in his childhood, influenced by blues and gospel musicians. He attended Bible school in Texas but was expelled. Returning to Louisiana, he played in several bands, per¬ fecting his signature “pumping” piano technique (the left hand maintain¬ ing a driving boogie pattern while the right played flashy ornamentation). His first hits came in 1957 with “Whole Lotta Shakin’ Goin’ On” and “Great Balls of Fire.” In 1958 it was discovered that he had married a 13-year-old relative, and his record sales dropped. Though he had a few more hits, he concentrated on his famously energetic and uninhibited live performances. His career continued to be plagued by controversy.

Lewis, John L(lewellyn) (b. Feb. 12, 1880, near Lucas, Iowa, U.S.—d. June 11, 1969, Washington,

D.C.) U.S. labour leader. The son of Welsh immigrants, he became a coal miner at age 15. He rose through the ranks of the United Mine Workers of America (UMWA) and from 1911 was also an organizer of the Ameri¬ can Federation of Labor (AFL), with which the miners’ union was affili¬ ated. As president of the UMWA (1920-60), Lewis joined several other AFL union leaders in forming the Committee for Industrial Organi¬ zation (1935) to organize workers in mass-production industries. On breaking with the AFL (see AFL- CIO), Lewis and other dissident union heads founded the Congress of Industrial Organizations. As its president (1936-40), Lewis presided over the often-violent struggle to introduce unionism into previously unorganized industries such as steel and automobiles. See also William Green; labour union; Phiup Murray.

Lewis, Lennox in full Lennox Claudius Lewis (b. Sept. 2, 1965, London, Eng.) British boxer. His professional career began in 1989 in England. He won the World Boxing Council (WBC) heavyweight title in 1992, lost it in 1994, and recaptured it in 1997. In 1999 he faced Ameri¬ can Evander Holyfield, who held the heavyweight titles of the World Box¬ ing Association (WBA) and the International Boxing Federation (IBF). In a controversial decision, the fight was called a draw. In the rematch that same year Lewis emerged as the undisputed champion, thereby unifying the heavyweight title. (The IBF and WBA portions of the title were later taken from Lewis because of disputes concerning mandatory fights, but he retained the WBC title and was still considered the undisputed cham¬ pion by many in boxing.) In his 2002 bout with American Mike Tyson, Lewis knocked Tyson out in the eighth round.

Lewis, Matthew Gregory (b. July 9, 1775, London, Eng.—d. May 4, 1818, at sea) English novelist and dramatist. The sensational success of his gothic novel The Monk (1796) earned him the nickname “Monk” Lewis. Its horror, violence, and eroticism brought it a wide readership, though it was universally condemned. Lewis also wrote a popular music drama in the same vein, The Castle Spectre (1798). After inheriting a large fortune in Jamaica in 1812, he sailed twice to the island to inquire about the treatment of slaves on his estates there, and he died at sea. Journal of a West India Proprietor (1834) attests to his humane and liberal attitudes.

Lewis, Meriwether (b. Aug. 18, 1774, near Charlottesville, Va.—d. Oct. 11, 1809, near Nashville, Tenn., U.S.) U.S. explorer. After serving in the militia during the Whiskey Rebellion (1794) in western Pennsyl¬ vania, he transferred into the regular army. In 1801 he became private secretary to Pres. Thomas Jefferson, who selected him to lead the first overland expedition to the Pacific Northwest, including the area of the Louisiana Purchase. At Lewis’s request, William Clark was appointed to share the command. The success of the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804- 06) was greatly due to Lewis’s preparation and skill. At its conclu¬ sion, he and Clark each received 1,600 acres of land as a reward.

Lewis was named governor of Loui¬ siana Territory in 1808. He died under mysterious circumstances in an inn on the Natchez Trace while en route to Washington; whether his death resulted from murder or sui¬ cide is still a subject of controversy.

Lewis, (Harry) Sinclair (b. Feb.

7, 1885, Sauk Center, Minn.,

U.S.—d. Jan. 10, 1951, near Rome,

Italy) U.S. novelist and social critic.

He worked as a reporter and maga¬ zine writer before making his literary the granger collection, new york reputation with Main Street (1920),

John L. Lewis, 1963

AP/WIDE WORLD PHOTOS

Sinclair Lewis.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Lewis, W. ► Li Ao I 1105

a portrayal of Midwestern provincialism. Among his other popular satiri¬ cal novels puncturing middle-class complacency are Babbitt (1922), a scathing study of a conformist businessman; Arrow smith (1925), a look at the medical profession; Elmer Gantry (1927), an indictment of funda¬ mentalist religion; and Dodsworth (1929), the story of a rich American couple in Europe. He won the 1930 Nobel Prize for Literature, the first given to an American. His later novels include Cass Timberlaine (1945). Lewis’s reputation declined in later years, and he lived abroad much of the time. He was married to Dorothy Thompson from 1928 to 1942.

Lewis, (Percy) Wyndham (b. Nov. 18, 1882, on a yacht near Amherst, Nova Scotia, Can.—d. March 7, 1957, London, Eng.) English artist and writer. The founder and principal exponent of Vorticism, Lewis began a short-lived Vorticist review titled Blast in 1914. His first novel, Tarr, appeared in 1918. The Childermass (1928) was followed by the huge satirical novel The Apes of God (1930) and The Revenge for Love (1937). In the 1930s he produced some of his most noted paintings, including The Surrender of Barcelona (1936). He also wrote essays, short stories, and two admired memoirs. Notorious in the 1930s for championing fascism, he later recanted those beliefs.

Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804-06) First overland expedition to the U.S. Pacific coast and back, led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Initiated by Pres. Thomas Jefferson, the expedition set out to find an overland route to the Pacific, documenting its exploration through the new Louisiana Purchase. About 40 men, skilled in various trades, left St. Louis in 1804. They traveled up the Missouri River into present-day North Dakota, where they built Fort Mandan (later Bismarck) and wintered among the Mandan Sioux. They left the next spring, hiring Toussaint Charbonneau and his Indian wife, Sacagawea, who served as guide and interpreter. They traveled through Montana and by horse over the Con¬ tinental Divide to the headwaters of the Clearwater River. They built canoes to carry them to the Snake River and then to the mouth of the Columbia River, where they built Fort Clatsop (later Astoria, Ore.) and spent the winter. On the journey back the group divided, then reunited to canoe down the Missouri to St. Louis, arriving to great acclaim in Sep¬ tember 1806. All but one member of the expedition survived. The jour¬ nals kept by Lewis and others documented Indian tribes, wildlife, and geography and did much to dispel the myth of an easy water route to the Pacific.

Lexington City (pop., 2000: 260,512), north-central Kentucky, U.S. Named in 1775 for Lexington, Mass., after the Battles of Lexington and Concord, it was chartered in 1782 and was the site of the first session of the Kentucky legislature (1792). Incorporated as a city in 1831, it merged with Fayette county in 1974 to create an urban county government. It is the seat of Transylvania University (founded 1780) and the University of Kentucky, and it is also the headquarters of the American Thoroughbred Breeders Association.

Lexington and Concord, Battles of (April 19, 1775) Initial skir¬ mishes between British soldiers and American colonists that marked the beginning of the American Revolution. En route from Boston to seize the colonists’ military stores at Concord, Mass., the British force of 700 was met at Lexington by 77 local minutemen (see minuteman) alerted by Paul Revere and others. Which side fired the first shot is unclear, and resistance soon ended. The British moved on to nearby Concord, where they were met by more than 300 American patriots and were forced to withdraw. On their march back to Boston, they were continually harried by colonists firing from behind bams, trees, and roadside walls. Deaths totaled 273 British and 95 Americans.

Leyden See Leiden

Leyden, Lucas van See Lucas van Leyden

Leyster Vla-storV Judith (b. July 28, 1609, Haarlem, Neth.—d. Feb. 10, 1660, Heemstede) Dutch painter. A brewer’s daughter, she had gained membership in the Haarlem painters’ guild by age 24. Many of her known works, primarily portraits, genre paintings, and still lifes, were formerly attributed to her male contemporaries. Though the influence of Frans Hals is clear, she was also interested in the Baroque style of the Utrecht school. She embraced a greater range of subjects than other Dutch painters of the era and was one of the first to depict domestic scenes.

Leyte \'la-te\ Island (pop., 2000: 1,952,496) of the Visayan group, east¬ ern Philippines. Occupying an area of 2,785 sq mi (7,214 sq km), it lies southwest of Samar Island, with which it is linked by a 7,093-ft (2,162-m)

bridge. Known to 16th-century Spanish explorers as Tandaya, it was under Spanish rule until the late 19th century. Under U.S. control in the early 20th century, its population grew rapidly. During World War II it was occupied by the Japanese, who were ousted by U.S. forces in the Battle of Leyte Gulf. It has two major cities, Ormoc and Tacloban.

Leyte Gulf, Battle of (Oct. 23-26, 1944) Decisive air and sea battle of World War II that gave the Allies control of the Pacific. After the U.S. amphibious landing on the Philippine island of Leyte (Oct. 20), the Japa¬ nese reacted with a plan to decoy the U.S. fleet north while moving three attack forces into Leyte Gulf. The U.S. discovery of one of the forces as it moved into position set off three days of continuous surface and air clashes. In the largest naval battle of the war, U.S. forces crippled the Japanese fleet and forced it to withdraw, allowing the U.S. to complete its invasion of the Philippines.

Lezama Lima \la-'za-ma-Te-ma\, Jose (b. Dec. 19, 1910, Havana, Cuba—d. Aug. 9, 1976, Havana) Cuban poet, novelist, and essayist. After studying law in Havana, Lezama was associated with several literary reviews and later with a literary group that published the work of young poets who revolutionized Cuban letters. Among his works are the poetry volumes Muerte de Narciso (1937) and La fijeza (1949) and the essay collections Analecta del reloj (1953) and La expresion americana (1957). The novel Paradiso (1966), considered his masterpiece, reaffirms his faith in his art and his own aestheticism in the face of the 1959 revolution, of which he largely disapproved.

Lhasa Vla-soV Capital (pop., 2003 est.: 129,490), Tibet Autonomous Region, China. Located at an elevation of 11,975 ft (3,650 m) in the Tibetan Himalayas near the Lhasa River, it has served as the religious cen¬ tre of Tibet since at least the 9th century ad. Lhasa became Tibet’s capi¬ tal in 1642 and remained so after the Chinese communists asserted control of the region in 1951; it was designated capital of the Tibet Autonomous Region in 1965. The 7th-century temple of Gtsug-lag-khang is consid¬ ered the holiest in Tibet. Other landmarks include the temple of Klu- khang; the Potala Palace, the Dalai Lama’s former winter residence; and monasteries. Lhasa is sometimes known as the “Forbidden City” because of its inaccessibility and the traditional hostility of its religious leaders toward outsiders.

Lhasa apso Vla-so-'ap-soV Breed of hardy, intelligent, and watchful.

Longer than it is tall, it stands 10-11 in. (25-28 cm) tall and weighs 13-15 lb (6-7 kg). It has a heavily haired tail that curls over its back and a long, profuse coat that covers its eyes. Its coat may be of various colours, but most breeders prefer golden-brown shades.

L'Hopital's rule \,lo-pe-'talz\

Procedure of differential calculus for evaluating indeterminate forms such as 0/0 and °o/°o when they result from attempting to find a limit. It states that when the limit of f(x)/g(x) is indeterminate, under certain conditions it can be obtained by evaluating the limit of the quotient of the derivatives of /and g (i .e., f'(x)/g'(x)). If this result is indeterminate, the procedure can be repeated. It is named for the French mathematician Guillaume de L’Hopital (1661-1704), who purchased the formula from his teacher the Swiss mathematician Johann Bernoulli (1667-1748).

Lhotse \'lot-'sa\ Peak in the Himalayas. Located on the Nepal-Tibet boundary and reaching 27,890 ft (8,501 m), it is one of the world’s highest mountains. It is sometimes considered part of Mount Everest’s massif because it is joined to that peak by a 25,000-ft (7,600-m) ridge. The Swiss climbers Fritz Luchsinger and Ernest Reiss made the first ascent of the mountain in 1956. Lhotse is Tibetan for “south peak.” E 1 was its original survey symbol, denoting Everest-1, given it by the Survey of India in 1931.

Li Ao \'le-'au\ (b. 772, China—d. 841) Chinese scholar and high official of the Tang dynasty, who helped reinvigorate Confucianism at a time when it was severely challenged by Buddhism and Daoism. Little is known of Li’s life, though he is believed to have known Han Yu. He was much influenced by Buddhism, and he helped integrate many Buddhist ideas into Confucianism. He anticipated the ideas of Neo-Confucianism by

dog from Tibet. The Lhasa apso is

Lhasa apso

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asserting that human nature and human destiny were central to Confu¬ cianism, and he helped establish Mencius as a figure almost equal to Con¬ fucius in the eyes of Neo-Confucians.

Li Bai or Li Bo or Li Pai or Li Po or Taibai (b. 701, Jiangyou, Sichuan province, China—d. 762, Dangtu, Anhui province) Chinese poet. A stu¬ dent of Daoism, he spent long periods wandering and served as an unof¬ ficial court poet. His lyrics are celebrated for their exquisite imagery, rich language, allusions, and cadence. A romantic, he was a famous wine drinker and wrote of the joys of drinking, as well as about friendship, solitude, nature, and the passage of time. Popular legend says that he drowned when, sitting drunk in a boat, he tried to seize the moon’s reflec¬ tion in the water. He rivals Du Fu for the title of China’s greatest poet.

Li Chunfeng (b. 602, Qizhou, Yong county, China—d. 670, Chang’an) Chinese mathematician and astronomer. He was given a position in the Imperial Astronomical Bureau in 627 following his critique of the Wuyin calendar. He became the deputy director of the Imperial Astronomical Bureau about 641. He participated in the compilation of the official his¬ tories of the Jin (265^120) and Sui (581-618) dynasties, writing the chap¬ ters containing historical outlines of Chinese astronomy, astrology, metrology, and a mathematical theory of music. In 648 he became the director of the Imperial Astronomical Bureau, and he coedited a collec¬ tion of mathematical treatises used as manuals in the Mathematical Col¬ lege of the State University. Later he prepared the Linde calendar, which was promulgated in 665 and used until 728.

Li Vle-'da-'jatA Dazhao or Li Ta-chao (b. Oct. 6, 1888, Hebei prov¬ ince, China—d. April 28, 1927, Beijing) Cofounder with Chen Duxiu of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Chief librarian and professor of his¬ tory at Beijing University, Li became inspired by the success of the Rus¬ sian Revolution and began to study and lecture on Marxism. In 1921 the study groups Li had created formally became the CCP. Li helped the new party carry out the policy of the Communist International (see Comintern) and cooperated with the Nationalist Party of Sun Yat-sen. His career was cut short when he was seized and hanged by the warlord Zhang Zuolin, but his ideas of a revolution of the impoverished peasantry were brought to fruition by Mao Zedong.

Li Vle-'hurj-'jaqN Hongzhang or Li Hung-chang (b. Feb. 15, 1823, Hefei, Anhui province, China—d. Nov. 7, 1901, Beijing) Chinese states¬ man who represented China in the series of humiliating negotiations at the end of the Sino-French War (1883—85), Sino-Japanese War (1894-95), and Boxer Rebellion (1900). Much earlier in his career, Li had helped with the suppression of the Taiping Rebellion (1850-64) and had put down the Nian Rebellion (c. 1852-68). At that time, he came in contact with West¬ erners (notably England’s Charles George Gordon) and Western weapons and became convinced that China needed Western-style firepower if it wanted to protect its sovereignty. In 1870, when Li was appointed governor-general of the capital province, Zhili, he was able to build arse¬ nals, found a military academy, establish two modern naval bases, pur¬ chase warships, and undertake other “self-strengthening” measures. Through modernization he hoped to preserve traditional China, but within traditional China Li’s innovations could not develop fully, and he was fatally hampered by the system he was trying to protect.

Li Keran or Li K'o-jan orig. Li Yongshun alias Sanqi (b. March 26, 1907, Xuzhou, Jiangsu province, China—d. Dec. 5, 1989, Beijing) Chinese painter and art educator. While studying at the Shanghai Art Col¬ lege he was influenced by Kang Youwei, who advocated merging Eastern and Western art to create a new century in Chinese painting. At the Hang¬ zhou National Art College (1929-32) Li studied with the French teacher Andre Claoudit and developed an abstract and structural painting style that showed the influence of German Expressionism. In 1932 he became a member of the leftist Yiba Art Society. In the 1940s he began to paint cowboys and water buffalo, revitalizing this traditional subject matter with an innovative technique of splashed ink. He joined the faculty of the Beijing National Art College in 1946. While he emulated ancient Chinese calligraphy, his training in oil painting also taught him to apply Western elements, such as chiaroscuro, to his work. In his later years, Li attracted many students and followers, who formed the “Li School” of the 1980s.

Li Po See Li Bai

Li Rui (b. Jan. 15, 1769, Yuanhe, China—d. Aug. 12, 1817, Yuanhe) Chi¬ nese mathematician and astronomer who made notable contributions to the revival of traditional Chinese mathematics and astronomy and to the

development of the theory of equations. Having failed the Chinese civil service examinations several times, he could obtain no official position and had to make a poor living as an assistant to various mandarins. From about 1800 he began to study the works of the 13th-century mathemati¬ cians Li Ye and Qin Jiushao. He found that traditional Chinese methods of solving higher-degree equations had several advantages over algebraic methods that had been recently imported from the West. His Kaifang shuo (1820; “On the Method of Extraction”) contains his work on the theory of equations: a rule of signs, a discussion of multiple roots and negative roots, and the rule that nonreal roots of an algebraic equation must exist in pairs.

Li Shanlan also known as Li Renshu or Li Qiuren (b. Jan. 2, 1811, Haining, Zhejiang province, China—d. Dec. 9, 1882, China) Chinese mathematician. He mastered both traditional Chinese and available West¬ ern mathematical treatises at a precocious age. In Shanghai in 1852, he met Alexander Wylie of the London Missionary Society and agreed to collaborate on the translation of Western works. Along with his near con¬ temporary Hua Hengfang, Li left a permanent impression on Chinese mathematical nomenclature and exposition. From 1869 Li was professor of mathematics at the Tongwen Guan college, the first Chinese person to hold such a Western-style position in mathematics.

Li Shaojun Vle-'shau-'juuA (fl. 2nd century bc, China) Chinese alche¬ mist. He was the first person to assert that the Daoist’s ultimate goal was to achieve the status of xian, immortal sage, and he was responsible for much of the mystical content of popular Daoist thought. Claiming to be several centuries old, he gained the confidence of the great Han emperor Wudi and persuaded him that he could become immortal by praying to Zao Jun, a mythical Chinese figure who produced gold dinnerware that conferred immortality, and by eating from a vessel that had been trans¬ muted into gold. Because of Li’s influence, prayers to Zao Jun became established in Daoist ritual, and Zao Jun came to be considered the first great Daoist divinity.

Li Si \'le-'su\ or Li Ssu (b. 280 bc?, Chu state, central China—d. 208 bc, Xianyang, Shaanxi province) Minister of the Qin dynasty in China who utilized the ideas of Hanfeizi to make the Qin the first centralized Chinese empire. His ordering of the “Qin bibliocaust”—the burning of all books— earned him the opprobrium of future generations of Confucian scholars.

Li Sixun or Li Ssu-hsun (b. 651—d. 716) Chinese painter. Li, who was related to the Tang imperial family, led an active political life and was given the honorary rank of general. His son, Li Zhaodao, was also a famous painter, and thus the father is sometimes called Big General Li and the son Little General Li. While no genuine works survive, both Li Sixun and Li Zhaodao are known to have painted in a highly decorative and meticulous fashion, employing the precise line technique derived from earlier artists such as Gu Kaizhi and Zhan Ziqian. Li is considered the chief exponent of a decoratively coloured landscape style of the Tang dynasty and the founder of the so-called Northern school of professional painters.

Li Ta-chao See Li Dazhao

Li Tang or Li T'ang (b. c. 1050—d. c. 1130) Chinese painter. He earned the highest rank in the academy of painting of Emperor Huizong, and after the North fell to the Mongols he went to the South and entered the acad¬ emy of Emperor Song Gaozong. His landscapes serve as a vital link between the earlier, and essentially Northern, variety of monumental land¬ scape, and the more lyrical Southern style of the Ma-Xia school (based on the work of Ma Yuan and Xia Gui). Li perfected the brushstroke tex¬ ture known as the “ax stroke,” which gives a tactile sense to painted rocks and suggests the precise and comprehensive reality that Southern Song artists sought to give their landscapes.

Li Ye literary name iingzhai (b. 1192, Luangcheng, Hebei province, China—d. 1279, Yuanshi) Chinese mathematician and scholar-official who contributed to the solution of polynomial equations in one variable. When the Mongols invaded his home district in 1233, Li wandered home¬ less in Shanxi, Shandong, and Henan provinces. During this period he composed his main work, Ceyuan haijing (1248; “Sea Mirror of Circle Measurements”), which contains 170 problems based on one geometric diagram of a circular city wall circumscribed by a right-angled triangle. Although the problems are highly contrived, they enabled Li to list some 692 algebraic formulas for triangular areas and segment lengths. In 1264 Li was appointed to the Hanlin Academy by Kublai Khan. Li strongly criti-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Li Zhizao ► Liberal Party I 1107

cized the political and intellectual climate of his time, though, and soon used ill health as a pretext to retire and live as a hermit.

Li Zhizao (b. 1565, Hangzhou, China—d. Nov. 1, 1630, Beijing) Chi¬ nese mathematician, astronomer, and geographer whose translations of European scientific books greatly contributed to the spread of Western science in China. In 1601 he met the Italian Jesuit Matteo Ricci, who bap¬ tized him in 1610. By engraving and printing numerous copies of Ricci’s world map, Li altered many Chinese views of world geography. Li and Ricci translated Christopher Clavius’s arithmetic primer Epitome arith- meticae practicae (1585; “Selected Arithmetic Methods”) as Tongwen suanzhi (1614). This book systematically introduced European-style mathematical notation, while Li included complementary elements from traditional Chinese mathematics. He also brought together and published a series of books composed by the Jesuits with Chinese help, Tianxue chuhan (1629; “First Collection of Writings on Heavenly Learning”), that included 20 Western scientific and religious titles.

Li Zicheng Vle-'dzii-'choqX or Li Tzu-ch'eng (b. Oct. 3, 1605?, Mizhi, Shaanxi province, China—d. 1645, Hubei province) Rebel leader who brought about the fall of China’s Ming dynasty (1368-1644). A former postal worker, he joined the rebel cause in 1631 following a great famine in the northern part of the country. In 1644 he proclaimed himself the first emperor of a new dynasty and marched on Beijing, which he took easily. His victory was short-lived; Wu Sangui, a general loyal to the Ming, called on the Manchu tribes to drive him out, and he fled north, where he was probably killed by local villagers. See also Dorgon.

liability, limited See limited liability

liability insurance Insurance against claims of loss or damage for which a policyholder might have to compensate another party. The policy covers losses resulting from acts or omissions that are legally deemed to be negligent and that result in damage to the person, property, or legiti¬ mate interests of others. It was principally the introduction of the auto¬ mobile that spurred the rapid growth of this form of insurance, which now extends to a great many activities in addition to driving, including mal¬ practice insurance for doctors and other professionals, marine liability for boat owners and operators, and product liability for manufacturers of consumer goods. See also casualty insurance, consumer protection.

liana \le-‘a-n3\ or liane \le-‘an\ Any of various long-stemmed, woody vines, especially of tropical rain forests, that are rooted in the soil and climb or twine around other plants as they grow upward. Lianas often form a tangled network, up to 330 ft (100 m) high, around and among the trees that support them.

Liao dynasty Vlyau\ (907-1125) Dynasty formed by the nomadic Khi- tan tribes in much of present-day Manchuria, Mongolia, and the north¬ eastern corner of China proper. The Chinese portion of the empire was governed on the Tang pattern, while the northern part was set up on a tribal basis. After the establishment of the Song dynasty (960-1279), the Liao carried out a border war for control of northern China. Eventually the Song agreed to pay the Liao an annual tribute. The Juchen, former subjects of the Liao, destroyed the dynasty in 1125 but adopted most of its governmental system. The name “Cathay” for China derives from Khitay, another name for the Khitan.

Liao Vlyau\ River River, Liaoning province and Inner Mongolia autono¬ mous region, China. The East Liao rises in the mountains of Jilin prov¬ ince and the West Liao in southeastern Inner Mongolia. They merge and flow southwest as the Liao to empty into the Gulf of Liaodong, after a course of 836 mi (1,345 km). The river’s drainage basin occupies 83,000 sq mi (215,000 sq km). It is navigable by small boats for about 400 mi (645 km) from its mouth.

Liaodong Vlyau-'duq\ Peninsula or Liao-tung Peninsula Pen¬ insula, extending from the southern coastline of Liaoning province, north¬ eastern China. It partly separates the Bo Hai (Gulf of Chihli) on the west from Korea Bay on the east. It forms part of a mountain belt that con¬ tinues in the Changbai Mountains; on the peninsula the range is known as the Qian Mountains. Near the southern tip of the peninsula lies the port of Dalian.

Liaoning \'lyau-'niq\ formerly (1903-28) Fengtian or Feng-t'ien Yfoq-’tyenV Province (pop., 2002 est.: 42,030,000), northeastern China. It lies on the Yellow Sea and is bordered by North Korea, Jilin and Hebei provinces, and Inner Mongolia. With an area of 58,300 sq mi (151,000 sq

km), it is the southernmost of the three provinces that form the region of Manchuria. Its capital is Shenyang. It has four main topographical regions: the central plains, the Liaodong Peninsula, the western highlands, and the eastern mountain zone. In 1932—45 it was part of the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo. Shenyang was taken by the Chinese communists in 1948. Liaoning is China’s most industrialized province, producing steel, cement, crude oil, and electrical power.

liar paradox Paradox derived from the statement attributed to the Cretan prophet Epimenides (6th century bc) that all Cretans are liars. If Epimenides’ statement is taken to imply that all statements made by Cret¬ ans are false, then since Epimenides was a Cretan, his statement is false (i.e., not all Cretans are liars). The paradox’s simplest form arises from considering the sentence “This sentence is false.” If it is true, then it is false, and if it is false, then it is true. Consideration of such semantic para- Doxes led logicians to distinguish between object language and metalan¬ guage and to conclude that no language can consistently contain a complete semantic theory for its own sentences.

Liard River Vle-ord\ River, northwestern Canada. Rising in the Yukon Territory, it flows southeast through British Columbia. It then turns north¬ east and empties into the Mackenzie River in the Northwest Territories, after a course of 693 mi (1,115 km). Its upper course has rapids and canyons; its lower course is navigable for small boats. It is named for the liards (poplar trees) along its course.

Libby, Willard (Frank) (b. Dec. 17, 1908, Grand Valley, Colo., U.S.—d. Sept. 8, 1980, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. chemist. He studied at the University of California at Berkeley and later taught there and at the University of Chicago and UCLA. With the Manhattan Project, he helped develop a method for separating uranium isotopes and showed that tritium is a product of cosmic radiation. In 1947 he and his students developed carbon-14 dating, which proved to be an extremely valuable tool for archaeology, anthropology, and earth science and earned him a 1960 Nobel Prize.

libel See DEFAMATION

Liber Augusta Ms See Constitutions of Melfi

Liberace \,lib-3-'ra-che\ orig. Wladziu Valentino Liberace (b.

May 16, 1919, West Allis, Wis., U.S.—d. Feb. 4, 1987, Palm Springs, Calif.) U.S. pianist. Born to Polish and Italian immigrants, he appeared as a soloist with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra at age 16. He began giving concerts in flamboyant costumes with ornate pianos and candela¬ bra, and though he occasionally performed with symphony orchestras, he built his career playing primarily popular music. Hugely successful, he hosted his own television variety series. The Liberace Show (1952-55, 1969), and appeared in films such as Sincerely Yours (1955). In later years he performed frequently in Las Vegas, Nev.

liberal arts College or university curriculum aimed at imparting gen¬ eral knowledge and developing general intellectual capacities, in contrast to a professional, vocational, or technical curriculum. In Classical antiq¬ uity, the term designated the education proper to a freeman (Latin liber, “free”) as opposed to a slave. In the medieval Western university, the seven liberal arts were grammar, rhetoric, and logic (the trivium ) and geometry, arithmetic, music, and astronomy (the quadrivium). In modem colleges and universities, the liberal arts include the study of literature, languages, philosophy, history, mathematics, and science.

Liberal-Democratic Party (LDP) Japan’s largest political party, which held power almost continuously from its formation in 1955 until 1993. It was created through the amalgamation and transformation of vari¬ ous factions of the prewar Rikken SeiyOkai and Minseito parties. The conser¬ vative LDP appeared threatened in the 1970s but survived; the end of the 1980s boom years (the “bubble economy”), financial crises, and political scandals finally caused the party to lose its majority in the Diet in 1993. It came back to power in a coalition government in 1994, and since then LDP prime ministers have included Obuchi Keizo and Koizumi Jun'ichiro.

Liberal Parly British political party that emerged in the mid-19th cen¬ tury as the successor to the Whigs. It was the major party in opposition to the Conservative Party until 1918, after which it was supplanted by the Labour Party. It was initially supported by the middle class that was enfran¬ chised by the Reform Bill of 1832. Earl Russell’s administration in 1846 is sometimes regarded as the first Liberal government, but the first unequivocally Liberal government was formed in 1868 by William E.

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1108 I Liberal Party of Canada ► libertarianism

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Gladstone. Under Gladstone, until 1894, the party’s hallmark was reform; after 1884 it espoused Irish Home Rule. It championed individualism, pri¬ vate enterprise, human rights, and promotion of social justice; wary of imperial expansion, it was pacific and internationalist. During World War I it split into two camps, centred on H.H. Asquith and David Lloyd George. It continued as a minor party until 1988, when it merged with the Social Democratic Party to form the Liberal Democratic Party.

Liberal Party of Canada One of the two major Canadian political parties. It originated in two reformist opposition groups, Rouges and Clear Grits, that emerged in the mid-19th century in what are now the provinces of Quebec and Ontario, respectively. The first Liberal government was headed by Alexander Mackenzie (1873-78). The party regained power under Wilfred Laurier (1896-1911) and was the ruling party for much of the 20th century under such prime ministers as W.L. Mackenzie King, Louis Saint Laurent, Lester Pearson, Pierre Trudeau, and Jean Chretien. Like the Conservative Party (later the Progressive Conservative Party), the Liberal Party comprises diverse regional, ethnic, religious, and class interests.

liberalism Political and economic doctrine that emphasizes the rights and freedoms of the individual and the need to limit the powers of gov¬ ernment. Liberalism originated as a defensive reaction to the horrors of the European wars of religion of the 16th century (see Thirty Years' War). Its basic ideas were given formal expression in works by Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, both of whom argued that the power of the sovereign is ultimately justified by the consent of the governed, given in a hypotheti¬ cal social contract rather than by divine right (see divine kingship). In the economic realm, liberals in the 19th century urged the end of state inter¬ ference in the economic life of society. Following Adam Smith, they argued that economic systems based on free markets are more efficient and gen¬ erate more prosperity than those that are partly state-controlled. In response to the great inequalities of wealth and other social problems cre¬ ated by the Industrial Revolution in Europe and North America, liberals in the late 19th and early 20th centuries advocated limited state intervention in the market and the creation of state-funded social services, such as free public education and health insurance. In the U.S. the New Deal program undertaken by Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt typified modern liberalism in its vast expansion of the scope of governmental activities and its increased regulation of business. After World War II a further expansion of social welfare programs occurred in Britain, Scandinavia, and the U.S. Eco¬ nomic stagnation beginning in the late 1970s led to a revival of classical liberal positions favouring free markets, especially among political con¬ servatives in Britain and the U.S. Contemporary liberalism remains com¬ mitted to social reform, including reducing inequality and expanding individual rights. See also conservatism; individualism.

liberalism, theological School of religious thought characterized by concern with inner motivation as opposed to external controls. It was set in motion in the 17th century by Rene Descartes, who expressed faith in human reason, and it was influenced by such philosophers as Benedict de Spinoza, G. W. Leibniz, and John Locke. Its second stage, which coincided with the Romantic movement of the late 18th and 19th century, was marked by an appreciation of individual creativity, expressed in the writ¬ ings of philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Immanuel Kant as well as of the theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher. The third stage, from the mid-19th century through the 1920s, emphasized the idea of progress. Stimulated by the Industrial Revolution and by Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species (1859), thinkers such as T. H. Huxley and Herbert Spencer in England and William James and John Dewey in the U.S. focused on the psychological study of religious experience, the sociological study of reli¬ gious institutions, and philosophical inquiry into religious values.

liberation theology Roman Catholic movement that originated in the late 20th century in Latin America and seeks to express religious faith by helping the poor and working for political and social change. It began in 1968, when bishops attending the Latin American Bishops’ Conference in Medellin, Colom., affirmed the rights of the poor and asserted that industrialized nations were enriching themselves at the expense of the Third World. The movement’s central text, A Theology of Liberation (1971), was written by the Peruvian priest Gustavo Gutierrez (b. 1928). Liberation theologians have sometimes been criticized as purveyors of Marxism, and the Vatican has sought to curb their influence by appointing more conservative prelates.

Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam or Tamil Tigers Guerrilla organization seeking to establish an independent Tamil state in northern

and eastern Sri Lanka. Formed in 1972, it is considered one of the world’s most sophisticated and tightly organized insurgent groups. By 1985 it con¬ trolled the port of Jaffna and most of the Jaffna Peninsula in northern Sri Lanka. After losing control of Jaffna in 1987, it carried out several attacks, including the assassinations of the Sri Lankan president and the former Indian prime minister and a suicide bombing that killed 100 people in the capital of Colombo. Negotiations between the Tigers and the government broke down in the mid-1990s, and fighting subsequently intensified until February 2002 when a permanent cease-fire agreement was signed.

Liberia officially Republic of Liberia Republic, western Africa. Area: 37,743 sq mi (97,754 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 2,900,000. Capital: Monrovia. Liberia’s ethnic groups include the Americo-

Liberians, descendants of the black freed- men who emigrated from the U.S. in the 19th century; and 16 indigenous peoples of the Mande, Kwa, and Mel linguistic groups. Languages: English (official), indigenous languages. Religions: traditional beliefs, Christianity, Islam. Currency: Liberian dollar. Liberia has coastal lowlands extending 350 mi (560 km) along the Atlantic; farther inland are hills and low mountains. Roughly one-fifth of Liberia consists of tropical rainforest. Agriculture is the main component of the economy, but only a portion of the arable land is cultivated. The country also has rich iron-ore reserves, which are a major source of exports. The principal cash crops are rubber, coffee, and cacao; the staple crops are rice and cassava. Constitutionally, Liberia is a republic with two legislative houses, and its head of state and government is the president; however, since 2003 it has been under a transitional gov¬ ernment with a chairman. Africa’s oldest republic, Liberia was established on land acquired for freed U.S. slaves by the American Colonization Society, which founded a colony at Cape Mesurado in 1821. In 1822 Jehudi Ashmun, a Methodist minister, became the director of the settle¬ ment and Liberia’s real founder. In 1824 the territory was named Liberia, and its main settlement was named Monrovia. Joseph Jenkins Roberts proclaimed Liberian independence in 1847 and expanded its boundaries. Border disputes with the French and British lasted until 1892, when its boundaries were officially established. In 1980 a coup led by Gen. Sam¬ uel K. Doe marked the end of the Americo-Liberians’ long political domi¬ nance over the indigenous Africans. A rebellion in 1989 escalated into a destructive civil war in the 1990s. A peace agreement was reached in 1996, but fighting broke out again in 1999 and lasted until 2003, when a transitional government was installed, backed by UN peacekeepers.

libertarianism Political philosophy that stresses personal liberty. Lib¬ ertarians believe that individuals should have complete freedom of action, provided their actions do not infringe on the freedom of others. Liber-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Liberty ► Libya I 1109

tarianism’s distrust of government is rooted in 19th-century anarchism. Typical libertarians oppose not only the income tax and other government impositions but also programs seen by many as beneficial, such as social security and the postal service. In the U.S. their views often crosscut tra¬ ditional party boundaries (e.g., libertarians oppose gun control, as do most Republicans, but support the legalization of prohibited drugs, as do some liberal Democrats). Among the thinkers embraced by libertarians are Henry David Thoreau and Ayn Rand.

Liberty, Sons of Organization of American colonists formed in 1765 to oppose the Stamp Act. The name was taken from a speech by Isaac Barre in the British Parliament that referred to American colonials who opposed unjust British measures as “sons of liberty.” The group agitated for colonial resistance and helped prevent enforcement of the Stamp Act. After the act’s repeal, the organization continued to oppose British mea¬ sures against the colonists.

Liberty Party (1840-48) U.S. political party formed by a splinter group of abolitionists. It was created by Arthur Tappan and Theodore Weld in opposition to William Lloyd Garrison, who scorned political action as a futile way to end slavery. At its first party convention in 1840, James Bir- ney was nominated for U.S. president. By 1844 the party had influenced undecided legislators in many local elections to adopt antislavery stands. In 1848 it dissolved when many of its members joined the Barnburners (see Hunkers and Barnburners) to form the Free Soil Party.

libido \b-’be-do\ Physiological and emotional energy associated with the sex drive. The concept was originated by Sigmund Freud, who saw the libido as linked not only with sexual desire but with all constructive human activity. He believed that psychiatric illnesses were the result of misdirecting or suppressing the libido. Carl Gustav Jung used the term more broadly to encompass all life processes in all species.

Libra (Latin: “Scales”) In astronomy, the constellation lying between Scorpio and Virgo; in astrology, the seventh sign of the zodiac, govern¬ ing approximately the period September 22-October 23. Its symbol is either a woman holding a balance scale or the scale alone. The woman is sometimes identified with Astraea, the Roman goddess of justice.

library Collection of information resources in print or in other forms that is organized and made accessible for reading or study. The word derives from the Latin liber (“book”). The origin of libraries lies in the keeping of written records, a practice that dates at least to the 3rd mil¬ lennium bc in Babylonia. The first libraries as repositories of books were those of the Greek temples and those established in conjunction with the Greek schools of philosophy in the 4th century bc. Today’s libraries fre¬ quently contain periodicals, microfilms, tapes, videos, compact discs, and other materials in addition to books. The growth of on-line communica¬ tions networks has enabled library users to search electronically linked databases worldwide. See also library science.

library classification System of arrangement adopted by a library to enable patrons to locate its materials quickly and easily. Classifications may be natural (e.g., by subject), artificial (e.g., by alphabet, form, or numerical order), or accidental (e.g., chronological or geographic). They also vary in degree; some have minute subdivisions while others are broader. Widely used systems include the Dewey Decimal Classification, the Library of Congress Classification, the Bliss Classification, and the Colon Classification; special libraries may devise their own unique systems.

Library of Alexandria See Library of Alexandria

Library of Congress U.S. library, the largest and one of the greatest of what may be considered national libraries. Founded in Washington, D.C., in 1800, it was housed in the Capitol until the building was burned by Brit¬ ish troops in 1814; it moved to permanent quarters in 1897. In addition to serving as a reference source for members of Congress and other govern¬ ment officers, it is outstanding among the learned institutions of the world, with magnificent collections of books, manuscripts, music, prints, and maps. It contains some 18 million books, 2.5 million recordings, 12 million photographs, 4.5 million maps, and more than 54 million manuscripts.

Library of Congress Classification or LC Classification Sys¬ tem of library organization developed during the reorganization of the U.S. Library of Congress. It consists of separate, mutually exclusive, special classifications, often having no connection save the accidental one of alphabetical notation. The arrangement roughly follows groupings of social sciences, humanities, and natural and physical sciences. It divides

the field of knowledge into 20 large classes and an additional class for gen¬ eral works. Each main class has a synopsis that also serves as a guide. The resulting order is from the general to the specific and from the theoretical to the practical. The LC Classification has largely replaced the Dewey Deci¬ mal Classification in university, special, and government libraries.

library science Principles and practices of library operation and administration, and their study. It emerged as a separate field of study in the second half of the 19th century. The first training program for librar¬ ians in the U.S. was established by Melvil Dewey in 1887. In the 20th cen¬ tury, library science was gradually subsumed under the more general field of information science. Today’s graduate programs in library and informa¬ tion science are accredited by the American Library Association (founded 1876) and prepare students for professional positions in other areas of the information industry as well.

Libreville Vle-bro-.viU City (pop., 1993: 362,386), capital of Gabon, located on the northern shore of the Gabon Estuary. Pongoue people first settled the region after the 16th century, followed by the Fang in the 19th century. The French built a fort on the estuary’s northern bank in 1843, and in 1849 a settlement of freed slaves and a group of Pongoue villages were given the name Libreville. In 1850 France abandoned its fort and resettled on the plateau, now the commercial and administrative centre of the city. It is well industrialized and is Gabon’s educational centre. Libre¬ ville was the capital of French Equatorial Africa from 1888 to 1904.

Libya officially Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya

\ja-m3-hi-'re-y3\ Country, North Africa. Area: 679,362 sq mi (1,759,540 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 5,853,000. Capital: Tripoli. Berbers, once

the major ethnic group, have been largely assimilated into the predominant Arab cul¬ ture; sub-Saharan Africans are among the other ethnic groups. Languages: Arabic (official), Berber (Amazigh). Religions: Islam (official; predominantly Sunni); also Christianity. Currency: Libyan dinar. All but two tiny fractions of Libya are covered by the Sahara: Tri- politania in the northwest and Cyrenaica in the northeast. Tripolitania is Libya’s most important agricultural region and its most populated area. The production and export of petroleum are the basis of Libya’s economy; other resources include natural gas, manganese, and gypsum. Livestock raising, including sheep and goats, is important in the north. Libya is a socialist state with one policy-making body; the head of government is the prime minister, but Muammar al-Qaddafi has been the de facto head of state and real power in Libya since 1970. The early history is that of Fezzan, Cyrenaica, and Tripolitania, which the Ottoman Empire combined under one regency in Tripoli in the 16th century. In 1911 Italy claimed

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1110 I Libyan Desert ► Liebermann

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control of Libya, and, by the outbreak of World War II (1939-45), 150,000 Italians had immigrated there. The scene of much fighting in the war, it became an independent state in 1951 and a member of the Arab League in 1953. The discovery of petroleum in 1959 brought wealth to Libya. A decade later, a group of army officers led by al-Qaddafi deposed the king and made the country an Islamic republic. Under al-Qaddafi, Libya sup¬ ported the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) and allegedly pro¬ vided aid for international terrorist groups. Intermittent warfare with Chad that had begun in the 1970s ended with Libya’s defeat in 1987. A U.S. trade embargo (endorsed by the UN), imposed on Libya in the 1990s for its purported connection to terrorism, began to be lifted in 2003.

Libyan Desert Northeastern portion of the Sahara, extending from eastern Libya through southwestern Egypt into northwestern Sudan. The highest point is Mount 'Uwaynat (6,345 ft [1,934 m]), located where the three countries meet. Harsh and arid, it is characterized by bare rocky plateaus and sandy plains.

Licchavi Vlich-3-ve\ era (c. 450-c. 750) In Nepal, the period of rule by the Licchavi dynasty. The dynasty originated in India, used Sanskrit as a court language, and issued Indian-style coins. It maintained close ties to India and also had economic and political relations with Tibet, thus becom¬ ing a cultural centre linking central and southern Asia. The era ended when Amsuvarman founded the Thakuri dynasty in the mid-8th century.

lichee See utchi

lichen \H-kan\ Any of about 15,000 species of small, colourful, scaly plants that consist of a symbiotic association of algae (usually green) and fungi (see fungus). These extremely hardy, slow growers often are pio¬ neer species in sparse environments such as mountaintops and the far North. Fungal cells, anchored to the substrate with hairlike growths (rhizines), form the base. In the body (thallus), numerous algal cells are distributed among fewer fungal cells. Through photosynthesis the algal cells provide simple sugars and vitamins for both partners in this symbi¬ otic association. The fungal cells protect the algal cells from environmen¬ tal extremes. Lichens may form a thin, crustlike, tightly bound covering over their substrate (e.g., cracks in rocks), or they may be small and leafy, with loose attachments to the substrate. Their colours range from brown to bright orange or yellow. In far northern Europe and Asia, lichens pro¬ vide two-thirds of caribou and reindeer food. They have been the source of medicines and dyes.

Lichtenstein Vlik-ton-.stln, 'lik-ton-.stenV, Roy (b. Oct. 27, 1923, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Sept. 29, 1997, New York City) U.S. painter, sculp¬ tor, and graphic artist. He at first embraced Abstract Expressionism, but in the 1960s he turned to Pop art for which he is best known. Especially popular are his brilliantly coloured paintings in the style of large-scale comic strips, such as Whaam (1963). In the mid 1960s he began making Pop versions of well-known paintings by artists such as Claude Monet, Pablo Picasso, and Henri Matisse. In the 1970s he also made sculptures, in which he reproduced Art Deco forms. In the 1980s he painted a five- story-high mural in a New York City office building.

Licinius \b-'si-ne-9s\ orig. Valerius Licinianus Licinius (d. 325) Roman emperor (308-324). Bom of Illyrian peasant stock, he advanced in the army and in 308 was appointed augustus by his friend the emperor Galerius. Because the empire was split up among several emperors at that time (see tetrarch), his domain was confined to Pannonia. After the death of Galerius in 311, he allied with Constantine I, defeated his competitor Maximinus in Asia Minor, and partitioned the empire (313). Although reputedly converted to Christianity, he grew alienated and launched a campaign of mild persecution against the Christians c. 320. Constantine soon drove him from power and had him executed.

Licking River River, eastern Kentucky, U.S. It flows about 320 mi (515 km) generally northwest to enter the Ohio River at Covington, Ky., oppo¬ site Cincinnati, Ohio. It courses through an area of saline springs, which originally attracted animals to its salt licks.

Licklider Vlik-.lid-srV, Joseph Carl Robnett (b. March 11, 1915, St. Louis, Mo., U.S.—d. June 26, 1990, Arlington, Mass.) U.S. scientist. He studied math and physics and received a doctorate in psychology from the University of Rochester (N.Y.). He lectured at Harvard University before joining the faculty at MIT (1949-57, 1966-85). As a group leader at the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the 1960s, he encouraged research into time-sharing and helped lay the groundwork for computer networking and ARPANET, the predecessor of the Internet. He

is known for his extensive work on human-computer interaction and inter¬ faces. His influence led to the first American advanced-degree programs in computer science.

licorice \'li-krish\ Perennial herb (Glycyrrhiza glabra) of the pea fam¬ ily (see legume) and the flavouring, confection, and medicine made from its roots. Native to southern Europe, the plant is cultivated around the Mediterranean and in parts of the U.S. It grows to 3 ft (1 m) and bears graceful compound leaves, blue- violet flower clusters, and flat, flex¬ ible seedpods 3-4 in. (7-10 cm) long. It is 42 times sweeter than table sugar, and its flavour, similar to anise, can mask unpleasant medicinal tastes.

Liddell Hart \ 1 lid- 3 l-'hart\ / Sir Basil (Henry) (b. Oct. 31, 1895,

Paris, France—-d. Jan. 29, 1970,

Marlow, Buckinghamshire, Eng.)

British military historian and strategist. He left Cambridge University to join the British army at the outbreak of World War I and retired as a cap¬ tain in 1927. He was an early advocate of air power and mechanized tank warfare. He wrote for London newspapers from 1925 to 1945. His writ¬ ings on strategy, which emphasized the elements of mobility and surprise, were more influential in Germany than in France or England; his “expand¬ ing torrent” theory of attack became the basis for German blitzkrieg war¬ fare in 1939-41. The author of more than 30 books, he was knighted in

Lie \'le\, Jonas (Lauritz Idemil) (b. Nov. 6, 1833, Hokksund in Eiker, Nor.—d. July 5, 1908, Stavern) Norwegian novelist. He wrote his first novel. The Visionary or Pictures from Nordland (1870), with his wife’s collaboration. Later novels include The Barque “Future ” (1872), One of Life's Slaves (1883), and the classic The Family at Gilje (1883), which deals with the position of women. He sought to reflect in his writings the nature, folk life, and social spirit of his country. With Henrik Ibsen, Bjorn- stjerne Bjornson, and Alexander Kielland (1849-1906), he is considered one of “the four great ones” of 19th-century Norwegian literature.

Lie \'le\, Trygve (b. July 16, 1896, Kristiania, Nor.—d. Dec. 30, 1968, Geilo) First secretary-general of the United Nations (1946-52). Educated in law at the University of Kristiania (Oslo), Lie was active in the Nor¬ wegian Labour Party before being appointed foreign minister of Norway’s government-in-exile during World War II. As a member of the Norwegian delegation to the UN Conference on International Organization (1945), he helped draft the provisions for the United Nations Security Council. As secretary-general, he helped to secure the removal of Soviet troops from Iran; he also dealt with the first Arab-Israeli war and the India-Pakistan conflict over Kashmir. The Soviet Union ceased to cooperate with him after he supported UN intervention in the Korean War, and his effectiveness was further hampered by charges from anticommunist politicians in the U.S. that his secretariat had employed subversives. He resigned in 1952.

lie detector or polygraph Instrument for recording physiological phenomena (including blood pressure, pulse rate, and respiration) of a human subject as he or she answers questions asked by an operator. These data (recorded as graphs) are used as the basis for judging whether the sub¬ ject is lying. The phenomena usually chosen for recording are those not easily controlled voluntarily. The types of questions asked, their wording, and the mode of presentation have a tremendous effect on the results and their reliability. Used in police interrogation and investigation since 1924, the lie detector is still controversial among psychologists and not always accepted as evidence in courts.

Liebermann Vle-bor-.manN, Max (b. July 20, 1847, Berlin, Prussia—d. Feb. 8, 1935, Berlin, Ger.) German painter and etcher. The realism and simplicity of his first exhibited painting, Women Plucking Geese (1872), were in striking contrast to the Romantic, idealized art then in vogue. In the summer of 1873 he lived in Barbizon, where he became acquainted with the Barbizon school of painters; as a result of their influ¬ ence, he brightened his palette and helped initiate the German school of Impressionism. In the 1880s he found his subjects in the orphanages and asylums for the old in Amsterdam and among the peasants and urban

Spanish licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra).

A TO Z BOTANICAL COLLECTION/EB INC.

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Liebig ► lien I 1111

labourers of Germany and The Netherlands. As a supporter of such aca¬ demically unpopular styles as Impressionism and Art Nouveau, he founded the Berlin Sezession (1899) but later became president of the conservative Berlin Academy.

Liebig \'le-bik\, Justus, Freiherr (baron) von (b. May 12, 1803, Darmstadt, Hesse-Darmstadt—d. April 18, 1873, Munich, Bavaria) Ger¬ man chemist. He made many important contributions to the early system¬ atization of organic chemistry and to biochemistry, chemical education, and agricultural chemistry. He was the first to demonstrate the existence of free radicals and did much to clarify the properties of acids. He devel¬ oped simple analytical methods (see analysis) that greatly aided his work, analyzed many tissues and body fluids, and showed that plants use car¬ bon dioxide, water, and ammonia. In later years his reputation became so great that he was regarded as the final authority in chemical matters, and he was often involved in scientific controversies.

Liebknecht \'lep-,knekt\ / Karl (b. Jan. 15, 1919, Berlin) German socialist leader. Son of Wilhelm Lieb¬ knecht, he became a lawyer and a Marxist. In 1912 he entered the Reichstag and led the opposition to Germany’s pre-World War I policy. In 1916 he was expelled from the Social Democratic Party for opposing its leadership and came into close alliance with Rosa Luxemburg, with whom he founded the Spartacists. He was imprisoned (1916-18) for advo¬ cating the overthrow of the govern¬ ment. In 1918 he played a leading role in forming the German Commu¬ nist Party. A series of bloody clashes culminated in the January 1919 put¬ sch in which Liebknecht resorted to force; he was shot on the pretext that he was attempting to escape arrest.

Aug. 13, 1871, Leipzig, Ger.—d.

Karl Liebknecht, 1913

INTERFOTO-FRIEDRICH RAUCH, MUNICH

Liebknecht, Wilhelm (b. March 29, 1826, Giessen, Hesse—d. Aug. 7, 1900, Berlin, Ger.) German social¬ ist, cofounder of the German Social Democratic Party. Imprisoned for participating in the Revolutions of 1 848, he lived in exile in England (1849-62), working closely with Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Prus¬ sia granted him amnesty in 1862, but Otto von Bismarck had him expelled again in 1865. In Leipzig he and August Bebel organized the Social Democratic Labour Party in 1869. He was imprisoned (1872-74) for his writings against the Franco- Prussian War. Bismarck’s repression of the socialists brought about a merger with the followers of Ferdi¬ nand Lassalle in 1875. With the expi¬ ration of the Anti-Socialist Law (1878-90), this party became known as the German Social Democratic Pa ing spokesman, primarily as a writer

Wilhelm Liebknecht, c. 1890

ARCHIV FUR KUNST UND GESCHICHTE, BERUN

Liebknecht continued as a lead- r the party’s newspaper, Vorwarts.

Liechtenstein Vlik-ton-.shtlM officially Principality of Liechten¬ stein Principality, western Europe. It is located between Switzerland and Austria. Area: 62 sq mi (160 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 34,800. Capital: Vaduz. The Liechtensteiners are descended from the Alemanni tribe that came into the region after ad 500. Languages: German (official), Alemanni dialect, Walser dialect. Religions: Christianity (predominantly Roman Catholic; also Protestant); also Islam. Currency: Swiss franc. The eastern two-thirds of Liechtenstein’s small territory is composed of the foothills of the Rhatikon Massif, part of the central Alps. The western sec¬ tion of the country is occupied by the Rhine River floodplain. Liechtenstein has no natural resources of commercial value, and virtually all raw mate¬ rials, including wood, have to be imported. Manufacturing includes met-

cal situation and its absolute bank secrecy. It is a constitutional monarchy with one legislative house; its chief of state is the prince, and the head of government is the prime minister. The Rhine plain was occupied for centuries by two independent lordships of the Holy Roman Empire, Vaduz and Schellenberg. The principality of Liechtenstein, consisting of these two lordships, was founded in 1719 and remained part of the Holy Roman Empire. It was included in the German Confederation (1815-66). In 1866 it became independent, recognizing Vaduz and Schel¬ lenberg as unique regions forming separate electoral districts. In 1921 it adopted Swiss currency, and in 1923 it joined the Swiss customs union. A coalition that ruled Liechtenstein for almost 60 years dissolved in 1997. Into the early 21st century Prince Hans Adam II continued his long¬ standing battle for constitutional changes that would increase his powers.

lied Vlet\ German song, particularly an art song for voice and piano of the late 18th or the 19th century. The Romantic movement fostered seri¬ ous popular poetry by poets such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. Com¬ posers often set such poetry to folk-influenced music, but the lied could also be highly sophisticated and even experimental. At first generally per¬ formed at private social gatherings, it eventually moved into the concert- hall repertoire. The most influential and prolific lied composer was Franz Schubert, who wrote more than 600; Robert Schumann, Felix Mendelssohn, Johannes Brahms, Hugo Wolf, Gustav Mahler, and Richard Strauss are most prominent in the bed’s subsequent history.

Liege Vlyezh\ Flemish Luik Vloik\ City (pop., 2000 est.: 185,639), east¬ ern Belgium. Located at the confluence of the Meuse and Ourthe rivers, it was inhabited in prehistoric times and was known to the Romans as Leo- dium. It became a town when St. Hubert transferred his see there in 721, and it was noted as a centre of learning in the Middle Ages. Annexed to France in 1795, it was later assigned with the rest of Belgium to The Netherlands in 1815. A centre of the successful revolt for Belgian inde¬ pendence in 1830, it is now an industrial research centre and a major port.

liege \lej\ In European feudal society, an unconditional bond between a man and his overlord. Thus, if a tenant held estates from various over- lords, his obligations to his liege lord, to whom he had paid “liege hom¬ age,” were greater than his obligations to the other lords, to whom he had paid only “simple homage.” See also feudal land tenure.

lien \len\ In law, a charge or encumbrance on property for the satisfac¬ tion of a debt or other duty. Common law developed two kinds of posses¬ sory lien: the specific (a lien on the specific property involved in a

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© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1112 I Liezi ► light-emitting diode

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transaction) and the general (a lien for the satisfaction of a balance due, not confined to a specific property involved in a transaction). Courts of equity may, through the device of the equitable lien, recognize a creditor’s interest in a debtor’s property. Statutory liens are also available; devel¬ opers and building contractors, for example, may use their interest in an improved site as security for payment (a mechanic’s lien).

Liezi or Lieh-tzu Vlye-'dzoX (fl. 4th century bc, China) Chinese Daoist philosopher. He was one of the three primary philosophers who devel¬ oped the tenets of Daoist thought, and he is the presumed author of the Daoist work Liezi. Many of the writings traditionally attributed to him have been identified as later forgeries, but he is still widely believed to have been a historical figure.

Liezi or Lieh-tzu Chinese Daoist classic. Though Liezi is traditionally named as its author, in its present form it probably dates from the 3rd or 4th century ad. Like earlier Daoist classics, it emphasizes the mysterious dao (way). The “Yang Zhu” chapter acknowledges the futility of chal¬ lenging the dao and asserts that all one can look forward to in life is sex, music, physical beauty, and material abundance. This fatalistic belief in a life of radical self-interest was a new development in Daoism.

Lifar Vle-.farV, Serge (b. April 2, Empire—d. Dec. 15, 1986, Lau¬ sanne, Switz.) Russian-born French dancer, choreographer, and ballet master. In 1923 he joined the Ballets Russes, where he became lead dancer in 1925 and created title roles in sev¬ eral of George Balanchine’s ballets.

He worked at the Paris Opera Ballet as lead dancer and ballet master (1929^-5, 1947-58), choreograph¬ ing more than 50 works, including Prometheus (1929), Icarus (1935), Les Mirages (1947), and Les Noces

1905, Kiev, Ukraine, Russian

Lifar in Night, 1930

BBC HULTON PICTURE LIBRARY

fantastiques (1955). He rebuilt the company as a separate performing

group, emphasizing the importance of male dancers. He retired as a dancer in 1956 but continued to choreograph for various European companies.

life State characterized by the ability to metabolize nutrients (process materials for energy and tissue building), grow, reproduce, and respond and adapt to environmental stimuli. Fossil evidence suggests that earth’s first living organisms, bacteria and cyanobacteria, arose about 3.5 billion years ago. All known life-forms possess either DNA or RNA. Viruses, which possess DNA and RNA, cannot reproduce without a host cell and do not metabolize nutrients, and it is uncertain whether they should be classified as living or nonliving. Scientists disagree on the likelihood of extraterrestrial life. See also Drake equation.

Life U.S. picture magazine published weekly in New York City from 1936 to 1972 and in special editions thereafter. One of the most popular and widely imitated of U.S. magazines, it was founded by Henry R. Luce and quickly became a cornerstone of Time-Life Publications. From the start it emphasized photography, with gripping, superbly chosen news photo¬ graphs, photographic features, and photo-essays by the best photogra¬ phers; gradually more writing was added. Its war coverage—particularly that of World War II—was notably vivid, authentic, and moving. Life ceased publication largely because its costs outstripped revenues. It reap¬ peared in special issues and then, from 1978 to 2000, as a monthly.

life insurance Method by which large groups of individuals equalize the burden of financial loss from death by distributing funds to the ben¬ eficiaries of those who die. Life insurance is most developed in wealthy countries, where it has become a major channel of saving and investing. There are three basic types of life-insurance contract. Term insurance is issued for a specified number of years; protection expires at the end of the period and there is no cash value remaining. Whole-life contracts run for the whole of the insured’s life and also accumulate a cash value, which is paid when the contract matures or is surrendered; the cash value is less than the policy’s face value. Endowment contracts run for a specified time period and pay their full face value at the end of the period.

life span Time between birth and death. It ranges from a mayfly’s day to certain trees’ thousands of years. Its limit appears to depend on hered¬ ity, but such factors as (in humans) disease, natural disasters, war, diet,

and habits such as smoking reduce it. Maximum life span is theoretical; more meaningful is average life span, which life-insurance companies and actuaries analyze and tabulate. Long-lived progenitors tend to beget long- lived descendants. A very-low-calorie diet appeal’s to prolong life. Reduced infant mortality and improved sanitation and nutrition account for much of the increase since c. 1800—from about 35 to over 70 years in most industrialized countries. The oldest well-documented age reached by a human is 122 years.

Liffey, River River, Ireland. Rising southwest of Dublin, it flows north¬ west, then runs west in the Kildare lowland. It crosses east through Dub¬ lin, where it is channeled into canals, and empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea, after a course of 50 mi (80 km). The river is per¬ sonified as Anna Livia Plurabelle in James Joyce’s Finnegans Wake.

lift Upward-acting force on an aircraft wing or airfoil. An aircraft in flight experiences an upward lift force, as well as the thrust of the engine, the force of its own weight, and a drag force. The lift force arises because the speed at which the displaced air moves over the top of the airfoil (and over the top of the attached boundary layer) is greater than the speed at which it moves over the bottom and because the pressure acting on the airfoil from below is therefore greater than the pressure from above.

lift-slab construction Technique whereby concrete floor slabs are poured on the ground, one on top of the other, and then lifted into place on top of columns by hydraulic jacks. Used for very tall multistory build¬ ings, this method offers substantial savings in formwork.

ligament Tough fibrous band of connective tissue that supports internal organs and holds bones together properly in joints. It is composed of dense bundles of fibres and spindle-shaped cells (fibroblasts and fibrocytes), with little ground substance. White ligament is rich in sturdy, inelastic collagen fibres; yellow ligament is rich in tough elastic fibres, which allow more movement. See also tendon.

ligand Vli-gond, 'll-gondV Atom, group (see functional group), or mol¬ ecule attached to a central atom, usually of a transition element, in a coor¬ dination or complex compound (see bonding). It is almost always the electron-pair donor (nucleophile) in a covalent bond. Common ligands include the neutral molecules water (H 2 0), ammonia (NH 3 ), and carbon monoxide (CO) and the anions cyanide (CN - ), chloride (Cl - ), and hydrox¬ ide (OH - ). Rarely, ligands are cations and electron-pair acceptors (elec¬ trophiles). Organic ligands include EDTA (see chelate) and nitrilotriacetic acid. Biological systems rely on ligands such as the porphyrin in hemoglo¬ bin and chlorophyll, and numerous cofactors are ligands. In chelates, the ligand attaches at more than one point, sharing more than one electron pair, and is called bidentate or polydentate—having two or many “teeth.” The ligands in a complex may be the same or different.

Ligeti \le-'ga-te\, Gyorgy (Sandor) (b. May 28, 1923, Diciosanmar- tin, Transylvania, Rom.) Hungarian (Transylvanian) composer. By 1950 he was teaching at the Budapest Academy, but not until he met Karlheinz Stockhausen and others in Vienna in 1956 did he find his compositional path. After a brief interest in electronic music, he gained international recognition for his avant-garde pieces for performers; these works dealt principally with shifting masses of sound and tone colours. His most famous work, Atmospheres (1961), was used in the film 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968). The opera Le Grand macabre (1978) has been widely performed in Europe.

light That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum visible to the human eye. It ranges from the red end to the violet end of the spectrum, with wavelengths from 700 to 400 nanometres and frequencies from 4.3 x 10 14 to 7.5 x 10 14 Hz. Like all electromagnetic radiation, it travels through empty space at a speed of about 186,000 mi/sec (300,000 km/sec). In the mid- 19th century, light was described by James Clerk Maxwell in terms of electromagnetic waves, but 20th-century physicists showed that it exhibits properties of particles as well; its carrier particle is the photon. Light is the basis for the sense of sight and for the perception of colour. See also optics; wave-particle duality.

light-emitting diode (LED) Semiconductor diode that produces vis¬ ible or infrared light when subjected to an electric current, as a result of electroluminescence. Visible-light LEDs are used in many electronic devices as indicator lamps (e.g., an on/off indicator) and, when arranged in a matrix, to spell out letters or numbers on alphanumeric displays. Infrared LEDs are used in optoelectronics (e.g., in auto-focus cameras and television remote controls) and as light sources in some long-range fibre -

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

light fixture ► lilac I 1113

optic communications systems. LEDs are formed by the so-called Ill-V compound semiconductors related to gallium arsenide. They consume little power and are long-lasting and inexpensive.

light fixture See luminaire

light-frame construction System of construction using many small and closely spaced members that can be assembled by nailing. It is the standard for U.S. suburban housing. The balloon-frame house with wood cladding, invented in Chicago in the 1840s, aided the rapid settlement of the western U.S. In North America, with its abundant softwood forests, the framed building enjoyed an extensive revival after World War II in the form of platform frames. In platform framing, each floor is framed separately, as contrasted with balloon framing, in which the studs (verti¬ cal members) extend the full height of the building. Freed from the heavy timbers of the post-and-beam system, platform framing offers ease of con¬ struction. Carpenters first fabricate a floor, which consists of wood joists and subflooring. The floor often serves as a working platform on which the stud wall frames are fabricated in sections and then lifted into place. On top of this is placed a second floor or the roof. The roof is formed of rafters (sloping joists) or wood trusses. The standard interior wall sheath¬ ing is gypsum board (drywall), which provides fire-resistance, stability, and a surface ready for finishing. Framed structures traditionally were constructed individually at each house site; today many of the framing elements are mass-produced elsewhere and assembled on-site.

light quantum See photon

light-year Distance traveled by light moving in a vacuum in one year, at its accepted speed of 186,282 mi/second (299,792 km/second). It equals about 5.9 trillion mi (9.5 trillion km), 63,240 astronomical units, or 0.307

PARSEC.

Lightfoot, Gordon (b. Nov. 17, 1938, Orillia, Ont., Can.) Canadian singer and songwriter. He began writing folk-oriented pop singles in the mid-1960s, including “Early Morning Rain” and “Ribbon of Darkness.” His later hits include “If You Could Read My Mind” and “The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald .” His songs have been covered by singers rang¬ ing from Barbra Streisand to Jerry Lee Lewis.

lighthouse Structure, usually with a tower, built onshore or on the sea¬ bed to signal danger or provide aid to seafarers. The first known light¬ house was the Pharos of Alexandria. The modern lighthouse dates only from the early 18th century. Initially made of wood, these towers were often washed away in severe storms. The first lighthouse made of inter¬ locking masonry blocks was built on the treacherous Eddystone Rocks reef, off Plymouth, England (1759). Interlocking masonry blocks remained the principal material of lighthouse construction until they were replaced by concrete and steel in the 20th century. Modern construction methods have facilitated the building of offshore lighthouses. The most common illuminant is the electric-filament lamp. Refinements in lenses (e.g., the Fresnel lens) and reflectors made it possible to substantially increase the light’s intensity. Radio and satellite-based navigation systems have greatly reduced the need for large lighthouses in sighting land.

lighting Use of an artificial source of light for illumination. It is a key element of architecture and interior design. Residential lighting uses mainly either incandescent lamps or fluorescent lamps and often depends heavily on movable fixtures plugged into outlets; built-in lighting is typi¬ cally found in kitchens, bathrooms, and corridors and in the form of hang¬ ing pendants in dining rooms and sometimes recessed fixtures in living rooms. Lighting in nonresidential buildings is predominantly fluorescent. High-pressure sodium-vapor lamps (see electric discharge lamp) have higher efficiency and are used in industrial applications. Halogen lamps have resi¬ dential, industrial, and photographic applications. Depending on their fix¬ tures, lamps (bulbs) produce a variety of lighting conditions. Incandescent lamps placed in translucent glass globes create diffuse effects; in recessed ceiling-mounted fixtures with reflectors, they can light walls or floors evenly. Fluorescent fixtures are typically recessed and rectangular, with prismatic lenses, but other types including indirect cove lights (see coving) and luminous ceilings, in which lamps are placed above suspended trans¬ lucent panels. Mercury-vapor and high-pressure sodium-vapor lamps are placed in simple reflectors in industrial spaces, in pole-mounted streetlight fixtures, and in indirect up-lighting fixtures for commercial applications.

lightning Visible discharge of electricity when part of the atmosphere acquires enough electrical charge to overcome the resistance of the air. During a thunderstorm, lightning flashes can occur within clouds, between

clouds, between clouds and air, or from clouds to the ground. Lightning is usually associated with cumulonimbus clouds (thunderclouds) but also occurs in nimbostratus clouds, in snowstorms and dust storms, and some¬ times in the dust and gases emitted by a volcano. A typical lightning flash involves a potential difference between cloud and ground of several hun¬ dred million volts. Temperatures in the lightning channel are on the order of 30,000 K (50,000 °F). A cloud-to-ground flash comprises at least two strokes: a pale leader stroke that strikes the ground and a highly luminous return stroke. The leader stroke reaches the ground in about 20 millisec¬ onds; the return stroke reaches the cloud in about 70 microseconds. The thunder associated with lightning is caused by rapid heating of air along the length of the lightning channel. The heated air expands at supersonic speeds. The shock wave decays within a metre or two into a sound wave, which, modified by the intervening air and topography, produces a series of rumbles and claps. See also thunderstorm.

lightning bug See firefly

lignin Vlig-nonN Complex oxygen-containing organic compound, a mix¬ ture of polymers of poorly known structure. After cellulose, it is the most abundant organic material on Earth, making up one-fourth to one-third of the dry weight of wood, where it is concentrated in the cell walls. Removed from wood pulp in the manufacture of paper, it is used as a binder in particleboard and similar products and as a soil conditioner, filler in certain plastics, adhesive ingredient, and raw material for chemicals including dimethyl sulfoxide and vanillin (synthetic vanilla flavouring).

lignite Yellow to dark brown, rarely black, coal that has been formed from PEAT under moderate pressure; it is one of the first products of coal- ification and is intermediate between peat and subbituminous coal. Dry lig¬ nite contains about 60-70% carbon. Almost half of the world’s total coal reserves contain lignite and subbituminous coal, but lignite has not been exploited to any great extent because lignite is inferior to higher-rank coals (e.g., bituminous coal) in heating value, ease of handling, and stor¬ age stability. In some areas, however, the scarcity of fuel has led to exten¬ sive developments.

Liguria Region (pop., 2001 prelim.: 1,560,748), northwestern Italy. Cov¬ ering 2,092 sq mi (5,418 sq km) and located on the Ligurian Sea between France and Tuscany, it has its capital at Genoa. Under Roman rule from the 1 st century bc, the region was briefly controlled by the Lombards and Franks during the Middle Ages. The city of Genoa emerged as a leading power as early as the 11th century, and by 1400 the entire region ben¬ efited from its maritime and commercial powers. In 1815 the Congress of Vienna gave Liguria to the kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia. It contrib¬ uted significantly to the union of Italy in 1861. Its economy is based on agriculture, tourism, and industries centred on its major cities, including Genoa. La Spezia is a major naval base.

likelihood or chance In mathematics, a subjective assessment of pos¬ sibility that, when assigned a numerical value on a scale between impos¬ sibility (0) and absolute certainty (1), becomes a probability (see probability theory). Thus, the numerical assignment of a probability depends on the notion of likelihood. If, for example, an experiment (e.g., a die toss) can result in six equally likely possible outcomes, the probability of each is V6.

Likud \li-'kud\ Coalition of Israeli right-wing political parties. It was created by the 1973 merger of the Herut Party (1948) and the Liberal Party (1961), which itself was a merger of the General Zionists and the Pro¬ gressives. From the late 1970s Likud alternated in power with the Israel Labour Party. Likud generally was considered more skeptical than Labour of the peace process with the Palestinians and Israel’s Arab neighbours, but when in power some Likud prime ministers made dramatic conces¬ sions on both fronts. Party leaders have included Menachem Begin, Yitzhak Shamir, and Ariel Sharon. See also Arab-Israeli wars; Irgun Zvai Leumi; Vladimir Jabotinsky.

lilac Any of about 30 species of fragrant northern spring-flowering gar¬ den shrubs and small trees that make up the genus Syringa in the olive family, native to eastern Europe and temperate Asia. Lilacs have deep green leaves and large, oval clusters of compound blooms coloured deep purple, lavender, blue, red, pink, white, or creamy yellow; they are often highly fragrant. The common lilac (S. vulgaris ) reaches 20 ft (6 m) in height and produces many suckers (shoots from the stem or root). The name syringa was formerly used for the mock orange of the saxifrage family, and the butterfly bush (see buddleia) is commonly called “summer lilac.”

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1114 I Lilburne > limbo

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Lilburne, John (b. 1614?, Greenwich, near London, Eng.—d. Aug. 29, 1657, Eltham, Kent) English revolutionary. A Separatist, he joined the Puritan opposition to Charles I and helped smuggle Puritan pamphlets into England, for which he was imprisoned (1638-40). He became an officer in the Parliamentary army but resigned in 1645 rather than subscribe to the Solemn League and Covenant. He became a master propagandist for the Levelers and criticized Parliament for failing to meet their demands. He was imprisoned (1645^47) but remained very popular with London¬ ers and was twice acquitted of treason.

Lilith In Jewish folklore, a female demon. In rabbinic literature she is depicted either as Adam’s first wife or as the mother of his demonic off¬ spring after he separated from Eve outside Paradise (see Adam and Eve). The evil that Lilith directed against children could be counteracted by wearing an amulet bearing the names of the three angels who opposed her. A cult associated with Lilith survived into the 7th century ad.

Liliuokalani Mi-.le-o-wo-ko-'la-neX orig. Lydia Kamakaeha (b.

Sept. 2, 1838, Honolulu, Hawaii—d.

Nov. 11, 1917, Honolulu) Hawaiian queen, the last Hawaiian monarch to govern the islands (1891-93). She succeeded her brother, David Kalakaua, to the throne and tried to restore the traditional monarchy. She opposed the reciprocity treaty that gave commercial concessions to the U.S. In 1893 she was declared deposed by Sanford B. Dole and the Missionary Party, which favoured U.S. annexation. An uprising in her name was suppressed and the rebels jailed. To win pardons for her sup¬ porters, she formally abdicated in 1895. A talented musician, she com¬ posed the song “Aloha Oe.”

Lille \'lel\ City (pop., 1999: city,

184,493; metro area, 1,000,900), northern France, situated on the Deule River. Fortified in the 11th century, it changed hands several times during the Middle Ages. Louis XIV besieged and captured the city in 1667. It was taken by the duke of Marlborough in 1708 and ceded to France in 1713. It was occupied by the Germans during both World War I and World War II. It is traditionally France’s textile centre; other indus¬ tries include machinery manufacturing and chemical plants. Its museum has a rich art collection.

Lillie, Beatrice (Gladys) (b. May 29, 1894, Toronto, Ont., Can.—d. Jan. 20, 1989, Henley-on-Thames,

Oxfordshire, Eng.) Canadian-born British comedienne. She made her London stage debut as a singer in 1914 and developed her comic genius in revues produced by Andre Chariot. She made her New York City debut in 1924, establishing an international reputation as a high- spirited star of sophisticated comedy.

She appeared in various revues until 1939; after World War II she starred in the revue Inside U.S.A. (1948-50) and toured worldwide in An Evening with Beatrice Lillie (1952-56). Her last stage performances were in Aun¬ tie Mame (1958) and High Spirits

(1964).

Lilongwe \li-'l6q-gwa\ Capital and second largest city (pop., 2003 est.: 597,619), Maiawi. Lilongwe is located on an inland plain 50 mi (80 km) west of the southern end of Lake Malawi. An agricultural market centre for the fertile Central Region Plateau, it replaced Zomba as the national capital in 1975. The old part of the city

functions as a service and commercial centre, while the newer district of Capital Hill houses government buildings and embassies, except for the country’s judiciary, which is housed in the city of Blantyre.

Lily, William (b. 1468?, Odiham, Hampshire, Eng.—d. Feb. 25, 1522, London) English Renaissance scholar and classical grammarian. Having made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem and visited Greece and Italy, he became a pioneer of Greek learning in England and was appointed master of the school of St. Paul’s in 1510. His grammar, which actually consisted of two books, one in English and the other in Latin, first appeared about 18 years after his death. Its use by royal order in all English grammar schools won it the name “the King’s Grammar.” With corrections and revisions, it continued to be used as late as the 19th century and influenced genera¬ tions of English people’s views of all languages, including English.

lily family Family Liliaceae (order Liliales), which contains about 4,000 species of flowering herbs and shrubs in 280 genera. The genus Lilium includes the true lilies. Native primarily to temperate and subtropi¬ cal regions, these monocots (see cotyledon) usually have six-segmented flowers, three-chambered capsular fruits, and leaves with parallel veins. Among the oldest cultivated plants, true lilies are erect perennials with leafy stems, scaly bulbs, usually narrow leaves, and solitary or clustered flowers, some quite fragrant, in a variety of colours. Most species store nutrients underground in a bulb, corm, or tuber. Important garden orna¬ mentals and houseplants in the family include aloe, bluebell, crocus, day- lily, hosta, Solomon's seal, and tulip. Food-producing members include ONION, GARLIC, and ASPARAGUS.

lily of the valley Fragrant perennial herb and sole species ( Conval- laria majalis ) of the genus Convallaria (lily family), native to Eurasia and eastern North America. White, bell-shaped flowers droop in a row from one side of a leafless stalk, which bears usually two glossy leaves at its base. The fruit is a single red berry. Lily of the valley is cultivated in shaded garden areas in many temperate parts of the world.

Lima Vle-moX City (pop., 1996 est.: city, 316,332; 1998 est.: metro area, 7,060,600), capital of Peru. It is located inland from the Pacific Ocean port of Callao and near the Andes Mountains. Its nickname, El Pulpo (“The Octopus”), refers to its sprawling metropolitan area. It was founded by Francisco Pizarro in 1535 on the feast of the Epiphany, prompting the name Ciudad de los Reyes (“City of Kings”), but the name never took. Lima later became the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru. The city was destroyed by an earthquake in 1746 but was rebuilt. It grew rapidly dur¬ ing the 20th century and now accounts for nearly one-third of Peru’s total population. It is the country’s economic and cultural centre. Historic sites include the cathedral (begun in the 16th century) and the National Uni¬ versity of San Marcos (1551).

Lima, Jose Lezama See Jose Lezama Lima

Liman von Sanders \ , le-man-f6n- l zan-dors\, Otto (b. Feb. 17, 1855, Stolp, Pomerania—d. Aug. 22, 1929, Munich, Ger.) German general. He entered the German army in 1874 and rose to lieutenant general. He reor¬ ganized the Turkish army and made it an effective fighting force in World War I. In command of the Turkish army at Gallipoli, he and the Turkish commanders forced the Allies to end the Dardanelles Campaign and pre¬ vented the seizure of Constantinople.

Limavady \,li-m3-'va-de\ Town (pop., 1991: 10,350), seat of Limavady district (pop., 2001: 32,422), Northern Ireland. The town is on the River Roe east of the old city of Londonderry. It dates from the Plantation of Ulster in the early 17th century; it was later settled by Protestant Scots. The district is primarily agricultural.

limb darkening In astrophysics, the gradual decrease in observed brightness of the disk of a star from its centre to its edge (limb). This phenomenon, readily apparent in photographs of the Sun, occurs because the solar atmosphere’s temperature increases with depth. Looking at the Sun’s centre, an observer sees the deepest, hottest layers, which emit the most light. At the limb, only the upper, cooler layers, which produce less light, are visible. Observations of solar limb darkening are used to deter¬ mine the temperature structure of the Sun’s atmosphere.

limbo In Roman Catholicism, a region between heaven and hell, the dwell¬ ing place of souls not condemned to punishment but deprived of the joy of existence with God in heaven. The concept probably developed in the Middle Ages. Two distinct kinds of limbo were proposed: the limbus patrum (“fathers’ limbo”), where Old Testament saints were confined until