Britannica Concise 2005 - читать бесплатно онлайн полную версию книги автора Encyclopedia Britannica (ч. 83)

1262 I Minch ► Ming dynasty

long, it has some of the highest tides in the world; fluctuations exceeding 50 ft (15 m) have been recorded. Samuel de Champlain named it “Le Bassin des Mines” in 1604 after the mineral deposits found along its shores.

Minch, the Sea channel between the Outer Hebrides islands and the northwestern coast of Scotland. Its width varies from 25 to 45 mi (40 to 70 km), and it has great depth and a rapid current. Little Minch, its south¬ ern extension, lies between the island groups of the Outer and Inner Hebrides.

mind, philosophy of Branch of philosophy that studies the nature of mind and its various manifestations, including intentionality, sensation and sense perception, feeling and emotion, traits of character and person¬ ality, the unconscious, volition, thought, memory, imagination, and belief. It is distinguished from empirical studies of the mind (e.g., psychology, biology, physiology, sociology, and anthropology) by its method, which emphasizes the analysis and clarification of concepts. See also cognitive SCIENCE.

mind-body problem Metaphysical problem of the relationship between mind and body. The modern problem stems from the thought of Rene Descartes, who is responsible for the classical formulation of dual¬ ism. Descartes’s interactionism had many critics even in his own day. Tho¬ mas Hobbes denied the existence of mental substance. Materialism of a sort was also supported by Descartes’s correspondent Pierre Gassendi (1592- 1655). Benedict de Spinoza posited a single substance of which the mental and the material are attributes; his theory is known as psycho-physical parallelism. More recent views include the double-aspect theory, identity theory, eliminative materialism (which denies the reality of the familiar categories of mental state posited in so-called folk psychology), and theo¬ ries Of SUPERVENIENCE.

Mindanao V.min-do-'na-.o, .min-do-'nauV Island (pop., 2000: 16,136,921), southern Philippines. The second largest island in the Phil¬ ippines, it has an area of 36,537 sq mi (94,630 sq km); it is 324 mi (521 km) long and 293 mi (471 km) wide. It is mountainous and contains active volcanoes, including Mount Apo, the highest peak in the Philippines. The rare monkey-eating eagle is unique to the island. Islam spread through¬ out Mindanao in the 16th century. It was visited by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521. It was later claimed by Spain, but the resistance of its Muslim inhabitants kept it largely independent of Spanish authority. The autono¬ mous region of Muslim Mindanao, in the western and southwestern por¬ tions of the island, was created in 1990.

Mindanao River formerly Cotabato River \,ko-ta-'ba-to\ Main river of central Mindanao, Philippines. It meanders northwest to enter Illana Bay in two tributaries, the Cotabato and Tamentaka, after a 200-mi (320-km) course. The river system waters a fertile basin and is a major inland-transportation artery.

Mindon Vmin-'donN (b. 1814, Amarapura, Myanmar—d. Oct. 1, 1878, Mandalay) King of Myanmar (Burma; r. 1853-78). He came to power after the Second Anglo-Burmese War. He was unable to persuade the Brit¬ ish to return Pegu (in southern Myanmar) and was also forced to make large economic concessions. Domestically, his reign was a time of numer¬ ous reforms and great cultural and religious flowering. In 1857 he built the new capital, Mandalay, with palaces and monasteries that are master¬ pieces of traditional Myanmar architecture. He held the Fifth Buddhist Council there in 1871 in an effort to revise and purify the Pali scriptures.

Mindoro Island (pop., 2000: 1,062,068), west-central Philippines. It is separated from Luzon on the north by the Verde Island Passage. It is 80 mi (130 km) long and 50 mi (80 km) wide, with an area of 3,759 sq mi (9,735 sq km). First visited by the Spanish in 1570, it came under U.S. rule in 1901. It was occupied by the Japanese during World War II. The tamaraw, a small water buffalo, is unique to the island.

Mindszenty \mend-'shen-te\, Jozsef orig. Pehm Jozsef (b. March 29, 1892, Csehimindszent, near Szombathely, Austria-Hungary—d. May 6, 1975, Vienna, Austria) Hungarian cardinal who opposed fascism and communism. Ordained a priest in 1915, he was arrested as an enemy of totalitarian governments in 1919 and again in 1944. He was appointed primate of Hungary in 1945 and made a cardinal in 1946. Refusing to permit Hungary’s Roman Catholic schools to be secularized by the com¬ munists, he was arrested in 1948 and convicted of treason the next year. Sentenced to life imprisonment, he was freed in the Hungarian Revolu¬ tion (1956). When the communists regained control, he sought asylum in the U.S. embassy in Budapest and lived there for 15 years, refusing Vat¬

ican requests to leave Hungary. He relented in 1971, settled in Vienna, and was retired as primate of Hungary in 1974.

mine See land mine, submarine mine

Miner, Jack orig. John Thomas Miner (b. April 10, 1865, Dover Centre, Ohio, U.S.—d. Nov. 3, 1944, Kingsville, Ont., Can.) Canadian naturalist. After moving to Canada in 1878, he established a bird sanc¬ tuary in 1904 on his farm in Kingsville, Ont. Banding more than 50,000 ducks between 1910 and 1915, he made the first complete banding records of North American birds. In 1931 his friends established the Jack Miner Migratory Bird Foundation to ensure the continuation of his work. He received the Order of the British Empire in 1943.

mineral Any naturally occurring homogeneous solid that has a definite (but not fixed) chemical composition and a distinctive internal crystal structure. Minerals are usually formed by inorganic processes. Synthetic equivalents of various minerals, such as emeralds and diamonds, are manufactured for commercial purposes. Although most minerals are chemical compounds, a small number (e.g., sulfur, copper, gold) are ele¬ ments. Minerals combine with each other to form rocks. For example, granite consists of the minerals feldspar, quartz, mica, and amphibole in varying amounts. Rocks are generally, therefore, an intergrowth of vari¬ ous minerals.

mineral processing or ore dressing Mechanical treatment of crude ores to separate the valuable minerals. Mineral processing was at first applied only to ores of precious metals but later came to be used to recover other metals and nonmetallic minerals. It is also used during coal preparation to enrich the value of raw coal. The primary operations are comminution and concentration. Comminution is carried out by large jaw crushers and by smaller cylindrical grinding mills. Common methods of concentration are gravity separation and flotation separation. Gravity methods include jigging (ground ore is fed into a pulsating body of water so that the heavier mineral fractions settle out, leaving lighter wastes at the top) or washing the ore down inclined planes, spirals, or shaking tables so that mineral and waste fractions settle in different areas. See also ben¬ efication; MINING.

mineralogy Scientific study of minerals, including their physical prop¬ erties, chemical composition, internal crystal structure, occurrence and distribution in nature, and origins or conditions of formation. Mineralogic studies range from description and classification of new or rare minerals to analysis of crystal structure and laboratory or industrial synthesis of mineral species. The methods employed include physical and chemical identification tests, determination of crystal symmetry and structure, opti¬ cal examination, X-ray diffraction, and isotope analysis.

Minerva In Roman reugion, the goddess of handicrafts, the professions, the arts, and, later, war. She was commonly identified with the Greek Athena. Some scholars believe that worship of Minerva began when Ath¬ ena’ s cult was introduced at Rome from Etruria. Minerva was one of the Capitoline triad, along with Jupiter and Juno, and her shrine in Rome was a meeting place for craftsmen’s guilds. The worship of Minerva attained its greatest vogue under the emperor Domitian, who claimed her special protection.

minesweeper Naval vessel used to clear submarine mines from an expanse of water. In naval warfare, they are used to clear mines from sea- lanes to protect merchant shipping as well as to clear paths for warships to engage in battle or amphibious warfare. The earliest examples used sweeping wires with sawlike projections to cut the cables anchoring sub¬ marine mines and allow them to rise to the surface, where they would be destroyed by gunfire. The wide use of magnetic mines (set off by the magnetic field of steel ships) in the Korean War led to wood-hulled mine¬ sweepers.

Ming dynasty (1368-1644) Chinese dynasty that provided an interval of native rule between eras of Mongol and Manchu dominance. The Ming, one of the most stable but autocratic of dynasties, extended Chinese influ¬ ence farther than did any other native rulers of China. Under the Ming, the capital of China was moved from Nanjing to Beijing, and the Forbid¬ den City was constructed. Naval expeditions led by Zheng He paved the way for trade with Southeast Asia, India, and eastern Africa. During the Ming dynasty, novels were written in the vernacular, while philosophy benefited from the work of Wang Yangming in Neo-Confucianism. Ming monochrome porcelain became famous throughout the world, with imi¬ tations created in Vietnam, Japan, and Europe.

Minggantu ► minnesinger I 1263

Minggantu Chinese Ming Antu, Mongolian Minganto (b. ?—d.

c. 1763) Chinese astronomer and mathematician. A Mongolian of the Plain White Banner (see Banner system), Minggantu first appeared in offi¬ cial Chinese records in 1712 as a student in the Imperial Astronomical Bureau. He spent his whole career there, at a time when Jesuit mission¬ aries were in charge of calendar reforms. He took part in the compilation of the imperially commissioned Liili yuanyuan (c. 1723; “Source of Math¬ ematical Harmonics and Astronomy”), and from 1737 to 1742 he worked with the Jesuits on the revision of its astronomical section. In 1759 he became director of the Imperial Astronomical Bureau. He left an unfin¬ ished mathematical manuscript, the Geyuan milii jiefa (“Quick Methods for the Circle’s Division and Precise Ratio”), which his student Chen Jixin completed in 1774.

Mingus, Charles (b. April 22, 1922, Nogales, Ariz., U.S.—d. Jan. 5, 1979, Cuernavaca, Mex.) U.S. jazz composer, bassist, and bandleader. Mingus played in the groups of Lionel Hampton, Duke Ellington, and Red Norvo, ultimately working with many of the innovators of bebop. In 1953 he organized the Jazz Workshop ensemble, which played a spirited com¬ bination of loosely arranged passages and improvisation, incorporating elements of the blues and free jazz. As a pioneering bandleader and vir¬ tuoso bassist, Mingus remained an uncompromising and innovative force in jazz for the rest of his career. He was one of the most important and colourful figures in modem jazz.

Min how See Fuzhou

miniature painting Small, detailed painting, usually a portrait, executed in watercolour on vellum (parchment), prepared card, copper, or ivory that can be held in the hand or worn as a piece of jewelry. The name derives from the minium, or red lead, used to emphasize initial letters in medieval illuminated manuscripts. Combining the traditions of illumina¬ tion and the Renaissance medal, it flourished from the early 16th to the mid-19th century. The earliest datable examples were painted in France by Jean Clouet the Younger at the court of Francis I; in England H. Hol¬ bein the Younger produced masterpieces in miniature under Henry VIII and inspired a long tradition of the practice, known as “limning.” Nicholas Hilliard served as miniature painter to Elizabeth I for more than 30 years. In the 17th—18th centuries, painting in enamel on metal became popular in France. In Italy Rosalba Carriera introduced the use of ivory (c. 1700) as a luminous surface for transparent pigments, stimulating a great revival of the medium in the late 18th century. By the mid-19th century minia¬ ture paintings were regarded as luxury items and rendered obsolete by the new medium of photography.

Minimalism Twentieth-century movements in art and music character¬ ized by extreme simplicity of form and rejection of emotional content. In the visual arts, Minimalism originated in New York City in the 1950s as a form of abstract art and became a major trend in the 1960s and ’70s. The Minimalists believed that a work of art should be entirely self- referential; personal elements were stripped away to reveal the objective, purely visual elements. Leading Minimalist sculptors include Carl Andre and Donald Judd; Minimalist painters include Ellsworth Kelly and Agnes Martin. In music, Minimalism arose in the 1960s. It employs a steady pulsing beat, incessant repetition of tones and chords with only gradual changes in their components, a slow rate of harmonic change, and little or no counterpoint. Its principal antecedents are the musics of India and Southeast Asia. Its most important early practitioners include La Monte Young (b. 1935), Terry Riley (b. 1935), whose In C (1964) is perhaps its most seminal work, Steve Reich, Philip Glass, and John Adams.

minimum In mathematics, a point at which the value of a function is lowest. If the value is less than or equal to all other function values, it is an absolute minimum. If it is merely less than at any nearby point, it is a relative, or local, minimum. In calculus, the derivative equals zero or does not exist at a function’s minimum point. See also maximum, optimization.

minimum wage Wage rate established by collective bargaining or by government regulation, specifying the lowest rate at which workers may be employed. A legal minimum wage is one mandated by government for all workers in an economy, with few exceptions. Privately negotiated minimum wages determined by collective bargaining apply to a specific group of workers in the economy, usually in specific trades or industries. The modern minimum wage, combined with compulsory arbitration of labour disputes, first appeared in Australia and New Zealand in the 1890s. In 1909 Britain established trade boards to set minimum wage rates in certain trades and industries. The first minimum wage in the U.S. (which

applied only to women) was enacted by Massachusetts in 1912. Mini¬ mum wage laws or agreements now exist in most nations.

mining Excavation of materials from the Earth’s crust, including those of organic origin, such as coal and petroleum. Modern mining is costly and complicated. First, a mineral vein that can likely produce enough of the desired substance to justify the cost of extraction must be located. Then the size of the vein or deposit is determined, and mining engineers decide the best way to mine it. Most of the world’s yearly mineral pro¬ duction is extracted by surface mining, which includes open-pit mining, strip mining, and quarrying. For ore bodies that lie a considerable dis¬ tance below the surface, underground mining must be considered. In both techniques, excavating and extracting mineral substances involve costly combinations of drilling, blasting, hoisting, and hauling, as well as mea¬ sures for health and safety and reduction of environmental impact.

mink Either of two species of nocturnal, semiaquatic carnivores in the weasel family (Mustelidae) that are trapped and raised commercially for their pelts. American mink ( Mustela vison), found throughout North America except in arid parts of the southwestern U.S., is 17-29 in.

(43-74 cm) long and weighs up to 3.5 lb (1.6 kg). The Eurasian species (M. lutreola ) is slightly smaller. The rich brown coat consists of a dense, soft underfur overlaid with glossy guard hairs. Except for furs in the rare mutant colours produced by crossbreeding, wild mink fur is more valuable than “ranch mink.”

Minkowski Xmiq-'kof-skeV Oskar (b. Jan. 13, 1858, Aleksotas, Rus¬ sian Empire—d. July 18, 1931, Fiirstenberg an der Havel, Ger.) German physiologist and pathologist. While researching diabetes mellitus in 1884, he found that beta-hydroxybutyric acid and a decrease in blood bicarbon¬ ate cause diabetic acidosis (low blood pH) and that diabetic coma is accompanied by decreased blood carbon dioxide and can be treated by alkali therapy. Experiments on dogs with Joseph von Mering (1849-1908) led Minkowski to propose that the pancreas is the source of an “antidi¬ abetic” substance, now known to be insulin. He also demonstrated that the liver produces bile pigments and uric acid.

Minneapolis City (pop., 2000: 382,618), eastern Minnesota, U.S. The state’s largest city, it is situated on the Mississippi River near the mouth of the Minnesota River. With St. Paul across the river it forms the Twin Cities met¬ ropolitan area. Visited by French missionary Louis Hennepin in 1680, the area developed as a military outpost. On the eastern bank was the village of St. Anthony (inc. 1855), on the western bank, Minneapolis village (inc. 1856). In 1872 the two merged as the city of Minneapolis, which developed as a centre of the lumber and flour-milling industries. Still a grain market for the surrounding agricultural region, it is also a manufacturing centre. Its educational institutions include the University of Minnesota.

Minnelli, Vincente (b. Feb. 28, 1910, Chicago, Ill., U.S.—d. July 25, 1986, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. film director. He was a stage manager and costume designer from age 16, achieved success as a Broadway director c. 1935, and moved to Hollywood in 1940. He combined a daring use of colour with imaginative camera work in films such as Cabin in the Sky (1943), Meet Me in St. Louis (1944), The Pirate (1948), An American in Paris (1951), and Gigi (1958, Academy Award), infusing a new sophis¬ tication and vitality into filmed musicals. He also made several notable dramas, including Father of the Bride (1950), The Bad and the Beautiful (1952), and Lust for Life (1957). He was married to Judy Garland (1945- 51). Their daughter, the singer and actress Liza Minnelli (b. 1946), won a Tony Award for her performance in Flora, the Red Menace (1965) and an Oscar for Cabaret (1972).

minnesinger Vmi-no-.siq-or, 'mi-no-.ziq-orX (from German, Minne : “love”) Any of certain German poet-musicians, c. 1150-c. 1325, parallel to the troubadours and trouveres. Like their French counterparts, the min¬ nesingers’ subjects were not limited to love but also included politics and ethics. Originally members of the high nobility, minnesingers later came from the emerging middle class and had an economic as well as social interest in singing. Walther von der Vogelweide, Neidhardt von Reuental (c. 1180-c. 1250), and Tannhauser were among the most famous of the minnesingers.

American mink (Mustela vison).

KARL H. MASLOWSKI

1264 I Minnesota ► mint

Minnesota State (pop., 2000: 4,919,479), midwestem U.S. Bordered by Canada and the U.S. states of Wisconsin, Iowa, South Dakota, and North Dakota, it covers 86,943 sq mi (225,182 sq km); its capital is St. Paul. The most northerly of the 48 contiguous U.S. states, it has exten¬ sive woodlands, fertile prairies, and numerous lakes. Before European settlement, the region was inhabited by the Ojibwa (Chippewa) and the Dakota (Sioux) tribes. French explorers arrived in search of the Northwest Passage in the mid 17th century. The northeastern portion passed to the British in 1763 and then to the U.S. in 1783, becoming part of the North¬ west Territories in 1787. The southwestern portion was acquired by the U.S. in 1803 as part of the Louisiana Purchase, and the northwestern por¬ tion was ceded to the U.S. by the British by treaty in 1818. The first per¬ manent U.S. settlement was made in 1819, when Fort Snelling was founded. The Minnesota Territory, established in 1849, included present- day Minnesota and the eastern sections of North and South Dakota. Min¬ nesota became the 32nd U.S. state in 1858. The Sioux Uprising in southern Minnesota in 1862 resulted in the death of 500 civilians, sol¬ diers, and Indians. Commercial iron-ore production began in 1884, and after the huge iron reserves of the Mesabi Range were discovered in 1890, the population at Duluth and Superior grew rapidly. Today agriculture, especially grains, meat, and dairy products, is the basis of the economy. Mineral resources include iron ore, granite, and limestone.

Minnesota Mining & Manufacturing Co. See 3M

Minnesota River River, southern Minnesota, U.S. Rising on the South Dakota-Minnesota boundary, it flows southeast then turns northeast to join the Mississippi River just south of St. Paul, after a course of 332 mi (534 km). Once known as the St. Peter or St. Pierre, it was important to early explorers and fur traders.

minnow Small fishes, especially of the carp family (Cyprinidae), as well as some rockfish (family Umbridae) and killifishes (family Cyprinodon- tidae). The numerous species of North American cyprinid minnows are freshwater fishes, 2.4-12 in. (6-30 cm) long. Many are valuable as food for fishes, birds, and other animals and as live bait. The bluntnose {Pime- phales notatus ) and fathead (P. promelas) minnows, the common shiner, and the American roach are good bait species. The term also refers to the young of many large fish species. The minnow of Europe and northern Asia ( Phoxinus phoxinus) is about 3 in. (7.5 cm) long and varies from golden to green.

Mino da Fiesole \'me-no-da-fya-'zo-la\ (b. 1429, Poppi, Republic of Florence—d. 1484, Florence) Italian sculptor. Probably trained in Flo¬ rence, he was active both in Florence and Rome, where he created monu¬ ments (especially wall tombs) and busts of cardinals and other prominent individuals. Among the earliest Renaissance portrait sculptures, his works were greatly admired in the 19th century but are now considered less inspired than those of Desiderio da Settignano, Antonio Rossellino (1427- 79), and other eminent contemporaries.

Minoan \mi-'no-3n\ Any member of a non-Indo-European people who flourished (c. 3000-c. 1100 bc) on the island of Crete during the Bronze Age. The sea was the basis of their economy and power. Their sophisti¬ cated culture, based at Knossos, was named for the legendary King Minos. It represented the first high civilization in the Aegean area. The Minoans exerted great influence on the Mycenaean culture of the Greek islands and mainland. Minoan culture reached its peak c. 1600 bc and was noted for its cities and palaces, extended trade contacts, and use of writing (see Lin¬ ear A and Linear B). Its art included elaborate seals, pottery, and, notably, the vibrant frescoes decorating palace walls, which depicted both religious and secular scenes, including goddesses reflective of a matriarchal reli¬ gion. Palace ruins show evidence of paved streets and piped water. Famil¬ ial - Minoan art motifs are the snake (symbol of the goddess) and the bull and leaping dancer, also of mystical significance.

Minos Vml-n3s\ In Greek legend, a king of Crete, the son of Zeus and Europa. He gained the throne with the aid of Poseidon and also became ruler of the Aegean islands. His wife Pasiphae fell in love with a bull and gave birth to the Minotaur, which was imprisoned in the Labyrinth. Minos waged war against Athens and exacted a tribute of youths and maidens to feed the Minotaur until Theseus killed the monster with the aid of Minos’s daughter Ariadne. Minos was killed in Sicily when boiling water was poured over him as he was taking a bath. Many scholars now con¬ sider that Minos was a royal or dynastic title for the priestly rulers of Bronze Age, or Minoan, civilization in Knossos (Minoan means “of Minos”).

Minot Yml-notV George (Richards) (b. Dec. 2,1885, Boston, Mass., U.S.—d. Feb. 25, 1950, Brookline, Mass.) U.S. physician. He received his medical degree from Harvard University. He reversed anemia in dogs (induced by excessive bleeding) with a diet of raw liver; subsequently he and William Murphy (1894-1987) found that eating raw liver reversed pernicious anemia in humans. They shared a Nobel Prize in 1934 with George Whipple for their treatment of the previously invariably fatal dis¬ ease. He and Edwin Joseph Cohn prepared liver extracts that, taken orally, were the main treatment for pernicious anemia until 1948, when vitamin B 12 was isolated.

Minotaur Vmi-no-.toA In Greek mythology, a monster of Crete with the body of a man and the head of a bull. It was the offspring of Pasiphae, wife of King Minos, and a snow-white bull sent by Poseidon and intended for sacrifice. When Minos kept it instead, the god punished him by making his wife fall in love with the bull. The Minotaur (whose name means “Minos bull”) was imprisoned in the Labyrinth built by Daedalus. After defeating Athens in a war, Minos forced the Athenians to send human tribute to be devoured by the Minotaur. The third year the tribute was sent, Theseus vol¬ unteered to go, and with the help of Ariadne he killed the monster.

Minsk Capital (pop., 2001 est.: 1,699,000) and largest city of Belarus. Settled before 1067, it became the seat of a principality in 1101. It passed to Lithuania in the 14th century and later to Poland. Annexed by Russia in the second partition of Poland in 1793, it became a provincial centre. Minsk was occupied by French troops in 1812. It grew in importance as an industrial centre after the arrival of the railways in 1870. During World War I it was occupied first by the Germans and then by the Poles. It was almost entirely destroyed in World War II, especially during the Soviet advance in 1944. Once the capital of the Belorussian S.S.R., it remained the capital when Belarus gained independence in 1991. It is the country’s administrative and industrial centre.

Minsky, Marvin (Lee) (b. Aug. 9, 1927, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. computer scientist. He received a Ph.D. from Princeton University and joined the faculty at MIT, where he remained for his entire career. His research contributed to advances in artificial intelligence, cognitive psy¬ chology, neural networks (he built the first neural-network simulator in 1951), and the theory of Turing machines. A pioneer in robotics, he built some of the first mechanical hands with tactile sensors, visual scanners, and accompanying software and computer interfaces. He influenced many robotic projects outside MIT and worked to build into machines the human capacity for commonsense reasoning. In his The Society of Mind (1987), 270 interconnected one-page ideas reflect the structure of his theory. He received the Turing Award in 1969.

minstrel Wandering musician of the Middle Ages, often of low status. The term (and equivalents such as Latin ioculator and French jongleur) was applied in medieval times to people ranging from singing beggars to traveling musicians hired by towns for special occasions to court jesters. The modem folksinger is a descendant. See also minstrel show.

minstrel show Form of entertainment popular in the U.S. in the 19th and early 20th centuries. It originated in the 1830s with the popular white performer Thomas D. Rice, known as “Jim Crow,” who wore the stylized makeup called blackface and performed songs and dances in a stereotyped imitation of African Americans. Blackfaced white minstrel troupes were particularly popular in the U.S. and England in 1840-80 and included groups such as the Christy Minstrels, who played on Broadway for 10 years and had songs composed for them by Stephen Foster. The minstrel show included an opening chorus and frequent exchanges of jokes between the emcee, Mr. Interlocutor, and the end men, Mr. Tambo (who played the tambourine) and Mr. Bones (who rattled the bones), inter¬ spersed with ballads, comic songs, and instrumental numbers (usually on the banjo and violin), as well as individual acts, soft-shoe dances, and specialty numbers. Minstrel troupes composed of African Americans were formed after the Civil War; in general, minstrel shows were the only the¬ atrical medium in which black performers of the period could support themselves. Minstrel shows had effectively disappeared by the early 20th century, but the effects of their racial stereotyping persisted in perfor¬ mance mediums well into mid century.

mint' In botany, any strong-scented herb of the genus Mentha , composed of about 25 species of perennial herbs, and certain related genera of the mint family (Lamiaceae, or Labiatae), which contains about 3,500 spe¬ cies of flowering plants in about 160 genera. Mints are important to humans as herb plants useful for flavour, fragrance, and medicinal prop-

mint ► miracle I 1265

erties. True mints have square stems, oppositely arranged aromatic leaves. Small flowers usually pale purple, pink, or white, are arranged in clus¬ ters, either forming separate whorls or crowded together in a terminal spike. All Mentha species contain volatile oil in resinous dots in the leaves and stems. Included in this genus are peppermint, spearmint, marjoram, rose¬ mary, and thyme; other members of the mint family include lavender, hys¬ sop, and catnip.

mint In economics, a place where coins are made according to exact compositions, weights, and dimensions, usually specified by law. The first state mint was probably established by the Lydians in the 7th century bc. The art spread through the Aegean Islands into Italy and other Mediter¬ ranean countries, as well as to Persia and India. The Romans laid the foundations of modern minting standards. Coining originated indepen¬ dently in China in the 7th century bc and spread to Japan and Korea. In medieval Europe, mints proliferated as every feudal authority—kings, counts, bishops, and free cities—exercised the mint privilege; the wide variation in coinage that resulted often handicapped commerce. Most countries now operate only one mint, though the U.S. has two active mints, in Philadelphia and Denver. Proof sets of coins for coin collectors are minted in San Francisco. Countries not large or prosperous enough to establish a national mint have their coins struck in foreign mints. Many mints perform functions other than minting, notably refining precious metals and manufacturing medals and seals. See also currency, money.

minuet N.min-yo-'weA Dignified couple dance derived from a French folk dance, dominant in European court ballrooms in the 17th—18th cen¬ tury. Using small, slow steps to music in 3 A time, dancers often performed choreographed figures combined with stylized bows and curtsies. The most popular dance of the 18th-century aristocracy, it fell from favour after the French Revolution in 1789. It was of great importance in art music; commonly incorporated into the suite c. 1650-1775, it was the only dance form retained in the symphony, sonata, string quartet, and other multimovement art-music genres up to c. 1800.

Minuit Vmin-yo-wotV Peter (b. c. 1589, Wesel, Kleve—d. June 1638, Caribbean Sea) Dutch colonial governor of New Netherland. In 1626 the Dutch West India Co. named him director general of the colony on Man¬ hattan Island. According to legend, to legitimize Dutch occupation of the island he persuaded the Indians to sell it for a handful of trinkets worth about 60 guilders ($24). At the island’s southern tip he founded New Amsterdam. He was recalled to Holland (1631) and later was sent to establish the colony of New Sweden on Delaware Bay, where he again purchased land from the Indians and built Fort Christina (later Wilming¬ ton, Del.) in 1638.

minuscule Vmi-nos-.kyiil, mi-'nos-.kyulV Lowercase letters in calligra¬ phy, in contrast to majuscule, or uppercase letters. Unlike majuscules, minuscules are not fully contained between two real or hypothetical lines; their stems can go above or below the line. Developed by Alcuin in the 8th century, it allowed the division of writing into sentences and para¬ graphs by beginning sentences with capital letters and ending them with periods. The script was originally rounded, but gradually the strokes became heavier until it became what is now known as Gothic or black letter script.

minuteman Colonial soldier of the American Revolution. Minutemen were first organized in Massachusetts in September 1774, when revolu¬ tionary leaders sought to eliminate Tories, or British sympathizers, from the militia by replacing all officers. One-third of the members of each new regiment was to be ready for military duty “at a minute’s warning.” Their first great test took place at the Battles of Lexington and Concord. On July 18 the Continental Congress recommended that other colonies organize minuteman units.

Minuteman missile U.S. ICBM first deployed in 1962. Its three generations—the Minuteman I (1962-73), the Minuteman II (1966-95), and the Minuteman III (from 1970)—have constituted most of the land- based nuclear arsenal of the U.S. since the 1960s. They were the first U.S. ICBMs to be based in underground silos, use solid fuel, and be fitted with multiple independently targeted reentry vehicles (see MIRV). Under the terms of the Strategic Arms Reduction Talks, the Minuteman II force was dismantled and the Minuteman III scheduled for downgrading to a single warhead.

Miocene Vml-o-.senX Epoch Major division of the Tertiary Period, from 23.8 to 5.3 million years ago. The extensive fossil record of terrestrial life

during the Miocene provides a fairly complete picture of the development of vertebrates, especially mammals. Miocene mammals were essentially modern, and half of the known modern families are present in the Miocene record. The horse evolved, mainly in North America, and advanced pri¬ mates, including apes, were present in southern Europe. Some interchange of faunas occurred in the Northern Hemisphere between the Old and New Worlds. Free communication was possible between Africa and Eurasia, but South America and Australia remained isolated.

Miquelon See Saint-Pierre and Miquelon

Mir Russian space station. It consists of a core module launched in 1986 and five additional modules launched separately over the next decade and attached to the core unit to create a large, versatile space laboratory. The third generation of Russian space stations (see Salyut), Mir featured six docking ports for modules and other spacecraft, expanded living quarters, more power, and modernized research equipment. It supported human habitation between 1986 and 2000, including an uninterrupted stretch of occupancy of almost 10 years, and it hosted a series of U.S. astronauts in 1995-98 as part of a Mir-SPACE shuttle cooperative endeavour. In 1995, Valery Polyakov (b. 1942) set a world endurance record of nearly 438 days in space aboard Mir. In March 2001 the abandoned station was brought down in a controlled reentry, with the surviving pieces falling into the Pacific Ocean.

MTr Sayyid ‘All (fl. 16th century) Persian miniature painter. Born in Tabriz, he went to India about 1545. He and fellow countryman ‘Abd al-Samad instructed the artists of the imperial atelier, most of them Indi¬ ans, and thereby helped to found the school of Mughal painting. He super¬ vised part of the production of the illustrations to the Mughal manuscript Dastan-e Amir Hamzeh (“Stories of Amir Hamzeh”). The few paintings by him that have survived reveal that he was a highly gifted painter, wielding a delicate brushstroke and great powers of observation.

Mira Bai Vme-ra-'ba-eV (b. 1450?, Kudaki, India—d. 1547?, Dwarka, Gujarat) Rajput princess and Hindu mystic whose songs are popular in northern India. According to legend, Mirabai dedicated her life to Krishna after her husband’s death. She received sadhus and pilgrims at her pri¬ vate temple dedicated to Krishna and composed songs of devotion to him, unorthodox pursuits for a widow. Her poems allude to two attempts on her life, both foiled miraculously. When a delegation of Brahmans sought to return her to her husband’s kingdom, she disappeared. Only two poems bearing her signature can be dated before the 18th century, but her story is the most familiar among those of northern Indian saints.

Mirabeau \me-ra-'bo\, Honore-Gabriel Riqueti, count de orig. Honore-Gabriel Riqueti (b. March 9, 1749, Bignon, near Nemours, France—d. April 2, 1791, Paris) French politician and orator. Son of the economist Victor Riqueti (1715-89), he suffered his father’s disfavour; often imprisoned for intrigues and wild behaviour (1774-80), he wrote several essays on prison life. In 1789 he was elected to the Estates Gen¬ eral from the Third Estate. A skilled orator, he was popular with the people and was influential in the early years of the French Revolution. He advo¬ cated a constitutional monarchy and tried to mediate between the abso¬ lute monarchists and the revolutionaries. He was elected president of the National Assembly in 1791, but he died shortly thereafter.

Mirabello, Gulf of Gulf of the Aegean Sea on the northern coast of Crete, Greece. The gulf is separated by a promontory from the Bay of Sitfas on the east. Olonte and Lato are ruined Classical settlements; at Gournia and on the islets of Psfra and Mokhlos are the remains of Late Minoan I (1600-1450 bc) settlements.

miracle Extraordinary event attributed to a supernatural power. Belief in miracles exists in all cultures and nearly all religions. The Upanishads assert that the experience of religious insight and transformation is the only “miracle” worth considering, but popular Hinduism attributes miracu¬ lous powers to the ascetic yogis. Confucianism had little room for miracles. Daoism, however, mingled with Chinese folk religion to produce a rich crop of miracles. Though Buddha Gautama deprecated his own miracu¬ lous powers as devoid of spiritual significance, accounts of his miracu¬ lous birth and life were later woven into his legend and into those of later Buddhist saints. Miracles are taken for granted throughout the Hebrew scriptures and were fairly common in the Greco-Roman world. The New Testament records miracles of healing and other wonders performed by Jesus. Miracles also attest to the holiness of Christian saints. Muhammad renounced miracles as a matter of principle (the Qur’an was the great

1266 I miracle play ► Mishima

miracle), but his life was later invested with miraculous details. Muslim popular religion, particularly under the influence of Sufism, abounds in miracles and wonder-working saints.

miracle play Type of vernacular drama performed in the Middle Ages, presenting a real or fictitious account of the life, miracles, or martyrdom of a saint. The genre evolved from the liturgical dramas of the 10th- 11th centuries, which were intended to enhance church calendar festivals. By the 13th century the plays were separated from church services and per¬ formed at public festivals by members of craft guilds and other amateur actors. Most miracle plays concerned either the Virgin Mary or St. Nicho¬ las, both of whom had active cults in the Middle Ages. See also morality play; mystery play.

mirage \m3-'razh\ In optics, the deceptive appearance of a distant object caused by the bending of light rays (refraction) in layers of air of vary¬ ing density. Under certain conditions, such as over a stretch of pavement or desert air heated by intense sunshine, the air cools rapidly with eleva¬ tion and therefore increases in density and refractive power. Sunlight reflected down from the upper portion of an object will be directed through the cool air in the normal way; although the light would not be seen ordinarily because of the angle, it curves upward after it enters the rarefied hot air near the ground, thus being refracted to the observer’s eye as though it had originated below the heated surface. When the sky is the object of the mirage, the land is mistaken for a lake or sheet of water.

mi'raj \'mi-raj\ In Islamic tradition, the ascension of Muhammad into heaven. One night, according to the tradition, Muhammad was visited by two archangels, who opened his body and purified his heart of all doubt, error, and paganism. He was carried to heaven, where he ascended the seven levels to reach the throne of God. Along the way he and the arch¬ angel JibrTl met the prophets Adam, Yahya (John the Apostle), ( Isa (Jesus), Yusuf (Joseph), Idris, Harun (Aaron), Musa (Moses), and Ibrahim (Abra¬ ham) and visited hell and paradise. He learned that he was more highly regarded by God than all the other prophets. The mi'raj is popularly cel¬ ebrated with readings of the legend on the 27th day of Rajab, called the Laylaf al-Miraj (“Night of the Ascension”).

Miranda \mi-'ran-d3. Carmen orig. Maria do Carmo Miranda da Cunha (b. Feb. 9, 1909, Lisbon, Port.—d. Aug. 5, 1955, Beverly Hills, Calif., U.S.) Brazilian singer and actress. In the 1930s she was the most popular recording artist in Brazil, where she appeared in five films. Recruited by a Broadway producer, she starred in The Streets of Paris (1939), then made her U.S. film debut in Down Argentine Way (1940). Typecast as the “Brazilian Bombshell” and given such caricatural roles as “The Lady in the Tutti-Frutti Hat” in The Gang’s All Here (1943), she became the highest-paid female performer in the U.S. during World War II. Her final U.S. film was Scared Stiff ( 1953).

Miranda \me-'ran-da\, Francisco de (b. March 28, 1750, Caracas—d. July 14, 1816, Cadiz, Spain) Venezuelan revolutionary who helped pave the way for his country’s independence. He joined the Span¬ ish army but fled to the U.S. in 1783, where he met leaders of the Ameri¬ can Revolution and formed plans for the liberation of South America, which he envisioned ruled by an Incan emperor and a bicameral legisla¬ ture. He launched an unsuccessful invasion of Venezuela in 1806 and returned at the request of Simon Bolivar to fight again in 1810. He assumed dictatorial powers in 1811 when independence was declared but suc¬ cumbed to a Spanish counterattack and signed an armistice. Fellow revo¬ lutionaries, viewing his surrender as traitorous, thwarted his attempt to escape. He died in a Spanish prison cell.

Miranda v. Arizona (1966) U.S. Supreme Court decision that speci¬ fied a code of conduct for police during interrogations of criminal sus¬ pects. Miranda established that the police are required to inform arrested persons that they have the right to remain silent, that anything they say may be used against them, and that they have the right to an attorney. The case involved a claim by the plaintiff that the state of Arizona, by obtain¬ ing a confession from him without having informed him of his right to have a lawyer present, had violated his rights under the Fifth Amendment regarding self-incrimination. The 5-to-4 decision shocked the law- enforcement community; several later decisions limited the scope of the Miranda safeguards. See also rights of the accused.

Mirim \me-'rem\ Lagoon Spanish Laguna Merin \ma-'ren\ Tide¬ water lake separating eastern Uruguay from the extreme southern tip of Brazil. It is about 118 mi (190 km) long and 30 mi (48 km) across at its

widest point, covering an area of 1,542 sq mi (3,994 sq km). A low, marshy bar 10-35 mi (17-59 km) wide and containing small lagoons separates it from the Atlantic Ocean. It is navigable by shallow-draft vessels.

Miro \me-'ro\, Joan (b. April 20, 1893, Barcelona, Spain—d. Dec. 25, 1983, Palma de Mallorca) Spanish (Catalan) artist. He attended a com¬ mercial school and worked as an office clerk until a mental breakdown persuaded his artisan father to permit him to study art. From the beginning he sought to express concepts of nature metaphorically. From 1919 on he lived alternately in Spain and Paris, where he came under the influ¬ ence of Dadaism and Surrealism. The influence of Paul Klee is apparent in his “dream pictures” and “imaginary landscapes” of the late 1920s, in which linear configurations and patches of colour look almost as though they had been set down ran¬ domly. His mature style evolved from the tension between this fanci¬ ful, poetic impulse and his vision of the harshness of modern life. He worked extensively in lithography and produced numerous murals, tapestries, and sculptures for public spaces.

MIRV \'marv\ in full multiple independently targeted reentry vehicle Any of several nuclear warheads carried on the front end of a ballistic missile. The technique allows separately targeted nuclear war¬ heads to be released from the missile on different trajectories, thus attack¬ ing several targets from only one launcher. MIRVed ballistic missiles were first deployed by the U.S. and then the Soviet Union in the 1970s, fol¬ lowed by Britain and France in the 1980s and possibly China in the 1990s. Because multiple warheads represent a significant increase in firepower, they have often been an issue in arms control negotations. The Strategic Arms Reduction Talks commit both the U.S. and Russia to limit the num¬ ber of MIRVs on some missiles.

miscarriage or spontaneous abortion Spontaneous expulsion of an embryo or fetus from the uterus before it can live outside the mother. More than 60% are caused by an inherited defect in the fetus, which might result in a fatal abnormality. Other causes may include acute infectious disease, especially if it reduces the fetus’s oxygen supply; abnormalities of the uterus that have physical or hormonal origins; and death of the fetus from umbilical-cord knotting. The main sign of impending miscarriage is vaginal bleeding.

misdemeanour See felony and misdemeanour

Mises Vme-zes\, Ludwig (Edler) von (b. Sept. 29, 1881, Lemberg, Austria-Hungary—d. Oct. 10, 1973, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Austrian-U.S. economist whose theories followed those of the Austrian school of eco¬ nomics. He taught at the University of Vienna (1913-38) before immi¬ grating to the U.S. and joining the New York University faculty (1945— 69). In The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality (1956), an examination of U.S. socialism, he dealt with the opposition to the free market by intellectu¬ als, who, in his view, bear an unwarranted resentment toward mass demand, which is the basis of prosperity in big business.

Mishima \'me-she-ma\ Yukio orig. Hiraoka Kimitake (b. Jan. 14, 1925, Tokyo, Japan—d. Nov. 25, 1970, Tokyo) Japanese writer. Having failed to qualify physically for military service in World War II, Mishima worked in a Tokyo factory and after the war studied law. He won acclaim with his first novel. Confessions of a Mask (1949). Many of his charac¬ ters are obsessed with unattainable ideals and erotic desires, as in The Temple of the Golden Pavilion (1956). His epic The Sea of Fertility, 4 vol. (1965-70), is perhaps his most lasting achievement. He strongly opposed Japan’s close ties to the West in the postwar era (notably the new constitution that forbade rearmament) and yearned to preserve Japan’s martial spirit and reverence for the emperor. In a symbolic gesture of these beliefs, he died by committing seppuku (ritual disembowelment) after seiz¬ ing a military headquarters. He is often considered one of Japan’s most important 20th-century novelists.

Joan Miro, photograph by Yousuf Karsh, 1966.

KARSH/WOODFIN CAMP AND ASSOCIATES

Mishna ► Mississippi I 1267

Mishna or Mishnah \mesh-'na, 'mish-noN Oldest authoritative collec¬ tion of Jewish oral law, supplementing the written laws in the Hebrew Scriptures. It was compiled by a series of scholars over two centuries and was given final form in the 3rd century ad by Judah ha-Nasi. Annotations by later scholars in Palestine and Babylonia resulted in the Gemara; the Mishna and Gemara are usually said to make up the Talmud. The Mishna has six major sections, on daily prayer and agriculture, Sabbath and other religious ritual, married life, civil and criminal law, the Temple of Jeru¬ salem, and ritual purification.

Mishne Torah Vmesh-'ne-to-'raV Extensive commentary on the Talmud, composed in the 12th century by Moses Maimonides. Its 14 volumes deal with laws covering such subjects as ethical conduct, civil affairs, torts, marriage and divorce, and gifts to the poor. Maimonides intended the Mishne Torah to combine religious law and philosophy and to serve as a vehicle for teaching rather than merely to prescribe conduct.

Miskito Coast See Mosquito Coast

Miskolc \'mish- 1 kolts\City (pop., 2001: 184,125), northeastern Hungary. It lies on the eastern margin of the Avas Hills. Caves in the limestone hills, inhabited from prehistoric times, now serve as cellars for the wine¬ making industry. Settled by Germanic tribes, Sarmatians and Avars, the town was conquered by the Hungarians in the 10th century. It was invaded by the Mongols in the 13th century. It became a free city in the 15th cen¬ tury. A major industrial centre, it produces iron and steel. Historic build¬ ings include a 13th-century Gothic church.

misrepresentation In law, any false or misleading expression of fact, usually with the intent to deceive or defraud. It most commonly occurs in insurance and real-estate contracts. False advertising may also consti¬ tute misrepresentation. Any contract that contains or constitutes a mis¬ representation is usually rendered void, and the injured party may insist that the misrepresentation be made good.

missile RocKET-propelled weapon designed to deliver an explosive war¬ head with great accuracy at high speed. Missiles vary from small tactical weapons effective out to only a few hundred feet to much larger strategic weapons with ranges of several thousand miles. They were not developed in any significant way until after World War II. Almost all contain some form of guidance and control mechanism and are therefore often called guided missiles. An unguided military missile, as well as any launch vehicle used to penetrate the upper atmosphere or place a satellite in space, is usually called a rocket. A propeller-driven underwater missile is called a torpedo, and a guided missile powered along a low, level flight path by an air-breathing jet engine is called a cruise missile. With the development of ICBMs, missiles became central to Cold War strategy. See also anti- balustic missile, Minuteman missile, V-l missile, V-2 missile. See illustration opposite.

Missile Defense Alarm System (Midas) Any of a series of unmanned U.S. military satellites developed to provide warning of sur¬ prise attacks by Soviet intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM). Midas was the first such warning system in the world. Launched in the early 1960s, the reconnaissance satellites were equipped with infrared sensors capable of detecting the heat of a ballistic missile’s rocket exhaust shortly after firing.

mission Organized effort to spread the Christian faith. St. Paul evange¬ lized much of Asia Minor and Greece, and the new religion spread rap¬ idly along the trade routes of the Roman Empire. The advance of Christianity slowed with the disintegration of the Roman Empire after ad 500 and the growth of Arab power in the 7th-8th century, but Irish and Anglo-Saxon missionaries continued to spread the faith in western and northern Europe, while missionaries of the Greek church in Constantino¬ ple worked in eastern Europe and Russia. Missions to Islamic areas and Asia began in the medieval period, and when Spain, Portugal, and France established overseas empires in the 16th century, the Roman Catholic church sent missionaries to the Americas and the Philippines. A renewed wave of Roman Catholic missionary work in the 19th century focused on Africa and Asia. Protestant churches were slower to undertake foreign missions, but in the 19th and early 20th century there was a great upsurge in Protestant missionary activity. Missionary work continues today, though it is often discouraged by the governments of former European colonies that have won independence.

Mission style or Spanish Mission style Style of the missions established by Spanish Franciscans in Florida, Texas, Arizona, New

1 MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

Mexico, and especially California (1769-1823). Their portals were often handsomely ornate, but the overall impression is one of simple geomet¬ ric volumes of white stucco complemented by sharply incised windows and simplified interior details. Mission style also commonly refers to a style largely created in the early 20th century by Gustav Stickley, who marketed a line of plain, heavy oak furnishings inspired by those of the Spanish missions, as well as a series of house designs to suit modest incomes.

Mississauga \ l mi-s3- , so-g9\ City (pop., 2001: 612,925), southeastern Ontario, Canada. Situated at the western end of Lake Ontario, southwest of Toronto, it was settled in the early 19th century on land purchased from the Mississauga Indians. Mississauga became a town in 1968 and a city in 1974. Both a residential suburb of Toronto and an important industrial centre, it is also the site of the Lester B. Pearson International Airport.

Mississippi State (pop., 2000: 2,844,658), south-central U.S. Lying on the Gulf of Mexico, it is bordered by Tennessee, Alabama, Louisiana, and Arkansas. It covers 47,695 sq mi (123,530 sq km); its capital is Jackson. Its landscape ranges from hills and pine woods to plains and river low¬ lands. Before European settlement, the area was inhabited by several Indian tribes, including the Choctaw, Natchez, and Chickasaw. It became part of French-controlled Louisiana, and Biloxi was settled in 1699. The northern portion was ceded to the U.S. in 1783; the southern portion was included in the Mississippi Territory (created 1798), which expanded in 1804 to include most of the present-day state. Mississippi became the 20th U.S. state in 1817. A plantation-based economy using slave labour devel¬ oped in the 1820s. It seceded from the Union in 1861 and gave the Con¬ federacy its president, Jefferson Davis. The Union capture of Vicksburg in 1863 proved a turning point in the American Civil War. It was readmitted to the Union in 1870 and adopted a constitution aimed at blocking Recon¬ struction in 1890. The state became a battleground in the struggle against

1268 I Mississippi River ► Mistral

racial segregation in the 1960s: the state’s effort to block the admission of James Meredith to the University of Mississippi triggered riots in 1962; local civil rights leader Medgar Evers was murdered in 1963. After 1969, when the federal government ordered the integration of the state’s seg¬ regated school system, Mississippi’s long-standing racial traditions began a gradual change. Today, its economy is based on agricultural products, including cotton and soybeans. Manufactured goods include textiles and electrical equipment.

Mississippi River River, central U.S. It rises at Lake Itasca in Minne¬ sota and flows south, meeting its major tributaries, the Missouri and the Ohio rivers, about halfway along its journey to the Gulf of Mexico. It enters the Gulf southeast of New Orleans, after a course of 2,350 mi (3,780 km). It is the largest river in North America, and with its tributaries it drains an area of 1.2 million sq mi (3.1 million sq km). Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto was the first European to discover the river in 1541. French explor¬ ers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette traveled down it in 1673 as far as the Arkansas River. French explorer La Salle reached the delta in 1682 and claimed the entire Mississippi region for France, as Louisiana. France kept control over the upper river, but the lower portion passed to Spain in 1769. It was designated the western boundary of the U.S. in 1783. France sold it to the U.S. in 1803 as part of the Louisiana Purchase. During the American Civil War, Union forces captured Vicksburg, Miss., in 1863, breaking the Confederate hold on the river. As the central river artery of the U.S., it is one of the busiest commercial waterways in the world.

Mississippian culture Last major prehistoric cultural development in North America, c. ad 800-1550. It spread over much of the southeast and the mid-continent, especially in the major river valleys. It was based on intensive cultivation of corn, beans, squash, and other crops. Each large town dominated a group of satellite villages. Each had a central ceremo¬ nial plaza with one or more pyramidal or oval earthen mounds surmounted by a temple, a pattern indicating a connection to Central America. The immense Cahokia Mounds near present-day Collinsville, Ill., U.S., was the culture’s largest urban centre. Craftwork was executed in copper, shell, stone, wood, and clay. The culture had already begun to decline by the time Europeans first penetrated the southeast. See also Southeastern Indian; Woodland culture.

Mississippian Period In North America, an interval of geologic time roughly equivalent to what is internationally designated the Early Car¬ boniferous Period (354-323 million years ago). Because the rocks associ¬ ated with this period are typified by those in the Mississippi valley, some U.S. geologists prefer the designation Mississippian to the European term Early Carboniferous.

Missouri State (pop., 2000: 5,595,211), midwestem U.S. Bordered by Iowa, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska, it covers 69,709 sq mi (180,546 sq km); its capital is Jefferson City. The Missouri River runs from west to east across the state. The area north of it has rolling hills and fertile plains, the area south has deep valleys and swift streams. The region was originally inhabited by various Indian peoples, one of which, the Missouri, gave the state its name. The first per¬ manent European settlement was made in 1735 at Ste. Genevieve by French hunters and lead miners. St. Louis was founded in 1764. The U.S. gained control of the region in 1803 as part of the Louisiana Purchase. It was part of Louisiana Territory in 1805 and Missouri Territory in 1812. An influx of U.S. settlers occurred after the War of 181 2. Missouri became the 24th state in 1821, but only after the Missouri Compromise allowed its admis¬ sion as a slave state. It suffered much tension between slaveholders and abolitionists, evidenced in the Dred Scott decision in 1857. Missouri remained in the Union during the American Civil War, though its citizens fought on both sides. After the war, its economic growth expanded and was celebrated in the St. Louis Exhibition of 1904. After World War II, its economy shifted from agriculture to manufacturing. It leads the nation in lead production, based mainly in the Ozarks region.

Missouri Compromise (1820) Act passed by the U.S. Congress admitting Missouri to the Union as the 24th state. After the territory requested statehood without slavery restrictions, Northern congressmen tried unsuccessfully to attach amendments restricting further slaveholding. When Maine (originally part of Massachusetts) requested statehood, a compromise led by Henry Clay allowed Missouri admission as a slave state and Maine as a free state, with slavery prohibited from then on in territories north of Missouri’s southern border. Clay’s compromise appeared to settle the slavery-extension issue but highlighted the sectional division.

Missouri Plan Method of selecting judges that originated in the state of Missouri and was later adopted elsewhere. Designed to overcome the weaknesses of the elective system, the plan permits the governor to select a judge from a list of nominees recommended by a special commission, but requires that the judge be approved in a public referendum after serv¬ ing a period of time.

Missouri River River, central U.S. The longest tributary of the Mississippi River, it rises in the Rocky Mountains of southwestern Montana. It flows east to central North Dakota and south across South Dakota, forming sections of the South Dakota-Nebraska boundary, the Nebraska-Iowa boundary, the Nebraska-Missouri boundary, and the Kansas-Missouri boundary. It then meanders east across central Missouri to join the Mississippi River north of St. Louis, after a total course of 2,315 mi (3,726 km). It has been nicknamed “Big Muddy” because of the amount of silt that it carries. The first Euro¬ peans to visit its mouth were French explorers Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet in 1673. The first exploration of the river from its mouth to its head¬ waters was made in 1 804—05 by the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Since the mid 20th century, programs have been instituted along its banks to check its turbulent flooding and to harness it for irrigation.

Missouri River, Little See Little Missouri River

Misti \'mes-te\ Volcano Spanish Volcan Misti Volcano, Andes Mountains, southern Peru. It is flanked by Chachani and Pichupichu vol¬ canoes and rises to 19,098 ft (5,821 m) above sea level, towering over the city of Arequipa. Its pristine snowcapped cone is thought to have had reli¬ gious significance for the Incas, and it has inspired legends and poetry. Now dormant, it last erupted during an earthquake in 1600.

mistletoe Any of many species of semiparasitic green plants of the families Loranthaceae and Vis- caceae, especially those of the gen¬ era Viscum, Phoradendron, and Arceuthobium , all members of the Viscaceae family. V. album , the tra¬ ditional mistletoe of literature and Christmas celebrations, is found throughout Eurasia. This yellowish evergreen bush (2-3 ft, or 0.6-0.9 m, long) droops on the branch of a host tree. The thickly crowded, forking branches bear small leathery leaves and yellowish flowers, which pro¬ duce waxy-white berries containing poisonous pulp. A modified root pen¬ etrates the bark of the host tree and forms tubes through which water and nutrients pass from the host to the slow-growing but persistent parasite.

The North American counterpart is P. serotinum. Mistletoe was formerly believed to have magical and medicinal powers, and kissing under hanging mistletoe was said to lead inevitably to marriage.

Mistral \me-'stral\, Frederic (b.

Sept. 8, 1830, Maillane, France—-d.

March 25, 1914, Maillane) French poet. A leader of the 19th-century revival of Provencal, Mistral cofounded the Felibrige, an influen¬ tial association for maintaining the customs and language of Provence and later the whole of southern France. He devoted 20 years to cre¬ ating a scholarly dictionary of Provencal. His literary output includes lyrics; short stories; Mem¬ oirs of Mistral (1906), his best- known work; and long narrative poems, including Mireio (1859) and The Song of the Rhone (1897), his two greatest works. He shared the 1904 Nobel Prize for Literature with Jose Echegaray.

Leaves and berries of American m istle- toe (Phoradendron serotinum )

JOHN H. GERARD

Frederic Mistral, etching, 1864

Mistral ► Mitford I 1269

Mistral \mes-'tral\ / Gabriela ori} April 7, 1889, Vicuna, Chile—d. Jan. 10, 1957, Hempstead, N.Y., U.S.) Chilean poet. Mistral combined writ¬ ing with a career as a cultural min¬ ister and diplomat and as a professor in the U.S. Her reputation as a poet was established in 1914 when she won a prize for three “Sonnets of Death.” Her passionate lyrics, with love of children and of the downtrod¬ den as principal themes, are col¬ lected in such volumes as Desolation (1922), Tala (1938), and Lagar (1954). In 1945 she became the first Latin American woman to win the Nobel Prize for Literature.

. Lucila Godoy Alcayaga (b.

MIT See Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Milanni \mi-'ta-ne\ Ancient king- ^ r 'o!co«fEs°wAs™GTON, d.c

dom of upper Mesopotamia. It -

extended from the Euphrates River

nearly to the Tigris River and flourished from about 1500 to 1360 bc. Founded by Indo-Iranians who settled among the Hurrian peoples of the region, it competed with Egypt for control of Syria. Under King Sausta- tar in the 15th century bc, the soldiers of Mitanni looted the Assyrian pal¬ ace in Ashur. In the mid-14th century bc, Wassukkani, its capital, was sacked by the Hittites, and the kingdom became part of the Hittite empire as Hanigalbat. Shortly afterward it was made an Assyrian province.

Mitchell, Arthur (b. March 27, 1934, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. dancer, choreographer, and director of the Dance Theatre of Harlem. He studied at the High School for the Performing Arts in New York City. He began dancing in Broadway musicals and worked with several ballet com¬ panies before joining the New York City Ballet in 1956 as its first African American dancer. He created roles in several of George Balanchine’s bal¬ lets, including A Midsummer Night’s Dream (1962) and Agon (1967), before leaving the company in 1972. In 1968 he cofounded a ballet school, and its company, the Dance Theatre of Harlem, made its debut in 1971. He has continued as its director and choreographer.

Mitchell, Billy orig. William Mitchell (b. Dec. 29, 1879, Nice, France—d. Feb. 19, 1936, New York, N.Y., U.S.) French-born U.S. avia¬ tor. He enlisted in the army and served in the Spanish-American War. He became the top U.S. air commander in World War I, initiating mass¬ bombing formations and leading an attack involving 1,500 planes. An outspoken advocate of a separate air force, he foresaw the replacement of the battleship by the bomber. When a navy dirigible was lost in a storm (1925), he accused the U.S. war and navy departments of incompetence; charged with insubordination, he was court-martialed and suspended from duty. He resigned in 1926 but continued to champion air power and to warn of advances by foreign air forces. In 1948 he was posthumously honoured by the new U.S. Air Force with a special medal.

Mitchell, John (Newton) (b. Sept. 5, 1913, Detroit, Mich., U.S.—d. Nov. 9, 1988, Washington, D.C.) U.S. public official. A prominent attor¬ ney in New York City, he practiced with Richard Nixon after their firms merged in 1967. In 1968 he managed Nixon’s successful presidential campaign. As U.S. attorney general (1969-72), he was criticized for pros¬ ecuting war protesters, approving wiretaps without court authorization, and attempting to block publication of the Pentagon Papers. He resigned to direct Nixon’s reelection campaign but was soon caught up in the Watergate scandal. Convicted of conspiracy, obstruction of justice, and perjury, he served 19 months in prison.

Mitchell, Joni orig. Roberta Joan Anderson (b. Nov. 7, 1943, Fort McLeod, Alta., Can.) Canadian singer and songwriter. Mitchell stud¬ ied art in Calgary, where she began to sing in clubs. She eventually settled in Laurel Canyon, Calif., U.S. Several early songs, including “Both Sides Now” and “Woodstock,” became hits for other artists. While her early recordings, such as Clouds (1969) and Blue (1971), were folk-oriented and reflected the idealism of the time, later releases, including Court and Spark (1974), Hejira (1976), Mingus (1979, with Charles Mingus) and Turbulent Indigo (1994), were marked by strong pop and jazz influences.

Her notably original lyrics and musical settings made her one of the pre¬ eminent female songwriters of the late 20th century.

Mitchell, Margaret (b. Nov. 8, 1900, Atlanta, Ga., U.S.—d. Aug. 16, 1949, Atlanta) U.S. writer. Mitchell attended Smith College and then wrote for The Atlanta Journal before spending 10 years writing her one book. Gone with the Wind (1936, Pulitzer Prize; film, 1939). A story of the American Civil War and Reconstruction from the white Southern point of view, it was almost certainly the largest-selling novel in the history of U.S. publishing to that time. A parody of the book, as told from a slave’s point of view, The Wind Done Gone by Alice Randall, was published in

Mitchell, Mount Peak, western North Carolina, U.S. The highest U.S. peak east of the Mississippi River, it rises to 6,684 ft (2,037 m). It is situ¬ ated in North Carolina’s Black Mountains, part of the Blue Ridge system, within Mount Mitchell State Park and the Pisgah National Forest. For¬ merly called Black Dome, it was renamed for Elisha Mitchell, who sur¬ veyed it as the highest point in the eastern U.S. in 1835; he died on the mountain and is buried at its summit.

Mitchell, Peter Dennis (b. Sept. 29,1920, Mitcham, Surrey, Eng.—d. April 10, 1992, Bodmin, Cornwall) British chemist. He discovered how the distribution of enzymes in mitochondrial membranes helps them use energy from hydrogen ions to convert ADP to ATP. He received a 1978 Nobel Prize for formulating the chemiosmotic theory, which explains how energy is generated in the mitochondria of living cells.

Mitchell, Wesley C(lair) (b. Aug. 5, 1874, Rushville, Ill., U.S.—d. Oct. 29, 1948, New York, N.Y.) U.S. economist. Educated at the Univer¬ sity of Chicago under Thorstein Veblen and John Dewey, he later taught at several universities, including Columbia (1913-19, 1922-44). He helped found the National Bureau of Economic Research in 1920 and was its director of research until 1945. His work greatly influenced the develop¬ ment of quantitative studies of economic behaviour in the U.S. and abroad, and he was the foremost expert of his day on business cycles.

Mitchell River River, northern Queensland, Australia. Rising in the Eastern Highlands, it flows for 350 mi (560 km) northwest across Cape York Peninsula to the Gulf of Carpentaria. Fed by several rivers, it varies seasonally and may be dry for three months each year. It was explored in 1845 by Ludwig Leichhardt and was named for Thomas Mitchell, sur¬ veyor general for New South Wales. Crocodiles abound along its banks.

Mitchum, Robert (Charles Duran) (b. Aug. 6, 1917, Bridgeport, Conn., U.S.—d. July 1,1997, Santa Barbara county, Calif.) U.S. film actor. Expelled from high school in New York City, he spent his teenage years wandering the country and working odd jobs. After joining an acting com¬ pany in California, he made his screen debut in 1943, acting in several Hopalong Cassidy westerns. He won praise for his role in The Story of G ./. Joe (1945). With his trademark sleepy-eyed, tough-guy appearance, he usually played loners and villains, in movies (many of them B movies that have grown in critical esteem over time) such as Out of the Past (1947), The Lusty Men (1952), The Night of the Hunter (1955), Thunder Road (1958), Cape Fear (1962), The Friends of Eddie Coyle (1973), and Farewell, My Lovely (1975). In his later years, he starred in the television miniseries Winds of War (1983) and War and Remembrance (1988-89).

mite Any of about 20,000 species of tiny arachnids (subclass Acari, sometimes Acarina or Acarida). Spe¬ cies range from microscopic to 0.25 in. (6 mm) long. Mites live in water and soil, on plants, and as plant and animal parasites. Both parasitic and nonparasitic forms transmit plant and animal diseases. Itch mites (fam¬ ily Sarcoptidae), which burrow into the skin of humans and animals, cause the highly contagious disease scabies. A few species transmit tape¬ worms to cattle. Grain mites (family Glycyphagidae) damage stored prod¬ ucts and irritate the skin of those who

handle the products. House dust allergy is caused by species of the com¬ mon genus Dermatophagoides. See also chigger.

Red velvet mite ( Dinothrombium; mag¬ nified about five times)

ANTHONY BANNISTER-NATURAL HISTORY PHOTOGRAPHIC AGENCY/EB INC.

Mitford, Nancy (b. Nov. 28, 1904, London, Eng.—d. June 30, 1973, Versailles, France) British writer. Born into an eccentric, aristocratic fam-

1270 I Mithra ► Mitra

ily, she became known for her witty satiric novels of upper-class life, including the quasi-autobiographical The Pursuit of Love (1945), Love in a Cold Climate (1949), The Blessing (1951), and Don ’t Tell Alfred (1960). A volume of essays she coedited, Noblesse Oblige (1956), popularized the distinction between linguistic usages that are “U” (upper-class) and “non-U.” Her sister Jessica (1917-96) was a noted writer on U.S. society whose best-known book was The American Way of Death (1963).

Mithra \me-'tra, 'mith-roX In Indo-Iranian myth, the god of light. He was bom bearing a torch and armed with a knife, beside a sacred stream and under a sacred tree, a child of the earth itself. He soon rode, and later killed, the life-giving cosmic bull, whose blood fertilizes all vegetation. This deed became the prototype for a bull-slaying fertility ritual. As god of light, Mithra was associated with the Greek Helios and the Roman Sol Invictus. The first written reference to Mithra dates to 1400 bc. See also Mithraism.

Mithradates VI Eupator \ l mith-r3- , da-tez... , yu-p3- l tor\ known as Mithradates the Great Latin "Born of a Noble Father" (d.

63 bc, Panticapaeum) King of Pon- tus (120-63 bc) and enemy of Rome.

As a boy he was coruler with his mother from c. 120, then overthrew her to become sole ruler in 115. He gradually conquered areas along the western and southern regions of the Black Sea. He waged three wars against Rome, called the Mithradatic Wars (88-85, 83-82, 74-63).

Though he originally seemed a champion to Greeks seeking relief from the Roman threat, his defeat by Sulla (86) destroyed that hope. When it became necessary, he extorted money and supplies from his Greek territories in Asia Minor. Greek revolts led to cruel reprisals. Greece turned to Rome after 86 but suffered under the harsh demands of both until Mithradates was conclusively defeated by Pompey. He was one of the few leaders to successfully challenge Roman expansion in Asia.

Mithraism Vmith-ro-.i-zomV Ancient Iranian religion based on the wor¬ ship of Mithra, the greatest of Iranian deities before the coming of Zoro¬ aster in the 6th century bc. It spread from India through Persia and the Hellenic world; in the 3rd-4th century ad, soldiers of the Roman empire carried it as far west as Spain, Britain, and Germany. The most important Mithraic ceremony was the sacrifice of the bull, an event associated with the creation of the world. Mithraic ceremonies were held by torchlight in subterranean caverns. A form of Mithraism in which the old Persian cer¬ emonies were given a Platonic interpretation was popular in the 2nd-3rd century ad in the Roman empire, where Mithra was honored as the patron of loyalty to the emperor. After Constantine I accepted Christianity in the early 4th century, Mithraism rapidly declined.

mitigating circumstance See extenuating circumstance

Mitilini See Lesbos

Mitla \'met-la\ Village and archaeological site, Oaxaca state, southern Mexico. It lies at an elevation of 4,855 ft (1,480 m), surrounded by the mountains of the Sierra Madre del Sur. It was established as a sacred burial site by the Zapotec, who used it until c. ad 900. The Mixtec moved down from northern Oaxaca sometime between 900 and 1500 and took posses¬ sion of Mitla. The modem village, composed of thatched huts and adobe houses, serves as a base for the study of the ruins.

Mito Vme-to\ Japanese han (domain) belonging to one of the three branches of the Tokugawa family from which the shogun was chosen dur¬ ing the Tokugawa period. During the 19th century, nationalists from Mito adopted the slogan “Sonno joi” (“Revere the emperor, expel the barbar¬ ians”). Tokugawa Nariaki (1800-60), daimyo of Mito at the time of Com¬ modore Matthew Perry’s mission to Japan, called for Japan’s continued isolation, supported by greater national unity and military renovation. See also li Naosuke; Meiji Restoration; Yoshida Shoin.

Paris

CUCHE MUSEES NATIONAUX, PARIS

mitosis \ml-'to-sos\ Cell division, or reproduction, in which a cell gives rise to two genetically identical daughter cells. Strictly applied, the term describes the duplication and distribution of chromosomes. Prior to mito¬ sis, each chromosome is replicated, producing two strands (chromatids) attached at a centromere. During mitosis, the membrane around the cell’s nucleus dissolves and the chromatids of each chromosome are separated and pulled to each end of the cell. As the nuclear membrane re-forms around each set of chromosomes, the cytoplasm of the parent cell begins to divide to form two daughter cells. Following mitosis, the cell mem¬ brane pinches in to separate the daughter cells. Mitosis is essential to life because it provides new cells for growth and for replacement of worn-out cells. It may take minutes or hours, depending on the kind of cells and species of organisms. It is influenced by time of day, temperature, and chemicals. See also centromere, meiosis.

A. prophase

B. late prophase (metaphase)

D.anaphase

separated chromatid

E. telophase

chromosome

uncoiling

nuclear

membrane

re-forming

Stages of mitosis. A. Prophase. Replicated chromosomes, consisting of two daugh¬ ter strands (chromatids) attached by a centromere, coil and contract. Two pairs of specialized organelles (centrioles) begin to move apart, forming a bridge of hollow protein cylinders known as microtubules (spindle fibres) between them. Microtu¬ bules also extend in a radial array (aster) from the centrioles to the poles of the cell. B. Late prophase. As the centrioles move apart, the nuclear membrane breaks down and microtubules extend from each centromere to opposite sides or poles of the cell. C. Metaphase. The centromeres align in a plane midway between the poles known as the equator, or metaphase plate. During late metaphase, each cen¬ tromere divides into two, freeing sister chromatids from each other. D. Anaphase. Sister chromatids are drawn to opposite ends as centromeric microtubules shorten and polar microtubules lengthen, causing the poles to move farther apart. E. Telo¬ phase. Chromosomes uncoil, microtubules disappear, and the nuclear membrane re-forms around each set of daughter chromosomes. The cytoplasm begins to pinch in to create two daughter cells.

Mitra In Vedic Hinduism, one of the gods in the category of Adityas, or sovereign principles of the universe. He represents friendship, integrity, harmony, and all other qualities necessary to maintain order in human existence. He is usually paired with Varuna, the guardian of the cosmic

Mitre ► Moab I 1271

order, whose powers he complements as guardian of the human order. As spirit of the day, he is sometimes associated with the sun. His Iranian counterpart is Mithra.

Mitre \'me-tra\ / Bartolome (b. June 26, 1821, Buenos Aires—d. Jan. 18, 1906, Buenos Aires) President of Argentina (1862-68). An exiled critic of the dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas, he helped defeat Rosas by leading Uruguayan forces against him, then led a successful campaign to make Buenos Aires the capital of a united Argentina. Once elected presi¬ dent, he suppressed the rural caudillos, extended mail and telegraph ser¬ vice, organized public finances, established new courts, and founded the newspaper La Nation (1870) and the Argentine Academy of History. See also Justo Jose de Urquiza.

Mitscher Vmich-orV Marc A(ndrew) (b. Jan. 26, 1887, Hillsboro, Wis., U.S.—d. Feb. 3, 1947, Norfolk, Va.) U.S. naval officer. A graduate of the U.S. Naval Academy at Annapolis, Md. (1910), Mitscher qualified as the 33rd naval pilot in 1916. In the years that followed, he helped develop naval aviation and integrate it into the fleet. In World War II he commanded the aircraft carrier Hornet in the Battle of Midway. He later commanded aircraft carrier attacks in the battles of the Philippine Sea and Leyte Gulf and at Iwo Jima and Okinawa. In 1946 he was promoted to admiral and made commander in chief of the U.S. Atlantic fleet.

Mitsubishi Corp. Loose consortium of independent Japanese compa¬ nies. The first Mitsubishi company was a trading and shipping concern established in 1873 by Iwasaki Yataro. Several subsidiaries were created after World War I, and by the 1930s Mitsubishi was Japan’s second-largest zaibatsu. During World War II it was a major military contractor, its best- known product being the Zero fighter plane. By the end of the war Mit¬ subishi controlled some 200 companies. The zaibatsu was broken up by U.S. occupation forces, and the stock of the subsidiary firms was sold to the public. After the occupation, the independent Mitsubishi companies began to reassociate. The group today consists of hundreds of worldwide subsidiaries and affiliates organized into several business groups such as chemicals, electronics, and machinery.

Mitterrand \me-t9-'ra n \, Francois (-Maurice-Marie) (b. Oct. 26, 1916, Jarnac, France—d. Jan. 8,

1996, Paris) President of France (1981-95). After serving in World War II, he was elected to the National Assembly (1946) and held cabinet posts in 11 Fourth Republic govern¬ ments (1947-58). Moving to the political left, he opposed Charles de Gaulle’s government and ran unsuc¬ cessfully against him in 1965 but won 32% of the vote. In 1971 he became secretary of the French Socialist Party and made it the major¬ ity party of the left, which led to his election as president in 1981. With a leftist majority in the National Assembly, he introduced radical eco¬ nomic reforms, which were modified when a right-wing majority regained power in 1986. Reelected president in 1988, he strongly promoted Euro¬ pean integration. His domestic policy was less successful, and France experienced high unemployment. In 1991 he appointed Edith Cresson (b. 1934) prime minister, the first French woman to hold that office (1991-92). A defeat for the Socialists in the leg¬ islative elections of 1993 further moderated Mitterrand’s policies.

Mix, Tom orig. Thomas Hezikiah Mix (b. Jan. 6, 1880, Mix Run, Pa., U.S.—d. Oct. 12, 1940, near Florence, Ariz.) U.S. film actor. He worked as a cowhand and a deputy sheriff and served in the army and in the Texas Rangers before joining a Wild West show in 1906. He made his screen debut as a roughriding hero in 1910 and soon became a star of silent westerns. Over the years his horse, Tony, became almost as famous as Mix himself. Mix appeared in more than 200 one- and two-reelers and feature films, many of which he also produced or directed. His career declined with the coming of sound.

Mixco\'mesh-ko\City (pop., 1994: 209,791), south-central Guatemala. It is a western suburb of Guatemala City and supplies the capital with produce.

Mixtec \mes-'tek\ Indian population in southern Mexico. They attained a high degree of civilization in Aztec and pre-Aztec times, leaving behind written records. Today they practice shifting cultivation and also hunt, fish, herd, and gather wild foods. Their crafts include ceramics and weav¬ ing. Nominally Roman Catholic and active in church brotherhoods (cof- radias), they blend pre-Christian beliefs and practices with Catholic rituals.

Mizoguchi Kenji X.me-zo-'gu-che-'ken-jeV (b. May 16, 1898, Tokyo, Japan—d. Aug. 24, 1956, Kyoto) Japanese film director. After studying painting, he became an actor at the Nikkatsu studio in 1919 and made his debut as a director in 1922. His early films include Street Sketches (1925), Tokyo March (1929), Osaka Elegy (1936), and The Story of the Last Chrysanthemums (1939). His pictorially beautiful films, of which he made more than 80, often dealt with the conflict between modern and traditional values. He won international acclaim for Ugetsu monogatari (1953), an allegorical commentary on postwar Japan. He was also noted for his films about women, including The Love of Actress Sumako (1947), Women of the Night (1948), and Street of Shame (1956).

Mizoram Xmi-'zo-ronA State (pop., 2001 prelim.: 891,058), northeast¬ ern India. Occupying an area of 8,139 sq mi (21,081 sq km), it is bounded by Myanmar (Burma) and Bangladesh and the states of Tripura, Assam, and Manipur. It is largely mountainous; its capital is Aizawl. The various eth¬ nic groups of Mizoram are known collectively as the Mizo (Lushai), and they speak a variety of Tibeto-Burman dialects. They were in revolt against India for decades, and the establishment of Mizoram as a union territory in 1972 failed to appease them. The conflict was settled in 1987 with the promotion of Mizoram to statehood and the election of a Mizo- led state government. The economy is based on agriculture.

Mizuno Tadakuni \me- , zun-6- I ta-da- , kii-ne\ (b. July 19, 1794, Edo [Tokyo], Japan—d. March 12, 1851, Edo) Chief adviser to the 12th Tokugawa shogun, Tokugawa Ieyoshi (r. 1837-53). In the face of social and economic decline, Mizuno tried to implement a series of reforms that would return late Tokugawa-period Japan to the martial simplicity of the early days of the shogunate. He enacted sumptuary laws, canceled samu¬ rai debts, decreed a price and wage cut, and tried to force unauthorized peasant migrants to leave the cities and return to the countryside. These so-called Tempo Reforms failed, and Mizuno was removed from office.

Mjollnir Vmycel-nir, 'myol-nir\ In Norse myth, the hammer of Thor and the symbol of his power. Forged by dwarfs, the hammer never failed Thor as a weapon or as an instrument of sanctification. It had many magical qualities, including the ability to return to Thor’s hand after it had been thrown. It was stolen by the giant Thrym, who asked as ransom the hand of Freyja. When Freyja refused to go to Thrym, Thor, masquerading as Freyja, managed to seize the hammer, which had been brought out to con¬ secrate Freyja as Thrym’s bride, and slaughtered Thrym and the other giants.

Mjosa Vmce-sa\, Lake Lake, southeastern Norway. It lies north of Oslo, at the southern end of Gudbrands Valley. The country’s largest lake, it serves as a link between the Lagen River to the north and the Vorma-Glama river system to the south. Occupying an area of 142 sq mi (368 sq km), it is 62 mi (100 km) long and 1 to 9 mi (1.6 to 14 km) wide. Lilleham- mer, at its northern end, and Hamar, on its eastern shore, are the largest lakeshore towns.

Mo-tzu See Mozi

moa Any of 13-25 species of extinct ratite of New Zealand constituting the order Dinomithiformes. Species ranged from turkey-sized to 10 ft (3 m) high. Moas were swift runners that defended themselves by kicking. They were hunted for their flesh (eaten as food), bones (used as weapons and ornaments), and eggs (used for water vessels). The larger moas were probably extinct by the late 17th century; a few smaller species may have survived into the 19th century. Moas browsed and grazed on seeds, fruits, leaves, and grasses. They laid a single large egg in a hollow in the ground.

Moab \'mo-,ab\ Kingdom, ancient Palestine. Located east of the Dead Sea in what is now southwestern Jordan, it was bounded by Edom and the land of the Amorites. The Moabites were closely related to the Israelites but were sometimes at war with them and sometimes allied to them. The Moabite Stone, found at Dibon, recorded the 9th-century-BC victories of the Moab king Mesha, especially those over Israel. Moab was conquered by the Babylonians in 582 bc.

1272 I Moabites ► mockingbird

Moabites Vmo-o-.bltsX Semitic people who lived in the highlands east of the Dead Sea (now in W-central Jordan). The Moabites’ culture dates from the late 14th century bc to 582 bc, when they were conquered by the Babylonians. According to the Old Testament, they were descended from Moab, a son of Lot. Though their language, religion, and culture were closely related to those of the Israelites, the Moabites were not part of the Israelite community. David’s great-grandmother Ruth was a Moabite. The Moabite Stone, a stela discovered in 1868, is the only writ¬ ten document of any length that survives from Moab; it tells of King Omri of Israel’s reconquest of Moabite lands, which the Moabites ascribed to the anger of their god, Chemosh. See also Dibon.

moai Vmo-jV figure Small wooden statue of uncertain religious sig¬ nificance, carved on Easter Island. The figures, thought to represent ances¬ tors who live on in the form of skeletons, are of two types: moai kavakava (male), with a beaklike nose and goatee and occasionally an animal or a human figure incised on the head; and moai paepae (female), which have a flat, relieflike quality and large eyes. They were sometimes used for fer¬ tility rites but more often for harvest celebrations, when the first picking of fruits was heaped around them as offerings.

Mobil Corp. Former name of one of the largest U.S. holding compa¬ nies, primarily engaged in petroleum operations but with major interests in chemical products and retailing. Mobil’s roots are in two 19th-century oil companies, Vacuum Oil Co. (founded 1866) and Standard Oil Co. of New York (or Socony, 1882). Their 1931 merger created Socony-Vacuum Corp., which became Socony Mobil Oil Corp. (1955) and then Mobil Oil Corp. (1966). In 1974 Mobil Corp., the holding company, was created when Mobil Oil Corp. bought Marcor Inc. in an effort to diversify. By 1988 Mobil had sold Marcor’s major non-oil-related portions, including Montgomery Ward, to refocus on petroleum products. Mobil Oil Corp. developed a full range of petroleum operations from exploration to mar¬ keting, with major production in the Gulf of Mexico, California, the Atlan¬ tic coast, Alaska, the North Sea, and Saudi Arabia. It merged with Exxon Corp. to become Exxon Mobil Corp. in 1999.

Mobile Vmo-.bel, mo-'bel\ City (pop., 2000: 198,915), southwestern Alabama, U.S. Situated on Mobile Bay at the mouth of the Mobile River, the site was explored by Spaniards in 1519. French colonists built a fort near the river’s mouth in 1702. It served as the capital of French Loui¬ siana until about 1719. It was ceded to the British in 1763 and captured by the Spanish during the American Revolution. It was seized by the U.S. during the War of 1812 and incorporated as a town in 1819. During the American Civil War it was an important Confederate port, but Federal forces won the Battle of Mobile Bay and captured the city. The state’s only seaport, it is a major industrial and manufacturing centre and the site of several institutions of higher education.

mobile \'mo-,bel\ Abstract sculpture that has moving parts, driven either by motors or by the natural force of air currents. Its revolving parts cre¬ ate a new visual experience of con¬ stantly changing volumes and forms.

The term was initially suggested by Marcel Duchamp for a 1932 Paris exhibition of such works by Alex¬ ander Calder, who became the mobile’s greatest exponent.

Mobile Bay Inlet of the Gulf of Mexico, extending 35 mi (56 km) north to the mouth of the Mobile River in southwestern Alabama, U.S.

It is 8-18 mi (13-29 km) wide and enters the gulf through a dredged channel between Dauphin Island and Mobile Point. During the American Civil War it was the scene of the Battle of Mobile Bay.

Mobile Bay, Battle of (Aug. 5,

1864) Naval engagement in the American Civil War. The Union fleet under David Farragut sailed into Mobile Bay, Ala., breaching the protective string of mines (torpedoes) and engaging the Confederate ironclad Tennessee. After a two-hour battle, the

Lobster Trap and Fish Tail, mobile of painted steel wire and sheet aluminum by Alexander Calder, 1939; in the Museum of Modern Art, New York City.

COLLECTION, THE MUSEUM OF MODERN ART, NEW YORK, GIF OF THE ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Union fleet won control of the bay. With the surrender of nearby Fort Morgan, the former Confederate port of Mobile was sealed off from Con¬ federate blockade runners.

mobilization Organization of a nation’s armed forces for active mili¬ tary service in time of war or other national emergency. It includes recruit¬ ing and training, building military bases and training camps, and procuring and distributing weapons, ammunition, uniforms, equipment, and supplies. Full mobilization involves summoning all of a nation’s resources to support the military effort; for example, civilians may gather raw materials needed by the military, conserve scarce resources such as gasoline for military use, or sell war bonds to fund the war effort.

Mobius Vmoe-be-us,\ English \'mo-be-9s\, August Ferdinand (b. Nov. 17, 1790, Schulpforta, Saxony—d. Sept. 26, 1868, Leipzig) German mathematician and theoretical astronomer. He began teaching at the Uni¬ versity of Leipzig in 1815, and established his reputation with many pub¬ lications. His mathematical papers are chiefly concerned with geometry. He introduced homogeneous coordinates into analytic geometry and dealt with geometric transformations, in particular projective transformations. He was a pioneer in topology; in a memoir discovered after his death he discussed the properties of one-sided surfaces, including the famous Mobius strip.

Mobutu Sese Seko Vma-'bii-tu-'sa-sa-'sa-koV orig. Joseph-Desire

Mobutu (b. Oct. 14, 1930, Lisala, Belgian Congo—d. Sept. 7, 1997, Rabat, Mor.) President of Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo), 1965-97. Mobutu served in the Belgian Congolese army and as a journalist before joining Patrice Lumumba in independence negotiations in Brussels in 1960. When independence was achieved, the coalition gov¬ ernment of Pres. Joseph Kasavubu and Premier Lumumba put Mobutu in charge of defense. In a rift between Kasavubu and Lumumba, Mobutu helped Kasavubu seize control. Four years later, in a power struggle between Pres. Kasavubu and then Premier Moise Tshombe, Mobutu removed Kasavubu in a coup and assumed the presidency. He established single-party rule and Africanized all European names, changing his own to Mobutu Sese Seko (“All-Powerful Warrior”). His repressive regime failed to spur economic growth; corruption, mismanagement, and neglect led to decline, while Mobutu himself amassed one of the largest personal fortunes in the world. He was overthrown by Laurent Kabila in 1997 and died in exile in Morocco.

mocambo See quilombo

moccasin Either of two species of pit viper: the water moccasin or the Mexican moccasin {Agkistrodon bilineatus). The Mexican moccasin, or cantil, is a dangerous snake of lowland regions from the Rio Grande to Nicaragua. About 3 ft (1 m) long, it is brown or black with narrow, irregular, whitish bars on its back and sides. See also copperhead.

Moche \'mo-cha\ Dominant civilization on the northern coast of present- day Peru in the 1 st-8th centuries ad.

The name comes from the great site of Moche in the Moche River valley, which was apparently the capital of the Moche peoples. Their settle¬ ments extended along northern Peru’s hot, arid coast from the Lam- bayeque River valley south to the Nepena River valley. They irrigated extensively, and their agriculture supported many urban centres, which featured stepped pyramids.

They were skilled metalworkers and produced sophisticated craft goods, including fine mold-made pottery.

The cause of their demise is unknown. See also Andean civiliza¬ tion.

*f»

mockingbird Any of several New World birds of a family (Mimidae) known for their mimicry of birdsong.

The common, or northern, mocking¬ bird ( Mimus polyglottos) can imitate

the songs of 20 or more species within 10 minutes. About 10 in. (27 cm) long, it is gray, with darker, white-marked wings and tail. It ranges from

Mask of copper and gold alloy with eyes of shell, found in the Huaca de la Luna, Moche River valley about 400 bc-ad 600; in the Linden-Museum, Stut¬ tgart, Ger.

FERDINAND ANTON

Moctezuma II > modernization I 1273

the northern U.S. to Brazil; it has been introduced into Hawaii and thrives in suburban areas. It sings from perches, even at night, and vigorously defends its territory. Other Mimus species range from Central America to Patagonia, and the blue mockingbird (genus Melanotis) inhabits much of Mexico. Various subspecies of the Galapagos mockingbird (genus Neso- mimus ) inhabit the different islands.

Moctezuma II See Montezuma II

modal \'mo-d 9 l\ logic Formal systems incorporating modalities such as necessity, possibility, impossibility, contingency, strict implication, and cer¬ tain other closely related concepts. The most straightforward way of con¬ structing a modal logic is to add to some standard nonmodal logical system a new primitive operator intended to represent one of the modali¬ ties, to define other modal operators in terms of it, and to add axioms and/or transformation rules involving those modal operators. For example, one may add the symbol L, which means “It is necessary that,” to clas¬ sical propositional calculus; thus, Lp is read as “It is necessary that p.” The possibility operator M (“It is possible that”) may be defined in terms of L as Mp = —iL—ip (where —i means “not”). In addition to the axioms and rules of inference of classical propositional logic, such a system might have two axioms and one rule of inference of its own. Some character¬ istic axioms of modal logic are: (Al) Lp z> p and (A2) L(p o q) z> (Lp z> Lq). The new rule of inference in this system is the Rule of Necessita- tion: If p is a theorem of the system, then so is Lp. Stronger systems of modal logic can be obtained by adding additional axioms. Some add the axiom Lp z> LLp; others add the axiom Mp z> LMp.

mode In music, any of a variety of concepts used to classify scales and melodies. In Western music, the term is particularly used for the medieval church modes. Keys in tonal music are normally said to be in either major or minor mode, depending particularly on the third degree of the scale. Indian ragas can be regarded as modes. The concept of mode may involve much more than simply a classification of scales, extending to embrace an entire vocabulary of melodic formulas and perhaps other aspects of music that traditionally occur in tandem with a given set of formulas. The term mode has also been used for purely rhythmic patterns such as those of the Ars Antiqua, which were based on ancient Greek poetic metres.

mode See mean, median, and mode

Model T Automobile built by the Ford Motor Co. from 1908 until 1927, the first widely affordable mass-produced car. Assembly-line production methods introduced by Henry Ford in 1913 enabled the price of this five- seat touring car to drop from $850 in 1908 to $300 in 1925. Over 15 mil¬ lion Model T’s were built. The car was offered in several body styles, all mounted on a standard chassis. Various colors were initially available, but after 1913 its sole color was black. It was replaced by the popular Model A in 1928.

modem Vmo-.domV Electronic device that converts digital data into analog (modulated-wave) signals suitable for transmission over analog telecommunications circuits (e.g., traditional phone lines) and demodu¬ lates received analog signals to recover the digital data transmitted. The “modulator/demodulator” thus makes it possible for existing communi¬ cations channels to support a variety of digital communications, includ¬ ing e-mail, Internet access, and fax transmissions. An ordinary modem, operating over traditional phone lines, has a data transmission speed limit of about 56 kilobits per second. ISDN lines allow communications at over twice that rate, and cable modems and DSL lines have transmission rates of over a million bits per second.

modem, cable See cable modem

Modena \'mo-da-na\ City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 175,442), Emilia- Romagna region, northern Italy. It lies between the Secchia and Panaro rivers, northwest of Bologna. An ancient Etruscan city, it was made a Roman colony in 183 bc. It was attacked and pillaged by the Huns under Attila and later by the Lombards. It passed to the house of Este in 1288. It was taken by France in 1796 and made part of Napoleon’s kingdom of Italy in 1805. It reverted to Este rule in 1815 before joining unified Italy in 1860. The automobile industry is important to its economy; it is also an agricultural market centre. Sites of interest include the 11th-century cathedral and the university (founded 1175).

modern dance Theatrical dance that developed in the U.S. and Europe in the 20th century as a reaction to traditional ballet. Precursors included Loie Fuller and Isadora Duncan. Formal teaching of modern dance began

with the establishment of the Denishawn schools by Ruth St. Denis and Ted Shawn in 1915. Many of their students, principally Doris Humphrey and Martha Graham, further contributed to modem dance’s definition as a technique based on principles of fall and recovery (Humphrey) and of contraction and release (Graham). Movement often stressed the expres¬ sion of emotional intensity and contemporary subjects rather than focus¬ ing on the formal, classical, and often narrative aspects of ballet. Later developments included a revolt in the 1950s against Graham’s expres¬ sionism, led by Merce Cunningham, whose choreography included ballet technique and the element of chance. See also Agnes de Mille; Hanya Holm; Jose Limon; Alwin Nikolais; Anna Sokolow; Paul Taylor; Twyla Tharp.

Modern Jazz Quartet (MJQ) U.S. jazz ensemble. It was founded in 1951 by pianist John Lewis (1920-2001), vibraphonist Milt Jackson (1923-99), drummer Kenny Clarke (1914-85), and bassist Ray Brown (1926-2002). They originally worked together as the rhythm section for Dizzy Gillespie’s big band in 1946. The quartet established a reserved and subtle approach to the modern jazz innovations of the mid-1940s, incor¬ porating elements of classical chamber music with original compositions and jazz standards. Percy Heath (1923-2005) replaced Brown in 1952, and Connie Kay (1927-94) replaced Clarke in 1955. The group disbanded in 1974 but reunited for annual tours beginning in the 1980s. Upon Kay’s death, Percy’s brother Albert (“Tootie”) Heath (b. 1935) joined the group.

Modernism In the arts, a radical break with the past and concurrent search for new forms of expression. Modernism fostered a period of experimentation in the arts from the late 19th to the mid-20th century, particularly in the years following World War I. In an era characterized by industrialization, rapid social change, advances in science and the social sciences (e.g., Darwinism, Freudian theory), Modernists felt a grow¬ ing alienation incompatible with Victorian morality, optimism, and con¬ vention. The Modernist impulse is fueled in various literatures by industrialization and urbanization, by the search for an authentic response to a much-changed world. Among English-language writers, the best- known Modernists are T.S. Eliot, James Joyce, Gertrude Stein, and Virginia Woolf. Composers, including Arnold Schoenberg, Igor Stravinsky, and Anton Webern, sought new solutions within new forms and used as-yet- untried approaches to tonality. In dance a rebellion against both balletic and interpretive traditions had its roots in the work of Emile Jaques- Delcroze, Rudolf Laban, and Loie Fuller. Each of them examined a specific aspect of dance—such as the elements of the human form in motion or the impact of theatrical context—and helped bring about the era of mod¬ ern dance. In the visual arts the roots of Modernism are often traced back to painter Edouard Manet, who beginning in the 1860s broke away from inherited notions of perspective, modeling, and subject matter. The avant- garde movements that followed—including Impressionism, Post- Impressionism, Cubism, Futurism, Expressionism, Constructivism, De Stul, and Abstract Expressionism —are generally defined as Modernist. Over the span of these movements, artists increasingly focused on the intrinsic qualities of their media—e.g., line, form, and colour—and moved away from inher¬ ited notions of art. By the beginning of the 20th century, architects also had increasingly abandoned past styles and conventions in favour of a form of architecture based on essential functional concerns. In the period after World War I these tendencies became codified as the International style, which utilized simple, geometric shapes and unadorned facades and which abandoned any use of historical reference; the buildings of Lud¬ wig Mies van der Rohe and Le Corbusier embodied this style. After World War II the style manifested itself in clean-lined, unadorned glass sky¬ scrapers and mass housing projects.

Modernismo Spanish-language literary movement of the late 19th— early 20th century, founded by Ruben Dario. Reacting against the senti¬ mental romantic writers then popular in Latin America, modernistas wrote on exotic themes and often about artificial worlds—the ancient past, the distant Orient, and the lands of childhood fancy and sheer creation. With “art for art’s sake” as their creed, they brought about the greatest revital¬ ization of language and poetic technique in Spanish since the 17th cen¬ tury. Its adherents included Peru’s Jose Santos Chocano (1875-1934) and Cuba’s Jose Marti. Though the movement was over by 1920, its influence continued well into the 20th century.

modernization Transformation of a society from a rural and agrarian condition to a secular, urban, and industrial one. It is closely linked with industrialization. As societies modernize, the individual becomes increas¬ ingly important, gradually replacing the family, community, or occupa¬ tional group as the basic unit of society. Division of labour, characteristic

1274 I Modersohn-Becker ► Moesia

of industrialization, is also applied to institutions, which become more highly specialized. Instead of being governed by tradition or custom, society comes to be governed according to abstract principles formulated for that puipose. Traditional religious beliefs often decline in importance, and distinctive cultural traits are often lost.

Modersohn-Becker Vmo-dor-.zon-'be-korX, Paula orig. Paula Becker (b. Feb. 8, 1876, Dresden,

Ger.—d. Nov. 30,1907, Worpswede)

German painter. After studying art in London and Paris, she became one of the first artists to introduce French Post-Impressionism into German art.

While her early work is meticulously naturalistic, her later paintings, such as Self-Portrait with a Camellia (1907), combine a lyrical naturalism with the broad areas of simplified colour characteristic of Paul Gauguin and Paul Cezanne. Since her painting is more concerned with the expres¬ sion of her inner feelings than with the accurate portrayal of reality, she is frequently called an Expressionist.

She died at 31 while giving birth to her first child.

Modesto City (pop., 2000:

188,856), central California, U.S., east of San Francisco. Founded in 1870 by the Central Pacific Railway, it was called Modesto (Spanish:

“modest”) when W.C. Ralston, a rail¬ way director, modestly declined to have the community named in his honour. It was incorporated as a city in 1884. It is a shipping centre for the surrounding agricultural region that includes fruit, nut orchards, and win¬ eries.

Modigliani X.mo-del-'ya-neX, Amedeo (b. July 12, 1884,

Livorno, Italy—d. Jan. 24, 1920, Paris, France) Italian painter and sculptor. After studying art in Italy, he settled in Paris (1906), where he exhibited several paintings at the Salon des Independants in 1908. Fol¬ lowing the advice of Constantin Brancusi, he studied African sculp¬ ture and in 1912 exhibited 12 stone heads whose simplified and elon¬ gated forms reflect African influence. When he returned to painting, his portraits and nudes—characterized by asymmetry of composition, elon¬ gation of the figure, and a simplifica¬ tion of outline—reflected the style of his sculpture. By almost eliminating chiaroscuro, he achieved a sculptural quality by the strength of his contours and the richness of juxtaposed colours. In 1917 he began painting a series of female nudes that, with their warm, glowing colours and sensu¬ ous, rounded forms, are among his best works. His work reflects his life¬ long admiration for Italian Renais¬ sance masters, as well as the influence of Paul Cezanne and Bran¬ cusi. He died at 35 of tuberculosis.

Self-Portrait with a Camellia, oil on canvas by Paula Modersohn-Becker,

1907; in the Museum Folkwang, Essen, Germany.

Self-portrait by Amedeo Modigliani, oil on canvas, 1919; in the Museum of Contemporary Art of the University of Sao Paulo, Brazil.

COURTESY OF THE MUSEU DE ARTE CONTEMPORANEA DA UNIVERSIDADE DE SAO PAULO, GIF OF MR FRANCISCO M. SOBRINHO AND MRS. YOLANDA PENTEADO; PHOTOGRAPH, GERSON ZANINI

Modigliani V.mo-del-'ya-neX,

Franco (b. June 18, 1918, Rome,

Italy—d. Sept. 25, 2003, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.) Italian-born U.S.

economist. He fled fascist Italy for the U.S. in 1939 and earned a doc¬ torate from the New School for Social Research in 1944. He taught at several universities, including the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1962-88; thereafter professor emeritus). His work on personal savings prompted him to formulate the life-cycle theory, which asserts that indi¬ viduals build up savings during their younger working lives for use dur¬ ing their own old age and not as an inheritance for their descendants. In order to analyze financial markets, he invented a technique for calculat¬ ing the value of a company’s expected future earnings that became a basic tool in corporate decision making and finance. He received the Nobel Prize in 1985.

Modoc Vmo-.dakV North American Plateau Indian people living mostly in Oregon, U.S. Their language is of Penutian language stock, and their traditional homeland is south of the Cascade Range in northern Califor¬ nia. Their economy was based on hunting and gathering, and they lived much like their closely related neighbours the Klamath. In 1864 the U.S. government forced the Modoc to live on Klamath lands, giving rise to the Modoc War of 1872-73. About 80 families retreated to the California Lava Beds but eventually surrendered and were removed to Oklahoma. Survivors were permitted to return to Oregon in 1909. Together with the Klamath and the Yahooskin band of Snake Indians, they form an entity known as the Klamath Tribes. About 500 people claimed sole Modoc descent in the 2000 U.S. census.

modulation In electronics, a technique for impressing information (voice, music, picture, or data) on a radio-frequency carrier wave by varying one or more characteristics of the wave in accordance with the signal. There are various forms of modulation, each designed to alter a particular characteristic of the carrier wave. The most commonly altered characteristics include amplitude (see AM), frequency (see FM), phase, pulse sequence, and pulse duration.

modulation In music, the transition from one mode or key to another. There are three principal methods of modulation in classical harmony: diatonic, in which a pivot chord is common to both keys; chromatic, in which the notes of the pivot chord are altered by a semitone; and enhar¬ monic, in which the notes of the pivot chord, while retaining their origi¬ nal tones, simply assume different names. Modulation may be transitory, as in the course of thematic development, or structural, contributing to the harmonic definition of the form.

module \'ma-jiil\ In architecture, a unit adopted to regulate the dimen¬ sions, proportions, or construction of the parts of a building. Modules based on the diameter of a column were used in Classical architecture. In Japanese architecture, room sizes were determined by combinations of standard rice mats called tatami. Both Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier used modular proportioning systems. Standardized modular design reduces waste, lowers costs, and offers ease of erection, flexible arrange¬ ment, and variety of use; however, most architects and producers of build¬ ing materials continue to use modules based on their own special needs and interests.

modulus, bulk See bulk modulus

modus ponens and modus tollens Vm6-d3s-'po-n9nz... , t6-bns\ (Latin: “method of affirming” and “method of denying”) In LOGIC, two types of inference that can be drawn using a hypothetical proposition— i.e., from a proposition of the form “If p, then q” (symbolically p z> q). Modus ponens refers to inferences of the form p d q; p, therefore q. Modus tollens refers to inferences of the form pDq; —iq, therefore, —.p. An example of modus tollens is the following: “If an angle is inscribed in a semicircle, then it is a right angle; this angle is not a right angle; therefore, this angle is not inscribed in a semicircle.”

Moeris Vmir-9s\, Lake Extinct lake, northern Egypt. It once occupied the Al-Fayyum depression, now the site of the much smaller Lake Qarun. Its waters began falling in Paleolithic times as a result of silt accumula¬ tion in the channel that flowed from the Nile River. During the Middle Kingdom (c. 2040-1786 bc), dredging renewed access to the Nile’s waters. Land-reclamation projects in the 3rd century bc drained the lake, opening 450 sq mi (1,200 sq km) of alluvial soil that was irrigated by canals. The region declined after the first two centuries of Roman rule.

Moero, Lac See Lake Mweru

Moesia Vme-sho\ Province of the Roman Empire, southeastern Europe. Bordered by the Danube River and the Black Sea, it was conquered by Rome

Mogadishu ► Moi I 1275

(30-28 bc) and became a Roman province in ad 15. During the Dacian Wars (ad 85-89) it was divided into two provinces: Moesia Superior and Moesia Inferior. Despite barbarian invasions, it remained part of the East¬ ern Roman Empire until the 7th century, when it was occupied by Slavs and Bulgarians.

Mogadishu X.mo-go-'de-shuV City (pop., 1999 est.: metro, area, 1,162,000), capital of Somalia, located north of the Equator on the Indian Ocean. Founded in the 10th century by Arab settlers, it carried on trade with the Arab states and later with the Portuguese. It fell under control of the sultan of Zanzibar in 1871. Italy leased the port in 1892 and pur¬ chased it in 1905. Subsequently the capital of Italian Somaliland and of the Somalia trust territory, it became the capital of independent Somalia in 1960. Civil war, beginning in the 1980s, caused widespread destruc¬ tion in the city.

Mogilyov See Mahilyow

Mogollon X.mo-go-'yonX culture Complex of North American Indians who lived in what is now southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico, U.S., c. 200 bc-ad 1200. The first pottery in the Southwest was made by the Mogollon; its high quality from the beginning suggests that the craft may have been imported from Mexico. The early economy was based on gathering wild plant foods and hunting small game. Corn cul¬ tivation emerged c. ad 500. At this time houses also became more elabo¬ rate, being constructed of stone masonry. In the final, or Mimbres, period (1050-1200), new patterns of house design (multilevel pueblos centred on a plaza) and pottery (crisp black-on-white designs of animals or geomet¬ ric lines) emerged, suggesting contact with the Anasazi peoples to the north. For unknown reasons, Mogollon culture came to an end in the 13th century.

Mogul dynasty See Mughal dynasty

Mohammed, Warith Deen orig. Wallace D. Muhammad (b.

Oct. 30, 1933, Detroit, Mich., U.S.) U.S. religious leader. The son of Eli¬ jah Muhammad, head of the Nation of Islam, Mohammed assumed leader¬ ship of the organization when his father died in 1975. He reformulated the Nation’s teachings, rejecting the beliefs that white people were “blue¬ eyed devils” and that Elijah Muhammad was a prophet, and moved the Nation toward orthodox Sunni Islam. In 1976 Mohammed renamed the organization the World Community of al-Islam in the West; the name was changed to the American Muslim Mission in 1978 and to the Muslim American Society in 1985. He also changed his own name to Warith Deen Mohammed. A minority led by Louis Farrakhan split from Mohammed in 1978 and reestablished the Nation of Islam according to the precepts of Elijah Muhammad. In 2000 Mohammed and Farrakhan recognized each other as fellow Muslims. See also Islam.

Mohave See Mojave

Mohawk North American Indian people, the easternmost group of the Iroquois Confederacy, living in Canada and the U.S. Their language is a member of the Iroquoian language family. Their name for themselves is Kahniakehake, which means “People of the Flint” and within the con¬ federacy they were considered to be the “Keepers of the Eastern Door.” The Mohawk lived near what is now Schenectady, N.Y. They were semi sedentary; women practiced com agriculture, while men hunted dur¬ ing the fall and winter and fished during the summer. Related families lived together in longhouses. Most Mohawk sided with the British in both the French and Indian War and the American Revolution, in the latter under Joseph Brant. They number more than 35,000 and have a wide reputation as structural ironworkers; many have been hired in the building of major bridges.

Mohawk River River, east-central New York, U.S. The Hudson Riv¬ er’s largest tributary, it flows 148 mi (238 km) south and east to join the Hudson at Waterford, north of Troy. The Mohawk Valley (Mohawk Trail) was the historic route of westbound pioneers through the Appalachian Mountains into the Great Lakes region. The Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy lived in the valley, which was a major battleground during the French and Indian War and the American Revolution.

Mohegan \mo-'he-g9n\ ALGONQUiAN-speaking North American Indian people who once inhabited the area of southeastern Connecticut, U.S. They later seized land in Massachusetts and Rhode Island from other tribes. Their economy was based on corn cultivation, hunting, and fish¬ ing. In the 17th century the Mohegan and the Pequot tribes were ruled

jointly by a Pequot chief, but a rebellion led to Mohegan independence and the destruction of the Pequot. Having made an alliance with the English, the Mohegan were the only important tribe remaining in south¬ ern New England after King Philip's War (1675-76). Today there is a rem¬ nant (approx. 1,000) near Norwich, Conn.

Mohenjo Daro Ancient city on the bank of the Indus River, in present- day southern Pakistan. At about 3 mi (5 km) in circuit, it was the largest city of the Indus civilization in the 3rd-2nd millennium bc, and it probably served as the capital of an extensive state. It was fortified, and its citadel contained, according to archaeological finds, an elaborate bath, a granary, and two halls of assembly.

Mohican \mo-'he-kon\ or Mahican Xmo-'he-ksnV North American Indian people living mostly in northeastern Wisconsin, U.S. Their origi¬ nal territory was the upper Hudson River valley above the Catskill Moun¬ tains. Their name for themselves is Muh-he-con-neok, meaning “The People of the Waters That Are Never Still.” The Mahican consisted of five major divisions governed by hereditary sachems (chiefs) assisted by elected counselors. They lived in strongholds of 20-30 houses situated on hills or in woodlands. In 1664 they were forced by the Mohawk to move to what is now Stockbridge, Mass., where they became known as the Stockbridge Indians. Later they moved to Wisconsin. Some 1,200 people claimed sole Mohican descent in the 2000 U.S. census. James Fenimore Cooper drew a romanticized portrait of the declining Mohican in The Last of the Mohicans (1826).

Mohism See Mozi

Moho \'mo- 1 ho\ or Mohorovicic N.mo-ha-'ro-vo-.chichX discontinu¬ ity Boundary between the Earth’s crust and its mantle. The Moho lies at a depth of about 22 mi (35 km) below continents and about 4.5 mi (7 km) beneath the oceanic crust. Modem instruments have determined that the velocity of seismic waves increases rapidly at this boundary. The Moho was named for Andrija Mohorovicic.

Moholy-Nagy Vmo-hoi-'nadA, Laszlo (b. July 20,1895, Bacsbarsod, Hung.—-d. Nov. 24, 1946, Chicago, Ill., U.S.) Hungarian painter, photog¬ rapher, and art teacher. After studying law in Budapest, he went to Berlin in 1919, and in 1923 he took charge of the metal workshop of the Bau- haus as well as the Bauhausbook series of publications. As a painter and photographer he worked predominantly with light. His “photograms” were composed directly on film, and his “light modulators” (oil paintings on transparent or polished surfaces) included mobile light effects. As an educator, he developed a widely accepted curriculum to develop students’ natural visual gifts instead of specialized skills. Fleeing Nazi Germany in 1935, he went to London and then to Chicago, where he organized and headed the New Bauhaus.

Mohorovicic, Andrija (b. Jan. 23, 1857, Volosko, Croatia, Austrian Empire—d. Dec. 18, 1936, Zagreb, Yugos.) Croatian meteorologist and geophysicist who discovered the boundary between the Earth’s crust and the mantle, later named the Mohorovicic discontinuity, or Moho. A pro¬ fessor at the Main Technical School in Zagreb, he was also director of its meteorologic observatory from 1892. From observations of seismic waves, he deduced that the solid Earth consists of an outer and inner layer and that between them lies a distinct boundary. He also devised a technique for locating earthquake epicentres and calculated the travel time of seis¬ mic waves. He was an early advocate of earthquake-resistant construc¬ tion.

Mohs \'moz\ hardness Rough measure of the resistance of a smooth surface to scratching or abrasion, expressed in terms of a scale devised by German mineralogist Friedrich Mohs in 1812. Minerals are ranked in comparison with the Mohs scale, which is made up of 10 minerals that have been given arbitrary hardness values on a scale from 1 (least hard, or talc) to 10 (hardest, or diamond). See table on following page.

Moi Vm6i\, Daniel (Toroitich) arap (b. 1924, Sacho, Kenya Colony) Five-term president of Kenya (1978-2002). Trained as a teacher, Moi served in the cabinet and as vice president (1967-78) under Pres. Jomo Kenyatta before succeeding him as president. Head of the dominant Kenya African National Union (KANU) party, he governed autocratically, finally permitting multiparty elections in 1991, when international pressure forced his hand. His subsequent electoral victories (1992, 1997) led to civil unrest and charges of stealing the elections. During his time in office some sectors of the economy grew, but critics have attributed this to the strong political patronage system. Under Kenya’s constitution, Moi was

1276 I Moiseyev ► Moldova

Mohs Hardness Scale

Mineral

Mohs

no.

Other

materials

Description

Talc

very easily scratched by the fingernail; has a greasy feel

Gypsum

~2.2 fingernail

can be scratched by the fingernail

Calcite

~3.2 copper penny

very easily scratched with a knife and just scratched with a copper coin

Fluorite

very easily scratched with a knife but not as easily as calcite

Apatite

~5.1 pocketknife ~5.5 glass plate

scratched with a knife with difficulty

Orthoclase

~6.5 steel needle

cannot be scratched with a knife, but scratches glass with difficulty

Quartz

~7.0 streak plate

scratches glass easily

Topaz

scratches glass very easily

Corundum

cuts glass

Diamond

used as a glass cutter

not allowed to stand in the 2002 presidential election and was succeeded by the winner, opposition candidate Mwai Kibaki.

Moiseyev \m6i-'sa-ef\, Igor (Aleksandrovich) (b. Jan. 21, 1906, Kiev, Ukraine, Russian Empire) Russian dancer, choreographer, and founder-director of the State Academic Folk Dance Ensemble, popularly called the Moiseyev Ensemble. He joined the Bolshoi Ballet in 1924. In 1936 he became head choreographer at Moscow’s Theatre of Folk Art, and he later founded the State Academic Folk Dance Ensemble, in which ballet professionals performed dances from all U.S.S.R. republics. His choreography combined authentic folk-dance steps with theatrical effects, and he created more than 170 dances for the ensemble. The ensemble served as a model for other countries in subsequently forming their own folk-dance ensembles.

Mojave \mo-'ha-ve\ or Mohave North American Indian farmers liv¬ ing mostly in Arizona, U.S. The Mojave language is a member of the Yuman language family. The traditional territory of the people was the Mojave Desert along the lower Colorado River. This valley was a patch of green surrounded by barren desert. In addition to farming, the Mojave fished, hunted, and gathered wild plants. The essential social unit was the patrilineal family. There were no settled villages; wherever there was suitable floodland for farming, the Mojave built scattered houses. They believed in a supreme creator and attached great significance to dreams, considered the source of all special powers. About 1,500 Mojave live on or near the Colorado River reservation in Arizona.

Mojave \mo-'ha-ve\ Desert or Mohave Desert Arid region, south¬ eastern California, U.S. Occupying more than 25,000 sq mi (65,000 sq km), it extends from the Sierra Nevada to the Colorado Plateau and merges with the Great Basin Desert to the north and the Sonoran Desert to the south and southeast. Together with the Sonoran, Great Basin, and Chi- huahuan deserts it forms the North American Desert. The Mojave Desert receives an average annual rainfall of 5 in. (13 cm). It is the location of Joshua Tree National Park.

moksha or moksa Vmok-shoX In Hinduism and Jainism, the ultimate spiritual goal, the soul’s release from the bonds of transmigration. The soul, once entered upon a bodily existence, remains trapped in a chain of successive rebirths until it has attains the perfection or enlightenment that allows it release. The methods by which release is sought and attained differ from one philosophical school to the next, but most schools con¬ sider moksha to be the highest purpose of life.

mol See mole

Molcho Vm6l-ko\, Solomon orig. Diogo Pires (b. c. 1500, Portugal—d. 1532, Mantua) Portuguese Jewish martyr. Born into a Mar- rano family, he became royal secretary in a Portuguese high court of jus¬ tice. When an Arabian adventurer, David Reubeni (d. c. 1532), arrived in Portugal, mystic visions convinced Pires that Reubeni was a herald of the messiah. After circumcising himself and changing his name, he preached the coming of the messiah in Turkey, Palestine, and Rome. In 1532 he and Reubeni were imprisoned by Charles V and turned over to the Inqui¬ sition. Molcho refused to recant his faith and was burned at the stake.

mold In biology, a conspicuous mass of mycelium and fruiting structures produced by various fungi (division Mycota; see fungus). Molds of the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Rhizopus are associated with food spoilage and plant diseases, but some have beneficial uses, as in the manu¬ facture of ANTIBIOTICS (e.g., PENICILLIN) and certain cheeses. Neurospora, or orange bread mold, has been invalu¬ able in the study of biochemical genetics. Water molds live in fresh or brackish water or wet soils, absorb¬ ing dead or decaying organic matter.

See also slime mold.

. i . „ . Mold on surface of jelly

mold In manufacturing, a cavity or INGMAR ho1MA sen

surface in which a fluid or plastic -

substance is shaped into a desired

finished product. A molten substance, such as metal or plastic, is poured or forced into a mold and allowed to harden. Molds are made of various materials, depending on the application; sand is frequently used for metal casting, hardened steel for molds for plastic materials, and plaster for various purposes. See also ingot, patternmaking, tool and die making.

Mold Town (pop., 1995 est.: 9,000), historic and present county of Flint¬ shire, northeastern Wales. Situated between the industrial centres of Dee- side and Wrexham, it grew up around a motte-and-bailey castle built by the Normans in the 12th century. In the area native Briton Christians had defeated the pagan Picts and Scots in a battle waged in ad 430. Long a market hub, it is the administrative centre and historic county seat of Flintshire.

Moldavia \mal-'da-ve-9\ Former principality, southeast-central Europe. Located on the lower Danube River, it was founded in the 14th century by the Vlachs and achieved independence in 1349. In the mid-16th century it was part of the Ottoman Empire. In 1774 it came under Russian control; it soon lost its northwestern territory, Bukovina, to Austria and its east¬ ern portion and Bessarabia to Russia. In 1859 Moldavia and Walachia formed the state of Romania. In 1918 the territories earlier ceded by Mol¬ davia joined Romania. In 1924 the Soviet Union created a Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic on territory east of the Dniester River, within the Ukrainian S.S.R. See also Moldova.

molding In architecture and the decorative arts, a defining, transitional, or terminal element that serves to contour or outline edges and surfaces. The surface of a molding may be plain or modeled with recesses and reliefs, which either maintain a constant profile along its length or are set in rhythmically repeated patterns. Types of flat or angular moldings are the fascia, chamfer (or bevel), and fillet (narrow band). Single curved moldings include the cavetto (concave, with a quarter-circle profile), scotia (deep concave), flute (grooved), ovolo (convex, with a quarter- circle profile), torus (semicircular convex), roll (rounded convex), and astragal (narrow semicircular convex). Among the most common com¬ pound moldings are the projecting, double-curved cyma recta or ogee, often used as a crown molding, and the cyma reversa, used for crown or base. The profiles of moldings are traditionally enhanced by flower or leaf forms, geometric motifs, or spirals. See illustration opposite.

Moldova Xmol-'do-voN officially Republic of Moldova Country, northeastern Balkan Peninsula, southeastern Europe. It is bordered by Ukraine and Romania. Area: 13,068 sq mi (33,845 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 4,206,000. Capital: Chi$inau. Nearly half the population is Moldovan; there also are large numbers of Russians and Ukrainians, espe¬ cially in the Transnistria region, east of the Dniester River. Languages: Romanian (officially designated as Moldovan), Russian, Ukrainian. Reli¬ gions: Christianity (mostly Eastern Orthodox, also other Christians); also Islam. Currency: leu. Most of Moldova is a fertile region lying between the Dniester and Prut rivers; the northern and central regions of the coun¬ try are forested. The economy is based on agriculture; the major farm products are grapes, winter wheat, com, and dairy products. Industry is centred on food processing. Moldova is a republic with one legislative body; its head of state is the president, and the head of government is the prime minister. The area of present-day Moldova consists of that part of the historic principality of Moldavia lying east of the Prut River (part of Romania before 1940) and, adjoining it on the south, the region of Bessa-

mole ► molecule I 1277

1991 Moldavia declared independence from the Soviet Union. It adopted the Romanian spelling of Moldova, having earlier legitimized use of the Roman rather than the Cyrillic alpha-

Examples of common molding styles.

bet. Moldova was admitted to the UN in 1992. In 2000 it abandoned its semipresidential form of government to become a parliamentary repub¬ lic.

mole or mol Vmol\ Standard unit for measuring everyday quantities of such minute entities as atoms or molecules. For any substance, the num¬ ber of atoms or molecules in a mole is Avogadro's number (6.02 x 10 23 ) of particles. Defined exactly, it is the amount of pure substance contain¬ ing the same number of chemical units that there are in exactly 12 g of carbon- 12. For each substance, a mole is its atomic weight, molecular weight, or formula weight in grams. The number of moles of a solute in a litre of solution is its molarity (M); the number of moles of solute in 1,000 g of solvent is its molality (m). The two measures differ slightly and have different uses. See also stoichiometry.

mole Any burrowing, often blind insectivore in the family Talpidae (including 42 species of true moles) or Chrysochloridae (18 species of golden moles). Most species have short legs and tail, a pointed head, vel¬ vety grayish fur, no external ears, and a strong odour. They range from 3.5 to 8 in. (9 to 20 cm) long. The forelimbs are rotated outward like oars and have broad or pointed claws on the toes. Moles are active day and night, digging surface tunnels in search of earthworms, grubs, and other invertebrates and excavating deep (10 ft [3 m]), vented burrows (mole¬ hills) for occupancy. The star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata) of north¬ eastern North America has 22 pink, tentacle-like touch organs radiating from its muzzle.

mole Pigmented flat or fleshy skin mark, made up mostly of cells that produce melanin, which gives moles their light to dark brown or black colour and, in the dermis, a bluish cast. Thicker moles also contain nerve elements and connective tissue. Moles often begin in childhood, usually as flat spots between the dermis and epidermis. Those that remain there are more likely to become malignant. Most move into the dermis and become slightly raised. In children, moles may undergo changes resem¬ bling cancer but are benign. Malignant melanoma can begin in moles but almost never before puberty. During pregnancy, moles may enlarge and new ones may appear. Moles sometimes disappear with age. The term nevus refers to a congenital skin mark, whereas a mole may develop after birth. Epidermal nevi are usually the same colour as the surrounding skin.

molecular biology Field of science concerned with the chemical structures and processes of biological phenomena at the molecular level. Having developed out of the related fields of biochemistry, genetics, and biophysics, the discipline is particularly concerned with the study of pro¬ teins, nucleic acids, and enzymes. In the early 1950s, growing knowledge of the structure of proteins enabled the structure of DNA to be described. The discovery in the 1970s of certain types of enzymes that can cut and recombine segments of DNA (see recombination) in the chromosomes of certain bacteria made recombinant-DNA technology possible. Molecular biologists use that technology to isolate and modify specific genes (see GENETIC ENGINEERING).

molecular weight Mass of a molecule of a substance, based on 12 as the atomic weight of carbon- 12. It is calculated in practice by sum¬ ming the atomic weights of the atoms making up the substance’s molecu¬ lar formula. The molecular weight of a hydrogen molecule (chemical formula H 2 ) is 2 (after rounding off); for many complex organic molecules (e.g., proteins, polymers) it may be in the millions.

molecule Smallest identifiable unit into which a pure substance can be divided and retain its composition and chemical properties. Division into still smaller parts, eventually atoms, involves destroying the bonding that holds the molecule together. For noble gases, the molecule is a single atom; all other substances have two (diatomic) or more (polyatomic) atoms in a molecule. The atoms are the same in elements, such as hydrogen (H 2 ), and different in compounds, such as glucose (C 6 H 12 0 6 ). Atoms always combine into molecules in fixed proportions. Molecules of different sub¬ stances can have the same constituent atoms, either in different propor¬ tions, as in carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (C0 2 ), or bonded in different ways (see isomer). The covalent bonds in molecules give them their shapes and most of their properties. (The concept of molecules has no significance in solids with ionic bonds.) Analysis with modern tech¬ niques and computers can determine and display the size, shape, and con¬ figuration of molecules, the positions of their nuclei and electron clouds, the lengths and angles of their bonds, and other details. Electron micros¬ copy can even produce images of individual molecules and atoms. See also molecular weight. See illustration on following page.

1278 I Moley ► Molotov

CHO

CH 3 ch 3 ch 3

bond-line formula of vitamin A

HO-H

H-OH

Kekule structure of benzene

. ■ H I

Lewis

structures of H : C : H or H-C-H

methane

Several methods of representing a molecule's structure. In Lewis structures, element symbols represent atoms, and dots represent electrons surrounding them. A pair of shared electrons (covalent bond) may also be shown as a single dash. The ball- and-stick model better illustrates the spatial arrangement of the atoms. For aromatic compounds, the Kekule structure is common, in which each bond is represented by a dash, carbon atoms are implied where two or more lines meet, and hydrogen atoms are usually omitted. Bond-line formulas, similar to the Kekule structure, are often used for complex nonaromatic organic compounds. Sugars are often drawn as Fischer projections, in which the carbon "backbone" is drawn as a straight verti¬ cal line, with carbon atoms implied where horizontal lines intersect the vertical one.

Moley, Raymond (Charles) (b. Sept. 27, 1886, Berea, Ohio, U.S.—d. Feb. 18, 1975, Phoenix, Ariz.) U.S. educator and political adviser. He taught political science at Columbia University from 1923 to 1954. In the 1920s he prepared studies of criminal justice in a number of cities for New York Gov. Franklin D. Roosevelt. When Roosevelt was pre¬ paring for his 1932 presidential campaign, Moley formed the Brain Trust to advise him on national issues. Moley wrote many of Roosevelt’s cam¬ paign speeches and coined the term New Deal. From 1937 to 1968 he was a contributing editor of Newsweek magazine.

Moliere\m6l-'yerW/g. Jean-Baptiste Poquelin (baptized Jan. 15, 1622, Paris, France—d. Feb. 17, 1673, Paris) French playwright, actor, and director. The son of a prosperous upholsterer, he left home to become an actor in 1643, joining forces with the Bejart family. He cofounded the troupe known as the Illustre Theatre and toured the French provinces (1645-58), writing plays and acting in them. After his troupe was estab¬ lished in a permanent theatre in Paris under the patronage of Louis XIV, he won acclaim in the court and among bourgeois audiences for his com¬ edy The Affected Young Ladies (1659). His other major plays include The School for Wives (1662), Tartuffe (1664; initially banned by religious authorities), The Misanthrope (1666), The Miser (1669), The Bourgeois Gentleman (1670), and The Imaginary Invalid (1673). His plays compose a portrait of all levels of 17th-century French society and are marked by their good-humoured and intelligent mockery of human vices, vanities, and follies. Despite his success, he never ceased to act and direct. Taken ill during a performance, he died of a hemorrhage within a day and was denied holy burial. He is considered the greatest French dramatist and the father of modern French comedy.

Molise \mo-'le-za\ Autonomous region (pop., 2001 prelim.: 316,548), south-central Italy. Its western sector is part of the Apennines, and the remainder consists mostly of low mountains and hills. Under Lombard rule during the early Middle Ages, it was controlled by the duchy of Be¬ ne vento. In the 13th century it successively came under Angevin, Span¬ ish, and Bourbon rulers. In 1860 it was joined to Abruzzi to form Abruzzi e Molise, which was incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy. In 1965 Abruzzi e Molise was divided back into the separate regions of Abruzzi and Molise. It is one of Italy’s most rural regions; its capital, Campobasso, is the only city of any size.

Mol let \m6-'le\, Guy (b. Dec. 31, 1905, Flers-de-l’Orne, France—d. Oct. 3, 1975, Paris) French politi¬ cian. An English teacher in Arras, he joined the Socialist Party in 1921 and became head of the socialist teach¬ ers’ union in 1939. After serving in World War II, he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies and became secretary-general of the Socialist Party (1946-69). With Pierre Mendes- France, he led the Republican Front to victory and became premier (1956-57). Failures in dealing with the Algerian rebellion and the Suez Crisis led to the government’s defeat, but Mollet continued to serve as a deputy and as mayor of Arras.

mollusk or mollusc Any of some 75,000 species of soft-bodied inver¬ tebrate animals (phylum Mollusca), many of which are wholly or partly enclosed in a calcium carbonate shell secreted by the mantle, a soft covering formed from the body wall. Between the mantle and the body is the mantle cavity. Mollusks occur in most habitats from the deep sea to high mountains. Living mollusks are usually grouped into eight classes: Gastropoda (see gastropod), Bivalvia or Pelecypoda (see bivalve), Cephalopoda (see cephalopod), Scaphopoda (tusk shells), Aplacophora (Solenogasters), Caudofoveata (sometimes included in the Aplacophora order), Polyplacophora (chitons), and Mono- placophora. Mollusks are economically important as food, and their shells are widely used in jewelry and decorative items. See illustration opposite.

Molly Maguires (1862-76) Secret organization of U.S. coal miners in Pennsylvania and West Virginia. To protest poor working conditions and employment discrimination in the 1860s, the Irish-American miners formed a group named for an Irish widow who had led antilandlord agi¬ tators in Ireland. Acts of sabotage and terrorist murders in the coalfields were blamed on the group, and mine owners hired a Pinkerton detective, James McParlan, to infiltrate the organization. Based on his testimony in the widely publicized trials (1875-77), 10 “Mollies” were convicted of murder and hanged.

Molnar \'mol- 1 nar\, Ferenc (b. Jan. 12, 1878, Budapest, Hung.—d. April 1, 1952, New York City, N.Y., U.S.) Hungarian writer. He published his first stories at age 19 and achieved his first success with the play The Devil (1907). Among his other plays, some adapted as films, are Liliom (1909), which was also adapted as the musical Carousel ; The Swan (1920); and The Red Mill (1923). Some of his stories, especially those in Music (1908), are masterpieces that reveal the problems of the poor. Of his many novels, only The Paul Street Boys (1907) was a success.

Moloch Vmo-.lok, 'ma-l3k\ Ancient Middle Eastern deity to whom chil¬ dren were sacrificed. The laws given to Moses by God expressly forbade the Israelites to sacrifice children to Moloch, as the Egyptians and Canaan- ites did. A shrine to Moloch outside the walls of Jerusalem was destroyed during the reign of Josiah the reformer.

Molotov Vmo-b-.tofA, Vyacheslav (Mikhaylovich) orig. Vyacheslav Mikhaylovich Skryabin (b. March 9, 1890, Kukarka, Russia—d. Nov. 8, 1986, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Soviet political leader. A member of the Bolsheviks from 1906, he worked in provincial Communist Party organizations from 1917. A staunch sup¬ porter of Joseph Staun, he became secretary of the Central Committee in 1921. Promoted to the Politburo in 1926, he purged the Moscow party organization of anti-Stalinists (1928-30). He served as prime minister (1930—41) and as the country’s foreign minister (1939-49, 1953-56). He

1905, Flers-de-1 Orne, France—d.

Mollet

HARUNGUE/H. ROGER-VIOLLET

molting ► momentum I 1279

negotiated the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact in 1939, and in World War II he ordered the production of the crude bottle bombs later called “Molotov cocktails.” He arranged the alliances with the U.S. and Britain and was the Soviet spokesman at the Allied conferences during and after the war. After being dismissed in 1956 by Nikita Khrushchev, Molotov joined an unsuccessful attempt to depose Khrushchev (1957) and lost all his party offices; in 1962 he was expelled from the Communist Party.

valves or plates

girdle

foot

tusk shell or scaphopod

class Scaphopoda

tentacles

clam

class Bivalvia

chiton

class Polyplacophora

shell

siphon

tentacles

mouth

foot

whelk

class Gastropoda

(captacula)

class Cephalopoda

nautilus

class

Cephalopoda

Representative mollusks. Bivalves have a shell with two halves. Filter feeders, they take in food and water through a tubular siphon. In the clam, a muscular foot is used for burrowing and creeping. The chitons, typically found adhering to rocks and shells, have shells divided into eight overlapping plates. Tusk shells, or scapho- pods, are burrowing mollusks with a shell open at both ends; with the larger end buried in the sand, they feed on microorganisms captured by the tentacles. The whelks, like most gastropods (univalves), have a single shell, which is usually coiled; when threatened, the body can be pulled into the shell, which is closed by a plate (operculum). Cephalopods have a well-developed head and a foot divided into numerous tentacles. The two long tentacles of the squid are used to capture prey, and the short arms transfer food to the mouth. The nautilus is the only cephalopod that has retained an exterior shell; by regulating the amount of gas and fluid in the interior chambers, it can regulate its buoyancy.

molting Shedding or casting off of an animal’s outer layer or covering and formation of its replacement. Regulated by hormones, molting occurs throughout the animal kingdom. It includes the shedding and replacement of horns, hair, skin, and feathers and the process by which a nymph or other organism sheds an external skeleton for the purpose of growth or change in shape.

Moltke, Helmuth (Johannes Ludwig) von (b. May 25, 1848, Gersdorff, Mecklenburg—d. June 18, 1916, Berlin, Ger.) German soldier. A nephew of Helmuth von Moltke, he rose rapidly in the German army and served as adjutant to his uncle from 1882. He was appointed quartermas¬ ter general in 1903 and chief of the German general staff in 1906. At the outbreak of World War I, he applied the Schlieffen Plan, devised by his predecessor, but his inability to revise the plan to cope with tactical and command errors contributed to the halt of the German offensive in the Battle of the Marne (1914). He was relieved of his command shortly after and died a broken man two years later.

Moltke Vmolt-kaX, Helmuth (Karl Bernhard), count von (b.

Oct. 26, 1800, Parchim, Mecklenburg—d. April 24, 1891, Berlin, Ger.) Prussian general. He joined the Prussian army in 1822 and was appointed to its general staff in 1832. After a stint as adviser to the Turkish army (1835-39), he traveled widely and wrote several books on history and travel. In 1855 he served as personal aide to the Prussian prince Freder¬ ick William (later Frederick III), then was selected as chief of the Prus¬ sian general staff (1857-88). Highly intelligent and militarily creative, he reorganized the Prussian army and devised new strategic and tactical command methods for modern mass armies. He directed the strategies that produced victories in the Prussian and German wars against Den¬ mark (1864), against Austria in the Seven Weeks' War (1866), and against France in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71). He was created count in 1870 and field marshal in 1871.

Moluccas \mo-'l3-k9z\ Indonesian Maluku \ma-'lu-ku\ Island group (pop., 1999 est.: 2,223,000), eastern Indonesia, lying between Sulawesi and New Guinea. The Moluccas comprise three large islands (Halmahera, Ceram, and Buru) and many smaller ones. Their combined area is about 30,066 sq mi (77,871 sq km). They constitute the Indonesian provinces of Maluku and North Maluku; the provincial capitals are, respectively, Ambon and Ternate. The population is ethnically diverse, including Malays and Papuans and people of Dutch, Portuguese, and Javanese descent. Known as the “Spice Islands,” the Moluccas were part of the Asian spice trade before being discovered by the Portuguese in 1511, and they were fought over by the Spanish, English, and Dutch, eventually coming under the Dutch. Occupied by the Japanese during World War II, the islands were afterward incorporated into the state of East Indonesia and then into the Republic of Indonesia in 1949.

molybdenum Xmo-'lib-da-nanA Metallic chemical element, one of the transition elements, chemical symbol Mo, atomic number 42. It is a silvery gray, relatively rare metal with a high melting point (4,730 °F [2,610 °C]) that does not occur uncombined in nature. Since molybdenum and its alloys have useful strength at temperatures that melt most other metals and alloys, they are used in high-temperature steels. Applications include reaction ves¬ sels; aircraft, missile, and automobile parts; and electrodes, heating ele¬ ments, and filament supports. Some molybdenum compounds (in which it has various valences) are used as pigments and catalysts. Molybdenum dis¬ ulfide is a solid lubricant, used alone or added to greases and oils.

Mombasa \mom-'ba-s3\ City (pop., 1989: 461,753), Kenya, located on the island of Mombasa off the southern coast of Kenya. The island has an area of 5.5 sq mi (14.25 sq km) and is linked to the mainland by cause¬ way, bridge, and ferry; the city includes a mainland area of 100 sq mi (259 sq km). Founded by Arab traders in the 11th century, it was visited in 1498 by the Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama. With its strategic position for the Indian Ocean trade, it was continually fought over, pass¬ ing among the Arabs, Persians, Portuguese, and Turks until 1840, when Zanzibar gained control. It came under British administration in 1895 and was the capital of the East Africa Protectorate until 1907. It is Kenya’s chief port and second largest city; it is also a major agricultural market.

moment See torque

momentum Product of the mass of a particle and its velocity. Newton's second law of motion states that the rate of change of momentum is pro¬ portional to the force acting on the particle. Albert Einstein showed that the mass of a particle increases as its velocity approaches the speed of light.

1280 I Mommsen ► monasticism

At the speeds treated in classical mechanics, the effect of speed on the mass can be neglected, and changes in momentum are the result of changes in velocity alone. If a constant force acts on a particle for a given time, the product of the force and the time interval, the impulse, is equal to the change in momentum. For any array of several objects, the total momen¬ tum is the sum of the individual momenta. See also angular momentum.

Mommsen Vmom-zonX, (Christian Matthias) Theodor (b. Nov. 30, 1817, Garding, Schleswig—d. Nov. 1, 1903, Charlottenburg, near Berlin, German Empire) German historian and writer. After studying law, he did research in Italy and became a master of epigraphy, the study and interpretation of inscriptions. In 1848 he became a professor of law at Leipzig, but he was soon dismissed for his participation in liberal politi¬ cal activities; he later held teaching posts elsewhere. He remained politi¬ cally minded all his life. He is most famous for his History of Rome, 4 vol. (1854-56, 1885), considered his masterpiece. He edited the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (from 1863), a comprehensive collection of Latin inscriptions that greatly advanced understanding of life in the ancient world. His Roman Constitutional Law, 3 vol. (1871-88), repre¬ sented the first codification of Roman law. His lifetime scholarly output was immense, his publications numbering almost 1,000. He received the 1902 Nobel Prize for Literature.

Mon Vmon\ Any member of a people thought to have originated in west¬ ern China and currently living in the eastern delta region of Myanmar (Burma) and in west-central Thailand. They have lived in their present area for the last 1,200 years and brought Myanmar its writing (Pali) and its religion (Buddhism). Rice and teak are their most important agricul¬ tural products. Today they number more than 1.1 million. See also Dvara- vati; Mon kingdom.

Mon-Khmer Vmon-ka-'merX languages Family of about 130 Aus- troasiatic languages, spoken by more than 80 million people in South and Southeast Asia. Vietnamese has far more speakers than all other Austroa- siatic languages combined. Other languages with many speakers are Muong, with about a million speakers in northern Vietnam; Khmer; Kuay (Kuy), with perhaps 800,000 speakers; and Mon, spoken by more than 800,000 people in southern Myanmar and parts of Thailand. Of all the Mon-Khmer languages, only Mon, Khmer, and Vietnamese have written traditions dating earlier than the 19th century. Old Mon, which is attested from the 7th century, was written in a script of South Asian origin that was later adapted by the Burmese (see Mon kingdom; Indic writing sys¬ tems). Typical phonetic features of Mon-Khmer languages are a large vowel inventory and lack of tone distinctions.

Mon kingdom Kingdom of the Mon people, who were powerful in Myanmar (Burma) in the 9th— 11th centuries, in the 13th—16th centuries, and briefly in the mid-18th century. By 825 they had founded their capi¬ tal city, Thaton, and the city of Pegu. The Mon kingdom was defeated by the Burman kingdom of Pagan. When Pagan fell to the Mongols (1287), the Mon regained their independence and their former territory. They were defeated again in 1539. They reestablished Pegu briefly in the 18th cen¬ tury, but it was destroyed by Alaungpaya (see Alaungpaya dynasty) in 1757. See also Dvaravati.

Monaco Vma-no-.koV officially Principality of Monaco Indepen¬ dent principality, southern Europe, on the Mediterranean Sea near the France-Italy border. Area: 0.75 sq mi (1.95 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 32,700. Nearly half of Monaco’s population are French citizens; minori¬ ties include Italians and Britons; less than one-fifth of the population are of Monegasque descent. Language: French (official). Religions: Chris¬ tianity (predominantly Roman Catholic [official]); also Judaism. Cur¬ rency: euro. Inhabited since prehistoric times, the area was known to the Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians, and Romans. In 1191 the Genoese took possession of it. In 1297 the reign of the Grimaldi family began. The Grimaldis allied themselves with France except for the period from 1524 to 1641, when they were under the protection of Spain. France annexed Monaco in 1793, and it remained under French control until the fall of Napoleon, when the Grimaldis returned. In 1815 it was put under the pro¬ tection of Sardinia. A treaty in 1861 called for the sale of the towns of Menton and Roquebrune to France and the establishment of Monaco’s independence. Monaco, situated along the Cote d'Azur, is one of Europe’s most luxurious resorts, known for its Monte-Carlo gambling centre, inter¬ national sports-car races, and beaches. In 1997 the 700-year rule of the Grimaldis, then under Prince Rainier, was celebrated. See map above.

Monaco, Lorenzo See Lorenzo Monaco

sands of monarchs gather in autumn, migrate southward, sometimes more than 1,800 mi (2,900 km), and return north in spring. The distinctive col¬ oration of the adult’s wings (reddish brown, with black veins, a black border, and two rows of spots) warns predators of its bad taste. Several other species derive protection by mimicking its coloration.

monarchy Undivided sovereignty or rule by a single person, who is the permanent head of state. The term is now used to refer to countries with hereditary sovereigns. The monarch was the ideal head of the new nation¬ states of the 16th and 17th centuries; his powers were nearly unlimited (see absolutism), though in Britain Parliament was able to restrict the sov¬ ereign’s freedom of action, particularly through the Magna Carta (1215) and the Bill of Rights (1689). The old idea that the monarch represented (within the limits of his dominions) the rule of God over all things cul¬ minated in the 17th century in the doctrine of the divine right of kings (see divine kingship), exemplified by Louis XIV. Monarchical absolutism adapted to the Enlightenment by evolving into “benevolent despotism,” as typified by the rule of Catherine II of Russia. The French Revolution dealt absolute monarchy a crushing blow, and World War I effectively destroyed what remained of it, the rulers of Russia, Germany, and Austria-Hungary being held responsible for the war and postwar misery. The institution developed into the constitutional monarchy in western Europe, though absolute (or near-absolute) monarchies continue to exist in the Middle East.

monarchy, constitutional See constitutional monarchy

monastery Local community or residence of a religious order, particu¬ larly an order of monks. Christian monasteries originally developed in Egypt, where the monks first lived as isolated hermits and then began to coalesce in communal groups. Monasteries were later found throughout the Christian world and often included a central space for church, chap¬ els, fountain, and dining hall. In the Middle Ages they served as centres of worship and learning and often played an important role for various European rulers. The vihara was an early type of Buddhist monastery, consisting of an open court surrounded by open cells accessible through an entrance porch. Originally built in India to shelter monks during the rainy season, viharas took on a sacred character when small stupas and images of the Buddha were installed in the central court. In western India, viharas were often excavated into rock cliffs. See also abbey.

monasticism Institutionalized religious movement whose members are bound by vows to an ascetic life of prayer, meditation, or good works. Members of monastic orders (monks) are usually celibate, and they live apart from society either in a community of monks or nuns or as religious

Monck ► monetary policy I 1281

recluses. The earliest Christian monastic communities were founded in the deserts of Egypt, most notably by the hermit St. Anthony of Egypt (251-356). It was given its more familiar cenobitic form by St. Pacho- mius (c. 290-346). St. Basil the Great composed a very influential rule for the eastern church, and John Cassian (360-465) helped spread monasti- cism to western Europe. The Benedictine order, founded by St. Benedict of Nursia in the 6th century, called for moderation of ascetic practices and established worship services at regular hours. Throughout the Middle Ages, monasticism played a vital role not only in spreading Christianity but also in preserving and adding to literature and learning. It underwent periodic reforms, notably by the Cluniacs in the 10th century and the Cis¬ tercians in the 12th century, and saw the founding of mendicant orders such as the Dominicans and Franciscans. Monasticism has also been important in Eastern religions. In early Hindu times (c. 600-200 bc) there were hermits who lived in groups (ashrams), though they did not lead a strictly organized communal life. Jainism may be the first religion to have had an organized monastic life, which was characterized by extreme asceticism. Buddhist monks observe a moderate rule that avoids extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.

Monck YmaqkV George, 1st duke of Albermarle (b. Dec. 6, 1608, Great Potheridge, Devon, Eng.—d. Jan. 3, 1670, London) English general. He served with the Dutch army against the Spanish in the Neth¬ erlands (1629-38) and later suppressed a rebellion in Ireland (1642^43). He fought in Ireland and Scotland in the English Civil Wars, then served in Scotland as commander (1650) and governor (1654). Appointed a gen¬ eral at sea (1652) in the Anglo-Dutch Wars, he played a leading part in the English naval victories. In 1660 he was the chief architect of the Res¬ toration of the Stuart monarchy, for which he was created duke of Albe¬ marle.

Mond, Ludwig (b. March 7, 1839, Kassel, Hesse-Kassel—d. Dec. 11, 1909, London, Eng.) German-British chemist and industrialist. After immigrating to England in 1862, he improved the Solvay process for making sodium carbonate (soda ash) and developed a process for extract¬ ing nickel from its ores. He was a founder of the important chemical firm Brunner, Mond and Co. and of the Mond Nickel Co.

Mondale, Walter F(rederick) (b. Jan. 5, 1928, Ceylon, Minn., U.S.) U.S. politician. He was active in Minnesota’s Farmer-Labor Party and worked for Hubert H. Humphrey’s U.S. Senate campaign in 1948. After graduating from the University of Minnesota law school in 1956, he was Minnesota’s attorney general from 1960 to his appointment in 1964 to fill Humphrey’s unexpired Senate term when Humphrey won election as vice president under Lyndon B. Johnson. He won election to the Senate in 1966 and reelection in 1972. In 1976 he was elected vice president under Jimmy Carter. In 1984 he won the Democratic presidential nomination but lost the election to Ronald Reagan. He resumed his law practice and later served as ambassador to Japan (1993-96). In 2002 he campaigned for a seat in the U.S. Senate after Paul Wellstone, a Minnesota senator, died in a plane crash days before the election; Mondale was narrowly defeated.

Monde Vmo n d\, Le French "The World" Daily newspaper published in Paris, one of the most important and widely respected newspapers in the world. It was established in 1944, just after the German army left the city, as an independent organ free of government or private subsidies. Covering national and world news in depth from the start, it soon earned a reputation for accuracy and independence. Its writers present their own views, with the result that the paper reveals no consistent ideological out¬ look, causing it to earn both praise and criticism from every part of the French political spectrum.

Mondino de' Luzzi Vmon-'de-no-da-'lut-seV Latin Mundinus (b. c. 1270, Bologna, Italy—d. c. 1326, Bologna) Italian physician and anato¬ mist. Mondino reintroduced the systematic teaching of anatomy, aban¬ doned for many centuries, into the medical curriculum and did dissections at public lectures. His Anathomia Mundini (1316, printed 1478) was the standard handbook for dissectors until the time of Andreas Vesalius. Though it followed Galen’s teachings slavishly, with sometimes inaccu¬ rate descriptions of internal organs, it inaugurated a new era in the dis¬ semination of anatomical knowledge.

Mondrian Vm6n-dre-,an\, Piet orig. Pieter Cornelis Mondriaan

(b. March 7, 1872, Amersfoort, Neth.—d. Feb. 1, 1944, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Dutch painter. At the insistence of his father, headmaster of a Cal¬ vinist school, he obtained an education degree, but then immediately began taking painting lessons. His first paintings were exhibited in 1893;

his early work reflected the influence of avant-garde trends such as Post- Impressionism and Cubism. In 1917 Mondrian and three other painters founded the art periodical and the movement known as De Stijl. The group advocated a style called “neoplasticism,” which entailed complete rejec¬ tion of visually perceived reality as subject matter and the restriction of a pictorial language to its most basic elements of the straight line, pri¬ mary colours, and the neutrals of black, white, and gray. He painted in this style for the next 20 years, until he fled war-tom Paris for London and then New York City in 1940. Inspired by the city’s pulsating life and the new rhythms of musical forms such as jazz, he replaced his austere patterns with a series of small squares and rectangles that coalesced into a flow of colourful vertical and horizontal lines. His late masterpieces (e.g., Broadway Boogie-Woogie , 1942-43) express this new vivacity. The consistent development of Mondrian’s art toward complete abstraction was an outstanding feat in the history of modern art, and his work fore¬ shadowed the rise of abstract art in the 1940s and ’50s.

moneran See bacteria, prokaryote

Monet Vmo-'naV Claude (b. Nov. 14, 1840, Paris, France—d. Dec. 5, 1926, Givemy) French landscape painter. Monet spent his early years in Le Havre, where his first teacher, Eugene Boudin, taught him to paint in the open air. Moving to Paris, he formed lifelong friendships with other young painters, including Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisley, and Paul Cezanne. Beginning in the mid 1860s, Monet pursued a new style; rather than trying to reproduce faithfully the scene before him in detail, he recorded on the spot the impression that relaxed, momentary vision might receive. In 1874 he helped organize an independent exhibition, apart from the official Salon, of work he and his friends produced in this style. One of Monet’s works at the exhibition, Impression: Sunrise (1872), inspired the journalist Louis Leroy to give the group its name. Throughout the 1870s, Monet and the other Impressionists explored this style and exhib¬ ited together. By 1881 the original group had begun to disintegrate; only Monet continued with the same fervour to carry on the scrutiny of nature. In his mature works Monet developed his method of producing a series of several studies of the same motif (e.g., haystacks, 1891, and Rouen Cathedral, 1894), changing canvases as the light or his interest shifted. In 1893, in the garden at his home in Giverny, Monet created the water-lily pond that inspired his most famous works, the lyrical Nympheas (water- lilies) paintings. Wildly popular retrospective exhibitions of his work toured the world during the last decades of the 20th century and estab¬ lished his unparalleled public appeal, sustaining his reputation as one of the most significant and popular figures in the modern Western painting tradition.

monetarism School of economic thought that maintains that the money supply is the chief determinant of economic activity. Milton Friedman and his followers promoted monetarism as an alternative to Keynesian eco¬ nomics (see John Maynard Keynes); their economic theories became influ¬ ential in the 1970s and early 1980s. Monetarism holds that a change in the money supply directly affects and determines production, employ¬ ment, and price levels, though its influence is evident only over a long and often variable period of time. Fundamental to the monetarist approach is the rejection of fiscal policy in favour of “monetary rule.” Friedman and others asserted that fiscal measures such as tax-policy changes or increased government spending have little significant effect on the fluc¬ tuations of the business cycle. They argued that government intervention in the economy should be kept to a minimum and asserted that economic conditions would change before specific policy measures designed to address them could take effect. Steady, moderate growth of the money supply, in their view, offered the best hope of assuring a constant rate of economic growth with low inflation. U.S. economic performance in the 1980s cast doubts on monetarism, and the proliferation of new types of bank deposits made it difficult to calculate the money supply.

monetary policy Measures employed by governments to influence economic activity, specifically by manipulating the money supply and inter¬ est rates. Monetary and fiscal policy are two ways in which governments attempt to achieve or maintain high levels of employment, price stabil¬ ity, and economic growth. Monetary policy is directed by a nation’s cen¬ tral bank. In the U.S., monetary policy is the responsibility of the Federal Reserve System, which uses three main instruments: open-market operations, the discount rate, and reserve requirements. In the post-World War II era, economists reached a consensus that, in the long run, inflation results when the money supply grows at too rapid a rate. See also monetarism.

1282 I money ► Mongolia

money Commodity accepted by general consent as a medium of eco¬ nomic exchange. It is the medium in which prices and values are expressed; it circulates from person to person and country to country, thus facilitat¬ ing trade. Throughout history various commodities have been used as money, including seashells, beads, and cattle, but since the 17th century the most common forms have been metal coins, paper notes, and book¬ keeping entries. In standard economic theory, money is held to have four functions: to serve as a medium of exchange universally accepted in return for goods and services; to act as a measure of value, making possible the operation of the price system and the calculation of cost, profit, and loss; to serve as a standard of deferred payments, the unit in which loans are made and future transactions are fixed; and to provide a means of storing wealth not immediately required for use. Metals, especially gold and sil¬ ver, have been used for money for at least 4,000 years; standardized coins have been minted for perhaps 2,600 years. In the late 18th and early 19th century, banks began to issue notes redeemable in gold or silver, which became the principal money of industrial economies. Temporarily during World War I and permanently from the 1930s, most nations abandoned the gold standard. To most individuals today, money consists of coins, notes, and bank deposits. In terms of the economy, however, the total money supply is several times as large as the sum total of individual money holdings so defined, since most of the deposits placed in banks are loaned out, thus multiplying the money supply several times over. See also soft MONEY.

money, quantity theory of Economic theory relating changes in the price level to changes in the quantity of money. It has often been used to analyze the factors underlying inflation and deflation. The quantity theory was developed in the 17th and 18th centuries by philosophers such as John Locke and David Hume and was intended as a weapon against mer¬ cantilism. Drawing a distinction between money and wealth, advocates of the quantity theory argued that if the accumulation of money by a nation merely raised prices, the mercantilist emphasis on a favourable balance of trade would only increase the supply of money without increasing wealth. The theory contributed to the ascendancy of free trade over protectionism. In the 19th-20th centuries it played a part in the analysis of business cycles and in the theory of rates of foreign exchange.

money market Set of institutions, conventions, and practices whose aim is to facilitate the lending and borrowing of money on a short-term basis. The money market is, therefore, different from the capital market, which is concerned with medium- and long-term credit. The transactions that occur on the money market involve not only banknotes but assets that can be turned into cash at short notice, such as short-term govern¬ ment securities and bills of exchange. Though the details and mechanism of the money market vary greatly from country to country, in all cases its basic function is to enable those with surplus short-term funds to lend and those with the need for short-term credit to borrow. This function is accomplished through middlemen who provide their services for a profit. In most countries the government plays a major role in the money mar¬ ket, acting both as a lender and borrower and often using its position to influence the money supply and interest rates according to its monetary policy. The U.S. money market covers financial instruments ranging from bills of exchange and government securities to funds from clearinghouses and certificates of deposit. In addition, the Federal Reserve System provides con¬ siderable short-term credit directly to the banking system. The interna¬ tional money market facilitates the borrowing, lending, and exchange of currencies between countries.

money order Certificate requiring the issuer to pay a certain sum of money on demand to a specific person or organization. Money orders pro¬ vide a fast, safe, and convenient means of transferring small sums of money. They are issued by governments (usually through postal authori¬ ties), banks, and other qualified institutions to buyers who pay the issuer the face amount of the money order plus a service charge. Because they are exchangeable for cash on demand, they are a generally accepted means of payment. The American Express Co. began issuing money orders in 1882; the company also created the first traveler’s checks nine years later. See also currency.

money supply Liquid assets held by individuals and banks. The money supply includes coins, currency, and demand deposits (checking accounts). Some economists consider time and savings deposits to be part of the money supply because such deposits can be managed by govern¬ mental action and are nearly as liquid as currency and demand deposits. Other economists believe that deposits in mutual savings banks, savings

and loan associations, and credit unions should be counted as part of the money supply. Central banks regulate the money supply to stabilize their national economies. See also monetary policy.

Mongke \'moq-ka\ (b. 1208, Mongolia—d. 1259, Sichuan province, China) Mongol leader. Grandson of Genghis Khan and brother of Kublai Khan, he was elected great khan in 1251. Under Mongke, the Mongols conquered Iran, Iraq, and Syria as well as the Thai kingdom of Nan-chao and the area of present-day Vietnam. He died before the Mongols could complete the conquest of China, which happened under the reign of Kublai.

Mongkut X.moq-'kiitV or Phrachomklao N.pra-.kom-'klauV or Rama IV (b. Oct. 18, 1804, Bangkok, Siam—d. Oct. 15, 1868, Bangkok) King of Siam (Thailand; r. 1851-68). The 43rd child of King Rama II, he was a Buddhist monk and scholar before he ascended the throne. His reformed Buddhism grew into the Thammayut order, which today occu¬ pies the intellectual centre of Thai Buddhism. Mongkut’s intellectual pur¬ suits also brought him into contact with Western thought. As king, he fully opened Siam to Western commerce and combined tolerance and shrewd¬ ness to help ensure its survival as an independent nation. The reminis¬ cences of an English governess employed in his household became the basis for the musical comedy The King and I.

Mongo Any of several peoples living in the African equatorial forest. They speak a dialect of a common language, Mongo or Nkundo, which belongs to the Niger-Congo language family. The Mongo traditionally cultivated cassava and bananas in addition to hunting, fishing, and gath¬ ering. Mongo religion emphasizes ancestor worship and nature spirits; it also features magic and witchcraft. Their art has been mainly oral, and they have a rich talking-drum and song literature. They number some five million.

Mongol Member of an Asian people originally from the Mongolian pla¬ teau who share a common language and a nomadic tradition of herding sheep, cattle, goats, and horses. In the 10th—12th centuries the Khitans (see Liao dynasty), Juchen (Chin dynasty), and Tatars, all Mongol peoples, ruled in Mongolia, but Mongol power was greatest in the 13th century, when Genghis Khan, his sons (including Ogodei), and his grandsons Batu and Kublai Khan, created one of the world’s largest empires. It declined greatly in the 14th century, when China was lost to the Ming dynasty, and the Golden Horde was defeated by Muscovy. Ming incursions effectively ended Mongol unity, and by the 15th-16th centuries only a loose federa¬ tion existed. Today the plateau is divided between independent Mongolia and Chinese-controlled Inner Mongolia. Other Mongols live in Siberia. Tibetan Buddhism is the principal Mongol religion.

Mongol dynasty See Yuan dynasty

Mongolia or Outer Mongolia Country, north-central Asia, between Russia and China. Area: 603,909 sq mi (1,564,116 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 2,550,000. Capital: Ulaanbaatar. Some four-fifths of the popu¬ lation are Mongols; minorities consist of Kazakhs, Russians, and Chinese. Languages: Khalkha Mongolian, Turkic languages, Russian, Chinese. Religions: traditional beliefs. Buddhism, Islam. Currency: tugrik. Mon¬ golia has an average elevation of about 5,200 ft (1,580 m) above sea level. Three mountain ranges stretch across the north and west: the Altai, the Hangayn (Khangai), and the Hentiyn (Khentei). The south and east are occupied by the Gobi Desert. Livestock raising, especially sheepherding, accounts for nearly three-fourths of the total value of agricultural pro¬ duction; wheat is the major crop. Mongolia’s rich mineral resources include coal, iron ore, and copper. Mongolia is a republic with one leg¬ islative house; its chief of state is the president, and the head of govern¬ ment is the prime minister. In Neolithic times it was inhabited by small groups of hunters and nomads. During the 3rd century bc it became the centre of the Xiongnu tribal league. Turkic-speaking peoples held sway in the 4th-10th centuries ad. In the early 13th century Genghis Khan united the Mongol tribes and conquered Central Asia. His successor, Ogodei, conquered the Jin dynasty of China in 1234. Kublai Khan established the Yuan (Mongol) dynasty in China in 1279. The Mongols were confined to their original homeland in the steppes after the 14th century. Ligdan Khan (ruled 1604-34) attempted to unite Mongol tribes against the Manchu, but after his death the Mongols became part of the Chinese Qing dynasty. After the fall of the Qing in 1912, Mongol princes, supported by Russia, declared Mongolia’s independence from China, and in 1921 the Soviet Red Army helped drive off Chinese and Russian forces. The Mongolian

Mongolian languages ► monkeypox I 1283

People’s Republic was established in 1924. The country adopted a new constitution in 1992 and shortened its name to Mongolia.

Mongolian languages Family of

about eight Altaic languages spoken by five to seven million people in central Eurasia. All Mongolian languages are relatively closely related; those languages whose speakers left the core area in Mongolia the ear¬ liest tend to be the most divergent. The most remote language is Mo- gholi (Moghul, Mongol), now spoken by fewer than 200 people in western Afghanistan. Less divergent are the languages of several ethnic groups in northwestern China, eastern Qinghai, and adjacent parts of Gansu and Inner Mongolia, altogether spoken by fewer than 500,000 people. The core languages are Mongolian proper, the dominant dialect in the Repub¬ lic of Mongolia and the basis of Modern Standard Mongolian, and a group of peripheral dialects. The core group of Mongolian speakers tradition¬ ally have used Classical Mongolian as their literary language; it is writ¬ ten in a vertical alphabetic script borrowed from the Uighurs (see Turkic languages). Modern Mongolian was written in this script until 1946, when the People’s Republic of Mongolia introduced a script using a modified Cyrillic alphabet. With political democratization in the 1990s, the old script has been revived. In Inner Mongolia it has been in continuous use.

Mongoloid See race

mongoose Any of the 37 species of carnivores constituting the family Herpestidae, found in Africa, Asia, and southern Europe. Rudyard Kipling’s famous “Rikki-tikki-tavi” was an Indian, or gray, mongoose ( Herpestes edwardsiiy, the meerkat is also a member of the mongoose family. Species range from 7 to 35 in. (17 to 90 cm) long, excluding the furry 6-12-in. (15-30-cm) tail. Mongooses have short legs, a pointed nose, and small ears. Most species are active during the day. The gray to brown fur may have light flecks or dark markings. Mongooses live in burrows, alone, in pairs, or in large groups, and they eat small mammals, birds, reptiles, eggs, and fruit. A few species are semiaquatic. Though not immune to venom, some species attack and kill poisonous snakes by cracking the skull with a powerful bite.

monism Vmo-.ni-zomV In metaphysics, the doctrine that the world is essentially one substance or contains only one kind of substance. Monism is opposed both to dualism and to pluralism. Examples of monism include materialism, pantheism, and metaphysical idealism. See also Benedict de Spinoza.

monitor Ironclad warship originally designed for use in shallow har¬ bours and rivers to blockade the Confederate states in the American Civil War. The original ironclad, built by John Ericsson, was named Monitor Its innovative design included minimal exposure above the waterline, a

heavily armoured deck and hull, and a revolving gun turret. The incon¬ clusive Battle of the Monitor and Merrimack (1862) was the first between ironclad warships. Never seaworthy, the Monitor sank during a gale off Cape Hatteras that same year, but the U.S. Navy built many improved monitors during the war. The British navy kept its monitors in service as late as World War II.

Monitor and Merrimack, Battle of the (March 9, 1862) Naval engagement in the American Civil War at Hampton Roads, Va. The Merri¬ mack, originally a federal frigate, had been salvaged by the Confederates, fitted with iron armor, and renamed the Virginia. It sank several wooden Union warships before meeting the Union’s Monitor. After a four-hour battle, both ships were damaged, but each side claimed victory. Both ships were destroyed later in 1862, the Virginia by its crew to avoid capture and the Monitor in a storm. The battle is notable as history’s first duel between ironclad warships and as the beginning of a new era in naval warfare.

monitor lizard Any of about 30 species of lizards (genus Varanus, family Varanidae), found in the Old World tropics and subtropics. Most have an elongated head and neck, a heavy body, a long tail, and well- developed legs. The smallest monitor grows to 8 in. (20 cm), but several species (e.g., the Komodo dragon) are very large. The two-banded, or water, monitor (V salvator), of South Asia, grows to 9 ft (2.7 m). The perenty ( V. giganteus ), of Australia, grows to 8 ft (2.4 m). The so-called earless monitor ( Lanthanotus borneensis), a rare lizard of Borneo and the only species of the family Lanthanotidae, grows to 16 in. (40 cm) long.

monk See monasticism

Monk, Meredith (Jane) (b. Nov. 20, 1942, Lima, Peru) Peruvian- born U.S. composer and performance artist. She was raised in Connecti¬ cut and New York and attended Sarah Lawrence College. She soon formed her first group, The House (1968), to explore extended vocal techniques (many learned from study of other cultures) in combination with dance, film, theatre, and other elements, in genre-defying works such as Juice (1969). One of the original creators of performance art, she has remained unique and unclassifiable.

Monk, Thelonious (Sphere) (b. Oct. 10, 1917, Rocky Mount, N.C., U.S.—d. Feb. 17, 1982, Englewood, N.J.) U.S. jazz pianist and composer. Monk grew up in New York City. He worked as the house pianist at Mint¬ on’s Playhouse in New York (1940^-3), where the expanding harmonic vocabulary of bebop was developed. He performed with Coleman Hawk¬ ins, Cootie Williams (19087-85), and Dizzy Gillespie before making record¬ ings under his own name beginning in 1947. His highly idiosyncratic, percussive playing made frequent use of sharp dissonances and insistent rhythms unusual in jazz. His best-known composition, “’Round Mid¬ night,” has become a jazz standard.

monkey Any member of two tropical anthropoid primate groups: Old World monkeys and New World monkeys. Almost all species are tropi¬ cal or subtropical, and almost all are diurnal. Most species are arboreal, using all four limbs to leap from tree to tree. They can sit upright and stand erect. Most species run along branches rather than swinging arm over arm like the apes. Monkeys are highly social omnivores, organized in clans as large as several hundred individuals headed by an old male. Sexually mature males of all species are always potent, and all nonpreg¬ nant females have a monthly menstrual cycle. Most species bear a single young, which is reared by the mother for years.

monkey puzzle tree Evergreen ornamental and timber conifer (Araucaria araucana ) of the family Araucariaceae, native to the Andes Mountains of South America. The tree may grow to 150 ft (45 m) in height and 5 ft (1.5 m) in diameter. The rigid, overlapping, needle- pointed leaves are spirally arranged on stiff branches, which form a tangled, prickly network that dis¬ courages animals from climbing the tree. The Norfolk Island pine is a rela¬ tive.

monkeypox Viral disease of both animals and humans that causes symptoms similar to those of small-

Monkey puzzle tree (Araucaria arau¬ cana).

ERNEST MANEWAL/SHOSTAL

1284 I monkfish ► monopoly

pox, though less severe. The monkeypox virus is usually found in primates and rodents in Central and West Africa but has spread to other parts of the world through the export of infected small mammals. It can be trans¬ mitted to humans through an animal bite and from person to person through prolonged close contact. Symptoms of the disease include fever, headache, general malaise and fatigue, and swollen lymph nodes. A rash of raised bumps appears on the infected person’s face and body. Treat¬ ment is limited to alleviating symptoms. Outbreaks are contained by iso¬ lating patients and controlling the trade of animals.

monkfish Any of 10-12 species (genus Squatinci, family Squatinidae) of sharks having a flattened head and body, with winglike pectoral and pelvic fins that make them resemble rays. The tail bears two dorsal fins, and behind each eye is a prominent spiracle. Monkfish grow up to 6.25 ft (2.5 m) long. They inhabit tropical and warm temperate waters of con¬ tinental shelves worldwide. The angelfish, or angel shark ( S. squatina ), is often caught for food in European waters. The term monkfish is also used for the unrelated food species of the genus Lophius, bottom-dwelling goosefish with enormous mouths and “fishing rod” lures extending from their heads.

Monmouth Vman-mothX, James Scott, duke of orig. James Fitzroy or James Crofts (b.

April 9, 1649, Rotterdam, Neth.—d. July 15, 1685, London, Eng.) British military leader. The illegitimate son of Charles II of England, he lived in Paris with his mother. In 1662 he was brought to England as a favourite of the king, who created him duke of Monmouth. He married the Scottish heiress Anne Scott, duchess of Buc- cleuch, and took her surname. A member of the king’s guard from 1668, he commanded troops in the Anglo-Dutch War and against Scot¬ tish rebels in 1679. He was champi¬ oned for the royal succession by the anti-Catholic Whigs, but after the unsuccessful Rye House Plot he took

refuge in the Netherlands (1684). Returning after Charles’s death to challenge James II, he and his army of peasants were defeated, and he was captured and beheaded.

Duke of Monmouth, oil painting after W. Wissing, c. 1683; in the National Portrait Gallery, London

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, LONDON

Monnet \m6-'na\, Jean (b. Nov. 9, 1888, Cognac, France—d. March 16, 1979, Houjarray) French economist and diplomat. He managed his family’s brandy business before becoming a partner of an investment bank (1925). In World War II he chaired a Franco-British economic commit¬ tee and proposed a Franco-British union. In 1947 he created and directed the successful Monnet Plan to rebuild and modernize France’s economy. In 1950, with Robert Schuman, he proposed the plan for the European Coal and Steel Community, predecessor of the European Economic Community and the European Union, and served as its first president (1952-55). He was also the founder and president of the action committee for the United States of Europe (1955-75).

monocot See cotyledon, flowering plant

Monod \mo-'no\, Jacques (Lucien) (b. Feb. 9, 1910, Paris, France—d. May 31, 1976, Cannes) French biochemist. In 1961 he and Francois Jacob proposed the existence of messenger RNA (mRNA), theo¬ rizing that the messenger carries the information encoded in the base sequence to the ribosomes, where the sequence of bases of the messenger RNA is translated into the sequence of amino acids of a protein. In advanc¬ ing the concept of gene complexes that they called operons, they suggested the existence of a class of genes that regulate the function of other genes by regulating the synthesis of mRNA. The two shared a 1965 Nobel Prize with Andre Lwoff (1902-94).

monody \'ma-no-de\ Accompanied solo song style of the early 17th century. It represented a reaction against the contrapuntal style (based on the combination of simultaneous melodic lines) of the 16th-century mad¬ rigal and motet. Ostensibly in an attempt to emulate ancient Greek music, composers placed renewed emphasis on proper articulation as well as expressive interpretation of texts, and they thus replaced counterpoint with

simply accompanied recitative. This resulted in a decisive distinction between melody and accompaniment, which coincides with the early appearance of basso continuo. A collection of songs published by Giuuo Caccini in 1602 exemplifies early monody. See also opera; recitative.

monogram Originally a cipher consisting of a single letter, later a design or mark consisting of two or more letters intertwined. The letters thus interlaced may be either all the letters of a name or the initial letters of the given names and surname of a person for use on notepaper, seals, or elsewhere. Many early Greek and Roman coins bear the monograms of rulers or towns. Most famous is the sacred monogram, which is formed by the conjunction of the first two Greek letters of XPIETOE (Christ), usually with the a (alpha) and co (omega) of the Apocalypse on each side of it. The Middle Ages were extremely prolific in inventing ciphers for ecclesiastical, artistic, and commercial use. Related devices are the colo¬ phons used for identification by publishers and printers, the hallmarks of goldsmiths and silversmiths, and the logos adopted by corporations.

monomer Vma-no-marX Molecule of any of a class of mostly organic compounds that can react with other molecules of the same or other com¬ pounds to form very large molecules (polymers). The essential feature of monomer molecules is the ability to form chemical bonds (see bonding) with at least two other monomer molecules (polyfunctionality). Those able to react with two others can form only chainlike polymers; those able to react with three or more can form cross-linked, network polymers. Examples of monomers (and their polymers) are styrene (polystyrene), ETHYLENE (POLYETHYLENE), and AMINO ACIDS (PROTEINS).

Monongahela \m9-,nan-g9- , he-b\ River River, northern West Vir¬ ginia, U.S. It flows north past Morgantown into Pennsylvania and joins the Allegheny River at Pittsburgh to form the Ohio River, after a total course of 128 mi (206 km). In its upper reaches it is used for hydroelectric power. Made navigable by means of locks for 106 mi (170 km), it serves as a major barge route.

mononucleosis X.ma-no-.nii-kle-'o-sosV infectious or glandular fever Common infection, caused by Epstein-Barr virus. It occurs most often at ages 10-35. Infected young children usually have little or no ill¬ ness but become immune. Popularly called “the kissing disease,” it is spread mostly by oral contact with exchange of saliva. It usually lasts 7-14 days. The most common symptoms are malaise, sore throat, fever, and lymph-node enlargement. Liver involvement is usual but rarely severe. The spleen often enlarges and in rare cases ruptures fatally. Less frequent features include rash, pneumonia, encephalitis (sometimes fatal), meningitis, and peripheral neuritis. Relapse and second attacks are rare. Diagnosis may require blood analysis. There is no specific therapy.

monophony Xmo-'na-fo-neV Music consisting of a single unaccompa¬ nied melodic line. The concept often also includes melody that is accom¬ panied by a drone or by drumming. Gregorian chant and Byzantine chant constitute the oldest written examples of monophonic repertory.

Monophysite heresy \m3-'na-f9- l sit\ (5th-6th century ad) Doctrine that emphasized the single nature (the term means literally “of one nature”) of Christ, as a wholly divine being rather than part-divine and part-human. Monophysitism began to appear in the 5th century; though condemned as a heresy at the Council of Chalcedon (451), it was tolerated by such Byz¬ antine leaders as Justin II, Theodora, and Zeno, resulting in a full-fledged schism between East and West. Several Monophysite churches, including the Coptic Orthodox Church, were founded in the 6th century.

monopolistic competition Market situation in which many inde¬ pendent buyers and sellers may exist but competition is limited by spe¬ cific market conditions. The theory was developed almost simultaneously by Edward Hastings Chamberlin in his Theory of Monopolistic Compe¬ tition (1933) and Joan V. Robinson in her Economics of Imperfect Com¬ petition (1933). It assumes product differentiation, a situation in which each seller’s goods have some unique properties, thereby giving the seller some monopoly power. See also monopoly; oligopoly.