Britannica Concise 2005 - читать бесплатно онлайн полную версию книги автора Encyclopedia Britannica (ч. 17)

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The Tawny Owl, wood engraving by Thomas Bewick, from his History of British Birds, 1797 - 1804 .

COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM; PHOTOGRAPH, J.R. FREEMAN & CO. LTD.

Bhaskara I ► Bhutto I 213

Bhaskara I (fl. c. 629, possibly Valabhi, India) Indian astronomer and mathematician. His fame rests on three treatises he composed on the works of Aryabhata I (b. 476). Two of these, known today as Mahab- haskariya (“Great Book of Bhaskara”) and Laghubhaskariya (“Small Book of Bhaskara”), are astronomical works in verse, while Aryabhatiy- abhashya (629) is a prose commentary on the Aryabhatiya of Aryabhata. Bhaskara stressed the importance of proving mathematical rules rather than just relying on tradition or expediency.

Bhaskara II (b. 1114, Biddur, India—d. c. 1185, probably Ujjain) The leading mathematician of the 12th century. He was the lineal successor of Brahmagupta as head of an astronomical observatory at Ujjain, the leading mathematical centre of ancient India. His mathematical works were the first to make full and systematic use of the decimal system. He evidently was the first to gain some understanding of the meaning of divi¬ sion by zero. He used letters to represent unknown quantities, much as in modern algebra, and solved indeterminate equations of 1st and 2nd degrees. He wrote on his astronomical observations of planetary positions, conjunctions, eclipses, cosmography, geography, and the mathematical techniques and astronomical equipment used in these studies. He was also a noted astrologer.

bhiksu Vbik-shu\ Pali bhikku \'bik-ii\ In Buddhism, a member of the sangha, the ordained order of men established by the Buddha. (Female orders exist in some Mahayana Buddhist traditions). Originally they were mendicant followers of the Buddha who taught Buddhist ways in return for food. Today children may enter monastic life as novices, but candi¬ dates for ordination must be 21 years old. There are some 200 rules; sexual relations, taking of life, stealing, or boasting of spiritual attainment will lead to expulsion. A bhiksu shaves his head and face, owns a few essen¬ tial items, and begs daily for his food. Theravada Buddhism forbids monks to handle money and perform labour. Chan (Zen) Buddhism requires monks to work. See also Vinaya Pitaka.

Bhima River Vbe-msX River, southwestern India. Rising in Maharash¬ tra state in the Western Ghats east of Mumbai (Bombay), it flows south¬ east 450 mi (725 km) through southern Maharashtra, northern Karnataka, and central Andhra Pradesh to join the Krishna River. The Bhima’s banks are heavily populated. Its water level rises sharply during the monsoons, and receding floodwaters form fertile farming belts.

Bhopal \bo-'pal\ City (pop., 2001: 1,437,354), capital of Madhya Pradesh state, India. Situated northwest of Nagpur, it is primarily an industrial city and a major rail junction. It is the site of India’s largest mosque and home to several colleges. In 1984 Bhopal became the site of one of the worst industrial accidents in history when tons of toxic gas escaped from a Union Carbide insecticide plant and spread over a densely populated area; the final death toll was estimated to be between 15,000 and 20,000, with some half-million survivors suffering various ailments.

Bhopal Former princely state, central India. It is crossed by the Vindhya Mountains; the Narmada River is its southern boundary. It was founded in 1723 by an Afghan adventurer. In its struggles with the Marathas, Bho¬ pal was itself friendly to the British and concluded a treaty with them in 1817. It was a major component of the Bhopal Agency and the second largest Muslim principality of the British Empire. At India’s indepen¬ dence, Bhopal remained a separate Indian province. When it was incor¬ porated into Madhya Pradesh in 1956, Bhopal city became the state’s capital.

Bhubaneshwar N.bu-bo-'nesh-woA City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 647,302), capital of Orissa, eastern India. Its history from the 3rd century bc is represented in nearby archaeological remains. From the 5th to the 10th century ad it was the provincial capital of many Hindu dynasties. Its many temples, displaying every phase of Orissan architecture, were built from the 7th to the 16th century. It became the state capital in 1950.

Bhumibol Adulyadej or Phumiphon Adunlayadet

Vpu-me-.pon-a-'dun-lo-.datV or Rama IX (b. Dec. 5, 1927, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.) Ninth king of the Chakri dynasty and Thailand’s longest- ruling monarch. A grandson of King Chulalongkorn, he succeeded to the throne in 1946 after the death of his older brother, King Ananda Mahidol (r. 1935-46). His role as head of state is largely ceremonial, but he mod¬ erates between extreme parties in Thai politics and serves as a focus of national unity.

Bhurtpore See Bharatpur

Bhutan \bii-'tan\ officially Kingdom of Bhutan Kingdom, Himala¬ yas, south-central Asia. Area: 14,824 sq mi (38,394 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 776,000. Capital: Thimphu. There are three main ethnic groups:

Nepalese in the southwest. Languages:

Dzongkha (official), Tibetan dialects. Religions: Mahayana Buddhism (official); also Hinduism. Currency: ngultrum. The northern part of the country lies in the Great Himalayas, with peaks surpassing 24,000 ft (7,300 m) and high valleys lying at 12,000-18,000 ft (3,700-5,500 m). Spurs radiate southward, forming the Lesser Himalayan ranges. Several fertile valleys there, at elevations of 5,000-9,000 ft (1,500-2,700 m), are fairly well populated and cultivated. South of these mountains lies the Duars Plain, controlling access to the strategic mountain passes; much of it is hot and steamy and covered with dense forest. The Bhutanese economy is mainly agricultural; nearly all exports go to India. Bhutan is a monarchy with one legislative house; the head of state is the monarch, and the head of government is the prime minister. Bhutan’s mountains and forests long made it inaccessible to the outside world, and its feudal rulers banned foreigners until well into the 20th century. It nevertheless became the object of foreign invasions; in 1865 it came under British influence, and in 1910 it agreed to be guided by Britain in its foreign affairs. It later became oriented toward British-ruled India, though much of its trade continued to be with Tibet. India took over Britain’s role in 1949, and the Chinese army’s presence in neighbouring Tibet since 1950 further strengthened Bhutan’s ties with India. The apparent Chinese threat made its rulers aware of the need to modernize, and it has embarked on a program to build roads and hospitals and to create a system of secular education.

Bhutto Vbu-to\, Benazir (b. June 21, 1953, Karachi, Pak.) Pakistani politician, the first woman leader of a Muslim nation in modem history. After receiving an education at Harvard and Oxford, she led the political opposition to Pres. Zia-ul-Haq after the execution of her father, Zulfikar An Bhutto in 1979. She subsequently endured frequent house arrest (1979- 84) and was exiled (1984-86). When Zia died in a plane crash in 1988, she became prime minister of a coalition government. She was unable to do much to combat Pakistan’s widespread poverty, governmental corrup¬ tion, and increasing crime, and her government was dismissed in 1990 on charges of corruption and other malfeasance. A second stint as prime minister (1993-96) ended similarly. In 1999 she was convicted of taking kickbacks from a Swiss company and sentenced in absentia to five years in prison.

214 I Bhutto ► biblical translation

Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali (b. Jan. 5, 1928, near Larkana, Sindh, India—d. April 4, 1979, Rawalpindi, Pak.) President (1971-73) and prime minister (1973-77) of Pakistan. Son of a prominent politician, he was educated in India, the U.S., and Britain. He served eight years in the government of Mohammad Ayub Khan (1907-74) then resigned to form the Pakistan People’s Party (1967). After the overthrow of the Ayub Khan regime and the Pakistani civil war, Bhutto became president (1971). He nationalized several key industries and taxed landed families. He became prime min¬ ister in 1973, and his government, retaining martial law, began a process of Islamization. Bhutto’s party won elections in 1977, but the opposition accused him of electoral fraud. Gen. Zia-ul-Haq seized power and had Bhutto imprisoned and later executed. Benazir Bhutto is his daughter.

Biafra \be-'af-r3\ Former secessionist state, West Africa. It constituted the former Eastern Region of Nigeria, inhabited principally by the Igbo. In a period of political and economic instability in the 1960s, the resent¬ ment of the Hausa in the north toward the more prosperous and educated Igbo exploded in fighting and massacres, which led to the secession of the Eastern Region as the state of Biafra in 1967. A costly civil war and the death by starvation of an estimated one million civilians ended in Biafra’s collapse and reincorporation into Nigeria in 1970.

Biafra, Bight of Inlet of the Atlantic Ocean, West Africa. The inner¬ most bay of the Gulf of Guinea, it is bounded by Nigeria, Cameroon, Equa¬ torial Guinea, and Gabon, and receives portions of the Niger and Ogooue rivers. It includes several islands, including Bioko. Its ports include Mal¬ abo, Calabar, and Douala. In the 16th-19th century the bay was the scene of extensive slave dealing. By the 1830s palm-oil trading had surpassed slave trading. Today petroleum is a major economic resource.

Biafystok \bya-'wi-stok\ City (pop., 2000 est: 285,500), northeastern Poland. Founded in the 14th century, it was annexed to Prussia in 1795— 1807. It passed to Russia, was captured by Germany in 1915, and was restored to Poland in 1919. During World War II it was overrun by Ger¬ mans in 1941, then retaken by Soviet troops in 1944. Returned to Poland in 1945, it is now an important rail junction; it has been a major textile producer since 1863.

Biarritz \bya-'rets\ Town (pop., 1999: 30,005), southwestern France. It lies on the Gulf of Gascogne (Bay of Biscay) near Bayonne, 11 mi (18 km) from Spain. Once a small fishing village, Biarritz became a fashion¬ able summer resort after 1854 with the visits of Napoleon III; visited also by British royalty, it grew additionally as a winter residence. Its mild cli¬ mate and variety of beaches, and the folklore and traditions of the local Basques, continue to draw an international clientele.

biathlon Winter sports event combining cross-country skiing with rifle sharpshooting. It originated in Scandinavian hunting. It was first included in the Winter Olympics program in 1960. Competitors cover a course, carrying a single-shot rifle and ammunition and stopping at four points to fire five shots at small targets. Events are either 10 or 20 km long, and there are a variety of race types, including relay, sprint, and pursuit.

Bibiena family See Galli Bibiena family

Bible Sacred scriptures of Judaism and Christianity. The Jewish scriptures consist of the Torah (or Pentateuch), the Neviim (“Prophets”), and the Ketuvim (“Writings”), which together constitute what Christians call the Old Testament. The Pentateuch and Joshua relate how Israel became a nation and came to possess the Promised Land. The Prophets describe the establishment and development of the monarchy and relate the prophets’ messages. The Writings include poetry, speculation on good and evil, and history. The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Bible includes addi¬ tional Jewish writings called the Apocrypha. The New Testament consists of early Christian literature. The Gospels tell of the life, person, and teach¬ ings of Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles relates the earliest history of Christianity. The Epistles (Letters) are correspondence of early church leaders (chiefly St. Paul) and address the needs of early congregations. Revelation is the only canonical representative of a large genre of early Christian apocalyptic literature. See also biblical source, biblical translation. See table opposite.

biblical source Any of the original oral or written materials compiled as the Bible. While authorship of many biblical books is anonymous or pseudonymous, scholars have used internal evidence and the tools of bib¬ lical criticism to identify sources and arrange them in chronological order of composition. There are four sources for the Pentateuch: J (sources in which God is called YHWH, German JHVH), eastern (sources in which

Old Testament: Jewish Scripture

Genesis

Isaiah

Nahum

Song of Songs

Exodus

Jeremiah

Habakkuk

Ruth

Leviticus

Ezekiel

Zephaniah

Lamentations

Numbers

Hosea

Haggai

Ecclesiastes

Deuteronomy

Joel

Zechariah

Esther

Joshua

Amos

Malachi

Daniel

Judges

Obadiah

Psalms

Ezra

1 & 2 Samuel

Jonah

Proverbs

Nehemiah

1 & 2 Kings

Micah

Job

1 & 2 Chronicles

Old Testament: Roman Catholic and Protestant Canons

Catholic

Protestant

Catholic

Protestant

Genesis

Wisdom

Exodus

Sirach

Leviticus

Isaiah

Numbers

Jeremiah

Deuteronomy

Lamentations

Joshua

Baruch

Judges

Ezekiel

Ruth

Daniel

1 & 2 Samuel

Hosea

1 & 2 Kings

Joel

1 & 2 Chronicles

Amos

Ezra

Obadiah

Nehemiah

Jonah

Tobit

Micah

Judith

Nahum

Esther

Habakkuk

Job

Zephaniah

Psalms

Haggai

Proverbs

Zechariah

Ecclesiastes

Malachi

Song of Songs

Song of Solomon

1 & 2 Maccabees

Old Testament: Protestant Apocrypha

1 & 2 Esdras

Additions to

Baruch

Bel and the

Tobit

Esther

Prayer of Azariah

Dragon

Judith

Wisdom of

Susanna

Prayer of

Solomon

Manasses

Ecclesiasticus

1 & 2 Maccabees

New Testament

Matthew

Romans

Colossians

Hebrews

Mark

1 & 2

1 & 2 Thessa-

James

Luke

Corinthians

lonians

1 & 2 Peter

John

Galatians

1 & 2 Timothy

1, 2, 3 John

Acts

Ephesians

Titus

Jude

of the Apostles

Philippians

Philemon

Revelation

God is called Elohim), D (sources in the style of Deuteronomy), and P (for sources with priestly style and content). Parts of lost books have also been identified in the Old Testament. New Testament sources include origi¬ nal writings and oral traditions. The first three (synoptic) Gospels have a common source, Matthew and Luke being based on Mark and a lost source called Q; John conveys an independent tradition. Biblical sources are studied to uncover the history of the scriptures and to restore texts as closely as possible to their original content. Scholars may also analyze biblical sources in an effort to reconstruct the oral tradition behind them.

biblical translation Art and practice of translating the Bible. The Old Testament was originally written in Hebrew, with scattered passages of Aramaic. It was first translated in its entirety into Aramaic and then, in the 3rd century ad, into Greek (the Septuagint). Hebrew scholars created the authoritative Masoretic text (6th-10th century) from Aramaic Targums, the original Hebrew scrolls having been lost. The New Testament was originally in Greek or Aramaic. Christians translated both Testaments into Coptic, Ethiopian, Gothic, and Latin. St. Jerome’s Latin Vulgate (405) was the standard Christian translation for 1,000 years. New learning in the 15th—16th century generated new translations. Martin Luther translated the

bibliography ► Biddle I 215

entire Bible into German (1522-34). The first complete English transla¬ tion, credited to John Wycliffe, appeared in 1382, but it was the King James version (1611) that became the standard for more than three cen¬ turies. By the late 20th century the entire Bible had been translated into 250 languages and portions of it into more than 1,300.

bibliography Broadly, the systematic study and description of books. The word can refer to the listing of books according to some system (called descriptive, or enumerative, bibliography), to the study of books as tangible objects (called critical, or analytical, bibliography), or to the product of those activities. The purpose of bibliography is to organize information about materials on a given subject so that students of the sub¬ ject may have access to it. A descriptive bibliography may take the form of information about a particular author’s works or about works on a given subject or on a particular nation or period. Critical bibliography, which emerged in the early 20th century, involves meticulous descriptions of the physical features of books, including the paper, binding, printing, typog¬ raphy, and production processes used, to help establish such facts as print¬ ing dates and authenticity.

Bibliotheque Nationale de France V.bib-le-o-'tek-.na-se-o-'nal- d3-'fra n s\ Most important library in France and one of the oldest in the world. The nation’s first royal library, the Bibliotheque du Roi (“King’s Library”), was established under Charles V (r. 1364-80) but later dis¬ persed; another was established under Louis XI (r. 1461-83). From 1537 the library received a copy of every French publication. It was moved from Fontainebleau to Paris in the late 16th century and opened to the public in 1692. It acquired its current name in 1795, and its collection was expanded through Revolutionary appropriations and Napoleon’s acquisitions. In 1995 it moved to a new facility with a controversial design; this facility now houses all its books (more than 12 million), peri¬ odicals, and magazines.

bicameral system System of government in which the legislature comprises two houses. It originated in Britain (see Parliament), where eventually it served to represent the interests of both the common people and the elite and to ensure deliberation over legislation. In the U.S. the bicameral system is a compromise between the claims for equal repre¬ sentation among the states (each state is represented by two members of the Senate) and for equal representation among citizens (each member of the House of Representatives represents roughly the same number of people). Each house has powers not held by the other, and measures need the approval of both houses to become law. Many contemporary federal systems of government have bicameral legislatures. All U.S. states except Nebraska have bicameral legislatures. See also Canadian Parliament; Con¬ gress of the United States; Diet.

bicarbonate of soda or sodium bicarbonate or baking soda Inorganic compound, white, crystalline salt of sodium, chemical formula NaHC0 3 . It is a weak base and dissociates into water and carbon dioxide gas as it dissolves in the presence of hydrogen ions. In addition to household uses as an antacid, cleaner, and deodorizer, it is used in manu¬ facturing effervescent salts and beverages and baking powder. Industrial uses include production of other sodium salts, treatment of wool and silk, and use in pharmaceuticals, sponge rubber, fire extinguishers, cleaners, lab reagents, mouthwash, and gold and platinum plating.

Bichat \be-'sha\, (Marie-Francois-) Xavier (b. Nov. 11/14, 1771, Thoirette, Fra.—d. July 22, 1802, Lyon) French anatomist and physiolo¬ gist. In addition to bedside observations of patients, he conducted autop¬ sies to study the changes disease causes in various organs. With no knowledge of the cell as the functional unit of living things, Bichat was among the first to see the organs of the body as being formed through the specialization of simple, functional units (tissues). Without using a micro¬ scope, he distinguished 21 kinds of tissues that, in different combinations, form the organs of the body. His systematic study of human tissues helped create the science of histology.

bichon frise \be-,sho n -fre-'za\ Breed of small dog noted for its fluffy coat and cheerful disposition. Descended from the water spaniel, it stands about 9-12 in. (23-30.5 cm) tall and has a short, blunt muzzle; silky, drooping ears; a puffy, silky, curled coat; and an undercoat. It is mostly white, but may have shadings of cream, gray, or apricot on the head. It originated in the Mediterranean region.

Bicol \'be-,kol\ Peninsula Peninsula, southeastern Luzon, Philippines. It has a lengthy coastline with large subpeninsulas. Its area is about 4,660

sq mi (12,070 sq km). It includes the Bicol Plain, a large lowland area important in rice production. It is densely populated though largely rural. It is the homeland of the Bicol, the country’s fifth largest ethnolinguistic group, and it has been a stronghold of Philippine communists.

bicycle Lightweight, two-wheeled, steerable machine that is propelled by the rider. The wheels are mounted in a metal frame, and the front wheel is held in a movable fork. The rider sits on a saddle and steers with handle¬ bars attached to the fork, propelling the bicycle with two pedals attached to cranks that turn a chainwheel. An endless chain transmits power from the chainwheel to a sprocket on the back wheel. A heavy, pedalless form built in 1818 was propelled simply by the rider paddling his feet against the ground. In the early 1840s Scottish blacksmith Kirkpatrick Macmillan (1813-78) built bicycles propelled by pedals, cranks, and drive rods; he is widely credited with having invented the bicycle. Important innovations were introduced by Pierre and Ernest Michaux in France in the early 1860s, and by 1865 their company was manufacturing 400 velocipedes a year. A lighter version produced in England in 1870 (nicknamed the “penny-farthing”) featured a large front wheel and small back wheel. By the 1890s the standard bicycle design was established, and, with the smooth ride enabled by the new pneumatic tires, its popularity exploded. The so-called mountain bike became the standard design by the early 1990s. The bicycle is used worldwide as a basic means of transportation.

Components of a modern touring bicycle.

Bidault \be-'do\, Georges (-Augustin) (b. Oct. 5, 1899, Moulins, France—d. Jan. 27, 1983, Cambo-les-Bains, near Bayonne) French states¬ man and Resistance leader in World War II. After being imprisoned in Germany (1940), he returned to France (1941) and worked with the National Council of Resistance, which he headed in 1943. He helped found the Popular Republican Movement (1944) and supported Charles de Gaulle’s wartime government. After the war he briefly served twice as prime minister and three times as minister of foreign affairs. In 1958 he broke with de Gaulle and opposed Algerian independence. He advocated terrorism to prevent independence, went underground, and was forced into exile (1962-68).

Biddle, James (b. Feb. 18, 1783, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—d. Oct. 1, 1848, Philadelphia) U.S. naval officer. He entered the navy in 1800. Dur¬ ing the War of 1 81 2, he served on the USS Wasp when it captured the British ship Frolic, and he commanded the USS Hornet in its victory over the Penguin. In 1817 he was sent to the Columbia River to claim the Oregon Territory for the U.S. As commodore of U.S. ships in East Asia, he negotiated the first treaty, a trade agreement, between the U.S. and China.

Biddle, John (b. 1615, Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire, Eng.—d. Sept. 22, 1662, London) Father of English Unitarianism. He studied at the University of Oxford and became master of a free school in Gloucester. In 1644 he wrote Twelve Arguments Drawn Out of Scripture, denying the deity of the Holy Spirit. When the manuscript reached church authorities, he was arrested and imprisoned for two years. After its publication in 1647 he was again detained, and copies of the book were burned. His later writings attacked the doctrine of the Holy Trinity. Freed from a third imprisonment in 1652, he began to meet for worship with his adherents, who came to be called Unitarians. After Biddle published his Two-Fold Catechism (1654),

216 I Biddle ► Big Bertha

Oliver Cromwell prevented his execution by exiling him to the Scilly Isles. He returned in 1658; in 1662 he was again put in prison, where he died.

Biddle, Nicholas (b. Jan. 8, 1786, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—d. Feb. 27, 1844, Philadelphia) U.S. author, fin¬ ancier, and lawyer. He served as sec¬ retary to Pres. James Monroe (1806- 07), then minister to England, and, afterward, while practicing law in the U.S., he wrote History of the Expedition of Captains Lewis and Clark (1814) from the explorers’ notes. In 1823 Monroe appointed him president of the Second Bank of the United States. He developed the bank into the first effective U.S. cen¬ tral bank, sponsoring policies that curbed credit, regulated the money supply, and safeguarded government deposits. In 1832 the bank came under attack from Pres. Andrew Jack- son, who managed to terminate its national charter in 1836. Biddle later became president of the bank under a Pennsylvania state charter. The Federal Reserve System was later established as the country’s central bank.

Bidwell, John (b. Aug. 5, 1819, Chautauqua county, N.Y., U.S.—d. April 4, 1900, near Sacramento, Calif.) U.S. political leader. He was a member of the first group to travel by wagon train to California from Independence, Mo. Reluctant to join the Bear Flag revolt of Americans in California against Mexico, he nonetheless helped draw up the Bear Flag Republic’s resolution of independence in July 1846. He fought under John C. Fremont in the Mexican War and assisted in the recapture of Los Ange¬ les in 1847. At the end of the war he returned to Sutter’s Fort, where he was the first to find gold on the Feather River. Later he became a leading agriculturalist and played a prominent role in state politics. He was elected to the House of Representatives in 1864 and later ran for governor three times, though he was never elected. In 1892 he became the presidential candidate of the Prohibition Party.

Biedermeier Vbe-dor-.ml-orV style Style of German and Austrian art, furniture, and decoration that developed c. 1815 to 1848. Gottlieb (“Papa”) Biedermeier was a fictional cartoon character, the comic sym¬ bol of middle-class comfort, with an emphasis on family life and the pur¬ suit of hobbies. The subject matter of Biedermeier paintings, which were either genre or historical, was treated sentimentally; Carl Spitzweg (1808— 85) is the best-known of the Biedermeier painters. The simplicity and functionality of Biedermeier furniture were derived from the Empire and Directoire styles, but the furniture was characterized by more restrained geometric shapes. The style was revived in the 1960s.

Biel VbelV Gabriel (b. c. 1420, Speyer [Germany]—d. Dec. 7, 1495, Tubingen, Wurttemberg) German philosopher, economist, and Scholastic theologian. He became professor at the University of Tubingen (1484). His Collectorium circa IV libros sententiarum presented the teachings of William of Ockham; the work influenced followers known as Gabrielis- tae. His economic theories favoured fair taxation and price control. See also Scholasticism.

Bielefeld Vbe-b-,felt\ City (pop., 2002 est: city, 323,400; metro, area, 579,000), northwestern Germany. Founded in 1214, the town arose from a religious settlement around St. Mary’s Church in the late 13th century. It joined the Hanseatic League in the 14th century and passed to Branden¬ burg in 1647. The first mechanized textile mills in Germany were estab¬ lished there in 1851. Heavily damaged in World War II, the city has since been rebuilt. It is the centre of a linen industry; it also has silk and plush weaving mills.

biennial Any plant that completes its life cycle in two growing seasons. During the first growing season biennials produce roots, stems, and leaves; during the second they produce flowers, fruits, and seeds, and then die. Sugar beets and carrots are examples of biennials. See also annual, PERENNIAL.

Bienville \bya n -'vel\, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de (baptized Feb. 23, 1680, Montreal, New France—d. March 7, 1767, Paris, France)

French explorer, colonial governor of Louisiana, and founder of New Orleans. He served with the French navy in King William’s War. He accompanied his brother Pierre Iberville on expeditions to the mouth of the Mississippi River. They founded a settlement in 1699, and he later com¬ manded the colony of Louisiana (1701-12, 1717-23). He founded New Orleans in 1718 and made it the colony’s capital in 1722. Recalled to France in 1723, he returned to serve as governor of Louisiana (1733-43).

Bierce, Ambrose (Gwinnett) (b. June 24, 1842, Meigs county, Ohio, U.S.—d. 1914, Mexico?) U.S. newspaperman, satirist, and short- story writer. Not long after serving in the Civil War, he became a news¬ paper columnist and editor in San Francisco, specializing in attacks on frauds of all sorts. Among his books are Tales of Soldiers and Civilians (1891; revised as In the Midst of Life), which includes “An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge”; Can Such Things Be? (1893); and The Devil’s Dictionary (1906), a volume of ironic definitions. Tired of American life, he went in 1913 to Mexico, then in the middle of a revolution, and mys¬ teriously disappeared, possibly killed in the 1914 siege of Ojinaga.

Bierstadt \'ber-,shtat\, Albert (b. Jan. 7, 1830, near Diisseldorf, Westphalia—d. Feb. 19, 1902, New York, N.Y., U.S.) German-born U.S. painter of the Hudson River school. His parents immigrated to the U.S. when he was an infant. As a young man he traveled and sketched through¬ out Europe before returning to the U.S. to join a westward-bound expe¬ dition in 1859. Specializing in grandiose pictures of vast mountain scenery, he achieved great popularity in his lifetime with panoramic and often fanciful scenes of the American West, including The Rocky Moun¬ tains (1863) and Mount Corcoran (c. 1875-77). His huge paintings were actually executed in his New York City studio.

big bang Model of the origin of the universe, which holds that it emerged from a state of extremely high temperature and density in an explosive expansion 10 billion—15 billion years ago. Its two basic assumptions—that Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity correctly describes the gravitational interaction of all matter and that an observer’s view of the universe does not depend on direction of observation or on location—make it possible to calculate physical conditions in the universe back to a very early time called the Planck time (after Max Planck). According to the model proposed by George Gamow in the 1940s, the universe expanded rapidly from a highly compressed early state, with a steady decrease in density and temperature. Within seconds, matter pre¬ dominated over antimatter and certain nuclei formed. It took another mil¬ lion years before atoms could form and electromagnetic radiation could travel through space unimpeded. The abundances of hydrogen, helium, and lithium and the discovery of cosmic background radiation support the model, which also explains the redshifts of the light from distant galaxies as resulting from the expansion of space.

Big Ben Clock housed in the tower at the eastern end of Britain’s Houses of Parliament. Designed by Sir Edmund Beckett (1816-1905), Big Ben is famous for its accuracy and its 13-ton bell. The name (for Sir Benjamin Hall, commissioner of works at the time of its installation in 1859) originally applied only to the bell but eventually came to include the clock itself.

Big Bend National Park Pre¬ serve, southwestern Texas, U.S. It lies 250 mi (400 km) southeast of El Paso and occupies 1,252 sq mi (3,243 sq km). It was established in 1944 and named for the wide bend in the Rio Grande that skirts its south¬ ern edge. The park has magnificent mountain and desert scenery; it is home to more than 1,000 species of plants, and its wildlife includes coy¬ otes, pumas, and roadrunners.

Big Bertha Either of two different sets of long-range artillery produced by the Krupp works (see Thyssen Krupp Stahl) in Germany during World War I. The first were 420-mm (16.5-in.) howitzers used by German forces advancing through Belgium in 1914. The second were cannons specially built to bombard Paris in 1918. About 112 ft (34 m) long, they weighed

Nicholas Biddle

COURTESY OF THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

Big Cypress Swamp ► bile I 217

200 tons (181 metric tons) and were 210 mm (8 in.) or more in calibre. The Paris guns were moved on railway tracks; they bombarded the city for 140 days. Their unprecedented range of 75 mi (121 km) was achieved by sending the shells on a trajectory 12 mi (19 km) into the stratosphere. They were nicknamed for the Krupp matriarch Bertha von Bohlen.

Big Cypress Swamp Swamp region whose eastern half is a national preserve, southern Florida, U.S. Covering 2,400 sq mi (6,200 sq km), the region merges with the swampy Everglades on the east and south. It is dominated by cypress trees, and wildlife is abundant. The Seminole Indi¬ ans have reservations in the area.

Big Stick Policy Policy named by Pres. Theodore Roosevelt to describe the assertion of U.S. dominance as a moral imperative. It was taken from an African proverb, “Speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far.” Roosevelt first used it when he asked Congress for money to increase U.S. naval preparedness to support his diplomatic objectives. The press used the phrase to describe Roosevelt’s Latin America policy and his domes¬ tic policy of regulating monopolies.

Big Sur Scenic region along the Pacific coast of California, U.S. It com¬ prises a ruggedly beautiful stretch of seacoast 100 mi (160 km) long. Popular with tourists and naturalists, it extends southward from Carmel to the Hearst Castle at San Simeon. A narrow, mountainous coastal road affords views of the Pacific Ocean and the wilderness areas of the Los Padres National Forest. The Pfeiffer-Big Sur State Park contains the town of Big Sur and borders the Big Sur River. The home of Robinson Jeffers is a local landmark.

big tree or giant sequoia or Sierra redwood Coniferous ever¬ green ( Sequoiadendron giganteum ; see conifer) found in scattered groves on the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada range of California, U.S. The largest of all trees in bulk, the big tree is distinguished from the coastal redwood ( Sequoia sempervirens) by having uniformly scalelike, or awl- shaped, leaves that lie close against the branches, scaleless winter buds, and cones requiring two seasons to mature. The pyramidal tree shape, reddish brown furrowed bark, and drooping branches are common to both genera. The largest specimen (in total bulk) is the General Sherman tree in Sequoia National Park —101.5 ft (31 m) in circumference at its base, 272.4 ft (83 m) tall, and weighing an estimated 6,167 tons (5,593 metric tons). Because big-tree lumber is more brittle than redwood lumber and thus less desirable, the big tree has been easier to preserve; though some groves have been cut, most of the 70 remaining groves are now protected by state or national forests or parks.

Bigfoot or Sasquatch Large, hairy, humanlike creature that report¬ edly lives in isolated areas of the northwestern U.S. and western Canada. Descriptions of Bigfoot are similar to those of the Abominable Snowman of the Himalayas. It is said to be a primate 6-15 ft (2-4.5 m) in height, walking upright and either moving silently or emitting a high-pitched cry. Supposed footprints (some are hoaxes) have measured up to 24 in. (60 cm) in length. Despite many reported sightings, there is still no solid evi¬ dence that Bigfoot exists.

bighorn or mountain sheep Stocky, climbing hoofed mammal (Ovis canadensis ) of western North America. Both sexes have horns that in the male may curve in a spiral more than 39 in. (1 m) long. Their fur is usually brown with a whitish rump patch. The related thinhom, or Dali’s sheep ( O. dalli ), of Alaska and Canada is similar to the bighorn.

Both species are about 39 in. (1 m) tall at the shoulder, but the bighorn is heavier, weighing up to 300 lb (136 kg). They live in small groups among remote crags and cliffs of mountainous areas and feed mainly on grasses. Bighorn rams compete for females by launching themselves at each other from a few yards’ dis¬ tance and clashing horns.

Bighorn Mountains Mountain range, southern Montana and northern Wyoming, U.S. It is a range of the northern Rocky Mountains extending 120 mi (193 km), rising abruptly 4,000-5,000 ft (1,200-1,500 m) above

the Great Plains and Bighorn Basin. The highest summit is Wyoming’s Cloud Peak, at 13,165 ft (4,013 m). Bighorn National Forest covers part of the range. On Medicine Mountain is the Medicine Wheel, a prehistoric stone-spoked circle 70 ft (20 m) in diameter.

Bighorn River River, Wyoming and Montana, U.S. Formed by the confluence of the Popo Agie and Wind rivers in west-central Wyoming, it flows north 336 mi (541 km) into the Yellowstone River in southeastern Montana. The Little Bighorn joins the main stream at Hardin, Mont. The Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area stretches along the Montana- Wyoming border. See also Battle of the Little Bighorn.

Bihar \bi-'har\ State (pop., 2001: 82,998,509), northeastern India. Bor¬ dered by Nepal and West Bengal, Jharkhand, and Uttar Pradesh states, it occupies 38,301 sq mi (99,200 sq km); its capital is Patna. Its limits are nearly the same as those of the ancient kingdoms of Videha and Magadha. In the 4th century ad the area came under the Gupta empire, whose capi¬ tal was at Pataliputra (Patna). Overcome by the Muslims c. 1200, Bihar was annexed to Delhi in 1497. Taken by the British in 1765, it was made part of Bengal. The area was the scene of revolts against the British in the mid-19th century and of Mohandas K. Gandhi’s nonviolent movement in the early 20th century. Bihar was made a province of British India in 1936; in 1950 it became a state in independent India. It is one of India’s least urbanized states, and most of its population engages in agriculture. In 2000 the state of Jharkhand was created from Bihar’s southern districts.

Bikini Atoll, western Marshall Islands, central Pacific Ocean. It consists of a ring of 20 small coral islands. Administered by the U.S. from 1947 as part of a UN-sanctioned U.S. Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, it was used for U.S. nuclear-weapons testing in 1946-58. The 166 inhab¬ itants were removed before the tests began and returned in 1969, but they were evacuated again in 1978 because of high radiation levels. Cleanup there continued, and in the late 1990s Bikini was again deemed safe for habitation. The atoll became part of the Republic of the Marshall Islands in 1979.

Biko Vbe-ko\, Stephen (b. Dec. 18, 1946, King William’s Town, S.Af.—d. Sept. 12, 1977, Pretoria) South African political activist. A former medical student, in 1968 he founded the Black Consciousness movement, designed to raise black awareness of apartheid oppression. He was officially “banned” by the South African government in 1973 and was arrested several times in 1976-77. His death from head injuries suffered in police custody made him an international martyr for South African black nationalism. The initial inquest absolved the police of wrongdoing, but in 1997 five former officers confessed to Biko’s murder.

Bilbao \bil-'ba-,o, bil-'bau\ Port city (pop., 2001: city, 349,972; metro, area, 947,334), northern Spain. It is located 7 mi (11 km) inland from the Bay of Biscay. The largest city in the Basque Country, it originated as a settlement of mariners and ironworkers and was chartered in 1300. In the 18th century it prospered through trade with Spain’s New World colonies. The city was sacked by French troops in the Peninsular War (1808) and besieged during the Carlist Wars (see Carlism). It is a chief port in Spain and a centre of the metallurgical industries, shipbuilding, and banking. Landmarks include the 14th-century Cathedral of Santiago and the 20th- century Guggenheim Museum Bilbao.

bilberry Low-growing deciduous shrub ( Vaccinium myrtillus) of the heath family, found in woods and on heaths, chiefly in hilly districts of Britain, northern Europe, and Asia. The stiff stems bear small egg-shaped leaves and small rosy flowers tinged with green. The dark blue, waxy ber¬ ries are an important food of the grouse and are used for tarts and pre¬ serves. They are borne singly, unlike those of the much more productive cultivated blueberries of the U.S. ( V. australe ), which are borne in long clusters.

bildungsroman \'bil- l duqz-ro-,man\ German "novel of character development" Class of novel in Gentian and other literature that deals with the formative years of the main character, whose moral and psycho¬ logical development is depicted. It ends on a positive note, with the hero’s foolish mistakes and painful disappointments behind him and a life of usefulness ahead. It grew out of folklore tales in which a dunce goes out into the world seeking adventure. The first novelistic development of the theme, Johann W. von Goethe’s Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship (1795— 96), remains a classic example.

bile Greenish-yellow liver secretion passed to the gallbladder for con¬ centration, storage, or transport into the duodenum for fat digestion. Bile

Canadian bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis)

HARRY ENGELS-THE NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCIETY COLLECTION/PHOTO RESEARCHERS

218 I bilingualism ► Biloxi

contains bile acids and salts, cholesterol, and electrolyte chemicals that keep it slightly acidic. In the intestine, products of the acids and salts emulsify fat and reduce its surface tension to prepare it for the action of pancreatic and intestinal fat-splitting enzymes.

bilingualism Ability to speak two languages. It may be acquired early by children in regions where most adults speak two languages (e.g., French and dialectal German in Alsace). Children may also become bilin¬ gual by learning languages in two different social settings; for example, British children in British India learned an Indian language from their nurses and family servants. A second language can also be acquired in school. Bilingualism can also refer to the use of two languages in teach¬ ing, especially to foster learning in students trying to learn a new lan¬ guage. Advocates of bilingual education in the U.S. argue that it speeds learning in all subjects for children who speak a foreign language at home and prevents them from being marginalized in English-language schools. Detractors counter that it hinders such children from mastering the lan¬ guage of the larger society and limits their opportunities for employment and higher education.

bill See beak

Bill, Max (b. Dec. 22, 1908, Winterthur, Switz.—d. Dec. 9, 1994, Ber¬ lin, Ger.) Swiss painter, sculptor, graphic artist, and industrial designer. He studied architecture, metalwork, stage design, and painting at the Bau- haus. In 1930 he opened his own studio in Zurich, where he spent most of his life and earned a living designing advertisements. In the 1940s he designed chairs featuring geometric forms. He cofounded and directed the College of Design in Ulm, Ger. (1951-55), and also designed its build¬ ings. He is best known for his advertising designs.

bill of exchange Short-term negotiable financial instrument consist¬ ing of a written order addressed by the seller of goods to the buyer requir¬ ing the latter to pay a certain sum of money on demand or at a future time. Bills of exchange are often used in international transactions, and the holder of such a bill may redeem it in cash immediately by selling it to a bank at a discount. Bills of exchange used in domestic transactions are sometimes called drafts. See also promissory note.

Bill of Rights (1689) British law, one of the basic instruments of the British constitution. It incorporated the provisions of the Declaration of Rights, which William III and Mary II accepted upon taking the throne. Its main purpose was to declare illegal various practices of James II, such as the royal prerogative of dispensing with the law in certain cases. The result of a long struggle between the Stuart kings and the English people and Parliament, it made the monarchy clearly conditional on the will of Par¬ liament and provided freedom from arbitrary government. It also dealt with the succession to the throne.

Bill of Rights First 10 amendments to the Constitution of the United States, adopted as a group in 1791. They are a collection of guarantees of individual rights and of limitations on federal and state governments that derived from popular dissatisfaction with the limited guarantees of the Constitution. The first Congress submitted 12 amendments (drafted by James Madison) to the states, 10 of which were ratified. The 1st Amend¬ ment guarantees freedom of religion, speech, and the press and grants the right to petition for redress and to assemble peacefully. The 2nd Amend¬ ment guarantees the right of the people to keep and bear arms. The 3rd prohibits the quartering of soldiers in private dwellings in peacetime. The 4th protects against unreasonable search and seizure. The 5th establishes grand-jury indictment for serious offenses, protects against double jeopardy in criminal cases, and prohibits compelling testimony by a person against himself. The 6th establishes the rights of the accused to a speedy trial and an impartial jury and guarantees the right to legal counsel and to the obtaining of witnesses in his favour. The 7th preserves the right to trial by jury in serious civil suits and prohibits double jeopardy in civil cases. The 8th prohibits excessive bail and cruel and unusual punishment. The 9th states that enumeration of certain rights in the Constitution does not mean the abrogation of rights not mentioned. The 10th reserves to the states and people any powers not delegated to the federal government.

billfish Any of several long-jawed fishes, especially those in the family Istiophoridae, including marlins, spearfishes, and SAiLFiSHes. The name is also applied to the gar, needlefish, and sauries (family Scomberesocidae), as well as to the swordfish (family Xiphiidae).

billiards Any of various games played on a cloth-topped, cushion-railed rectangular table by driving small, hard balls against one another or into

pockets with a long stick called a cue. Carom, or French billiards, is played with three balls, two white and one red, on a table without pockets. The object is to stroke the white cue ball so that it hits the two object balls in succession, scoring a carom (one point). English billiards is also played with three balls but on a pocketed table; it is scored in various ways. Snooker is another popular British billiards game. The principal billiards game in North America is pocket billiards, or pool. The Billiard Congress of America controls U.S. tournament play, including the U.S. Open Pock¬ ets Billiard Championship, regarded as the world championship.

Billings City (pop., 2000: 89,847), south-central Montana, U.S. Origi¬ nally settled on the Yellowstone River in 1877 as Coulson, Billings was renamed in 1882 in honour of Frederick Billings, president of the North¬ ern Pacific Railway Company. It is now a trading and shipping point for wool, livestock, and agriculture. Nearby Pictograph Cave State Monu¬ ment has prehistoric artifacts.

Billings, John Shaw (b. April 12, 1838, Switzerland county, Ind., U.S.—d. March 11, 1913, New York, N.Y.) U.S. surgeon and librarian. He worked for the U.S. Army 1861-95. He fostered the growth of the surgeon general’s library in Washington, D.C., developing what would become the National Library of Medicine, the world’s largest medical reference centre. He founded the monthly Index Medicus (1879), still one of the primary U.S. medical bibliographies, and published the first Index Catalogue (1880-95). He also designed Johns Hopkins Hospital and was its medical adviser, ran national vital statistics programs, led the U.S. effort to end yellow fever, and was the first director of the New York Pub¬ lic Library. His organization of U.S. medical institutions was central to modernization of hospital care and maintenance of public health.

Billings, William (b. Oct. 7, 1746, Boston, Mass.—d. Sept. 26, 1800, Boston, Mass., U.S.) American hymn composer, sometimes called the first American composer. A tanner by trade, he was largely self-taught in music. His robust and primitive style, lacking instrumental parts, has seemed to embody the distinctive virtues of early America. His New England Psalm-Singer {111 0) was the first published collection of Ameri¬ can music; his other works include The Singing Master’s Assistant (1778) and The Continental Harmony (1794).

Billiton \be-'le-,ton\ or Belitung Xba-'le-.tuqN Island, Bangka-Belitung province, west-central Indonesia. Lying on the Karimata Strait between the islands of Bangka (west) and Borneo (northeast), it is situated between the South China Sea (north) and Java Sea (south). It is some 55 mi (90 km) long and 45 mi (70 km) wide, with an area of about 1,850 sq mi (4,800 sq km). The main town and port is Tanjungpandan. Billiton was ceded to the British in 1812 by the sultan of Palembang, Sumatra, but Britain recognized the Dutch claim in 1824. The island became part of Indonesia after World War II. It is important for its tin mines, discovered in 1851.

Billroth Vbil-rot\, (Christian Albert) Theodor (b. April 26, 1829, Bergen auf Riigen, Prussia—d. Feb. 6, 1894, Abbazia, Austria-Hungary) Austrian surgeon. He pioneered the study of bacterial causes of wound fever and adopted early the antiseptic techniques that eradicated the threat of fatal surgical infections. The founder of modem surgery of the abdomi¬ nal cavity, he altered and removed organs previously considered inacces¬ sible. In 1872 he was the first to remove part of an esophagus, joining the ends together; later he performed the first complete larynx removal. In 1881, when he had made intestinal surgery almost commonplace, he suc¬ cessfully removed a cancerous pylorus (lower end of the stomach).

Billy the Kid orig. William H. Bonney, Jr., or Henry McCarty

(b. Nov. 23, 1859/60, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. July 14, 1881, Fort Sum¬ ner, N.M.) U.S. criminal. As a child he migrated with his family to Kan¬ sas, then lived in New Mexico from c. 1868. His career of lawlessness throughout the Southwest began early; by the time he was captured by Sheriff Pat Garrett in 1880 he had allegedly killed 27 men. Convicted in New Mexico in 1881 and sentenced to hang, he escaped from jail, kill¬ ing two deputies, and remained at large until Garrett tracked him down and killed him.

Biloxi \bi-'l3k-se, bi-'lak-se\ Coastal city (pop., 2000: 50,644), south¬ eastern Mississippi, U.S. Located east of Gulfport on the Gulf of Mexico, it was first settled as Fort Louis (established 1719); a nearby earlier fort, Fort Maurepas, was the lower Mississippi valley’s first permanent Euro¬ pean settlement (1699). Biloxi has been under the flags of France, Spain, Britain, the West Florida Republic, and the Confederacy. By the late 20th

Bilqis ► Bingham I 219

century, casino gambling had become its chief industry, augmented by fishing and seafood processing. Beauvoir, Jefferson Davis’s last home, is nearby. Biloxi has been subject to periodic devastating tropical cyclones, notably Hurricanes Camille (1969) and Katrina (2005).

Bilqis See Queen of Sheba

bimetallism Monetary standard or system based on the use of two metals, traditionally gold and silver, rather than one (monometallism). In the 19th century, a bimetallic system defined a nation’s monetary unit by law in terms of fixed quantities of gold and silver (thus automatically establishing a rate of exchange between the two metals). The system pro¬ vided a free and unlimited market for the two metals, imposed no restric¬ tions on the use and coinage of either metal, and made all other money in circulation redeemable in either gold or silver. Because each nation inde¬ pendently set its own rate of exchange between the two metals, the result¬ ing rates of exchange often differed widely from country to country. When the ratio of the official prices proved different from the ratio of prices in the open market, Gresham's law operated in such a way that coins of only one metal remained in circulation. A monometallic system using the gold standard proved more responsive to changes in supply and demand and was widely adopted after 1867. See also exchange rate; silver standard.

bin Laden, Osama (b. 1957, Riyadh, Saud.Ar.) Leader of a broad- based Islamic extremist movement implicated in numerous acts of ter¬ rorism against the U.S. and other Western countries. The son of a wealthy Saudi family, he joined the Muslim resistance in Afghanistan after the 1979 Soviet invasion of that country. Following his homecoming, he became enraged at the presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia during the Persian Gulf War (1990-91) and, through a network of like-minded Islamic militants known as al-Qaeda, launched a series of terrorist attacks. These acts included the bombings of the World Trade Center in New York City in 1993, the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998, and the U.S. warship Cole in Aden, Yemen, in 2000. A self-styled Islamic scholar, bin Laden issued several legal opinions calling on Muslims to take up jihad (holy war) against the U.S., and in 2001 a group of militants under his direction launched the September 11 attacks, which led to the deaths of some 3,000 people. The U.S. thereafter demanded bin Laden’s extra¬ dition from Afghanistan, where he was sheltered by that country’s Tali¬ ban militia, and launched attacks on Taliban and al-Qaeda forces when that ultimatum was not met. With the collapse of the Taliban, bin Laden and his associates went into hiding.

binary code Code used in digital computers, based on a binary number system in which there are only two possible states, off and on, usually symbolized by 0 and 1. Whereas in a decimal system, which employs 10 digits, each digit position represents a power of 10 (100, 1,000, etc.), in a binary system each digit position represents a power of 2 (4, 8, 16, etc.). A binary code signal is a series of electrical pulses that represent num¬ bers, characters, and operations to be performed. A device called a clock sends out regular pulses, and components such as transistors switch on (1) or off (0) to pass or block the pulses. In binary code, each decimal number (0-9) is represented by a set of four binary digits, or bits. The four fundamental arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) can all be reduced to combinations of fundamental Bool¬ ean algebraic operations (see Boolean algebra) on binary numbers.

binary star Pair of stars in orbit around a common centre of gravity. Their relative sizes and brightnesses and the distance between them vary widely. Perhaps half of all stars in the Milky Way Galaxy are binaries or members of more complex multiple systems. Some binaries form a class of variable stars (see eclipsing variable star). Stars can be identified as bina¬ ries in various ways—visually by telescope, through spectroscopic obser¬ vation, by changes in apparent brightness (when the dimmer star eclipses its companion), or by changes in the proper motion of the visible member (owing to the gravitational pull of the invisible companion).

binding energy Energy required to separate a particle from a system of particles or to disperse all the particles of a system. Nuclear binding energy is the energy required to separate an atomic nucleus into its con¬ stituent protons and neutrons. It is also the energy that would be released by combining individual protons and neutrons into a single nucleus. Elec¬ tron binding energy, or ionization potential, is the energy required to remove an electron from an atom, molecule, or ion, and also the energy released when an electron joins an atom, molecule, or ion. The binding energy of a single proton or neutron in a nucleus is about a million times greater than that of a single electron in an atom.

bindweed Any plant of the closely related genera Convolvulus and Calystegia , mostly twining, often weedy, and producing funnel-shaped flowers. Bellbine, or greater bindweed ( Calystegia sepium), native in Eur¬ asia and North America, is a twining perennial that grows from creeping, underground stems and is common in hedges and woods and along road¬ sides. Sea bindweed (C. soldanella ) creeps along European seaside sand and gravel. Several Convolvulus species are widespread or conspicuous. The weedy perennial field bindweed (C. arvensis), European but widely naturalized in North America, twines around crop plants and along road¬ sides. Scammony, a purgative, is derived from the rhizomes of C. scam- monia, a trailing perennial native to western Asia. Rosewood oil comes from certain species of Convolvulus.

Binet \bi-'na\, Alfred (b. July 8, 1857, Nice, France—d. Oct. 18, 1911, Paris) French psychologist. His interest in Jean-Martin Charcot’s work on hypnosis prompted him to abandon a law career and study medicine at the Salpetriere Hospital in Paris (1878-91). He served as director of a research laboratory at the Sorbonne (1895-1911). A major figure in the development of experimental psychology in France, he founded L 'Annie Psychologique, the first French journal on psychology, in 1895. He devel¬ oped experimental techniques to measure reasoning ability; between 1905 and 1911 he and Theodore Simon developed influential scales for the measurement of intelligence of children. His works include Experimen¬ tal Study of Intelligence (1903) and A Method of Measuring the Devel¬ opment of the Intelligence of Young Children (1915).

Binford, Lewis R(oberts) (b. Nov. 21, 1930, Norfolk, Va„ U.S.) U.S. archaeologist. Binford taught principally at the University of New Mexico. In the mid 1960s he initiated what came to be known as the “New Archaeology,” which champions the use of quantitative methods and the practice of archaeology as a rigorous science. He applied the new meth¬ odology in an influential study of Mousterian artifacts and later extended it to a study of the hunting activities of a living people, the Nunamiut, trying to draw analogies to prehistoric contexts.

Bing, Sir Rudolf (b. Jan. 9, 1902, Vienna, Austria-Hungary—d. Sept. 2, 1997, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Austrian-born British opera impresario. After holding positions in German opera houses, he assumed the position of general manager at the Glyndebourne Opera in England (1935—49). In 1946 he helped found the Edinburgh Festival. From 1950 until 1972 he served as general manager of the Metropolitan Opera, where, wielding autocratic power, he raised the institution’s performance standards, extended its season, encouraged innovations in design and production, ended the exclusion of black singers, and oversaw the company’s move to Lincoln Center in 1966.

Bingham, George Caleb (b. March 20, 1811, Augusta county, Va., U.S.—d. July 7, 1879, Kansas City, Mo.) U.S. painter and frontier poli¬ tician. He studied briefly at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts,

Fur Traders Descending the Missouri, oil on canvas by George Caleb Bingham, 1845; in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.

COURTESY OF THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK, MORRIS K. JESUP FUND, 1933

220 I bingo ► biological rhythm

but he was largely self-taught. He entered politics in Missouri and worked as an itinerant portrait painter before turning to the lively routines of fron¬ tier life for inspiration. Bingham is known for his incisive characteriza¬ tions, clear, golden light, and talent for organizing large, dense compositions. His best-known works include Fur Traders Descending the Missouri (1845) and Jolly Flatboatmen (1846).

bingo Game of chance played with cards having a grid of numbered squares corresponding to numbered balls drawn at random. When a num¬ ber on the card is drawn, the players cover that number (should they have it); the game is won by covering a certain number of squares in a row (ver¬ tically, horizontally, or diagonally). Cards are purchased and proceeds are placed into a common “pot”; winning cards are awarded a portion of the pot. Wildly popular in the mid 20th century, bingo has in recent decades suffered a decline in America but has increased in popularity in other parts of the world. The earliest name for bingo—lotto—was recorded in Britain in 1776; the game is sometimes called keno in the U.S.

Binh Dinh Vuong See Le Loi

binoculars Optical instrument for providing a magnified view of dis¬ tant objects, consisting of two similar telescopes, one for each eye, mounted on a single frame. In most binoculars, each telescope has two prisms, which reinvert the inverted image provided by the eyepiece of each telescope. Light rays travel along a folded path inside the telescopes, so the instrument has a shorter overall length. The prisms also provide bet¬ ter depth perception at greater distances, by allowing the two objectives (object lenses) to be set farther apart than the eyepieces. Binocular eye¬ pieces are often fitted to microscopes or other optical instruments.

binomial nomenclature System of naming organisms in which each organism is indicated by two words, the genus (capitalized) and species (lowercase) names, both written in italics. For example, the tea rose is Rosa odorata ; the common horse is Equus caballus. The system was developed by Carolus Linnaeus in the mid 18th century. The number of binomial names proliferated as new species were established and more categories were formed, and by the late 19th century the nomenclature of many groups of organisms was confused. International committees in the fields of zoology, botany, bacteriology, and virology have since estab¬ lished rules to clarify the situation. See also taxonomy.

binomial theorem In algebra, a formula for expansion of the bino¬ mial (x + y ) raised to any positive integer power. A simple case is the expansion of ( x + y) 2 , which is x 2 + 2xy + y 2 . In general, the expression (x + y) n expands to the sum of {n + l)terms in which the power of x decreases from n to 0 while the power of y increases from 0 to n in suc¬ cessive terms. The terms can be represented in factorial notation by the expression [n\/((n - r)!r!)]x” - r y r in which r takes on integer values from 0 to n.

Bio-Bio \,be-6-'be-o\ River River, south-central Chile. Rising in the Andes Mountains, it flows northwestward 240 mi (380 km) to enter the Pacific Ocean near Concepcion. Though it is one of Chile’s longest riv¬ ers, it is shallow and navigable only by flat-bottomed boats.

biochemistry Field of science concerned with chemical substances and processes that occur in plants, animals, and microorganisms. It involves the quantitative determination and structural analysis of the organic com¬ pounds that make up cells (proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids) and of those that play key roles in chemical reactions vital to life (e.g., nucleic acids, vitamins, and hormones). Biochemists study cells’ many complex and inter¬ related chemical changes. Examples include the chemical reactions by which proteins and all their precursors are synthesized, food is converted to energy (see metabolism), hereditary characteristics are transmitted (see heredity), energy is stored and released, and all biological chemical reac¬ tions are catalyzed (see catalysis, enzyme). Biochemistry straddles the bio¬ logical and physical sciences and uses many techniques common in medicine and physiology as well as those of organic, analytical, and physi¬ cal chemistry.

biochip Small-scale device, analogous to an integrated circuit, con¬ structed of or used to analyze organic molecules associated with living organisms. One type of theoretical biochip is a small device constructed of large organic molecules, such as proteins, and capable of performing the functions (data storage, processing) of an electronic computer. The other type of biochip is a small device capable of performing rapid, small-scale biochemical reactions for the purpose of identifying gene sequences, envi¬ ronmental pollutants, airborne toxins, or other biochemical constituents.

biodegradability Capacity of a material to decompose by biological action. The term usually refers to the environmental breakdown of waste by microorganisms. Generally, plant and animal products are biodegrad¬ able, whereas mineral substances (e.g., metals, glass, plastics) are not. Local conditions, especially the presence or absence of oxygen, affect biodegradability. Disposal of nonbiodegradable waste is a primary source of pollution. Surgical materials made to be absorbed by the body are also called biodegradable.

biodiversity Quantity of plant and animal species found in a given environment. Sometimes habitat diversity (the variety of places where organisms live) and genetic diversity (the variety of traits expressed within a species) are also considered types of biodiversity. The estimated 3-30 million species on Earth are divided unequally among the world’s habi¬ tats, with 50-90% of the world’s species living in tropical regions. The more diverse a habitat, the better chance it has of surviving a change or threat to it, because it is more likely to be able to make a balancing adjustment. Habitats with little biodiversity (e.g., Arctic tundra) are more vulnerable to change. The 1992 Earth Summit resulted in a treaty for the preservation of biodiversity.

bioengineering Application of engineering principles and equipment to biology and medicine. It includes the development and fabrication of life-support systems for underwater and space exploration, devices for medical treatment (see dialysis, prosthesis), and instruments for monitoring biological processes. Development has been particularly rapid in the area of artificial organs, which culminated in the implantation of an artificial heart into a human being in 1982. Bioengineers also develop equipment that enables humans to maintain body functions in hostile environments, such as the space suits worn by astronauts during extravehicular maneu¬ vers.

biofeedback Information supplied instantaneously about an individu¬ al’s own physiological processes. Data concerning cardiovascular activ¬ ity (blood pressure and heart rate), temperature, brain waves, or muscle tension is monitored electronically and returned or “fed back” to the indi¬ vidual through a gauge on a meter, a light, or a sound. The goal is for the patient to use that biological data to learn to voluntarily control the body’s reactions to stressful external events. A type of behaviour therapy, biofeed¬ back training is sometimes used in combination with psychotherapy to help patients understand and change their habitual reactions to stress. Com¬ plaints treated through biofeedback include migraine headaches, gas¬ trointestinal problems, high blood pressure, and epileptic seizures.

biography Form of nonfictional literature whose subject is the life of an individual. The earliest biographical writings probably were funeral speeches and inscriptions. The origins of modern biography lie with Plu¬ tarch’s moralizing lives of prominent Greeks and Romans and Suetonius’s gossipy lives of the Caesars. Few biographies of common individuals were written until the 16th century. The major developments of English biography came in the 18th century, with such works as James Boswell’s Life of Johnson. In modern times impatience with Victorian reticence and the development of psychoanalysis have sometimes led to a more pen¬ etrating and comprehensive understanding of biographical subjects. See also AUTOBIOGRAPHY.

Bioko \be-'o-ko\ formerly Fernando Po \fer-'nan-do-'po\ Island (pop., 1987 est.: 67,920), Bight of Biafra, West Africa. It lies 100 mi (160 km) northwest of continental Equatorial Guinea, of which it is a part. Bioko became the official name in 1979. Volcanic in origin, with an area of 779 sq mi (2,018 sq km), it rises sharply from the sea; its highest point is Santa Isabel Peak, at 9,869 ft (3,008 m). Malabo, the country’s capital, is located on Bioko. The island was visited by the Portuguese explorer Fernao Po, probably in 1472. Though the island was claimed by Spain after 1778, the first attempt at firm Spanish control came only in 1858. The original inhabitants, the Bubi, are descendants of Bantu-speaking migrants from the mainland. Many Fang have flocked to the island from the continent.

biological rhythm Periodic biological fluctuation in an organism cor¬ responding to and in response to periodic environmental change, such as day and night or high and low tide. The internal mechanism that main¬ tains this rhythm even without the apparent environmental stimulus is a “biological clock.” When the rhythm is interrupted, the clock’s adjust¬ ment is delayed, accounting for such phenomena as jet lag when travel¬ ing across time zones. Rhythms may have 24-hour (circadian rhythm), monthly, or annual cycles. See also photoperiodism.

biological warfare ► biotite I 221

biological warfare or germ warfare Military use of disease- producing or poisonous agents, and the means for defending against such agents. Biological warfare agents include many bacteria, such as those which cause anthrax, brucellosis, and typhus; viruses that cause diseases such as equine encephalitis; fungi such as rice blast, cereal rust, wheat smut, and potato blight; and toxins such as botulinum and ricin that are extracted from living organisms. Biological warfare dates from ancient times when warring groups would try to poison enemy soldiers with rotting or dis¬ eased corpses, infect cattle and horses, or spread contagion through civil¬ ian populations. Following the horrors of World War I, a 1925 Geneva Protocol prohibited the use of biological agents in warfare; however, this did not prevent Japan from using them in China during World War II. During the Cold War the Soviet Union as well as the U.S. and its allies built huge stockpiles of biological agents. Both sides signed the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention, which prohibits the production, stock¬ piling, or development of biological weapons and requires the destruction of existing stockpiles, but the Soviets conducted a clandestine program until the 1990s. Biological weapons programs can be concealed easily, and the 1972 convention contains no provisions for inspection and report¬ ing. As a result, many states have been suspected of developing biologi¬ cal warfare agents, and some modern armed forces have prepared defensive measures. These include battlefield sensors, protective garments and masks, sterilizing agents, and vaccines.

biology Study of living things and their vital processes. An extremely broad subject, biology is divided into branches. The current approach is based on the levels of biological organization involved (e.g., molecules, cells, individuals, populations) and on the specific topic under investiga¬ tion (e.g., structure and function, growth and development). According to this scheme, biology’s main subdivisions include morphology, physiology, taxonomy, embryology, genetics, and ecology, each of which can be further subdivided. Alternatively, biology can be divided into fields especially concerned with one type of living thing; for example, botany (plants), zoology (animals), ornithology (birds), entomology (insects), mycology (fungi), microbiology (microorganisms), and bacteriology (bacteria). See also biochemistry; molecular biology.

biology, philosophy of Philosophical investigation of the concepts, problems, and methods of the biological sciences. Many of the topics considered in contemporary philosophy of biology have arisen from reflection on aspects of the theory of evolution. They include the question of whether evolution is ultimately falsifiable, a conventional requirement of all scientific theories; whether the thesis of natural selection has empiri¬ cal content or is merely a tautology; whether selection operates at the level of the individual, the species, or the gene; and whether selection is guided by certain constraints controlling development at the molecular level. Other more general issues concern the possible reduction of biological theories to theories of the physical sciences, the role of teleological lan¬ guage in biology (see teleology), and the nature of species as a biological category. See also creationism; sociobiology.

bioluminescence \ l bI-o- l lii-m3- , ne-s 3 ns\ Emission of light by an organism or biochemical system (e.g., the glow of bacteria on decaying meat or fish, the phosphorescence of protozoans in tropical seas, the flickering signals of fireflies). It occurs in a wide range of protists and animals, including bacteria and fungi, insects, marine invertebrates, and fish. It is not known to exist naturally in true plants or in amphibians, reptiles, birds, or mammals. It results from a chemical reaction that pro¬ duces radiant energy very efficiently, giving off very little heat. The essen¬ tial light-emitting components are usually the organic molecule luciferin and the enzyme luciferase, which are specific for different organisms. In higher organisms, light production is used to frighten predators and to help members of a species recognize each other. Its functional role in lower organisms such as bacteria, dinoflagellates, and fungi is uncertain. Luminous species are widely scattered taxonomically, with no clear-cut pattern, though most are marine.

biomass Weight or total quantity of living organisms of one animal or plant species (species biomass) or of all the species in the community (community biomass), commonly referred to as a unit area or volume of the habitat. The biomass in an area at a given moment is the standing crop.

biome Vbi-.omV Largest geographic biotic unit, a major community of plants and animals with similar requirements of environmental conditions. It includes various communities and developmental stages of communi¬

ties and is named for the dominant type of vegetation, such as grassland or coniferous forest. Several similar biomes constitute a biome type; for example, the temperate deciduous forest biome type includes the decidu¬ ous forest biomes of Asia, Europe, and North America. The standard European term for biome is “major life zone.”

Biondi \be-'an-de\, Matt (b. Oct. 15, 1965, Palo Alto, Calif., U.S.) U.S. swimmer. Biondi, 6 ft 7 in. (2 m) tall, won 11 medals, including eight gold medals, in three consecutive Olympic Games (1984, 1988, and 1992). Along with Mark Spitz, he is the most successful U.S. swimmer in Olym¬ pic history.

biophysics Discipline concerned with applications of the principles and methods of the physical sciences to biological problems. Biophysics deals with biological functions that depend on physical agents such as electric¬ ity or mechanical force, with the interaction of living organisms with physical agents such as light, sound, or ionizing radiation, and with inter¬ actions between living things and their environment as in locomotion, navigation, and communication. Its subjects include bone, nerve impulses, muscle, and vision as well as organic molecules, using such tools as paper chromatography and X-ray crystallography.

biopsy \'bl-,ap-se\ Procedure in which cells or tissues are removed from a patient and examined. The sample may be obtained from any organ, by any of several methods, including suction through a needle, swabbing, scraping, endoscopy, and cutting out the entire structure or part of it to be tested. Biopsy is a standard step in distinguishing malignant from benign tumours and can provide other information for diagnosis, particularly concerning such organs as the liver or pancreas. Slides of the tissue are prepared and examined by microscope.

BIOS VbI-,os\ in full Basic Input/Output System Computer pro¬ gram that is typically stored in EPROM and used by the CPU to perform start-up procedures when the computer is turned on. Its two major pro¬ cedures are determining what peripheral devices (keyboard, mouse, disk drives, printers, video cards, etc.) are available and loading the operating system (OS) into main memory. After start-up, the BIOS program man¬ ages data flow between the OS and the peripherals, so neither the OS nor the application programs need to know the details of the peripherals (such as hardware addresses).

biosolids Sewage sludge, the residues remaining from the treatment of sewage. For use as a fertilizer in agricultural applications, biosolids must first be stabilized through processing, such as digestion or the addition of lime, to reduce concentrations of heavy metals and harmful organisms (certain bacteria, viRUSes, and other pathogens). This processing also reduces the volume of material and stabilizes the organic matter in it, thus reducing the potential for odours. Use of biosolids in agriculture has become controversial, critics claiming that even treated sewage may har¬ bour harmful bacteria, viruses, and heavy metals.

biosphere Relatively thin life-supporting stratum of the earth’s surface, extending from a few miles into the atmosphere to the deep-sea vents of the oceans. The biosphere is a global ecosystem that can be broken down into regional or local ecosystems, or biomes. Organisms in the biosphere are classified into trophic levels (see food chain) and communities.

biotechnology Application to industry of advances made in the bio¬ logical sciences. The growth of the field is linked to the development in the 1970s of genetic engineering and to the 1980 U.S. Supreme Court deci¬ sion that “a live human-made microorganism is a patentable matter,” which resulted in the establishment of numerous commercial biotechnol¬ ogy firms that manufacture genetically engineered substances for a vari¬ ety of mostly medical, agricultural, and ecological uses.

biotin Vbl-o-tonX Organic compound, part of the vitamin B complex, essen¬ tial for growth and well-being in animals and some microorganisms. A carboxylic acid with two rings in its structure, it includes nitrogen and sul¬ fur atoms as well as carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. It functions in the formation and metabolism of fats and carbohydrates. It is widely distrib¬ uted in nature and is especially abundant in egg yolk, beef liver, and yeast. A biotin deficiency can be induced by consuming large amounts of raw egg white, which contains a protein (avidin) that combines with biotin and makes it unavailable. Biotin is needed to synthesize fatty acids and convert amino acids to glucose in the body.

biotite or black mica Silicate mineral in the common mica group. It is abundant in metamorphic rocks, in pegmatites, and in granites and other

222 I BioyCasares ► bird-watching

igneous rocks. Biotite is a layer sili¬ cate structure in which aluminum and silicon occur in infinitely extending Si-Al-0 sheets that alternate with potassium-rich and magnesium- (and iron-) containing sheets.

Bioy Casares Vbe-'oi-ka-'sa-rasV Adolfo (b. Sept. 15, 1914, Buenos Aires, Arg.—d. March 8, 1999, Bue¬ nos Aires) Argentine writer and edi¬ tor. He is known for his use of magic realism both in his own works and in collaborations with Jorge Luis Borges.

Among his novels are The Invention of Morel (1940), The Dream of Heroes (1954), and Diary of the War of the Pig (1969). In 1990 he received the Cervantes Prize, the highest honour in Hispanic letters.

bipolar disorder or manic-depressive psychosis Mental ill¬ ness characterized by the alternation of manic and depressive states. Depression is the more common symptom, and many patients experience only a brief period of overoptimism and mild euphoria during the manic phase. The condition, which seems to be inheritable, probably arises from malregulation of the amines norepinephrine, dopamine, and 5-hydroxytryptamine. It is most commonly treated with lithium carbonate.

Biqa' \be-'ka\, Al- or Bekaa \be-'ka\ Valley ancient Coele-Syria

Broad valley region of central Lebanon. Located between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges, it is about 75 mi (120 km) long and 10 mi (15 km) wide. Traversed by the upper Orontes and Litani rivers, the valley is an agricultural area. The ruins of the ancient city of Baalbeck are located there. The majority of the inhabitants are Shl'ite Muslims. The region was the scene of some factional fighting during the Lebanese Civil War (1975-90), and during that time Israel intermittently fought there against forces of the Palestine Liberation Organization and the Syrian army. Since the 1980s the region has been a stronghold of the Shl'ite militant organization Hezbollah.

birch Any of about 40 species of short-lived ornamental and timber trees and shrubs of the genus Betula, the largest genus of the family Betulaceae, which also contains alders, filberts, Carpinus (hornbeam), and the genera Ostrya and Ostryopsis. Birches are found throughout cool regions of the Northern Hemisphere; other members of the family Betulaceae are found in temperate and subarctic areas of the Northern Hemisphere, in tropical mountains, and in South America through the Andes as far south as Argen¬ tina. Leaves are simple, serrate, and alternate; male and female flowers (catkins) are borne on the same plant. The fruit is a small nut or short¬ winged samara (dry, winged fruit). Birches produce economically impor¬ tant timber. Oil obtained from birch twigs smells and tastes like wintergreen and is used in tanning Russian leather (see tanning).

bird Any of the warm-blooded, beaked vertebrates of the class Aves, including more than 9,600 living species. A covering of feathers distin-

co verts

hind toe (hallux)

forehead__

upper

mandible

chin lores throat breast — side abdomen flank tarsus

auricular (ear patch) nape side of neck

bend of wing-

back-

scapulars — wing coverts

secondaries

tail feathers (rectrices)

Principal features of a songbird.

guishes birds from all other animals. Birds have a four-chambered heart (like mammals), forelimbs modified into wings, and keen vision, and their eggs have calcium-rich eggshells. Their sense of smell is not highly devel¬ oped. Birds are found almost worldwide in diverse habitats on both land and water. Dietary preferences and nest structure vary widely. Almost all species incubate their eggs. Flying birds have evolved skeletons in which part of the bone is replaced by air spaces, an adaptation for reducing weight. The crop, an enlarged part of the esophagus used for temporary food storage, enables birds to feed while in flight. Humans use wild and domesticated birds and their eggs for food, hunt wild birds for sport, and use feathers for decoration and insulation. More than 1,000 extinct spe¬ cies of bird have been identified from fossil remains; the earliest fossil bird known is Archaeopteryx.

Bird, Larry (Joe) (b. Dec. 7, 1956, West Baden, Ind., U.S.) U.S. bas¬ ketball player. Bird spent most of his collegiate career at Indiana State University, before being drafted by the Boston Celtics of the National Basketball Association (NBA). Playing forward and standing 6 ft 9 in. (2.06 m) tall, he was a great shooter and ball handler and one of the most formidable playmakers in the game. He helped lead Boston to NBA cham¬ pionships in 1981, 1984, and 1986 and was named the NBA’s most valu¬ able player for three consecutive years (1984-86). He retired in 1992 and was head coach of the Indiana Pacers for the 1997-98 season.

bird flu or avian influenza viral respiratory disease, mainly of birds including poultry and waterbirds but also transmissible to humans. Symp¬ toms in humans include fever, sore throat, cough, headache, and muscle aches. Severe infections can result in life-threatening complications such as pneumonia and acute respiratory illness. The first known human cases occurred in Hong Kong in 1997, resulting in six deaths. Deadly outbreaks among poultry in several countries in eastern and central Asia between 2003 and mid-2005 were accompanied by more than 100 human cases, about half of them fatal. The causative agents are virus subtypes related to the human influenza type A viruses, the most virulent and contagious being the H5N1 subtype. A specific protective vaccine for this virus remains to be developed. Studies suggest that some antiviral drugs that work against human influenza may be effective in treating bird flu in humans.

bird-of-paradise Any of about 40 species (family Paradisaeidae) of small to medium-size forest birds that are rivaled by only a few pheas¬ ants and hummingbirds in colour and in the bizarre shape of the males’ plumage. Courting males perform mating rituals for hours on a perch or in a cleared space on the forest floor. Birds-of-paradise are found in the highlands of New Guinea and on nearby islands; some species are also found in Australia. Among the most notable species are the plumebirds, which are 12-18 in. (30^46 cm) long and have central tail feathers elon¬ gated as wires or twisted ribbons.

bird-of-paradise or crane flower Ornamental plant (Strelitzia reginae ) of the family Strelitziaceae. All five species of the genus Strel¬ itzia are native to southern Africa. The large, showy Strelitzia flower has two erect, pointed petals and five stamens. One main bract, shaped like a boat, is green with red borders. It holds many long-stemmed orange and bright blue flowers, each resembling the crest and beak of a crane, giv¬ ing the plant its common names.

bird of prey Any member of the order Falconiformes (eagles, falcons, hawks, and vultures) or Strigiformes (owls). Falconiforms are also called raptors. They are active during the day, whereas owls are nocturnal. Con¬ dors and eagles are among the largest and strongest of flying birds. All birds of prey have a hook-tipped beak and sharp curved claws called tal¬ ons. (Nonpredatory vultures have less-developed talons.) Despite the similarities between owls and raptors, many authorities believe they are not closely related but developed similar features because of their simi¬ lar predatory lives.

bird stone Abstract stone carving by the prehistoric cultures of North America. They resemble birds and are about 6 in. (15 cm) long. Many were carved from black, brown, or dark green slate and polished with sand or other abrasive materials. All feature a pair of conical holes run¬ ning diagonally through the base. They may have been used as weights or handles on a short rod (known as an atlatl) used to hurl spears or arrows.

bird-watching or birding Observation or identification of wild birds in their natural habitat. Basic equipment includes binoculars, a field guide to aid identification, and a notebook for recording time and place of sight-

bird's-foot trefoil ► Biscay I 223

ings. The lists of bird observations compiled by members of local bird¬ watching societies are often useful to scientists in determining dispersal, habitat, and migration patterns of the various species. Bird-watching is primarily a 20th-century phenomenon; before 1900 most students of birds had to shoot them in order to identify them. Its popularity grew through the publication of journals and books, in particular the field guides (begin¬ ning in 1934) of Roger Tory Peterson.

bird's-foot trefoil Perennial, spreading, herbaceous legume {Lotus cor- niculatus ) native to Europe and Asia but introduced to other regions. The stem grows to about 2 ft (60 cm) long. Its leaves consist of three oval leaflets, broadest near the tip. The yellow flowers (sometimes tinged with red) grow in clusters of 5 to 10. Often used as forage for cattle, it is occa¬ sionally a troublesome weed.

Birdseye, Clarence (b. Dec. 9, 1886, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Oct. 7, 1956, New York) U.S. businessman and inventor. He developed a highly efficient process for freezing foods in small packages suitable for retailing. He achieved rapid freezing by placing packaged food, includ¬ ing fish, fruits, and vegetables, between two refrigerated metal plates. Though his were not the first frozen foods, his process largely preserved the original taste of the food. In 1929 his company was bought by Pos- tum, Inc., which later became General Foods Corp. Birdseye served as a corporate executive until 1938.

birdsong Certain vocalizations of birds, characteristic of males during the breeding season, for the attraction of a mate and for territorial defense. Birdsong also reinforces pair bonds, and some species have a flight song. Birdsongs are usually more complex and longer than birdcalls, which are used for communication within a species. Birdsong may be hereditary or learned; a newly hatched male chaffinch, for example, can sing a “sub¬ song” but must learn to sing the true song by listening to and imitating adult males.

birefringence See double refraction

Biringuccio Nbe-req-'giit-choV Vannoccio (b. Oct. 20, 1480, Siena—d. August 1537, Rome) Italian metallurgist and armaments maker. He is chiefly known for the first clear, comprehensive work on metallurgy, De la pirotechnia (published posthumously in 1540). His book, which contrasts strikingly with the obscure alchemical writings of the time, is replete with lavish woodcuts illustrating equipment and processes and includes clear, practical instructions for mining, smelting, and metalwork¬ ing. It became a standard reference and remains a valuable resource on 15th- and 16th-century technology.

Birkenau See Auschwitz

Birkenhead, Frederick Edwin Smith, 1st earl of (b. July 12, 1872, Birkenhead, Cheshire, Eng.—d. Sept. 30, 1930, London) British politician. Elected to the House of Commons in 1906, he became noted as an orator and soon became a leader of the Conservative Party. As attor¬ ney general (1915-18), he successfully prosecuted Roger Casement. As lord chancellor (1919-22), he secured passage of the Law of Property Act (1922) and subsequent real-property statutes (1925) that replaced a con¬ voluted system of land law. He also helped negotiate the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921.

Birmingham Vbor-miq-.hanA City (pop., 2000: 249,459), north-central Alabama, U.S. It is Alabama’s largest city. Founded in 1871 by a land company backed by railroad officials, it was named for the English city. It developed as the South’s iron and steel centre. From nearby Port Bir¬ mingham a barge canal leads south to Mobile. Birmingham was the scene of civil rights drives by Martin Luther King, Jr., in the early 1960s, and in 1963 four black girls were killed there in a church bombing; this incident gave major impetus to the civil rights movement.

Birmingham Vbar-miq-amV City and metropolitan borough (pop., 2001: 977,091), central England. Birmingham lies 100 mi (160 km) north¬ west of London. Its first charter was granted in 1166. It was a small manufacturing town until the 18th century, when it became a centre of the Industrial Revolution, counting among its citizens James Watt, Joseph Priest¬ ley, and John Baskerville. It suffered heavy bombing during World War II but was subsequently rebuilt. It remains the chief centre of Britain’s light and medium industry, and it is also the cultural centre for a wide area. Birmingham is the site of two universities and of a grammar school founded by King Edward VI in 1552.

Birney, (Alfred) Earle (b. May 13, 1904, Calgary, Alta., Northwest Territories [Canada]—d. Sept. 3, 1995, Toronto, Ont.) Canadian poet and educator. Birney received a Ph.D. from the University of Toronto and brought out his first collection of poetry, David (1942, Governor Gener¬ al’s Award), during his time there. After serving in World War II, he pub¬ lished Now Is Time (1946, Governor General’s Award) and other collections and held a number of teaching and editorial positions. His love of language led him to experiment with sound poems and to explore con¬ crete poetry; he also wrote two novels, a drama in verse, and several radio plays.

Birney, James G(illespie) (b. Feb. 4, 1792, Danville, Ky., U.S.—d. Nov. 25, 1857, Eagleswood, N.J.) U.S. politician and antislavery leader. He practiced law in Danville, Ky., before moving to Alabama, where he was elected to the state legislature in 1819. He became active in the abo¬ lition movement and in 1837 was elected secretary of the American Anti- Slavery Society. After the group split, he helped lead the faction that became the Liberty Party; he was the party’s presidential candidate in 1840 and 1844.

birth See parturition

birth control Voluntary limiting of human reproduction, using such means as contraception, sexual abstinence, surgical sterilization, and induced abortion. The term was coined in 1914-15 by Margaret Sanger. Medically, birth control is often advised when childbirth might endanger the mother’s health or substantial risk exists of bearing a severely dis¬ abled child. Socially and economically, limitation of reproduction fre¬ quently reflects a desire to maintain or improve family living standards. Most religious leaders now generally agree that some form of fertility regulation is desirable, though the means are strongly debated. See also FAMILY PLANNING.

birth defect Genetic or trauma-induced abnormality present at birth. A more restrictive term than congenital disorder, it covers abnormalities that arise during the formation of an embryo’s organs and tissues and does not include those caused by diseases (e.g., syphilis) that damage structures after they are formed.

birthmark Unusual mark or blemish on the skin at birth. Most birth¬ marks are either hemangiomas or moles. They are usually harmless and many fade in childhood; those that do not can sometimes be removed by laser surgery or abrasion.

birthstone Gemstone associated with the month of one’s birth. Wear¬ ing one was popularly supposed to bring good luck or health. The ancient belief that supernatural powers could be attributed to gemstones is still held by some people today. The list of genuine stones (e.g., diamond, emerald, sapphire, ruby) was supplemented in the 20th century by a series of synthetic stones for use as less costly substitutes.

Birtwistle, Sir Harrison (Paul) (b. July 15, 1934, Accrington, Lan¬ cashire, Eng.) British composer. He began as a clarinetist, shifting to composition in his 20s. He cofounded the Pierrot Players with Peter Max¬ well Davies (1967) but felt limited by the group’s size. He concentrated on exploring large-scale time structures; his music’s form is controlled by complex cyclical principles that he declined to discuss. His works include the theatre pieces Punch and Judy (1966-67), The Mask of Orpheus (1973-86), and Gawain (1991), and the orchestral works The Triumph of Time (1972), Silbury Air (1977), and Secret Theatre (1984).

Blrunl \be-'rii-ne\, al- (b. September 973, Khwarezm, Khorasan—d. Dec. 13, 1048, Ghazna, Ghaznavid Afg.) Persian scientist and scholar. Sometime after 1017, he went to India, a land of which he wrote an ency¬ clopaedic account. Later he settled at Ghazna in Afghanistan, where he enjoyed the support of the renowned MahmGd of Ghazna and other rulers of the Ghaznavid dynasty. Conversant with many languages, he wrote in Arabic, producing works on mathematics, astronomy, astrology, geogra¬ phy, physics, medicine, history, and chronology. His scientific achieve¬ ments included accurate calculations of latitude and longitude and explanations of natural springs by the laws of hydrostatics. His best- known works are A History of India and Chronology of Ancient Nations.

Biscay, Bay of or Gulf of Gascony French Golfe de Gascogne

\,g6lf-d9-ga-'sk6n y \ Spanish Golfo de Vizcaya Vgol-fo-.tha-beth- 'ka-ya\ Inlet of the Atlantic Ocean, bounded by southwestern France and northwestern Spain. It has an area of about 86,000 sq mi (223,000 sq km) and a maximum depth of 15,525 ft (4,735 m). It is known for its rough

224 I Biscayne Bay ► Bismarck Archipelago

seas. Rivers flowing into the bay include the Loire, Adour, and Garonne. Its ports include (in France) Brest, Nantes, and Bordeaux, and (in Spain) Bilbao, Santander, and Aviles; none can accommodate large vessels. French coastal resorts include La Baule, Biarritz, and Saint-Jean-de-Luz.

Biscayne Bay Inlet of the Atlantic Ocean, southeastern U.S. Located along southeastern Florida, it is about 40 mi (64 km) long and 2-10 mi (3-16 km) wide; it forms part of the Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway. It is bordered by Miami on the northwest and the Florida Keys on the east. The bay was named for the early explorer El Biscaino, of Viscaya (Biscaya) province, Spain. See also Biscayne National Park.

Biscayne National Park Preserve, southeastern Florida, U.S. Located 20 mi (32 km) south of Miami, with an area of 172,925 acres (70,035 hectares), it consists mostly of coral reef and water containing some 33 keys that form a north-to-south chain separating Biscayne Bay from the Atlantic Ocean. It is noted for a wide variety of sea life. Autho¬ rized as Biscayne National Monument in 1968, it became a national park in 1980.

Bischof Vbi-shoA, Werner (b. April 26, 1916, Zurich, Switz.—found dead May 16, 1954, Peruvian Andes) Swiss photojoumalist. He studied at the Zurich Arts and Crafts School (1932-36). In 1942 he began work¬ ing for the picture magazine Du, for which he photographed war-tom France, Germany, and The Netherlands. In 1949 he joined the coopera¬ tive photographers’ agency Magnum Photos. He died in a car accident while working in Peru. Collections of his photographs were published in the books Japan (1954), Incas to Indians (1956), and The World of Werner Bischof { 1959).

Bishkek \bish-'kek\ or Pishpek \pish-'pek\ formerly (1926-91) Frunze \'friin-zi\ City (pop., 1999 est.: 619,000), capital of Kyrgyzstan. It lies on the Chu River near the Kyrgyz Mountains on the Kazakhstan border. In 1825 the Uzbek khanate of Kokand (see Qo'qon) established a fortress on the site, which in 1862 was captured by the Russians. The Russians mistakenly called it Pishpek. When the Kirgiz (Kyrgyz) Autono¬ mous Soviet Socialist Republic was set up in 1926, the city became its capital and was renamed Frunze for a Red Army leader who was born there. It developed as an industrial city, especially in World War II (1939— 45) when heavy industries from western Russia were moved there.

bishop In some Christian churches, the chief pastor and overseer of a diocese, an area containing several congregations. From the 4th century ad until the Reformation, bishops held broad secular and religious pow¬ ers, including the settling of disputes, ordination of clergy, and confirma¬ tion of church members. Some Christian churches (notably the Anglican, Roman Catholic, and Eastern Orthodox churches) continue the bishop’s office and the doctrine of Apostolic succession. Others, including some Lutheran and Methodist churches, retain bishops but not the principle of apostolic succession; still others have abolished the office altogether. Popes, cardinals, archbishops, patriarchs, and metropolitans are gradations of bishops. In Roman Catholicism, the pope selects the bishop; in Angli¬ canism, the dean and chapter of the cathedral of the diocese elect the bishop; in Methodism a synod chooses the bishop. See also episcopacy.

Bishop, Elizabeth (b. Feb. 8, 1911, Worcester, Mass., U.S.—d. Oct. 6, 1979, Boston, Mass.) U.S. poet. Bishop was reared by relatives in Nova Scotia, Can., after her father died and her mother was institutionalized. In the 1950s and ’60s she lived principally in Brazil with the Brazilian woman she loved. Her first book of poems (1946) contrasts her New England origins and her love of hot climates; reprinted with additions as North & South: A Cold Spring (1955), it received the Pulitzer Prize. Her works are celebrated for their formal brilliance and their close observa¬ tions of everyday reality. They have elicited much admiration from other poets. Posthumous publications include The Collected Prose (1984) and One Art (1994), a collection of her letters.

Bishop, J(ohn) Michael (b. Feb. 22, 1936, York, Pa., U.S.) U.S. virologist. He graduated from Harvard Medical School. In 1970 he and Harold Varmus tested the theory that healthy body cells contain oncogenes (cancer-causing genes). Further research showed that such genes can cause cancer even without viral involvement. By 1989, the year Bishop and Varmus shared a Nobel Prize for their research, scientists had iden¬ tified more than 40 oncogenes in animals.

Bishop, William Avery known as Billy Bishop (b. Feb. 8, 1894, Owen Sound, Ont., Can.—d. Sept. 11, 1956, West Palm Beach, Fla., U.S.) Canadian World War I fighter ace. Educated at the Royal Military Col¬

lege, he transferred from the cavalry to the Royal Flying Corps in 1915. While serving in France in 1917, he shot down 72 enemy aircraft, includ¬ ing 25 in one 10-day period. He was appointed to the staff of the British Air Ministry and helped form the Royal Canadian Air Force as a sepa¬ rate brigade. After the war he became a businessman and writer.

Bishop's University Privately endowed university in Lennoxville, Quebec, Canada, founded in 1843. It offers undergraduate and graduate programs in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, business, and education.

BIsitun N.be-si-'tunX ancient Behestun Town and historic site, western Iran. On a limestone cliff above the present village is a bas-relief and series of inscriptions purportedly commissioned by the Achaemenian king Darius the Great (r. 522-486 bc); inscriptions in Old Persian, Babylonian, and Elamite record how Darius killed a usurper, defeated rebel forces, and assumed the throne. The inscriptions were first copied (1837-47) by Sir Henry Rawlinson (1810-95), an officer of the East India Company The deciphering of the Old Persian was a major advance in the study of cunei¬ form WRITING.

bisj Vbis-e\ pole Carved wooden pole used in the religious rites of the South Pacific islands. The poles, 12-26 ft (4-8 m) tall, resemble an upended canoe with an exaggerated prow; they consist of carved figures placed one atop the other (thought to represent deceased ancestors) and terminate in a flat projection of ornate, openwork ornament. They are intended to harbour the souls of the dead, keeping them away from the village, and are also used to transmit magical powers. See also totem pole.

Bismarck Vbiz-.markV City (pop., 2000: 55,532), capital of North Dakota, U.S. It was settled as a Missouri River port in the 1830s. In 1872 a military post was established to protect railway workers, and in 1873 it was named for Otto von Bismarck in the hope of attracting German invest¬ ment. With the discovery of gold in the nearby Black Hills, it became a prospecting centre. In 1883 it was made the capital of Dakota Territory; when the territory was divided into two states in 1889, Bismarck became the capital of the northern state. Today it is the region’s business, cultural, and financial centre.

Bismarck German battleship of World War II. The formidable 52,600- ton (47,700-metric-ton) vessel was launched in 1939. British reconnais¬ sance aircraft sighted it off Bergen, Norway, in May 1941, and almost the entire British home fleet was sent to intercept it. Two cruisers engaged it near Iceland, and the Bismarck destroyed the Hood before escaping to the open sea. Sighted 30 hours later, it was torpedoed and then bombarded by battleships throughout the night. The King George V and the Rodney crippled it in an hour-long attack, and it was finally sunk by torpedoes from the cruiser Dorsetshire.

Bismarck, Otto (Eduard Leopold), prince von (b. April 1,1815, Schonhausen, Altmark, Prussia—d. July 30, 1898, Friedrichsruh, near Hamburg) Prussian statesman who founded the German Empire in 1871 and served as its chancellor for 19 years. Born into the Prussian landown¬ ing elite, Bismarck studied law and was elected to the Prussian Diet in 1849. In 1851 he was appointed Prussian representative to the federal Diet in Frankfurt. After serving as ambassador to Russia (1859-62) and France (1862), he became prime minister and foreign minister of Prussia (1862— 71). When he took office, Prussia was widely considered the weakest of the five European powers, but under his leadership Prussia won a war against Denmark in 1864 (see Schleswig-Holstein Question), the Seven Weeks' War (1866), and the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71). Through these wars he achieved his goal of political unification of a Prussian- dominated German Empire. Once the empire was established, he became its chancellor. The “Iron Chancellor” skillfully preserved the peace in Europe through alliances against France (see Three Emperors' League; Rein¬ surance Treaty; Triple Alliance). Domestically, he introduced administrative and economic reforms but sought to preserve the status quo, opposing the Social Democratic Party and the Catholic church (see Kulturkampf). When Bismarck left office in 1890, the map of Europe had been changed immea¬ surably. However, the German Empire, his greatest achievement, survived him by only 20 years because he had failed to create an internally uni¬ fied people.

Bismarck Archipelago Island group, western Pacific Ocean. Lying northwest of New Guinea, it forms part of Papua New Guinea. It has a total area of 19,173 sq mi (49,658 sq km); its largest components include New Britain, New Ireland, the Admiralty Islands, and New Hanover (Lavongai).

bismuth ► bivalve I 225

Annexed by Germany in 1884, it was named for Otto von Bismarck. Occu¬ pied by Australia in 1914, it was made a mandated territory of Australia in 1920. The group became part of the UN Trust Territory of New Guinea after World War 11 and part of Papua New Guinea when it attained inde¬ pendence in 1975.

bismuth \'biz-math \ Semimetallic to metallic chemical element, chemi¬ cal symbol Bi, atomic number 83. Hard, brittle, and lustrous, it has a dis¬ tinctive gray-white colour with a reddish tinge. It is often found free in nature and also occurs in compounds and in mixed ores. Bismuth alloys are used (because of their low melting points) in making metal castings, special solders, automatic sprinkler heads, fuses, and many fire-detection devices. Bismuth phosphomolybdate is a catalyst in the production of acrylonitrile, an important raw material for fibres and plastics. Salts of bismuth are used in making soothing agents for digestive disorders (espe¬ cially bismuth subsalicylate), in treating skin infections and injuries, and in lipstick, nail polish, and eye shadow, to which they impart a pearles- cent quality.

bison Vbl-s 3 n, 'bl-z 3 n\ Either species (genus Bison ) of oxlike bovid with a convex forehead and a pronounced shoulder hump. Its dark brown, coarse hair is especially long on the head, which is held low, and on the neck and shoulders. Both sexes bear heavy, curved horns. A mature bull stands about 6.5 ft (2 m) at the shoul¬ der and weighs more than 1,980 lb (900 kg). Bison live in herds. The American bison ( B. bison), com¬ monly called buffalo, was abundant over most of North America when Europeans arrived. Uncontrolled hunting drove it nearly to extinction by 1900, but it has since recovered. The European bison ( B. bonasus ) is similar and survives only in a few managed herds.

Bissau \bis-'au\ Seaport (pop., 1999 est.: 274,000), capital of Guinea- Bissau. Lying on an estuary of the Geba River where it flows into the Atlantic Ocean, the port originated in 1687 as a Portuguese fortified post. In 1941 it replaced Bolama as the country’s capital and has since devel¬ oped as an excellent roadstead for large vessels.

bit in full binary digit In communication and information theory, a unit of information equivalent to the result of a choice between only two possible alternatives, such as 1 and 0 in the binary code generally used in digital computers. It is also applied to a unit of memory corresponding to the ability to store the result of a choice between two alternatives. A byte consists of a string of eight consecutive bits and makes up the basic infor¬ mation processing unit of a computer. Because a byte includes only an amount of information equivalent to one letter or one symbol (e.g., a comma), the processing and storage capacities of computer hardware are usually given in kilobytes (1,024 bytes), megabytes (1,048,576 bytes), and even gigabytes (about 1 billion bytes) and terabytes (1 trillion bytes).

bit-map Method by which a display space (such as a graphics image file) is defined, including the colour of each of its pixels (or bits). In effect, a bit-map is an array of binary data representing the values of pixels in an image or display. A GIF is an example of a graphics image file that has a bit-map. When the GIF is displayed on a computer monitor, the com¬ puter reads the bit-map to determine which colours to use to “paint” the screen. In a bit-mapped font, each character is defined as a pattern of dots in a bit-map.

Bithynia \ba-'thin-e-a\ Ancient country, northwestern Anatolia. Bounded by the Sea of Marmara, the Bosporus, and the Black Sea, it was settled by Thracians in the late 2nd millennium bc. They never submitted to Alexander the Great, and by the 3rd century bc a powerful Hellenistic kingship had been established in the area. There followed a century of inept leadership and rapid decline. Bithynia’s last king, Nicomedes IV, bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans in 74 bc.

bittern Any of 12 species of solitary marsh birds (family Ardeidae), related to herons but having a shorter neck and a stouter body. Most bit¬ terns bear a camouflage pattern (streaks of variegated brown and buff) that enables them to hide by standing upright with bill pointed upward, imitating the reeds and grasses of their habitat. They feed on fish, frogs,

(genus Bison ) of oxlike bovid with

American bison, or plains buffalo (Bison bison).

ALAN G. NELSON/ROOT RESOURCES

crayfish, and other small swamp and marsh animals, which they spear with their sharp-pointed bills. Bitterns are found almost worldwide. The largest species grow to 30 in. (75 cm), the smallest to about 12-16 in. (30^10 cm).

Bitterroot Range Segment of the northern Rocky Mountains, U.S. Extending north-south 300 mi (480 km) along the Idaho-Montana border, its peaks average about 9,000 ft (2,700 m); Idaho’s Scott Peak is the high¬ est, at 11,393 ft (3,473 m). Owing to the mountains’ inaccessibility from the east, the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1805) had to travel north more than 100 mi (160 km) to find a route through the range. Bitterroot National Forest extends across the centre of the range.

bittersweet Any of several vines with colourful fruit. The genus Celas- trus (family Celastraceae) includes American bittersweet, or staff vine (C. scandens ), and Oriental bittersweet (C. orbiculatus), woody vines grown as ornamentals. Oriental bittersweet is a more vigorous climber than the American species. Both types climb by twining around supports. Another bittersweet, Solanum dulcamara, belongs to the nightshade family.

bitumen \ba-'tyu-man\ Mixture of tarlike hydrocarbons derived from petroleum. Black or brown, it varies from viscous to solid; the solid form is usually called asphalt. Bitumen occurs in nearly every part of the world and in nearly the whole range of geologic strata. The term may also refer to synthetic hydrocarbon compounds.

bituminous Vba-'tyii-ma-nasN coal or soft coal Most abundant form of coal. It is dark brown to black and has a relatively high heat value. Widely abundant and with the broadest range of commercial uses, it has long been used for steam generation in electric power plants and indus¬ trial boiler plants. Certain varieties are also used to make coke, a hard substance of almost pure carbon that is important for smelting iron ore. One major problem is that burning large quantities of bituminous coal that has a medium to high sulfur content contributes to air pollution and produces acid rain. See also subbituminous coal.

bituminous sand See tar sand

bivalve Any member of the mollusk class Bivalvia, or Pelecypoda, char¬ acterized by having a two-halved (valved) shell. Clams, cockles, mussels, oysters, scallops, and shipworms are bivalves. Most are completely enclosed by the shell, the two valves of which are joined by an elastic ligament,

posterior

adductor

muscle

anterior adductor digestive gland muscle

foot

ganglion

intestine

mantle

excurrent

siphon

incurrent

siphon

Internal structure of a clam. A ligament hinges the shell's two halves (valves) open, and the beating motion of cilia on the gills causes water to enter through the incur¬ rent siphon. As water moves over the gills, oxygen diffuses into the blood, and food particles become trapped in mucus and are moved to the mouth. A pair of adductor muscles can hold the shell tightly closed. A fold of tissue (mantle) encloses the body's organs and releases the material that forms the shell. A large muscular foot allows the clam to creep and burrow. The circulatory system consists of a heart and blood vessels, and kidneys remove wastes from the blood. Deoxygenated blood and wastes are removed in the water that exits through the excurrent siphon.

226 I Biwa ► black-figure pottery

and by two sheets of tissue called the mantle. Bivalves have no head. They feed on phytoplankton by pumping water across the gills and trapping food particles that are then moved to the mouth. Bivalves are found in most parts of the ocean from the intertidal zone to abyssal depths.

Biwa \'be-wa\, Lake Lake, west-central Honshu, Japan. It is Japan’s largest lake, measuring 40 mi (64 km) long and up to 12 mi (19 km) wide, with an area of 259 sq mi (670 sq km). Its name refers to the musical instrument (see pipa) that the lake resembles in shape. Its sole outlet, the Yodo River, flows from its southern tip to Osaka Bay. Lake Biwa is noted for its pearl culture industry. Its great scenic beauty, long a subject of Japanese poetry, makes it one of Japan’s major tourist attractions.

Bizet \be-'za\, Georges orig. Alexandre-Cesar-Leopold Bizet

(b. Oct. 25, 1838, Paris, France—d. June 3, 1875, Bougival) French com¬ poser. Son of a music teacher, he gained admission to the Paris Conser¬ vatoire at age 9, and at age 17 he wrote the precocious Symphony in C Major (1855). Intent on success on the operatic stage, he produced The Pearl Fishers (1863), La Jolie Fille de Perth (1866), and Djamileh (1871). Disgusted with the frivolity of French light opera, he determined to reform the genre of opera comique. In 1875 his masterpiece, Carmen , reached the stage. Though its harsh realism repelled many, Carmen quickly won international enthusiasm and was recognized as the supreme example of opera comique. Bizet’s death soon after its premiere cut short a remark¬ able career.

Bjorling Vbyoer-liqV Jussi orig. Johan Jonaton Bjorling (b. Feb. 2, 1911, Stora Tuna, Swed.—d. Sept. 9, 1960, Siaro) Swedish tenor. He began to sing in public as a child and toured Europe and the U.S. with his family. Recruited by the Royal Swedish Opera in 1928, he was soon a star performer. He made his Metropolitan Opera debut in 1938 as Rodolfo in La Boheme. He remained in Sweden during World War II but returned to the Met for several seasons afterward. He became a favourite on stage and in recordings for the sheer beauty and musicality of his singing.

Bjernson Vbycern-sonX, Bjornstjerne (Martinius) (b. Dec. 8, 1832, Kvikne, Nor.—d. April 26, 1910, Paris, France) Norwegian writer, edi¬ tor, and theatre director. He worked to stimulate national pride by link¬ ing Norwegian history and legend to modern ideals. Together with Henrik Ibsen, Alexander Kielland, and Jonas Lie, he is known as one of “the four great ones” of 19th-century Norwegian literature. He won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1903. His poem “Yes, We Love This Land Forever” is the Norwegian national anthem.

Black, Hugo (La Fayette) (b. Feb. 27, 1886, Clay county, Ala., U.S.—d. Sept. 25, 1971, Bethesda, Md.) U.S. Supreme Court justice (1937-71). After practicing law in Alabama from 1906, he served in the U.S. Senate (1927-37), where he was a strong supporter of the New Deal. Pres. Franklin Roosevelt appointed him to the Supreme Court of the United States, where he helped reverse earlier court decisions against New Deal legislation. In the 1960s he was prominent in the liberal majority that struck down mandatory school prayer and guaranteed the availability of legal counsel to suspected criminals. He became best known for his abso¬ lutist belief in the Bill of Rights as a guarantee of civil liberties. His last major opinion supported the right of the New York Times to publish the Pentagon Papers (1971).

Black, Sir James (Whyte) (b. June 14, 1924, Uddingston, Scot.) Scottish pharmacologist. Through studying interactions between receptors on cells and chemicals in the bloodstream that attach to them, Black developed the first of the beta-blocking drugs, to relieve angina pectoris. He used a similar approach to develop drugs for stomach and duodenal ulcers. He shared a 1988 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine with George H. Hitchings and Gertrude Elion.

Black Aesthetic movement or Black Arts movement Period of artistic and literary development among black Americans in the 1960s and early ’70s. Based on the cultural politics of black nationalism, the movement sought to create art forms capable of expressing the varieties of black experience in the U.S. Leading theorists included Amiri Baraka, Houston Baker (b. 1943), and Henry Louis Gates. Don L. Lee (b. 1942), known as Haki R. Madhubuti after 1973, was one of its most popular writers; other notable writers included Toni Morrison, Alice Walker, and Ntozake Shange (b. 1948). The movement also produced such autobio¬ graphical works as The Autobiography of Malcolm X (1965; with Alex Haley), Eldridge Cleaver’s Soul on Ice (1968), and Angela Davis: An Autobiography (1974).

Black and Tan Member of a British auxiliary force employed in Ire¬ land against the republicans (1920-21). When Irish nationalist agitation intensified after World War I, many Irish police resigned and were replaced by these temporary English recruits, who dressed in a mixed “black and tan” outfit because of a shortage of uniforms. In their efforts to thwart the terrorism of the Irish Republican Army, the Black and Tans themselves engaged in brutal reprisals.