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Muna Vmii-noN Island Island, east-central Indonesia. Located in the Flores Sea off the southeastern coast of Celebes (Sulawesi), it is 63 mi (101 km) long and 35 mi (56 km) wide and has an area of 1,124 sq mi (2,911 sq km). It has a hilly, forested surface, rising to 1,460 ft (445 m). The Muna, a Muslim people who speak an Austronesian language, prac¬ tice a simple agriculture, growing rice and tubers. The hoglike babirusa and the marsupial cuscus are found on the island. The main town and principal port is Raha, on the north¬ eastern coast.

Munazzamat al-Tahrlr al-Fil- astlniyyah See Palestine Liberation Organization

Munch Vmur)k\, Edvard (b. Dec.

12, 1863, Lpten, Norway—d. Jan.

23, 1944, Ekely) Norwegian painter and printmaker. His life and art were marked by the deaths of both par¬ ents, his brother, and his sister dur¬ ing his childhood, and the mental illness of another sister. He received little formal training, but the encour¬ agement of a circle of artists in Christiania (now Oslo) and exposure to Impressionism and Post-Impression¬ ism helped him develop a highly original style. It was principally through his work of the 1890s, a series of paintings on love and death in which he gave form to mysterious

Edvard Munch, self-portrait, litho¬ graph, 1895; in the Albertina, Vienna

COURTESY OF THE ALBERTINA, VIENNA

1310 I Munda ► muntjac

and dangerous psychic forces, that he made crucial contributions to mod¬ em art. The Scream (1893), his most famous work, is often seen as a sym¬ bol of modern humanity’s spiritual anguish. His etchings, lithographs, drypoints, and woodcuts closely resemble his paintings in style and sub¬ ject matter. After a nervous breakdown in 1908-09, therapy lent his work a more positive, extroverted tone, but his art never recovered its former intensity. His work influenced the proponents of German Expressionism.

Munda Ymsn-ddX, Battle of (45 bc) Conflict that ended the Roman civil war between the forces of Pompey the Great and Julius Caesar. The two forces met in Spain, where the late Pompey’s sons had seized Cor¬ doba in revolt. Caesar lured the Pompeians from their high ground to do battle; when the rebels maneuvered a contingent to meet a cavalry charge, it was mistaken for a retreat by their army, which broke and fled, and Caesar claimed victory.

Munda Vmun-doV languages Family of about 17 languages spoken in India, Bangladesh, and Nepal that together with Mon-Khmer comprises the Austroasiatic superfamily. Munda languages are spoken by more than seven million people, all members of tribal groups living mainly in hilly and forested regions. Most significant are Santali, with more than four million speakers concentrated in northern Orissa, southern and eastern Bihar, northwestern Bengal, and the Nepal-Assam border; Ho, with about 750,000 speakers mainly in Bihar and Orissa; Mundari, with about 850,000 speakers scattered over northeastern India; and Korku, the west¬ ernmost Munda language, spoken by about 320,000 in southern Madhya Pradesh and northern Maharashtra. Munda languages differ from all other Austroasiatic languages in complexity of morphology and in having basic subject-object-verb rather than subject-verb-object word order.

Mundell, Robert A(lexander) (b. Oct. 24, 1932, Kingston, Ont., Can.) Canadian-born economist who received the Nobel Prize in Eco¬ nomic Sciences in 1999 for his work on monetary dynamics and optimum currency areas. Mundell earned degrees from the University of British Columbia (B.A., 1953), the University of Washington (M.A., 1954), and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Ph.D., 1956). He taught eco¬ nomics at the University of Chicago (1956-57) and Columbia University (1974- ). Through research for the International Monetary Fund, Mundell analyzed the effect of exchange rates on monetary policies. In 1961 he theo¬ rized that an economic region characterized by free movement of labour and trade could support a single currency. His theories contributed to the creation of the euro, the single currency adopted by the European Union on Jan. 1, 1999.

Munich Vmyu-nik\ German Miinchen VmiEn-koM City (pop., 2002 est.: city, 1,227,958; metro, area, 1,893,715), capital of Bavaria, Germany. Located along the Isar River, it was founded c. 1158 at the site of an ancient monastery. It became the capital of Bavaria under the ruling Wit- telsbach family. The city developed as a centre of music and theatre through the 19th century. After World War I it became a centre of right- wing political ferment; it was the site of the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch, Adolf Hitler’s attempted rising against the Bavarian government, and subsequent Nazi Party activities. It was the site for the signing of the 1938 Munich agreement. In World War II it suffered heavily from Allied bombing. Some medieval structures survived, including the cathedral and town hall. Today Munich is a trade, cultural, educational, and industrial centre known for its many museums and for manufacturing and beer and ale brewing.

Munich, University of German in full Ludwig-Maximilians Universittit Miinchen Autonomous university supported by the state of Bavaria, Germany. It was founded in Ingolstadt in 1472 and modeled after the University of Vienna. During the Protestant Reformation it was a centre of Roman Catholic opposition to Martin Luther. In 1799 schools of economics and political science were added, and in 1826 it moved to Munich, where agricultural and technical programs were founded.

Munich agreement (1938) Settlement reached by Germany, France, Britain, and Italy permitting German annexation of Czechoslovakia’s Sudetenland. Adolf Hitler’s threats to occupy the German-populated part of Czechoslovakia stemmed from his avowed broader goal of reuniting Europe’s German-populated areas. Though Czechoslovakia had defense treaties with France and the Soviet Union, both countries agreed that areas in the Sudetenland with majority German populations should be returned. Hitler demanded that all Czechoslovaks in those areas depart; when Czechoslovakia refused, Britain’s Neville Chamberlain negotiated an agree¬ ment permitting Germany to occupy the areas but promising that all future differences would be resolved through consultation. The agreement,

which became synonymous with appeasement, was abrogated when Hitler annexed the rest of Czechoslovakia the next year.

Munich Putsch See Beer Hall Putsch

Munoz Marin ymim-'yos-mo-'renV Luis (b. Feb. 18, 1898, San Juan, PR.—d. April 30, 1980, San Juan) Statesman and four-term governor of Puerto Rico (1948-64). Educated in the U.S., he became editor of the newspaper La Democracia and was elected to the Puerto Rican senate in 1932. Early in his career he advocated independence from the U.S., but later he worked closely with the U.S.-appointed governor to improve conditions in Puerto Rico. He achieved success with Operation Bootstrap, a program for rapid economic growth. When Puerto Rico received the right to elect its own governor in 1948, he was overwhelmingly elected and repeatedly reelected. He achieved his goal of making Puerto Rico a commonwealth.

Munoz Rivera Vmun-yos-re-'ver-aV Luis (b. July 17, 1859, Barran- quitas, PR.—d. Nov. 15, 1916, Santurce) Puerto Rican statesman, pub¬ lisher, and patriot. In 1889 he founded the newspaper La Democracia, which crusaded for Puerto Rican self-government. He was instrumental in obtaining Puerto Rico’s charter of home rule from Spain in 1897. He was president of the first autonomist cabinet, but he resigned after Spain ceded Puerto Rico to the U.S. His son Luis Munoz Marin was governor of Puerto Rico.

Munro Xmon-'roV Alice orig. Alice Anne Laidlaw (b. July 10, 1931, Wingham, Ont., Can.) Canadian writer. She is known for exquis¬ itely drawn short stories, usually set in rural Ontario and peopled by char¬ acters of Scotch-Irish stock. Her collections Dance of the Happy Shades (1968), Who Do You Think You Are ? (1978), and The Progress of Love (1986) won the Governor General’s Award for Fiction. Her other collec¬ tions include Something I’ve Been Meaning to Tell You (1974), The Moons of Jupiter (1982), Friend of My Youth (1986), Open Secrets (1994), The Love of a Good Woman (1998), and Hateship, Friendship, Courtship, Loveship, Marriage (2001).

Munsey, Frank Andrew (b. Aug. 21, 1854, Mercer, Maine, U.S.—d. Dec. 22, 1925, New York City, N.Y.) U.S. newspaper and magazine pub¬ lisher. He managed a telegraph office before moving to New York City, where he founded Golden Argosy (1882), later renamed Argosy Maga¬ zine ; and Munsey’s Magazine (1889), the first inexpensive, general- circulation, illustrated magazine in the U.S. He acquired several newspapers in Baltimore and New York, some of which disappeared in profitable mergers. He viewed his publications purely as moneymaking enterprises and maintained colourless editorial policies. He left most of his large fortune to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City.

Munster Vmuin-stoA City (pop., 2002 est.: 267,197), western Germany. Founded in 804 as a bishopric, it was named Munster in 1068 and was chartered in 1137. A member of the Hanseatic League from the 13th cen¬ tury, it was seized by the Anabaptists in 1535. The Peace of Westphalia was signed in Munster in 1648, and in 1815 Munster became the capital of Prussian Westphalia. Although it suffered heavy damage in World War II, most of its historic buildings were restored or rebuilt, including the 13th-century cathedral and 14th-century town hall. It is a centre of West¬ phalian culture.

Munster Province (pop., 2002 pre¬ lim.: 1,101,266), southern Ireland. It has an area of 9,315 sq mi (24,127 sq km). The region was ruled by a southern clan, which gradually extended its power over Munster by c. ad 400. In the 10th century Vikings invaded and eventually settled in Waterford and Limerick. After the 12th-century Anglo- Norman invasion, it was ruled by the feudal families of Fitzgerald and Butler. It now comprises the counties of Clare, Cork, Kerry, Limerick, Tip¬ perary (North Riding and South Riding), and Waterford.

muntjac Vmont-JakV or barking deer Any of about seven species of solitary, nocturnal deer, native to

Chinese muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi)

KENNETH W. FINK-ROOT RESOURCES

Miintzer ► Murdoch I 1311

Asia and introduced into England and France, that constitute the genus Muntiacus (family Cervidae). Named for their cry, most species stand 15-25 in. (40-65 cm) high, weigh 33-77 lbs (15-35 kg), and are gray¬ ish, reddish, or brown. Males have tusklike upper canine teeth and short one-branched antlers. Bony ridges extend from the antler base onto the face. The giant muntjac (88-110 lbs, or 40-50 kg) was discovered in northern Vietnam in 1993-94. Fea’s muntjac (. M.feae ), of Myanmar and Thailand, is endangered, and other muntjac species are threatened.

Miintzer VmiEnt-sorX, Thomas or Thomas Munzer (b. sometime before 1490, Stolberg, Thuringia—d. May 27, 1525, Miihlhausen) Ger¬ man religious reformer. A student of theology and an associate of Martin Luther, he served as a pastor until his socialism and mystical doctrines led to his removal. His belief in the inner light of the Holy Spirit as opposed to the authority of the Bible alienated the Lutherans. He preached widely, championing the common people, and in 1525 he organized the working classes of Miihlhausen. He led the Peasants' Revolt in Thuringia in 1524- 25; after the defeat of his forces, he was tortured, tried, and executed.

muqarnas See stalactite work

Muqi Fachang or Mu-hsi Fa-ch'ang (fl. 13th century, Sichuan province, China) Chinese Chan (Japanese: Zen) Buddhist painter. Toward the end of the Southern Song dynasty (1127-1279), Muqi fled to a mon¬ astery near Hangzhou. He painted a variety of subjects—including land¬ scapes, flowers, still lifes, and more orthodox iconographic subjects. The most famous paintings associated with Muqi include Six Persimmons and a triptych with a white-robed Guanyin flanked on either side by a scroll of monkeys and a crane. The paintings vary in style and subject matter, but there is throughout a sense of immediate vision and a totally respon¬ sive hand, expressed with broad and evocative washes of ink. His paint¬ ings on Chan themes stimulated many copies in Japan.

Murabitun, al- See Almoravid dynasty

Murad, Ferid (b. Sept. 14, 1936, Whiting, Ind., U.S.) U.S. pharma¬ cologist. He received his M.D. and Ph.D. from Western Reserve Univer¬ sity (later Case Western Reserve University). Murad showed that nitroglycerin and related heart drugs induce the formation of nitric oxide, a gas that increases the diameter of blood vessels. Along with Robert F. Furchgott and Louis J. Ignarro, he was awarded a 1998 Nobel Prize for the discovery that nitric oxide acts as a signaling molecule in the cardio¬ vascular system. Their combined work uncovered an entirely new mecha¬ nism for how blood vessels relax and widen. This discovery led to the development of the drug Viagra, which is used to treat erectile dysfunc¬ tion.

mural Painting applied to and made integral with the surface of a wall or ceiling. Its roots can be found in the universal desire that led prehis¬ toric peoples to create cave paintings—the desire to decorate their sur¬ roundings and express their ideas and beliefs. The Romans produced large numbers of murals in Pompeii and Ostia, but mural painting (not syn¬ onymous with fresco) reached its highest degree of creative achievement in Europe with the work of such Renaissance masters as Masaccio, Fra Angelico, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael. In the 20th cen¬ tury, the mural was embraced by artists of the Cubist and Fauve move¬ ments in Paris, revolutionary painters in Mexico (e.g., Diego Rivera, Jose Clemente Orozco, David Alfaro Siqueiros), and Depression-era artists under the sponsorship of the U.S. government (e.g., Ben Shahn, Thomas Hart Benton).

Murasaki Shikibu \mu-Va-sa-ke-'she-ke-bu\ (b. c. 978, Kyoto, Japan) Japanese writer. Her real name is unknown, and the primary source of knowledge about her life is a diary she kept (1007-10). Her Tale ofGenji (completed c. 1010) is a long and complex tale, concerned mostly with the loves of Prince Genji and the women in his life. Supremely sensitive to human emotions and the beauties of nature, it provides delightful glimpses of life at the court of the empress Joto mon’in, whom Murasaki served. It is generally considered the greatest work of Japanese literature and perhaps the world’s first novel.

Murat \rmE-'ra\, Joachim (b. March 25, 1767, La Bastide-Fortuniere, France—d. Oct. 13, 1815, Pizzo, Calabria) French soldier and king of Naples (1808-15). He served in Italy and Egypt as a daring cavalry com¬ mander, and later he aided Napoleon in his coup d’etat (1799) and mar¬ ried Napoleon’s sister Caroline Bonaparte. He helped win the Battle of Marengo (1800). Appointed governor of Paris, he was promoted to mar¬ shal in 1804. After victories at the Battles of Austerlitz (1805) and Jena

(1806), he was made king of Naples (1808), where he carried out admin¬ istrative and economic reforms and encouraged Italian nationalism. He led troops in Napoleon’s Russian campaign at the Battle of Borodino (1812) but left the army during its retreat from Moscow. He supported Napoleon again during the Hundred Days in 1815, but he was defeated with his Neapolitan forces at the Battle of Tolentino and was later taken prisoner and shot.

Murchison River River, Western Australia, Australia. Sporadically flowing west to the Indian Ocean, it

is 440 mi (708 km) long. In 1891 the river’s name was given to one of Australia’s richest goldfields, and some gold is still mined in the area. Kalbarri National Park is on the lower Murchison, where the river cuts a scenic gorge through the coastal range.

Murat, detail of a drawing by Antoine- Jean Gros; in the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris.

CUCHE MUSEES NATIONAUX, PARIS

Murcia Vmor-shoV Autonomous community (pop., 2001: 1,197,646), province, and historic region, southeastern Spain. It covers 4,368 sq mi (11,314 sq km), and its capital is the city of Murcia. It was an indepen¬ dent Moorish kingdom until its annexation by Castile in 1243. The autono¬ mous community was established in 1982. The Segura River flows through its centre, irrigating rich farmland and orchards. The ports of Cartagena, Mazarron, and Aguilas have grown with the development of shipping and mining along the coastal plain. Principal crops are grain, olives, grapes, and melons.

Murcia City (pop., 2001: 370,745), capital of the autonomous commu¬ nity of Murcia, southeastern Spain. The site was settled before the Roman occupation of Spain in the 3rd century bc. It became the Muslim city of Murslyah in ad 825, when it was made a provincial capital by the emir of Cordoba. It was the birthplace of Ibn al-'ArabT (1165). The Segura River divides the city into older and newer parts. The 14th-century cathedral was restored in the 18th century. It is a communications and agricultural- trade centre for surrounding areas. Its silk industry dates from Moorish times.

murder See homicide

Murder, Inc. Popular name for an arm of the U.S. national crime syn¬ dicate founded c. 1930 in Brooklyn, N.Y., to threaten, maim, or murder designated victims for a price. Its services were available to any syndi¬ cate member anywhere in the country; many of its victims were them¬ selves syndicate members who were killed for “business reasons.” Its principal figures were Louis Buchalter, known as Louis Lepke, and Albert Anastasia. Investigated by Thomas Dewey, it was exposed in 1940-41 by a former member, Abe “Kid Twist” Reles, who described some 70 mur¬ ders and suggested hundreds more; he himself died mysteriously in the middle of the investigation.

Murdoch Ymsr-.dakV, Dame (Jean) Iris (b. July 15, 1919, Dublin, Ire.—d. Feb. 8, 1999, Oxford, Oxfordshire, Eng.) British novelist and philosopher. A graduate of the University of Oxford, she worked as a uni¬ versity lecturer while pursuing her writing career. Her first published work was a study of Jean-Paul Sartre (1953). Her novels, including The Bell (1958), A Severed Head (1961), The Black Prince (1973), The Sea, the Sea (1978), and The Book and the Brotherhood (1987), typically have convoluted plots featuring philosophical and comic elements. Her non¬ fiction philosophical works include The Sovereignty of Good (1970) and Metaphysics as a Guide to Morals (1992). Her decline under Alzheimer disease was chronicled by her husband, the critic John Bayley, in Elegy for Iris (1999).

Murdoch, (Keith) Rupert (b. March 11, 1931, Melbourne, Vic., Austl.) Australian-U.S. newspaper publisher and media entrepreneur. Son of a famous Australian war correspondent and publisher, he inherited two Adelaide newspapers in 1954 and boosted their circulation by emphasiz¬ ing crime, sex, scandal, sports, and human interest stories, while taking an outspokenly conservative editorial stance. He used this approach with soaring success with papers bought in Australia, Britain, and the U.S. by his global media holding company, The News Corporation Ltd. He also acquired conventional and respected publications, including The Times of

1312 I Mures River ► Murray River

London. In the 1980s and ’90s he expanded into book and electronic pub¬ lishing, television broadcasting, and film and video production. His hold¬ ings include the New York Post ; Fox, Inc. (see Fox Broadcasting Co.); HarperCollins Publishers; British Sky Broadcasting; and Star TV, a pan- Asian television service.

Mures Vmu-reshV River River, rising in the eastern Carpathian Moun¬ tains, east-central Romania. It flows west across northern Romania and across the Hungarian border to join the Tisza River at Szeged, Hung.; it is about 450 mi (725 km) long. It is the Tisza’s most important tributary and a significant traffic route; it is navigable for small boats for more than 200 mi (320 km).

Murgab River See Morghab River muriatic acid See hydrochloric acid

Murillo \mu-'re-o,\ English \myu-'ri-lo\, Bartolome Esteban (bap¬ tized Jan. 1, 1618, Sevilla, Spain—d. April 3, 1682, Sevilla) Spanish painter. The most popular Baroque religious painter of 17th-century Spain, he is noted for his idealized figures, most of them painted for reli¬ gious orders and the confraternities of his native Sevilla (Seville). His early works were executed in the naturalistic style of Francisco de Zur- baran, but with the development of his mature style in the 1650s he soon surpassed the older master in fame and popularity. The softly modeled forms, rich colours, and broad brushwork of the later paintings, such as the Immaculate Conception of 1652 (his favourite subject), reveal the influence of 16th-century Venetian and Flemish Baroque painters. Murillo’s works were copied and imitated throughout Spain and its empire, and he was the first Spanish painter to achieve fame outside the Spanish world.

Murji’ah \'mur-je-o\ One of the earliest sects of Islam to believe in the postponement of judgment on those who have committed serious sins, recognizing that God alone is able to decide whether a Muslim has lost his faith. The Murji’ah flourished during the 7th-8th century, a period of strife in the Muslim community. Unlike the Kharijites, a militant sect that wanted to oust serious sinners from the community and declare jihad against them, the Murji’ah, who advocated leaving great sinners to God, claimed that no one who had professed Islam could be declared an infi¬ del. When the Kharijites revolted against the Umayyad dynasty, the Murji’ah declared that revolt against a Muslim ruler could not be justi¬ fied under any circumstances. The Murji’ah were moderates who empha¬ sized the love and goodness of God.

Murmansk Seaport (pop., 1999 est.: 382,700), northwestern Russia. Situated on the eastern shore of Kola Bay near the Barents Sea, it is the world’s largest city north of the Arctic Circle. Its ice-free harbour makes it Russia’s only port with unrestricted access to the Atlantic. Founded in 1915 as a supply port in World War I, it was a base for the British, French, and U.S. forces against the Bolsheviks in 1918; it also served as a major supply base during World War II. In addition to a Russian naval base, it has a large fishing fleet and fish-processing industry.

Murnau Vmur- 1 nau\, F.W. orig. Friedrich Wilhelm Plumpe (b.

Dec. 28, 1889, Bielefeld, Ger.—d. March 11, 1931, Hollywood, Calif., U.S.) German film director. After studying at the University of Heidel¬ berg, he became a protege of Max Reinhardt in Berlin. During World War I he served as a combat pilot and made propaganda films. He directed his first feature in 1919 and won international acclaim for Nosferatu (1922), which is regarded by many as the most effective screen adaptation of Bram Stoker’s Dracula, and The Last Laugh (1924). In 1927 he moved to Hol¬ lywood, where he made films such as Sunrise (1927), his masterpiece, and Tabu (1931; with Robert Flaherty). Murnau’s films revolutionized the art of cinematic expression by using the camera subjectively to interpret the emotional state of a character.

Muromachi period In Japanese history, period of military govern¬ ment (bakufu, or shogunate) from the 14th to the 16th century. The bakufu was established in 1338 by the samurai (warrior) Ashikaga Takauji. Although the bakufu lasted in name until 1573, when the last of the Ash¬ ikaga shoguns was deposed, the Ashikaga in fact lost control of Japan during the Onin War (1467-77). The Muromachi period was, despite considerable turbulence and unrest, a time of great cultural growth, dur¬ ing which Zen Buddhism, no theatre and other literary forms, and sumi-e (Chinese-style ink painting) flourished. See also Ashikaga family; daimyo; Kano school.

Murphy, Audie (Leon) (b. June 20, 1924, near Kingston, Texas, U.S.—d. May 28, 1971, near Roanoke, Va.) U.S. war hero and actor. Enlisting in the army in 1942, he became the most decorated U.S. soldier of World War II. He killed hundreds of Germans, and he once jumped onto a burning tank destroyer to turn its machine gun on enemy troops. In 1945 he received the Congressional Medal of Honor. On the strength of his heroic status, he became a movie actor after the war, starring in films such as The Red Badge of Courage (1951), To Hell and Back (1955), and The Quiet American (1958). He died when his private plane crashed. He was buried in Arlington National Cemetery with full military honours.

Murphy, Frank orig. William 1890, Harbor Beach, Mich.,

U.S.—d. July 19, 1949, Detroit,

Mich.) U.S. Supreme Court justice (1940-49). After serving in World War I, he held several elective posts, including mayor of Detroit (1930—

33). He was governor-general (1933—35) and U.S. high commis¬ sioner (1935-36) of the Philippines.

Elected governor of Michigan (1937-38), he refused to use troops to break sit-down strikes by automo¬ bile workers. As U.S. attorney gen¬ eral (1939-40), he established the Justice Department’s civil rights unit. Appointed to the Supreme Court of the United States by Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt, he strongly defended civil rights and dissented in a case upholding the internment of Japa¬ nese Americans during World War II.

Murphy, Isaac Burns (b. 1861, Fayette county, Ky., U.S.—d. Feb. 12, 1896, Louisville, Ky.) U.S. jockey. He was one of the first jockeys to pace his mount for a charge down the homestretch—a technique soon described as the “grandstand finish.” He was the first three-time winner of the Kentucky Derby (1884, 1890, and 1891), and his career winning percentage of 34.5 has never been equaled. At his peak in the late 1880s, he became the highest-paid athlete in America, earning close to $20,000 a year. He was the first jockey elected to the National Museum of Rac¬ ing’s Hall of Fame and one of only two African Americans inducted.

Murray, George Redmayne (b. June 20, 1865, Newcastle-upon- Tyne, Northumberland, Eng.—d. Sept. 21, 1939, Mobberley, Cheshire) British physician. After receiving his M.D. from the University of Cam¬ bridge, he became a pioneer in the treatment of endocrine disorders. He was one of the first to use extracts of animal thyroid glands to relieve a form of hypothyroidism.

Murray, Sir James (Augustus Henry) (b. Feb. 7, 1837, Denholm, Roxburghshire, Scot.—d. July 26, 1915, Oxford, Oxfordshire, Eng.) Scot¬ tish lexicographer. He taught in a grammar school (1855-85). His Dia¬ lect of the Southern Counties of Scotland (1873) and a major article on English for Encyclopcedia Britannica (1878) established him as a leading philologist. He was hired by the Philological Society as editor of the vast New English Dictionary on Historical Principles, later called the Oxford Engush Dictionary, in 1879, and he applied himself to the work with leg¬ endary energy and resourcefulness. The first volume appeared in 1884, and by his death he had completed about half the dictionary.

Murray, Philip (b. May 25, 1886, Blantyre, Lanark, Scot.—d. Nov. 9, 1952, San Francisco, Calif., U.S.) Scottish-born U.S. labour leader. After immigrating to the U.S. in 1902, he became a coal miner in Pennsylva¬ nia. He joined the United Mine Workers of America and rose through the ranks to serve as vice president (1920-42) under John L. Lewis. When Lewis became president of the newly formed Congress of Industrial Orga¬ nizations (CIO) in 1936, he delegated Murray to create an industry-wide steelworkers’ union (see United Steelworkers of America). Murray suc¬ ceeded Lewis as CIO president in 1940 and held the post until his death. See also AFL-CIO.

Murray River Principal river of Australia. Rising near Mount Kosciusko, in southeastern New South Wales, it flows across southeastern Australia from the Snowy Mountains to the Great Australian Bight of the Indian Ocean; it is 1,610 mi (2,590 km) long. It forms the boundary

Francis Murphy (b. April 13,

Frank Murphy

COURTESY OF THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

murre ► Muscle Shoals I 1313

between Victoria and New South Wales and then turns south and flows into Encounter Bay through Lake Alexandria. River shipping was impor¬ tant in the 19th century, but navigation practically ceased with growing competition from railways and the demand for irrigation water. The river valley is of great economic importance, fostering the production of grains, fruit, and wine, and the raising of cattle and sheep.

murre Vm9r\ Any of certain black-and-white seabirds (genus Uria, fam¬ ily Alcidae) that are about 16 in. (40 cm) long and breed from the Arctic Circle to Nova Scotia, California,

Portugal, and Korea. Murres nest in vast numbers on sheer cliffs. When half grown, the single chick enters the sea with its parents to escape gulls and skuas. In autumn the birds swim south. See also guillemot.

Murrow, Edward (Egbert)

R(oscoe) (b. April 25, 1908,

Greensboro, N.C., U.S.—d. April 27,

1965, Pawling, N.Y.) U.S. radio and television broadcaster. Murrow joined CBS in 1935 and two years later became head of its European Bureau. He became famous for his eyewitness reports of World War II events such as the German occupation of Austria. After the war, with Fred Friendly, he produced Hear It Now, an authoritative radio news digest, and for television the comparable See It Now. He also produced Person to Person and other television programs. In the 1950s he was an influential force for the free dissemination of information, producing a notable expose of the tactics of Sen. Joseph McCarthy that contributed to the demise of McCarthyism.

Murrumbidgee V.mo-rom-'bi-jeV River River, southeastern New South Wales, Australia. The major right-bank tributary of the Murray River, it flows west from the Great Dividing Range near Canberra to join the Mur¬ ray 140 mi (225 km) from the Victoria border; it is about 1,050 mi (1,690 km) long. The Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area involves more than 1,000 sq mi (2,600 sq km) of farmland and supports livestock pastures and the cultivation of grapes, citrus fruits, wheat, cotton, and rice.

Musa \'mii-sa\ or Mousa (d. 1332/37?) Emperor ( mansa ) of the West African Mali empire from 1307 (or 1312). Musa left a realm notable for its extent and riches (he built the Great Mosque at Timbuktu), but he is best remembered for the splendour of his pilgrimage to Mecca (1324), which awakened the world to Mali’s stupendous wealth and stimulated a desire among North Africans and Europeans to locate its source. Under Musa, Mali became one of the largest empires in the world and Timbuktu grew to be a major commercial city.

Musandam \m9-'san-d9m\ Peninsula Northeastern extension of the Arabian Peninsula. It partially separates the Gulf of Oman from the Per¬ sian Gulf to form the Strait of Hormuz to the north. Part of Oman, it is divided from the rest of the country by the United Arab Emirates. It is a mountainous region with a rocky coast that is hazardous to passing ships. Fishing is the main industry, and there are reserves of petroleum and natural gas off the western coast. The port town of Dlba al-Hisn is on the southeastern coast.

Musavi, Ruhollah See Ruhollah Khomeini

Muscat or Masqat Vmos-.kaA City (pop., 2003: city, 24,769; urban agglom., 638,000), capital of Oman, located on the Gulf of Oman. Situ¬ ated on a cove surrounded by volcanic mountains, it came under Persian control in the 6th century bc, and Islam was introduced into the region in the 7th century ad. The Portuguese gained control in 1508 and made Muscat a trading post and naval base until they were expelled in 1650. Held again by the Persians (1650-1741), it later became part of the sul¬ tanate of Oman. Two 16th-century Portuguese forts overlook the city; the sultan’s Indian-style palace is built at the edge of the sea.

Muscat and Oman See Oman

muscle Contractile tissue that produces motion for functions, including body movements, digestion, focusing, circulation, and body warmth. It can be classified as striated, cardiac, and smooth or as phasic and tonic (responding quickly or gradually to stimulation, respectively). Striated muscle, whose fibres appeal' striped under a microscope, is responsible

for voluntary movement. Most of these muscles are phasic. They are attached to the skeleton and move the body by contracting in response to signals from the central nervous system; contraction is achieved by the sliding of thin filaments (of actin) between thick ones (of myosin); stretch receptors in the tissue provide feedback, allowing smooth motion and fine motor control. The branched fibres of cardiac muscle give it a netlike structure; contraction originates in the heart’s muscle tissue itself with a signal from the natural pacemaker; vagus and sympathetic nerves control heart rate. Smooth muscle, the muscle of internal organs and blood ves¬ sels, is generally involuntary and tonic; its cells can operate either col¬ lectively or individually (in response to separate nerve endings) and have different shapes. Disorders of voluntary muscle cause weakening, atro¬ phy, pain, and twitching. Some systemic diseases (e.g., dermatomyositis, polymyositis) can cause muscle inflammation. See also abdominal muscle; muscle tumour; muscular dystrophy; myasthenia gravis.

Major muscles of the human body. (1) frontalis, (2) occipitalis, (3) temporalis, (4) orbicularis of eye, (5) nasalis, (6) orbicularis of mouth, (7) mentalis, (8) masseter,

(9) platysma, (10) sternocleidomastoid, (11) trapezius, (12) pectoralis major, (13) deltoid, (14) latissimus dorsi, (15) anterior serratus, (16) external oblique, (17) rec¬ tus abdominis, (18) internal oblique, (19) infraspinatus, (20) teres minor, (21) teres major, (22) biceps, (23) triceps, (24) brachialis, (25) long radial extensor of wrist, (26) short palmaris, (27) pronator quadratus, (28) annular ligament of the carpus, (29) common extensor of digits, (30) ulnar extensor of wrist, (31) tendons of exten¬ sors of digits and wrists, (32) palmar aponeurosis, (33) gluteus medius, (34) tensor of the fascia lata, (35) rectus femoris, (36) pectineus, (37) sartorius, (38) long adductor of thigh, (39) gracilis, (40) vastus lateralis, (41) vastus medialis, (42) patella, (43) anterior tibialis, (44) medial head of gastrocnemius, (45) soleus, (46) annular ligament of ankle, (47) short extensor, (48) gluteus maximus, (49) biceps of thigh, (50) semitendinosus, (51) plantaris, (52) lateral head of gastrocnemius, (53) Achilles' tendon.

Muscle Shoals Former rapids, Tennessee River, northwestern Alabama, U.S. At about 37 mi (60 km) long, it was a navigation hazard but is now submerged under at least 9 ft (3 m) of water by the Wilson, Wheeler, and Pickwick Landing dams, which completely eliminated the rapids. Manu¬ facturing plants and hydroelectric power facilities are administered by the

Common murres (Uria aalge), ringed phase at left

RJ. TULLOCH-BRUCE COLEMAN INC./EB INC.

1314 I muscle tumour ► Musial

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). The city of Muscle Shoals (pop., 2000: 11,924) developed from the TVA complex in the Wilson Dam area.

muscle tumour Abnormal tissue growth in or originating from muscle tissue. There are three major types. Leiomyomas are tumours of smooth muscles, seen most often in the uterus but also in the digestive, urinary, and female genital systems. Part of the tumour may become malignant, but it usually does not spread or recur. Rhabdomyomas occur most often in cardiac muscle. Some forms spread, and it may remain contained in tissue or become diffuse and hard to remove. Rhabdomyomas involving both smooth and striated muscle are often malignant and may grow very large. The several types of rhabdomyosarcoma are rare; they arise in skel¬ etal muscle, usually in the leg or arm, and are extremely malignant.

muscovite Vmos-ko-.vitV or common mica or potash mica or isinglass Abundant silicate mineral that contains potassium and alumi¬ num and has a layered atomic structure. It is the most common member of the mica group. Because it occurs in thin, transparent sheets, it was used in Russia for window panes and became known as Muscovy glass (isin¬ glass), hence its name. Muscovite is usually colourless but may be light gray, brown, pale green, or rose red. Its low iron content makes it a good electrical and thermal insulator.

muscular dystrophy \'dis-tra-fe\ Inherited disease that causes pro¬ gressive weakness in the skeletal (and occasionally heart) muscle. Muscle tissue degenerates and regenerates randomly and is replaced by scar tis¬ sue and fat. There is no specific treatment. Physical therapy, braces, and corrective surgery may help. Duchenne muscular dystrophy, the most common, strikes only males. Symptoms, including frequent falls and dif¬ ficulty in standing up, start in boys 3-7 years old; muscle wasting progresses from the legs to the arms and then the diaphragm. Pulmonary infection or respiratory failure usually causes death before age 20. The gene can now be detected in female carriers and male fetuses. Becker dystrophy, also sex-linked, is less severe and begins later. Patients remain able to walk and usually survive into their 30s and 40s. Myotonic mus¬ cular dystrophy affects adults of both sexes, with myotonia and degenera¬ tion two to three years later, along with cataracts, baldness, and gonadal atrophy. Limb-girdle dystrophy affects the pelvic or shoulder muscles in both sexes. Facioscapulohumeral (face, shoulder-blade, and upper-arm) dystrophy starts in childhood or adolescence and affects both sexes; after initial symptoms of difficulty raising the arms, the legs and pelvic muscles can be affected; the main facial effect is difficulty in closing the eyes. Life expectancy is normal.

Muse In Greco-Roman religion and myth, any of a group of sister god¬ desses, daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne (Memory). A festival was held in their honour every four years near Mount Helicon, the centre of their cult in Greece. They probably began as the patron goddesses of poets, though later their range was extended to include all the liberal arts and sciences. Nine Muses are usually named: Calliope (heroic or epic poetry), Clio (history), Erato (lyric or love poetry), Euterpe (music or flutes), Mel¬ pomene (tragedy), Polyhymnia (sacred poetry or mime), Terpsichore (dancing and choral song), Thalia (comedy), and Urania (astronomy).

museum Public institution dedicated to preserving and interpreting the primary tangible evidence of humans and their environment. Types of museums include general (multidisciplinary) museums, natural-history museums, science and technology museums, history museums, and art museums. In Roman times the word referred to a place devoted to schol¬ arly occupation (see Museum of Alexandria). The public museum as it is known today did not develop until the 17th—18th century. The first orga¬ nized body to receive a private collection, erect a building to house it, and make it publicly available was the University of Oxford; the resulting Ashmolean Museum opened in 1683. The 18th century saw the opening of great museums such as the British Museum, Louvre, and Uffizi Gallery. By the early 19th century the granting of public access to formerly pri¬ vate collections had become common. What followed for the next 100 years was the worldwide founding of museums intended for the public. In the 20th century, museums have broadened their roles as educational facilities, sources of leisure activity, and information centres. Many sites of historical or scientific significance have been developed as museums. Museum attendance has increased greatly, often attracted by “block¬ buster” exhibitions, though museums have had to become more finan¬ cially resourceful due to constraints in public funding.

Museum of Modern Art (MOMA) Museum in New York City, the world’s most comprehensive collection of U.S. and European art from

the late 19th century to the present. It was founded in 1929 by a group of private collectors. The original building on 53rd St. opened in 1939; a later addition and sculpture garden were designed by Philip Johnson (1953). A condominium tower and western wing, doubling the exhibition space, were completed in 1984. Its collections of Cubist, Surrealist, and Abstract Expressionist paintings are extensive; other holdings include sculpture, graphic arts, industrial design, architecture, photography, and film. Through its permanent collections, exhibitions, and many publica¬ tions, it exerts a strong influence on public taste and artistic production.

Museveni Xmu-'so-ven-.eX, Yoweri (Kaguta) (b. 1944, Mbarra dis¬ trict, Uganda) President of Uganda (from 1986). As a university student he led a group allied with African liberation movements. When Idi Amin came to power in 1971, Museveni went into exile. He founded the Front for National Salvation, which helped topple Amin in 1979. He replaced Milton Obote as president in 1986, winning election to the post in 1996. Though he rejected multiparty democracy, he allowed a free press and private enterprise. He is credited with bringing stability and economic growth to Uganda, though his support for rebels in other African coun¬ tries has been controversial.

Musgrave, Thea (b. May 27, 1928, Barnton, Edinburgh, Scot.) Scot¬ tish composer. She studied with Nadia Boulanger and Aaron Copland, and she later taught at the University of California at Santa Barbara (1970- 78) and elsewhere in the U.S. She has written a number of dramatic con¬ certos, some of which reflect her interest in music’s spatial dimension, but she is best known for her operas, including The Voice of Ariadne (1973), Mary, Queen of Scots (1977), and Simon Bolivar (1995).

Mushet Vmosh-otV, Robert Forester (b. 1811, Coleford, Gloucester¬ shire, Eng.—d. January 1891, Coleford) British steelmaker. He was the son of the ironmaster David Mushet (1772-1847). Robert’s discovery in 1868 that adding tungsten to steel greatly increases its hardness even after air cooling produced the first commercial steel alloy, a material that formed the basis for the development of tool steels for the machining of metals. Mushet also discovered that the addition of manganese to steel produced by the Bessemer process improved the steel’s ability to withstand rolling and forging at high temperatures.

mushroom Fleshy spore-bearing structure of certain fungi (see fungus), typically of the class Basidiomycetes. It arises from the mycelium, which may live hundreds of years or a few months, depending on its food sup¬ ply. Some species grow cellular strands (hyphae) in all directions, form¬ ing a circular mat with a “fairy ring” of fruiting bodies around the outside. Popularly, “mushroom” refers to the edible sporophores, while “toad¬ stool” refers to inedible or poisonous sporophores, but there is no scien¬ tific distinction between the two names. Mushrooms are classified by cap shape. Umbrella-shaped sporophores with spore-shedding gills on the undersurface are found chiefly in the agaric family (Agaricaceae). Mush¬ rooms that bear spores in an easily detachable layer on the underside of the cap belong to the family Boletaceae. Together the agarics and boletes include most of the forms known as mushrooms. The highly prized edible chanterelle is a bolete. The morels (class Ascomycetes) are popularly included with the true mushrooms because of their shape and fleshy struc¬ ture. Since some poisonous mushrooms closely resemble edible ones, mushrooms intended for eating must be accurately identified. Mushroom poisoning can cause nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, cramps, hallucinations, coma, and sometimes death. See illustration opposite.

mushroom poisoning or toadstool poisoning Sometimes fatal effect of eating any of the 70-80 species of poisonous mushrooms, or toadstools. Many contain toxic alkaloids. The most deadly, Amanita phal- loides (“death cup”), causes violent abdominal pain, vomiting, and bloody diarrhea. Severe liver, kidney, and central-nervous-system damage lead to coma. Over half the victims die. Treatment with thioctic acid, glucose, and penicillin or by filtering the blood with charcoal may be effective. A. muscaria causes vomiting, diarrhea, excessive perspiration, and confu¬ sion, with recovery within 24 hours. Gyromitra esculenta toxin is usually destroyed by cooking, but in susceptible people it affects the central ner¬ vous system and breaks down blood cells, causing jaundice. Some poi¬ sonous mushrooms resemble harmless ones, so extreme caution is needed in wild-mushroom gathering.

Musial Vmyii-ze-olV Stanley Frank) (b. Nov. 21,1920, Donora, Pa., U.S.) U.S. baseball player. Musial played his entire career for the St. Louis Cardinals (1941-63), starting as a pitcher but switching to the outfield and ultimately to first base. A left-handed batter, “Stan the Man” became

music ► musicology I 1315

one of the game’s great hitters. His lifetime totals of hits (3,630), runs (1,949), and times at bat were second only to those of Ty Cobb, his total of runs batted in (1,951) was the fourth- highest of all time, and his total of extra-base hits (1,477) was only sur¬ passed later by Hank Aaron. Popular among fans for his unfailing gra¬ ciousness, he became a Cardinals executive after retirement.

music Art concerned with combin¬ ing vocal or instrumental sounds for beauty of form or emotional expres¬ sion, usually according to cultural standards of rhythm, melody, and, in most Western music, harmony.

Music most often implies sounds with distinct PlTCHes that are arranged into melodies and organized into pat¬ terns of rhythm and metre. The melody will usually be in a certain key or mode, and in Western music it will often suggest harmony that may be made explicit as accompanying chords or counterpoint. Music is an art that, in one guise or another, permeates every human society. It is used for such varied social purposes as ritual, worship, coordination of move¬ ment, communication, and entertainment.

music box Mechanical musical instrument in which projecting pins on a revolving brass cylinder or disk, encoding a piece of music, pluck tuned

Musial

PICTORIAL PARADE-EB INC.

king bolete or cep yellow morel

(Boletus edulis) (Morchella esculenta)

chanterelle

(Cantharellus cibarius)

cap (pileus)

.remains of universal veil

ring (annulus)

basidiospores

meadow mushroom (Agaricus campestris)

shaggy mane (Coprinus comatus)

A mushroom typically consists of a stalk (stipe) and a cap (pileus). As the mushroom develops from an underground mycelium and pushes upward, it is protected by a thin membrane (universal veil), which eventually ruptures, leaving fragments on the cap. Another membrane, attaching the cap to the stalk, also ruptures, allowing the cap to expand and leaving a remnant ring (annulus) on the stalk. Radiating rows of gills are found on the cap's undersurface; these bear the club-shaped reproductive structures (basidia) which form minute spores known as basidiospores, of which a single mushroom may produce millions.

steel tongues. It was probably invented c. 1780 in Switzerland.

With its modular cylinders or disks, it was a popular domestic instrument until displaced by the player piano and phonograph.

music hall and variety the¬ atre Popular entertainment that fea¬ tured successive acts by singers, comedians, dancers, and actors. The form derived from the taproom con¬ certs given in city taverns in England in the 18th—19th centuries. To meet the demand for entertainment for the working class, tavern owners often annexed nearby buildings as music halls, where drinking and smoking were permitted. The originator of the English music hall as such was Charles Morton, who built Morton’s Canterbury Hall (1852) and Oxford Hall (1861) in London. Leading performers included Lillie Langtry, Harry Lauder (1870-1950), and Gracie Fields. Music halls evolved into larger, more respectable variety theatres, such as London’s Hippodrome and the Coliseum. Variety acts combined music, comedy acts, and one-act plays and featured celebrities such as Sarah Bernhardt and Herbert Tree. See also

VAUDEVILLE.

musica ficta Latin "feigned music" In medieval and Renaissance music, the practice of inserting unnotated chromatic notes (see chromati¬ cism) during performances. According to treatises of the times, it was left to the performers to “correct” certain intervals. Which intervals were to be changed, and how and under what circumstances, varied over time. This practice was responsible for the introduction of accidentals (sharps, flats, naturals) into musical notation. It also influenced the evolution of the major and minor keys on which most Western music came to be based, for it modi¬ fied the medieval church modes to resemble the major and minor scales.

musical or musical comedy Theatrical production that is charac¬ teristically sentimental and amusing in nature, having a simple but dis¬ tinctive plot and offering music, dancing, and dialogue. Its roots can be traced to 18th- and 19th-century genres such as ballad opera, singspiel, and opera comique. The Black Crook (1866), often called the first musical comedy, attracted patrons of opera and serious drama as well as those of burlesque shows. European composers such as Sigmund Romberg brought to the U.S. a form of operetta that was the generic source for musical comedy. George M. Cohan ushered in the genre’s heyday, and in the 1920s and ’30s it entered its richest period with the works of Jerome Kern, George Gershwin and Ira Gershwin, Cole Porter, Richard Rodgers, and Oscar Ham- merstein. Kern and Hammerstein’s Show Boat (1927) was perhaps the first musical to employ music thoroughly integrated with the narrative. The genre flourished in the 1950s with works by composers such as Leonard Bernstein, but it began to decline in the late 1960s, by which time musi¬ cals had begun to diverge in many different directions, incorporating ele¬ ments such as rock music, operatic styling, extravagant lighting and staging, social comment, nostalgia, and pure spectacle. Later notable musical composers included Stephen Sondheim and Andrew Lloyd Webber.

musical notation Written, printed, or other visual representation of music. There are two basic approaches to notating music. Tablature (such as guitar chord diagrams) depicts the actions a performer is to take (in particular, showing where to put the fingers to produce a given sound). Symbolic notation describes the sounds themselves and includes methods that vary from assigning pitches different letters of the alphabet to rep¬ resenting a given combination of notes by a graphic sign. The Western notation system combines rhythmic notation (the appearance of a note indicates its duration) with pitch notation (the line or space on a staff where a note is placed indicates its pitch). Thus, a single symbol shows both pitch and duration, and a string of these symbols notates both melody and rhythm. See illustration on following page.

musicology Scholarly and scientific study of music. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, such study was done by amateurs such as Lud¬ wig von Kochel. As interest in earlier music grew, greater professionalism was required, including the ability to decipher and assess musical manu¬ scripts and historical documents. Musicology’s first great monument was the first edition of Johann Sebastian Bach’s complete works (1851-99). The scope of musicology may be summarized as covering the study of the history and phenomena of music, including (1) form and notation, (2)

German music box, with disk in play¬ ing position, from Leipzig, c. 1900

COURTESY OF THE MUSICAL WONDER HOUSE, WISCASSET, MAINE; PHOTOGRAPH, JOHN SPINKS

1316 I muskox ► Muslim Brotherhood

staff and bar lines

time signatures

staff

bar line

measure, or bar

3 /4 t

C 4 /4 I

0 2 / 2 *

clefs

accidentals

treble, or G, clef

bass, or F, clef

alto, or C, clef

ft sharp l7 flat ^ natural X double sharp double flat

rests

O whole note

dotted half note

half note

quarter note eighth note

sixteenth note

whole rest

half rest

^ quarter rest 7 eighth rest *1 sixteenth rest

Common symbols used in modern musical notation.

biography, (3) the development of musical instruments, (4) music theory (harmony, melody, modes, etc.), and (5) aesthetics, acoustics, and physi¬ ology of the voice, ear, and hand. In recent decades music theory has again become a separate specialization.

musk ox Arctic ruminant (bovid species Ovibos moschatus) with a musky odour, large head, and small ears. The neck, legs, and tail are short. Males stand 5 ft (1.5 m) tall and may weigh almost 900 lb (400 kg). Both sexes have horns. The broad-based horns of males, up to 2 ft (60 cm) long, start at the middle of the head, dip downward along the sides, and then curve upward. The shaggy, dark brown coat reaches nearly to the feet. Eskimos make a fine cashmerelike cloth from the thick wool under¬ coat, which is shed in summer. Musk oxen travel in herds of 20-30, eat¬ ing grass, lichen, willow, and other low-growing plants. See photograph above.

muskellunge Vmos-ko-.lsnjV Species (Esox masquinongy) of somewhat uncommon pike valued as a fighting game fish and, to a lesser extent, as a food fish. It inhabits weedy rivers and lakes of the North American Great Lakes region. It averages about 20 lbs (9 kg), but may grow to 6 ft (1.8 m) long and weigh 80 lbs (36 kg) or more, making it the largest fish in the pike family. The lower part of the cheeks and the gill covers are scaleless.

Musk oxen (Ovibos moschatus).

LEONARD LEE RUE III

musket Muzzle-loading shoulder firearm developed in 16th-century Spain. Designed as a larger version of the harquebus, muskets were fired with matchlocks until flintlocks were developed in the 17th century; flint¬ locks were replaced by percussion locks in the early 19th century. Early muskets were often handled by two persons and fired from a portable rest. Typically 5.5 ft (1.7 m) long and weighing about 20 lbs (9 kg), they fired a ball about 175 yards (160 m) with little accuracy. Later types were smaller, lighter, and accurate enough to hit a person at 80-100 yards (75-90 m). The musket was replaced in the mid-19th century by the breech-loading rifle.

Muskogean \m3s-'ko-je-9n\ languages Family of about eight North American Indian languages spoken or formerly spoken across much of what is now the southeastern U.S. In the 16th century Koasati (Coush- atta) and Alabama were probably spoken in what is now northern Ala¬ bama, Creek (Muskogee) and Hitchiti in Alabama and Georgia, and Apalachee in the Florida Panhandle. To the west were Chickasaw in north¬ ern Mississippi and western Tennessee and Choctaw in central Missis¬ sippi. By the mid-19th century Apalachee was long extinct, and the forced removals of the 1830s (see Trail of Tears) had pushed most of the remain¬ ing Muskogean-speakers either west of the Mississippi or into Florida, where the Seminole continue to speak a dialect of Creek in central Florida and Mikasuki (Miccosukee) in the Everglades. The extant Muskogean languages continue to be spoken, at least by adults, with Choctaw (in Oklahoma and Mississippi) having the most speakers.

muskrat Either of two semiaquatic, brown rodent species (family Crice- tidae) native to marshes, shallow lakes, and streams of North America and introduced into Europe. The compact, heavy-bodied muskrat, or musquash ( Ondatra zibethica ), is about 12 in. (30 cm) long, not includ¬ ing the long, scaly, flat tail. The par¬ tially webbed hind feet have a stiff, bristly fringe. Anal sacs produce a musky secretion. The commercially valuable fur consists of long, stiff, glossy guard hairs overlying a dense, soft underfur. Muskrats live in either a burrow dug into the bank or a reed-and-rush mound built in the water. They eat sedges, reeds, roots, and an occasional aquatic animal. The round-tailed muskrat, or Florida water rat (Neofiber alleni ), is smaller.

Muslim Brotherhood Arabic Al-lkhwan al-Muslimun Religio- political organization founded in Egypt in 1928 by Hasan al-Banna (1906- 49) that promoted the Qur’an and HadIth as the proper basis for society. It quickly gained many followers throughout North Africa and the Middle East and influenced the development of Muslim groups in other regions. It became politicized after 1938, rejecting Westernization, modernization, and secularization. Suppressed in Egypt after a 1954 assassination attempt

Muskrat (Ondatra zibethica ).

JOHN H. GERARD

Muslim calendar ► mutation I 1317

on Gamal Abdel Nasser, it operated clandestinely in the 1960s and ’70s. Beginning in the late 1980s, it experienced an upsurge; though its can¬ didates were often listed under other parties, Brotherhood candidates com¬ peted in legislative elections in Egypt and Jordan.

Muslim calendar See Muslim calendar

Muslim League orig. All India Muslim League Political group that led the movement calling for a separate Muslim country to be cre¬ ated out of the partition of British India (1947). The league was founded in 1906, and in 1913 it adopted self-government for India as its goal. For several decades it supported Hindu-Muslim unity in an independent India, but in 1940, fearing Hindu domination, the league called for a separate state for India’s Muslims. After the creation of Pakistan in 1947, the Mus¬ lim League (as the All Pakistan Muslim League) became Pakistan’s domi¬ nant political party, but it gradually declined in popularity and by the 1970s had disappeared altogether. See also Mohammed Ali Jinnah.

mussel Any of numerous bivalve species of either the marine family Mytilidae, found worldwide, or the freshwater superfamily Unionacea, called naiads, found mostly in the U.S. and Southeast Asia. Marine mussels are usually wedge-shaped or pear-shaped and 2-6 in. (5-15 cm) long. They may be smooth or ribbed and often have a hairy covering. The shells of many species are dark blue or greenish brown on the outside and pearly on the inside. Mussels attach themselves to solid objects or to one another, often forming dense clus¬ ters. Some burrow into soft mud or wood. They are eaten by birds and starfishes, and some species are raised commercially for food.

Musset XmiB-'saV (Louis-Charles-) Alfred de (b. Dec. 11, 1810, Paris, France—d. May 2, 1857, Paris) French poet and playwright. A member of a noble family, Musset came under the influence of Roman¬ ticism in adolescence and produced his first work, Stories of Spain and of Italy, in 1830. After an early play failed, he published historical trag¬ edies and comedies but refused to let them be performed. He is best remembered for his poetry, including light satirical pieces and poems of dazzling technical virtuosity, as well as passionate, eloquent lyrics such as “La Nuit d’octobre” (1837). A fitful love affair with George Sand inspired some of his finest work.

Mussolini, Benito (Amilcare Andrea) known as II Duce

\il-'du-cha\ (b. July 29, 1883, Pre- dappio, Italy—d. April 28, 1945, near Dongo) Italian dictator (1922- 43). An unruly but intelligent youth, he became an ardent socialist and served as editor of the party newspa¬ per, Avanti! (1912-14). When he reversed his opposition to World War I, he was ousted by the party. He founded the pro-war II Popolo d’Italia, served with the Italian army (1915-17), then returned to his edi¬ torship. Advocating government by dictatorship, he formed a political group in 1919 that marked the begin¬ ning of fascism. A dynamic and cap¬ tivating orator at rallies, he organized the March on Rome (1922) to prevent a socialist-led general strike. After the government fell, he was appointed prime minister, the youngest in Italian history. He obtained a law to establish the fascists as the majority party and became known as II Duce (“The Leader”). He restored order to the country and introduced social reforms and public works improvements that won widespread popular support. His dreams of empire led to the invasion of Abyssinia (later Ethiopia) in 1935. Supported in his fascist schemes by Adolf Hitler but wary of German power, Mussolini agreed to the Rome-Berlin Axis and declared war on the Allies in 1940. Italian military defeats in Greece and North Africa led to growing disillusionment with Mussolini. After the Allied invasion of Sicily (1943), the Fascist Grand Council dismissed him

from office. He was arrested and imprisoned but rescued by German com¬ mandos, then became head of the Hitler-installed puppet government at Salo in northern Italy. As German defenses in Italy collapsed in 1945, Mussolini tried to escape to Austria but was captured and executed by Italian partisans.

Mussorgsky \mu-'sorg-ske\, Modest (Petrovich) (b. March 21, 1839, Karevo, Russia—d. March 28, 1881, St. Petersburg) Russian com¬ poser. Composing without training in his teens, he met several of the composers with whom he later made up The Five, a group with the com¬ mon goal of creating a nationalist school of Russian music. He received his first composition lessons from Mily Balakirev in 1857; he soon resigned from his military regiment to devote himself to music. He held a series of government jobs, but his worsening alcoholism eventually made him unemployable. His personal decline was accompanied by maturity as a composer, and he wrote his major works, including the symphonic poem Night on Bald Mountain (1867), the great opera Boris Godunov (1868), and the famous piano cycle Pictures at an Exhibition (1874). His 65 songs describe vivid scenes of Russian life and realistically reproduce the inflec¬ tions of the spoken Russian language. After Mussorgsky’s death, his works were published in drastically edited form, purged of their distinc¬ tive starkness and unorthodox harmonies; the original versions were made available in 1928.

Mustafa Kemal See Mustafa Kemal Ataturk

Mustang See P-51

mustard family Family Brassicaceae (or Cruciferae), composed of 350 genera of mostly herbaceous plants with peppery-flavored leaves. The pun¬ gent seeds of some species lead the spice trade in volume traded. Mustard flowers take the form of a Greek cross, with four petals, usually white, yel¬ low, or lavender, and an equal number of sepals. The seeds are produced in podlike fruits. Members of the mustard family include many plants of eco¬ nomic importance that have been extensively altered and domesticated by humans. The most important genus is Brassica (see brassica); turnips, rad¬ ishes, rutabagas, and many ornamental plants are also members of the fam¬ ily. As a spice, mustard is sold in seed, powder, or paste form.

Mut \'mut\ In Egyptian religion, a sky goddess and divine mother. Mut may have originated either in the Nile River delta or in Middle Egypt. During the 18th dynasty (1539-1292 bc), she became the companion of the god Amon at Thebes. Amon, Mut, and the young god Khons (said to be her son) formed the Theban triad. The name Mut means “mother,” and her role was that of an older woman among the gods. She was usually represented as a woman wearing a double crown; she was also sometimes depicted with the head of a lioness.

mutagen Vmyii-to-jonV Any agent capable of altering a cell’s genetic makeup by changing the structure of the hereditary material, DNA. Many forms of electromagnetic radiation (e.g., cosmic rays, X rays, ultraviolet light) are mutagenic, as are various chemical compounds. The effects of some mutagens are increased or suppressed in some organisms by the presence of certain other, nonmutagenic substances; oxygen, for example, makes cells more sensitive to the mutagenic effects of X rays.

Mutanabb? N.mu-ta-'nab-beV (Abu al-Tayyib Ahmad ibn Husayn) al- (b. 915, Al-Kufah, Iraq—d. Sept. 23, 965, near Dayr al- c Aqul) Poet regarded by many as the greatest in the Arabic language. Al-MutanabbI received an education, unusual for his time and rank, because of his poetic talent. He lived among the Bedouin and, claiming to be a prophet, led an unsuccessful Muslim revolt in Syria. After two years’ imprisonment he recanted and became a wandering poet, eventually leav¬ ing Syria for Egypt and Iran. He primarily wrote panegyrics in a flowery, bombastic style marked by improbable metaphors. His poetic voice is proud and arrogant in tone, and his verse is crafted with consummate skill and artistry. His powerful influence on Arabic poetry persisted into mod¬ ern times.

mutation Alteration in the genetic material of a cell that is transmitted to the cell’s offspring. Mutations may be spontaneous or induced by out¬ side factors (mutagens). They take place in the genes, occurring when one base is substituted for another in the sequence of bases that determines the genetic code, or when one or more bases are inserted or deleted from a gene. Many mutations are harmless, often masked by the presence of a dominant normal gene (see dominance). Some have serious consequences; for example, a particular mutation inherited from both parents results in sickle-cell anemia. Only mutations that occur in the sex cells (eggs or

Atlantic ribbed mussels (Modiolus demissus)

WALTER DAWN

1318 I Mu'tazilah ► myasthenia gravis

sperm) can be transmitted to the individual’s offspring. Alterations caused by these mutations are usually harmful. In the rare instances in which a mutation produces a beneficial change, the percentage of organisms with this gene will tend to increase until the mutated gene becomes the norm in the population. In this way, beneficial mutations serve as the raw mate¬ rial of EVOLUTION.

Mu'tazilah \mu-'ta-zi-b\ In Islam, one of two early religious groups. The term applies primarily to members of a theological school that flourished in Al- Basrah and Baghdad in the 8th-10th century. These Mu'tazilah were the first Muslims to employ systematically the categories and methods of Hel¬ lenistic philosophy to derive their dogma. The tenets of their faith included belief in the oneness of God ( tawhid ), advocation of human free will (the ability to choose between good and evil), and the fundamental belief in God’s fairness (i.e., God will punish only those deserving of punishment). Their doctrine of a created Qur’an (the eternal nature of which was advo¬ cated by their opponents) held sway in the caliphal court briefly in the early 9th century and was the first instance in the Muslim world in which politi¬ cal authorities attempted to enforce any form of doctrinal rigour; the Mu'tazilah theological program soon lost political sway, however, and had faded by the 13th century. Though it was ultimately abandoned by Sunnite Muslims (the group’s methods came to be accepted by some ShTite groups), its true importance lay in the fact that it forced other theological groups to embrace a more rigorous dialectical method (see kalam).

mutiny Any concerted resistance to lawful military authority. Mutiny was formerly regarded as a most serious offense, especially aboard ships at sea. Wide disciplinary powers were given the commanding officer, including the power to inflict capital punishment without a court-martial. With the development of radio communications, the threat diminished and harsh punishment was prohibited in the absence of a court-martial.

Mutsuhito See Meiji emperor

mutual fund or unit trust or open-end trust Company that invests the funds of its subscribers in diversified securities and issues units representing shares in those holdings. It differs from an investment trust, which issues shares in the company itself. While investment trusts have a fixed capitalization and a limited number of shares for sale, mutual funds make a continuous offering of new shares at net asset value (plus a sales charge) and redeem their shares on demand at net asset value, determined daily by the market value of the securities they hold.

Muwahhidun, al- North African dynasty: see Almohad dynasty; Ara¬ bian religious group: see Wahhabi

Muybridge Vml-.brijV Eadweard orig. Edward James Mug- geridge (b. April 9, 1830, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, Eng.—d. May 8, 1904, Kingston upon Thames) English photographer. He immi¬ grated to the U.S. from England as a young man, and in 1868 his photos of Yosemite Valley made him famous. Hired by Leland Stanford to pho¬ tograph a trotting horse in motion, to test Stanford’s contention that it lifted all four legs simultaneously, he developed a special fast shutter for his battery of 12 to 24 cameras, and in 1877 he proved Stanford right. He lectured widely on animal locomotion, illustrating his lectures with his zoopraxiscope, a predecessor of the movie projector. His extensive pho¬ tographic studies of human movement (1884-87) have been useful to art¬ ists and scientists.

Mwene Mata pa Vmwa-na-ma-'ta-poX Title borne by a line of kings ruling a South African territory between the Zambezi and Limpopo riv¬ ers, in what is now Zimbabwe and Mozambique, from the 14th to the 17th century. Their domain, often called Matapa (or Mutapa), is associ¬ ated with the historical site of Great Zimbabwe in southeastern Zimbabwe.

Mweru, Lake \'mwa-ru\ French Lac Moero X.lak-mwa-'roX Lake, central Africa. It is located on the boundary between southeastern Demo¬ cratic Republic of the Congo (Zaire) and Zambia, west of the southern tip of Lake Tanganyika. Part of the Congo River system, it is 76 mi (122 km) long and has a surface area of 1,900 sq mi (4,920 sq km). The Lua- pula River, a headstream of the Congo River, flows through it. The Bang- weulu Swamps adjoin the lake.

My Lai \'me-Tl\ Massacre (March 16, 1968) Mass killing of as many as 500 unarmed villagers by U.S. soldiers in the hamlet of My Lai dur¬ ing the Vietnam War. A company of U.S. soldiers on a search-and-destroy mission against the hamlet found no armed Viet Cong there but nonethe¬ less killed all the elderly men, women, and children they could find; few

villagers survived. The incident was initially covered up by high-ranking army officers, but it was later made public by former soldiers. In the ensu¬ ing courts-martial, platoon leader Lt. William Calley was accused of directing the killings and was convicted of premeditated murder and sen¬ tenced to life in prison; but Pres. Richard Nixon intervened on his behalf, and he was paroled after three years. The massacre and other atrocities revealed during the trial divided the U.S. public and contributed to grow¬ ing disillusionment with the war.

Myanmar \'myan-,mar\ or Burma officially Union of Myanmar

Country, Southeast Asia, on the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea. Area: 261,228 sq mi (676,577 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 46,997,000. Capi¬ tals: Yangon (Rangoon)/Pyinmana. Inhabitants are chiefly Burman; oth¬ ers include Chin, Shan, and Karen. Languages: Burmese (official), many

indigenous languages. Religions: Bud¬ dhism, traditional beliefs, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism. Currency: kyat. Myan¬ mar may be divided into five main regions: the northern mountains, the western ranges, the coastal plains, the central lowlands, and the Shan Plateau in the east. Major rivers are the Irrawaddy and the Salween. The tropical cli¬ mate is greatly influenced by the monsoons of southern Asia. Only about one-sixth of this largely mountainous land is arable. It has a centrally planned, developing economy that is largely nationalized and based on agriculture and trade. Rice is the most important crop and principal export; teak is also important. Myanmar is ruled by a military regime; its head of state and government is the chairman of the State Peace and Devel¬ opment Council, assisted by the prime minister. The area was long inhab¬ ited, with the Mon and Pyu states dominant from the 1 st century bc to the 9th century ad. It was united in the 11th century under a Burmese dynasty that was overthrown by the Mongols in the 13th century. The Portuguese, Dutch, and English traded there in the 16th—17th century. The modem Myanmar (Burmese) state was founded in the 18th century by Alaung- paya. Conflict with the British over Assam resulted in a series of wars, and Myanmar fell to the British in 1885. Under British control, it became Burma, a province of India. It was occupied by Japan in World War II and became independent in 1948. The military took power in a coup in 1962 and nationalized major economic sectors. Civilian unrest in the 1980s led to antigovernment rioting that was suppressed by force. In 1990 opposi¬ tion parties won in national elections, but the army continued in control. Trying to negotiate for a freer government amid the unrest, Aung San Suu Kyi was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991.

Bay of Bengal

Cape

Negrais

myasthenia gravis V.ml-os-'the-ne-o-'gra-vosV Chronic autoimmune disease causing muscle weakness. Autoantibodies block the response of muscle cells to acetylcholine. Muscles weaken with repeated use but regain

mycelium ► myrtle I 1319

their strength after rest. The pattern varies, but usually muscles used in eye movements, facial expressions, chewing, swallowing, and respiration are affected first, then neck, trunk, and limb muscles. Severe cases impede breathing. Anticholinesterase drugs stimulate nerve-impulse transmission, and corticosteroids may help. Removal of the thymus has improved severe cases. Remission lasting several years may occur.

mycelium \ml-'se-le-3m\ Mass of branched, tubular filaments (hyphae) of fungi (see fungus) that penetrate soil, wood, and other organic matter. The mycelium makes up the thallus (undifferentiated body) of a typical fungus. The mass may be microscopic in size or developed into visible structures, such as brackets, mushrooms, puffballs, or truffles. The myce¬ lium produces spores, directly or through special fruiting bodies.

Mycenae \ml-'se-ne\ Prehistoric city, northeastern Peloponnese, Greece. A natural rock citadel, it was the legendary capital of Agamemnon. It flourished during the Bronze Age, building the distinctive Mycenaean civi¬ lization. It was at its height in the Aegean c. 1400 bc and declined c. 1100 bc with the invasion of the Dorians from the north. Excavations at Myce¬ nae began in 1840, but the most celebrated discoveries there were those by Heinrich Schliemann c. 1876. Ruins include the Lion Gate, acropolis, granary, and several royal beehive tombs and shaft graves.

Mycenaean \ l ml-s9- , ne-9n\ Any member of a group of warlike Indo- European peoples who entered Greece from the north starting c. 1900 bc and established a Bronze Age culture on the mainland and nearby islands. Their culture was dependent on that of the Minoans of Crete, who for a time politically dominated them. They threw off Minoan control c. 1400 and were dominant in the Aegean until they themselves were over¬ whelmed by the next wave of invaders c. 1150. Mycenae continued to exist as a city-state into the period of Greek dominance, but by the 2nd cen¬ tury ad it was in ruins. Mycenaean myths and legends lived on through oral transmission into later stages of Greek civilization and form the basis of Homeric epic and Greek tragedy. Their language is believed to be the most ancient form of Greek.

mycobacterium \ l mI-ko-bak-'tir-e-3m\ Any of the rod-shaped bacte¬ ria that make up the genus Mycobacterium. The two most important spe¬ cies cause tuberculosis and leprosy in humans; another species causes tuberculosis in both cattle and humans. Some mycobacteria live on decay¬ ing organic matter; others are parasites. Most are found in soil and water in a free-living form or in diseased tissue of animals. Various antibiotics have had some success against mycobacterium infections.

mycology \ml-'ka-l3-je\ Study of fungi (see fungus), including mush¬ rooms and yeasts. Many fungi are useful in medicine and industry. Myco- logical research has led to the development of such antibiotic drugs as penicillin, streptomycin, and tetracycline. Mycology also has important appli¬ cations in the dairy, wine, and baking industries and in the production of dyes and inks. Medical mycology is the study of fungus organisms that cause disease in humans.

mycoplasma V.ml-ko-'plaz-moX Any of the bacteria that make up the genus Mycoplasma. They are among the smallest of bacterial organisms. The cell varies from a spherical or pear shape to that of a slender branched filament. Mycoplasma species are gram-negative (see gram stain) and do not require oxygen. They are colonial microorganisms that lack cell walls. They are parasites of joints and the mucous membranes lining the respi¬ ratory, genital, or digestive tracts of cud-chewing animals, carnivores, rodents, and humans. Toxic by-products excreted by the bacteria accu¬ mulate in the host’s tissues, causing damage. One species causes a wide¬ spread but rarely fatal pneumonia in humans.

mycorrhiza V.mi-ko-'ri-zoN Product of close association between the branched, tubular filaments (hyphae) of a fungus and the roots of higher plants. The association usually enhances the nutrition of both the host plant and the fungal symbiont. The establishment and growth of certain plants (e.g., citrus plants, orchids, pines) depends on mycorrhizae; other plants survive but do not flourish without their fungal symbionts.

mycoses See fungal diseases

mycotoxin Toxin produced by a fungus. Numerous and varied, myc- otoxins can cause hallucinations, skin inflammation, liver damage, hem¬ orrhages, miscarriage, convulsions, neurological disturbances, and/or death in livestock and humans. The best-known mycotoxins are aflatoxin, ergot toxin, and the agents of mushroom poisoning.

Myerson, Goldie See Golda Meir

mynah or myna \'mI-no\ Any of several Asian songbird species of the starling family (Stumidae). The hill mynah ( Gracula religiosa) of southern Asia, called the grackle in India, is about 10 in. (25 cm) long and glossy black with white wing patches, yellow wattles, and orange bill and legs. In the wild, it chuckles and shrieks; caged, it learns to imitate human speech far better than its chief rival, the gray parrot. The common, or Indian, mynah ( Acridotheres tristis ) was introduced into Australia, New Zealand, and Hawaii. The crested mynah (A. cristatellus ), native to China and Indo¬ nesia, was introduced into British Columbia, Canada, but has not spread.

myositis V.ml-o-'sI-tosV Inflammation of muscle tissue, often from bacte¬ rial, viral, or parasitic infection but sometimes of unknown origin. Most types destroy muscle and surrounding tissue. Bacteria may directly infect muscle (usually after injury) or produce substances toxic to it. Some chronic diseases (e.g., tuberculosis, third-stage syphilis) can involve the muscles. Parasites (e.g., tapeworms, protozoans) in contaminated food enter the bloodstream from the intestines and lodge in muscle.

myotonia V.ml-o-'to-ne-oN Disorder causing difficulty relaxing con¬ tracted voluntary muscles. All or only a few may be affected. Myotonia seems to originate in the muscles (myopathy) rather than the nervous sys¬ tem. Certain toxins can cause it. A hereditary form, myotonia congenita (Thomsen disease), can affect eyelid and eye motion, swallowing, or talk¬ ing. Quick movements cause muscle stiffening. There is also a myotonic form of muscular dystrophy. Analgesics, anesthetics, and anticonvulsant drugs can alleviate the symptoms.

Myra Vml-roX Ancient city, Lycia, southern coast of Anatolia. Its loca¬ tion was near the modern city of Kale in southwestern Turkey. Ancient ruins dating from the 5th to 3rd centuries bc include an acropolis, a mag¬ nificent theatre, and several rock-cut tombs that resemble wooden houses and shrines. St. Paul is known to have visited Myra in the 1st century ad, and St. Nicholas was bishop of the city in the 4th century. It was the capi¬ tal of Byzantine Lycia until it fell to the ‘Abbasids in 808.

Myrdal \'mi£r- l dal,\ English Vmir-.dalV (Karl) Gunnar (b. Dec. 6, 1898, Gustafs, Dalarna, Swed.—d. May 17, 1987, Stockholm) Swedish economist and sociologist. He received his Ph.D. from Stockholm Univer¬ sity and taught there from 1933 until 1967. His early work emphasized pure theory, but he later focused on applied economics and social problems. He explored the social and economic problems of African Americans in the U.S. (1938-40) and in 1944 published the classic study An American Dilemma, in which he presented his theory that poverty breeds poverty. In regard to development economics, he argued that rich and poor countries, rather than converging economically, might well diverge, the poor coun¬ tries becoming poorer as the rich countries enjoyed economies of scale and the poor ones were forced to rely on primary products. In 1974 he shared the Nobel Prize with Friedrich von Hayek. His wife, Alva Myrdal (1902- 86), was a sociologist, diplomat, UN administrator, and antiwar activist; she shared the 1982 Nobel Peace Prize with Alfonso Garcia Robles.

Myron Vml-rsnV (b. c. 480 bc, Greece—d. 440 bc) Greek sculptor. An older contemporary of Phidias and Polyclitus, he was considered by the ancients one of the most versatile and innovative of all Attic sculptors.

He was the first Greek sculptor to combine a mastery of movement with a gift for harmonious composi¬ tion. Working almost exclusively in bronze, he is best known for his stud¬ ies of athletes in action, particularly the Discus Thrower, c. 450 bc.

myrtle Any of the evergreen shrubs in the genus Myrtus (family Myrta- ceae). Authorities differ widely over the number of species included; most occur in South America, while some are found in Australia and New Zealand. Common myrtle (M. com¬ munis) is native to the Mediterranean and the Middle East and is cultivated in southern England and the warmer portions of North America. Other plants known as myrtle include the MOUNTAIN LAUREL and PERIWINKLE. The

Discus Thrower, Roman marble copy of Greek bronze by Myron, c. 450 bc; in the National Roman Museum, Rome.

AUNARI—ART RESOURCE

1320 I Mysore ► myxovirus

family Myrtaceae, commonly called the myrtle family, includes the plants that produce the spices allspice and cloves, and the genus Eucalyptus. See also CRAPE MYRTLE.

Mysore \mI-'sor\ City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 742,261), southern Karna¬ taka state, southern India. Situated midway between the Kaveri and Kab- bani rivers, the site was inhabited before the 3rd century bc. The city was the capital of the princely state of Mysore (1799-1831), then it was occu¬ pied by the British. The state’s second largest city, it is an important industrial centre producing textiles, chemicals, and foodstuffs. Sites of interest include the 17th-century British residency, the maharaja’s palace, and the University of Mysore (founded 1916). Nearby Chamundi Hill has a monolith representing Nandi, the sacred bull of the Hindu deity Shiva.

Mysore See Karnataka

mystery play Vernacular drama of the Middle Ages. It developed from the liturgical drama and usually represented a biblical subject. In the 13th century, craft guilds began producing mystery plays at sites removed from the church, adding apocryphal and satirical elements to the dramas. In England groups of 25-50 plays were later organized into lengthy cycles, such as the Chester plays and the Wakefield plays. In England the plays were often performed on moveable pageant wagons, while in France and Italy they were acted on stages with scenery representing heaven, earth, and hell. Technical flourishes such as flying angels and fire-spouting dev¬ ils kept the spectators’ attention. The genre of the mystery play declined by 1600. See also miracle play; morality play.

mystery religion Any of various secret cults of the Greco-Roman world. Derived from primitive tribal ceremonies, mystery religions reached their peak of popularity in Greece in the first three centuries ad. Their members met secretly to share meals and take part in dances and ceremonies, especially initiation rites. The cult of Demeter produced the most famous of the mystery religions, the Eleusinian Mysteries, as well as the Andania mysteries. Dionysus was worshiped in festivals that included wine, choral singing, sexual activity, and mime. The Orphic cult, by con¬ trast, based on sacred writings attributed to Orpheus, required chastity and abstinence from meat and wine. Mystery cults also attached to Arris, Isis, and Jupiter Dolichenus, among others.

mystery story Work of fiction in which the evidence related to a crime or to a mysterious event is so presented that the reader has an opportu¬ nity to consider solutions to the problem, the author’s solution being the final phase of the piece. The mystery story is an age-old popular genre and is related to several other forms. Elements of mystery may be present in narratives of horror or terror, pseudoscientific fantasies, crime stories, accounts of diplomatic intrigue, affairs of codes and ciphers and secret societies, or any situation involving an enigma. See also detective story; GOTHIC NOVEL.

mysticism Spiritual quest for union with the divine. Forms of mysti¬ cism are found in all major religions. Hinduism, with its goal of absorp¬

tion of the soul in the All, is inherently predisposed to mystical experience. Buddhism emphasizes meditation as a means of moving toward nirvana. In Islam, Sufism employs metaphors of intoxication and of the love between bride and bridegroom to express the desire for union with the divine. In Judaism, the foundations of mysticism were laid in the visions of the bib¬ lical prophets and were later developed in the Kabbala and in Hasidism. Mysticism has appeared intermittently in Christianity, notably in the writ¬ ings of St. Augustine and St. Teresa of Avila, and in the works of Meister Eckhart and his 14th-century successors.

myth Traditional story of ostensibly historical events that serves to unfold part of the worldview of a people or explain a practice, belief, or natural phenomenon. Myths relate the events, conditions, and deeds of gods or superhuman beings that are outside ordinary human life and yet basic to it. These events are set in a time altogether different from his¬ torical time, often at the beginning of creation or at an early stage of pre¬ history. A culture’s myths are usually closely related to its religious beliefs and rituals. The modem study of myth arose with early 19th-century Romanticism. Wilhelm Mannhardt, James George Frazer, and others later employed a more comparative approach. Sigmund Freud viewed myth as an expression of repressed ideas, a view later expanded by Carl Gustav Jung in his theory of the “collective unconscious” and the mythical arche¬ types that arise out of it. Bronislaw Malinowski emphasized how myth ful¬ fills common social functions, providing a model or “charter” for human behaviour. Claude Levi-Strauss discerned underlying structures in the for¬ mal relations and patterns of myths throughout the world. Mircea Eliade and Rudolf Otto held that myth is to be understood solely as a religious phenomenon. Features of myth are shared by other kinds of literature. Origin tales explain the source or causes of various aspects of nature or human society and life. Fairy tales deal with extraordinary beings and events but lack the authority of myth. Sagas and epics claim authority and truth but reflect specific historical settings.

myxedema V.mik-so-'de-moX Physiological reaction to low levels of thyroid hormone in adults, either due to thyroid-gland removal, lack of function, or atrophy, or secondary to a pituitary-gland disorder. Gradual changes include enlarged tongue, thick, puffy skin, drowsiness, cardiac enlargement, and slow metabolism. Low thyroid hormone affects levels of other hormones, and may result in low blood sodium and disorders of the reproductive system (including reduced fertility), adrenal glands, and circulatory system. Treatment is with thyroid hormone.

Myxomycetes See slime mold

myxovirus X.mik-so-'vI-rosV Any of a group of viruses that are agents of influenza and can cause the common cold, mumps, and measles in humans, canine distemper, rinderpest in cattle, and Newcastle disease in fowl. The virus particle is encased in a fatty membrane, variable in shape from spheroidal to threadlike, and studded with spikelike protein projections; it contains RNA. These viruses react with a protein on the surface of red blood cells; many of them cause red blood cells to clump together.

NAACP ► Nadir Shah I 1321

NAACP in full National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Oldest and largest U.S. civil rights organization. It was founded in 1909 to secure political, educational, social, and eco¬ nomic equality for African Americans; W.E.B. Du Bois and Ida B. Wells were among its 60 founders. Headquartered in Baltimore, Md., the NAACP has undertaken litigation, political activity, and public education programs. In 1939 it organized the independent Legal Defense and Edu¬ cation Fund as its legal arm, which sued for school desegregation in Brown v. Board of Education (1954). During World War II it pressed for desegregation of the armed forces, which was achieved in 1948. In 1967 its general counsel, Thurgood AAarshall, became the U.S. Supreme Court’s first African American justice.

Naber, John (b. Jan. 20, 1956, Evanston, Ill.,

U.S.) U.S. swimmer. He swam for the University of Southern California, winning 15 championships. At the 1976 Olympics he won four gold medals and a sil¬ ver; his world-record times in the 100-m and 200-m backstroke stood for seven years.

Nabis \'na-bez\ (from Hebrew navi, “prophet” or “seer”) Group of French artists who paved the way for the development of abstract art in the early 20th century.

The Nabis preached that a work of art is the visual expression of an artist’s synthesis of nature and his or her personal aesthetic. They were influenced by Paul Gauguin and the Pont-Aven school, as well as by Japa¬ nese woodcuts. Symbolist painting, and the Pre- Raphaelites. Paul Serusier (1865-1927), the group’s founder, painted the first Nabi work, Landscape at the Bois d’Amour at Pont-Aven (also called Talis¬ man', 1888). Original members included Pierre Bonnard and Edouard Vuil¬ lard; a later member was Aristide Maillol.

Nabisco in full National Biscuit Company Former U.S. snack food and bakery product company. It was formed in 1989 when the Ameri¬ can Biscuit Company merged with the New York Biscuit Company and went on to introduce a number of popular consumer brands such as Oreo cookies (1912) and Ritz crackers (1934). After being acquired by R.J. Reynolds in 1985 and becoming part of RJR Nabisco, Nabisco was sold to Philip Morris Cos. (renamed Altria Group, Inc.), which was the parent company of Kraft Foods, Inc.

Nabokov Vno-'bo-kof, 'na-bo-.koA, Vladimir (Vladimirovich) (b.

April 22, 1899, St. Petersburg,

Russia—d. July 2, 1977, Montreux,

Switz.) Russian-bom U.S novelist and critic. Bom to an aristocratic family, he had an English-speaking governess. He published two collec¬ tions of verse before leaving Russia in 1919 for Cambridge University, but by 1925 he had turned to prose as his main genre. During 1919-40 he lived in England, Germany, and France. His life before he moved to the U.S. in 1940 is recalled in his superb autobiography. Speak,

Memory (1951). Beginning with King, Queen, Knave (1928), his writ¬ ing began to feature intricate stylis¬ tic devices. His novels are principally concerned with the prob¬ lem of art itself, presented in various disguises, as in Invitation to a Beheading (1938). Parody is frequent in The Gift (1937-38) and later works. His novels written in English include the notorious and greatly admired best-seller Lolita (1955), which brought him wealth and interna¬ tional fame; Pale Fire (1962); and Ada (1969). His critical works include a monumental translation of and commentary on Aleksandr Pushkin’s Eugene Onegin, 4 vol. (1964).

Nabu \'na-,bu\ Major god in the Assyrian-Baby Ionian pantheon, the son of Marduk. He was patron of the art of writing and a god of vegetation. As the recorder of the fates assigned to humans by the gods, Nabu’s sym¬ bols were the clay tablet and the stylus. His holy city was Borsippa. God¬

desses associated with Nabu were Nana, a Sumerian deity; the Assyrian Nissaba; and the Akkadian Tashmetum.

Nabuco \na-'bu-ko\ (de Araujo), Joaquim (Aurelio Barretto)

(b.Aug. 19,1849, Recife, Braz.—d. Jan. 17,1910, Washington, D.C., U.S.) Leader of Brazil’s abolitionist movement. Both in the national Chamber of Deputies (from 1878) and in the Brazilian Anti-Slavery Society, which he founded, Nabuco worked tirelessly to end slavery in Brazil. Emancipation was proclaimed in 1888, and in the ensuing economic disruption the emperor Pedro 11 was overthrown (1889) and a republic established. A mon¬ archist, Nabuco retired from public life until 1900, when he accepted the republic and entered its service. As ambassador to the U.S. he distinguished himself as an advocate of Pan-Americanism.

Nadar \na-'dar\ orig. Gaspard-Felix Tour- nachon (b. April 5, 1820, Paris, France—d. March 21, 1910, Paris) French photographer, caricatur¬ ist, and writer. When his father’s bankruptcy forced him to leave medical school in 1838, he settled in Paris and began selling caricatures to humour magazines. By 1853 he had become an expert photographer and had opened a portrait studio. His studies of prominent Pari¬ sians such as Charles Baudelaire (1855) and Eugene Dela¬ croix (1855) were exceptional in their naturalness, in contrast to the stiff formality of most portraits of the time. His studio became a favourite meeting place of the Paris intelligentsia and was the site of the first Impres¬ sionist exhibit. A tireless innovator, in 1855 he patented the idea of using aerial photographs in mapmaking and surveying, and in 1858 he himself made the first suc¬ cessful aerial photograph, from a balloon. He also wrote novels, essays, satires, and autobiographical works.

Nader, Ralph (b. Feb. 27, 1934, Winsted, Conn., U.S.) U.S. lawyer and consumer advocate. The son of Lebanese immigrants, he attended Princeton University and Harvard Law School. In 1963 he left his private law practice in Hartford, Conn., to hitchhike to Washington, D.C., where he began public interest work. His concern about unsafe car designs resulted in the best-selling book Unsafe at Any Speed (1965), which led directly to the passage of national auto-safety standards. Since then he and his associates, known as “Nader’s Raiders,” have performed numer¬ ous studies on consumer health, safety, and financial issues and have lob¬ bied for greater government regulation of business and industry in a variety of areas. He was instrumental in the passage of the Freedom of Information Act (1966) and in establishing the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), the Consumer Product Safety Commis¬ sion, and the Environmental Protec¬ tion Agency. He also founded the consumer organization Public Citi¬ zen and the U.S. Public Interest Research Group, an umbrella orga¬ nization for other public interest research groups. As the Green Party candidate in the 2000 U.S. presiden¬ tial election, he won 3% of the national vote. His work has had major and lasting effects on many aspects of American life.

Nadir Shah \na-'der-'sha\ (b. Oct.

22, 1688, Kobhan, Safavid Iran—d.

June 1747, near Fathabad) Iranian conqueror and ruler. Originally a bandit of the Turkish Afshar tribes, he helped restore Tahmasp II of the Safavid dynasty to Iran’s throne, defeating the Ghilzay Afghan usurper Mahmud. He later deposed Tahmasp II to place the latter’s infant son on the throne; he made himself regent, then deposed the son and took the throne himself in 1736.

He engaged in constant warfare with his neighbours, enlarging his empire from the Indus River to the Cauca-

Nabokov, 1968

Nadir Shah, painting by an unknown artist, c. 1740; in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London

COURTESY OF THE VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, LONDON

1322 I NAFTA ► Nahua

sus Mountains. Suspicious of those around him and capriciously cruel, he was assassinated by his own troops.

NAFTA in full North American Free Trade Agreement Trade pact signed by Canada, the U.S., and Mexico in 1992, which took effect in 1994. Inspired by the success of the European Community in reducing trade barriers among its members, NAFTA created the world’s largest free-trade area. It basically extended to Mexico the provisions of a 1988 Canada-U.S. free-trade agreement, calling for elimination of all trade bar¬ riers over a 15-year period, granting U.S. and Canadian companies access to certain Mexican markets, and incorporating agreements on labour and the environment. See also General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade; World Trade Organization.

Nag Ham mad i \'nag-ham-'ma-de\ Town in Upper Egypt on the Nile. In 1945 a collection of 13 codices containing 53 Gnostic texts (scriptures and commentaries) was found nearby at the site of an ancient settlement on the river’s eastern bank. Written in the Coptic language, the texts were composed in the 2nd or 3rd century and copied in the 4th century. They include accounts of the life of Jesus and his sayings after his resurrection, predictions of the apocalypse, and theological treatises. As the only sur¬ viving documents written by Gnostics themselves, they constitute a major source of knowledge about Gnosticism.

naga Vna-go\ In Hindu and Buddhist mythology, a semidivine being, half human and half serpent. Nagas can assume either wholly human or wholly serpentine form. They live in an underground kingdom filled with beautiful palaces that are adorned with gems. Brahma is said to have rel¬ egated the naga s to the nether regions and to have commanded them to bite only the truly evil or those destined to die prematurely. Nagas are also associated with waters—rivers, lakes, seas, and wells—and are regarded as guardians of treasure. In Buddhism it is believed that the snake king sheltered the Buddha from rain for seven days while he was medi¬ tating.

Naga Hills Hill region, northeastern India and northwestern Myanmar (Burma). A northern extension of the Arakan Mountains system, the hills reach a height of 12,552 ft (3,826 m) at Mount Saramati on the frontier. The densely forested hills receive heavy monsoon rains. The area is inhab¬ ited by tribes of Naga peoples living in small villages.

Nagaland State (pop., 2001 prelim.: 1,988,636), northeastern India. It borders Myanmar (Burma) and the states of Manipur, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh and has an area of 6,401 sq mi (16,579 sq km). Its capital is Kohima. Except for a small area of plain, the entire state is cov¬ ered with ranges of hills that are northward extensions of the Arakan Mountains system. Myanmar ruled the region from 1819 to 1826, when the British began annexing its hill areas. The Naga people accepted state¬ hood within an independent India in 1963. There are more than 20 major Naga tribes and subtribes, with different dialects and customs. About two- thirds are Christian, and most others are Hindu or Muslim. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy. Crops include rice, millet, sugarcane, pota¬ toes, and tobacco.

Nagarjuna \na-'gar-ju-n9\ (b. 150—d. c. 250) Indian monk and phi¬ losopher, founder of the Madhyamika school of Buddhism. Born into a Brahman family, he underwent a spiritual conversion when he studied the doctrines of Mahay ana Buddhism. His Fundamental Wisdom of the Middle Way and The Dialectical Method are critical analyses of false views about how existence arises, the means of knowledge, and the nature of reality. He established the concept of sunyata—emptiness, or the lack of an absolute reality behind the changing forms of existence—as a fun¬ damental tenet of the Madhyamika school.

Nagasaki City (pop., 2003 est.: 418,523), western Kyushu, Japan. It is a seaport and commercial city at the mouth of the Urakami River, where it empties into Nagasaki Harbour. It was the only Japanese port open to foreign trade in 1639-1859. After the Portuguese and English traders were expelled in 1639, only the Dutch, Chinese, and Koreans were allowed into the harbour. In the 19th century it was the winter port of the Russian Asiatic fleet (until 1903). It became a major shipbuilding centre in the early 20th century. In 1945 the second atomic bomb attack was carried out there by the U.S. during World War II; some 40,000 were killed immediately, up to 40,000 more died soon after, and many more were injured. The bomb also destroyed about 40% of the city’s buildings. Nagasaki has been rebuilt and is a spiritual centre for movements to ban NUCLEAR WEAPONS.

Nagorno-Karabakh Region (pop., 2002 est.: 144,300), southwest¬ ern Azerbaijan. It occupies an area of about 1,700 sq mi (4,400 sq km) on the northeastern flank of the Karabakh Range. The region was formerly part of Iran but was annexed by Russia in 1813. In 1923 it was estab¬ lished as an autonomous province of the Azerbaijan S.S.R. In 1988 the region’s Armenian majority demonstrated against Azerbaijanian rule, and in 1991 (after the breakup of the Soviet Union) war broke out between the two ethnic groups. Since 1994 it has been controlled by ethnic Arme¬ nians, though officially it remains part of Azerbaijan.

Nagoya City (pop., 2000 prelim.: 2,171,378), southern Honshu, Japan. Located east of Kyoto, at the head of Ise Bay, it is one of Japan’s leading industrial cities. Manufactures include textiles, watches, bicycles, sewing machines, machine tools, chemicals, and ceramics. The city dates from 1610, when a great castle was erected by the Owari branch of the Tokugawa shogunate; the castle was destroyed during World War II and rebuilt in 1959. The city’s educational and cultural institutions include Nagoya University and the Tokugawa Art Museum. The Atsuta Shrine and the Ise Shrine located there are the oldest and most highly esteemed Shinto shrines in Japan.

Nagpur \'nag-,pur\ City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 2,051,320), northeastern Maharashtra state, India. It is situated along the Nag River, almost at the geographic centre of India. Founded in the 18th century by a Gond prince, it became the capital of members of the Maratha confederacy. In the 19th century it was under British control. The city’s products include textiles, iron goods, pharmaceuticals, transport equipment, cotton, and oranges. It is dominated by the centrally located former British fort. It is an educa¬ tional and cultural centre.

nagual \na-'gwal\ or nahual \na-'wal\ In some Mesoamerican reli¬ gions, a personal guardian spirit that resides in an animal. The person who wishes to find his nagual goes to sleep in an isolated spot, and the animal that appears in a dream or that confronts him when he awakens will there¬ after be his guardian spirit. Many modern Mesoamerican Indians believe that the first creature to cross over the ashes spread before a newborn baby becomes the child’s nagual. In some areas, nagual refers to the animal into which men with magical powers can transform themselves to do evil.

Nagy \'nad y \, Imre (b. June 7, 1896, Kaposvar, Hung., Austria- Hungary—d. June 16, 1958, Budapest, Hung.) Hungarian politician. He fought in World War I, was captured by the Russians, and joined the Red Army. He lived in Moscow (1929-44), then returned to Hungary under the Soviet occupation and held several ministerial posts. An advocate for peas¬ ants’ rights, he became premier (1953-55) but was ousted for his indepen¬ dent ideas. During the Hungarian Revolution (1956), he again served as premier and sought to establish Hungary’s independence from Soviet domination. He made an unsuccessful appeal to the West for help against the invading Soviet troops, and he was arrested, tried, and executed.

Nagy, Laszlo Moholy- See Laszlo Moholy-Nagy

Nahanni \na-'ha-ne\ National Park National park, southwestern Northwest Territories, Canada. Established in 1972, it occupies an area of 1,177,700 acres (476,968 hectares). Its central feature is the South Nah¬ anni River, a tributary of the Lard River; it flows southeast from the Mack¬ enzie Mountains and is 350 mi (563 km) long. The park also contains three large canyons and a variety of birds, wildlife, and flowers.

Nahdah Vna-hs-doX, Hizb al- Arabic "Renaissance Party"

Tunisian political party founded in 1981 by Rachid al-GHANNOUCHi and Abdelfattah Mourou (‘Abd al-Fattah Muru) as the Islamic Tendency Movement. Its platform called for a fairer distribution of economic resources, the establishment of multiparty democracy, and the injection of more religiosity in daily life; it claims to seek these goals through non¬ violent means. After 1984 the party was reorganized to operate clandes¬ tinely as well as publicly; it took its current name in 1988. Though the government of Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali has treated party members less harshly than did that of Habib Bourguiba, it remains illegal.

Nahua \'na-wo\ Indian population of Mexico and Central America, of whom the Aztec are the best known. Modern-day Nahua are agricultural, practicing shifting cultivation and working both common and private land. They are skilled weavers, using fibres of the maguey plant, wool, and cot¬ ton. Nahua parents and godparents have strong ties in a Active kin rela¬ tionship. Though they profess Roman Catholicism, the Nahua believe in witchcraft and recognize a variety of supernatural beings. See also Nahuatl LANGUAGE.

nahual ► Nakhon Si Thammarat I 1323

nahual See nagual

Nahuatl \'na-,wa-t 3 l\ language Uto-Aztecan ianguage of Mexico, which continues to be spoken by more than a million modern Mexicans in various markedly divergent dialects. Nahuatl was the language of per¬ haps the majority of the inhabitants of pre-Conquest central Mexico, including Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City), the capital of the Aztec empire. Soon after the Conquest in the 1520s, Nahuatl began to be written in a Spanish-based orthography, and an abundance of documents survive from the colonial period, including annals, municipal records, poetry, formal addresses, and The History of the Things of New Spain, a remarkable compendium of Nahua culture compiled by Indian informants under the direction of the Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagun (1499-1590).

Nahuel Huapi yna-'wel-wa-'peV Lake Lake, in the eastern foothills of the Andes Mountains, southwestern Argentina, near the Chilean border. The largest lake in Argentina’s lake district, it has an area of about 215 sq mi (560 sq km) and a depth of nearly 1,500 ft (460 m). It is dotted with islands, including Victoria Island, the site of a forestry research station. The lake region was designated the Nahuel Huapi National Park in 1934.

Nahuel Huapi National Park National park, southwestern Argen¬ tina. Originating as a reserve in 1903 with a large donation of private land, it became Argentina’s first national park in 1934. The park and adjacent nature reserve now cover about 2,740 sq mi (7,100 sq km) and include dense forests, rivers, glaciers, and snow-clad peaks, including El Trona- dor (“The Thunderer”), Mount Catedral, and Lake Nahuel Huapi.

Nahum \'na-(h)3m\ (fl. late 7th century bc) One of the 12 Minor Proph¬ ets in the Bible, traditional author of the book of Nahum. (His prophecy is part of a larger book, The Twelve, in the Jewish canon.) The prophet Nahum is identified only as a resident of Elkosh. His subject is the col¬ lapse of the Assyrian empire and the fall of its capital, Nineveh (612 bc), which he views as a demonstration of God’s desire to punish the wick¬ edness of the Assyrians, Israel’s longtime enemies.

Nahyan \,na-h3-'yan\ dynasty or Al Nahyan ("Nahyan fam-

ily") Ruling family of the emirate of Abu Dhabi, a constituent part of the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The family were originally Bedouin of the Banu Yas confederation of Arabia from around the oases of Liwa 5 . The first emir arrived in the late 1770s and established a commercial port on the island. The current emir, Sheikh Zayid ibn Sultan Al Nahyan, is also president of the UAE.

nail In construction and carpentry, a slender metal shaft, pointed at one end and flattened at the other end, used as a fastener. Most often used to join pieces of wood, nails are also used with plastic, drywall, masonry, and concrete. They are usually made of steel but can also be made of stainless steel, iron, copper, aluminum, or bronze. The pointed end is called the point, the shaft is called the shank, and the flattened part is called the head.

nail Structure made of keratin that grows on the back of the end of each finger and toe. Nails consist of a root, under the skin; a translucent plate, attached to a nail bed beneath; and a free edge. Nail plate (and probably bed) cells are produced at the root and pushed forward as new cells form behind them. They die and turn white as they reach the free edge and lose contact with the richly vascularized nail bed, which supplies them with nutrients. Fingernails grow continuously at about 0.5 mm per week; toe¬ nails grow more slowly. They protect the tips of fingers and toes and help the fingers pry, pick up small objects, and scratch.

Nain brothers, Le See Le Nain brothers

Naipaul Vnl-.polV Sir V(idiadhar) S(urajprasad) (b. Aug. 17, 1932, Trinidad) Trinidadian novelist. Descended from Hindu Indians who immigrated to Trinidad as indentured servants, Naipaul left Trinidad in 1950 to attend Oxford University and settled in England. He won critical recognition with A House for Mr. Biswas (1961), about an immigrant’s attempt to assert his identity and independence. Other novels that explore, in an often harshly critical tone, the disintegration and alienation typical of postcolonial nations include In a Free State (1971, Booker Prize), Guerrillas (1975), and A Bend in the River (1979). He also wrote The Enigma of Arrival (1987), Haifa Life (2001), and nonfictional studies of India. Naipaul was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2001.

Nairobi \n!-'ro-be\ City (pop., 1999: 2,143,254), capital of Kenya. It is located in south-central Kenya at an elevation of about 5,500 ft (1,680 m). Founded c. 1899 as a colonial railroad site, it became the capital of

British East Africa in 1905. As a government and trade centre, it attracted many settlers from rural Kenya, making it one of the largest cities in Africa. When Kenya gained independence in 1963, it remained the capi¬ tal, with its area greatly expanded by the new constitution. It is Kenya’s principal commercial and industrial city, producing beverages, processed food, cigarettes, and furniture. The city exports many products via the port of Mombasa. Noted institutions and landmarks include the University of Nairobi and the National Museum of Kenya. Tourism is an important industry, with Nairobi National Park attracting many visitors.

Naivasha \m-'va-sha. Lake Lake, southwest-central Kenya. It is located in the Great Rift Valley, at 6,180 ft (1,884 m) above sea level. The lake’s area fluctuates, ranging between about 44 and 383 sq mi (114 and 991 sq km). It has no known outlet. It serves as a weekend resort for resi¬ dents of Nairobi, to the southeast.

naive art also called outsider art Work of artists in sophisticated societies who lack or reject formal training. Naive artists, not to be con¬ fused with hobbyists, create with the same passion as trained artists but without formal knowledge of methods. Naive works are often extremely detailed, with a tendency toward the use of brilliant, saturated colours and a characteristic absence of perspective, which creates the illusion of fig¬ ures floating in space. Well-known naive artists include Henri Rousseau and Grandma Moses.

Najd See Nejd

Nakae Toju Vna-ka-.e-'to-jiA orig. Gen or Mokken (b. April 21, 1608, Omi province, Japan—d. Oct. 11, 1648, Omi province) Japanese Neo-Confucian scholar. A feudal retainer, he left his post in 1634 and returned to his native village to carry out his obligations to his widowed mother. There he taught and studied the works of Zhu Xi, but eventually he abandoned Zhu’s philosophy for the idealist thought of Wang Yang- ming. Like Wang, he believed truth was to be discovered through intu¬ ition and reflection rather than empirical investigation and that the universe’s unifying principle exists in the human mind, not in the exter¬ nal world. He believed that a concept could be fully understood only when acted upon; this emphasis on action made him popular with 19th- and 20th-century Japanese nationalists.

Nakhon Ratchasima \ l na- l kon- l ra-ch3- , se-ma\ City (pop., 1999 est.: 181,400), northeastern Thailand. It is the area’s transportation, commer¬ cial, financial, and governmental centre. It grew rapidly during the 1960s and ’70s with the buildup of its Royal Thai Air Force Base, from which U.S. warplanes operated during the Vietnam War. Nearby are restored 11th-century Khmer temples, a major tourist attraction.

Nakhon Si Thammarat \ l na- 1 kon- l se- l ta-m9- , rat\ Town (pop., 1999 est.: 105,176), southern Thailand, on the eastern coast of the Malay Pen¬ insula. The walled town, one of Thailand’s oldest, was founded more than 1,000 years ago. It was the capital of a powerful state that controlled the midsection of the peninsula and was often called Ligor until the early 20th

Nairobi National Park National park, Kenya. Located about 5 mi (8 km) south of Nairobi, it was established in 1946. It has an area of 45 sq mi (117 sq km). It is noted for wildlife, including lions, gazelles, black rhinoceroses, giraffes, antelopes, zebras, numerous reptiles, and hundreds of bird species.

Naismith Vna-.smith, 'naz-msthV James A. (b. Nov. 6, 1861, Almonte, Ont., Can.—d. Nov. 28,

1939, Lawrence, Kan., U.S.)

Canadian-born U.S. physical educa¬ tion instructor, inventor of basketball.

He studied theology but excelled in sports. At the YMCA Training School in Springfield, Mass. (1890- 95), he was asked to devise a new indoor winter sport. His version of basketball called for nine players (later reduced to five) per team and the use of peach baskets (later netted hoops) as goals. He was coach of the basketball team at the University of

Kansas (1898-1937). He is also —-

credited with inventing the protec¬ tive helmet for gridiron football players. The Naismith Memorial Bas¬ ketball Hall of Fame was incorporated in Springfield in 1959.

James A. Naismith holding a ball and a peach basket, the first basketball equipment.

1324 I Nalanda ► Nanchang

century. It is the area’s commercial centre and site of the Wat Mahathudu temple complex. The town is noted for its niello work in silver.

Nalanda \na-'l3n-d9\ Buddhist monastic centre, often spoken of as a university, in northern Bihar state, India. Though it is traditionally dated to the time of the Buddha (6th-5th centuries bc), archaeological excava¬ tions date its foundations to the 5th century ad. It housed a population of several thousand teachers and students. Topics studied included logic, grammar, astronomy, and medicine. The Chinese pilgrims Xuanzang and Yijing provided vivid accounts of Nalanda in the late 7th century. Nalanda continued to flourish through the 12th century and became a centre of religious sculpture. It was probably sacked during Muslim raids c. 1200 and never recovered.

Nalchik \'nal y -chik\ City (pop., 1999 est.: 234,700), southwestern Rus¬ sia. It lies along the Nalchik River where the river leaves the Caucasian foothills. Founded as a Russian fortress in 1818, it gained importance after the Russian Revolution of 1917. It is a popular holiday, climbing, and health resort, and it has a university and research institute. It contains considerable industry, including engineering and hydrometallurgy.

Namath Vna-mothX, Joe in full Joseph William Namath (b. May

31, 1943, Beaver Falls, Pa., U.S.) U.S. football quarterback. He devel¬ oped his quarterback skills at the University of Alabama. An exceptional passer, in his third season with the New York Jets (1965-77) he threw for a record 4,007 yards. Though long hampered by knee injuries, by the time of his retirement he had set seasonal and career records for most games with 300 yards or more gained in passing. The nickname “Broadway Joe” reflected his fondness for New York nightlife.

Namatjira, Albert (b. July 28, 1902, Hermannsburg, near Alice Springs, N.Terr., Austl.—d. Aug. 8, 1959, Alice Springs) Australian Aboriginal painter. A member of the Aranda tribe, Namatjira learned European watercolour painting techniques at a Lutheran mission school. In 1936 he sold his first painting, and, in 1938, he sold all 41 waterco¬ lours on display in his first major solo exhibition in Melbourne. He exhib¬ ited his work—generally depictions of the desertlike landscape of central Australia—frequently in the next two decades and became well known in Australia and overseas. One of his paintings was presented to Queen Elizabeth II in 1954.

Nambudiri \n3m-'bu-dre\ Dominant caste of the Indian state of Ker¬ ala. Rigidly orthodox, its members regard themselves as the representa¬ tives of the ancient Vedic religion and of the traditional Hindu code. They place great emphasis on their priestly status and do not normally engage in business. The chief landowners of Kerala, they derive their wealth from their landholdings.

name One or more words designating an individual entity. The names of certain specific people, places, and things, called proper nouns, are capitalized. Types of names include personal names (Sheila, Raul), place- names (London, Nairobi), titles of works of art (Mona Lisa , Paradise Lost), brand names (Sanka, Vaseline), names of historical events or eras (War of the Roses, Renaissance), and political, artistic, or philosophical movements (Progressivism, Cubism). Personal names may pass from one culture to another, often changing form—Jochanan (Hebrew), Johann (German), John (English), Ian (Scottish), etc. Family names (surnames) are of more recent origin; the conventions that govern them have existed only since the 11th century. Many hereditary family names came from given names—for example, Alfred, the son of John, might be called Alfred Johnson. Others came from place-names or occupations—Henri from the town of Avignon might become Henri d’Avignon, and Robert, a black¬ smith, might become Robert Smith.

Namib Desert Vna-mib\ Desert region, extending 1,200 mi (1,900 km) from Namibe, Angola, along the entire coast of Namibia to the Olifants River in South Africa. It is an almost rainless area, 50-80 mi (80-130 km) wide over most of its length, traversed by rail lines linking Walvis Bay with the Republic of South Africa. It is basically a smooth platform of bedrock of various types and ages. In the southern half the platform is covered with sand. The eastern part, the Inner Namib, supports large numbers of antelope. The shore area has a dense population of marine birds, including flamingos, pelicans, and penguins.

Namibia \n3-'mi-be-9\ officially Republic of Namibia Country, southwest coast of Africa. Area: 318,580 sq mi (825,118 sq km). Popu¬ lation (2005 est.): 2,030,000. Capital: Windhoek. About one-third of the people are Ovambo. Others include Nama, Kavango, Herero, and San.

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Languages: English (official), various Bantu languages (notably Ovambo), Afri¬ kaans, San. Religions: Christianity (Protes¬ tant, Roman Catholic, other Christians); also traditional beliefs. Currency: Namib¬ ian dollar. Namibia may be divided into three broad regions: the Namib Desert, the Central Plateau, and the Kalahari Desert. The economy is based largely on agriculture and on the production and export of diamonds. Namibia is a republic with two legislative houses; its head of state and government is the president. Long inhabited by indigenous peoples, it was explored by the Portuguese in the late 15th century. In 1884 it was annexed by Germany as German South West Africa. It was captured in World War I by South Africa (and subsequently called South West Africa until 1968), which received it as a mandate from the League of Nations in 1919 and refused to give it up after World War II. A UN resolution in 1966 ending the mandate was challenged by South Africa in the 1970s and ’80s. Through long negotiations involving many factions and inter¬ ests, Namibia achieved independence in 1990. The country has been severely affected by the AIDS epidemic; a large proportion of the popu¬ lation has become infected with HIV.

Namri Songtsen See Gnam-ri strong-btsan Nan-ching See Nanjing

Nanak Vna-nok\ (b. April 15, 1469, Rai Bhoi di Talvandi, near Lahore, India—d. 1539, Kartarpur, Punjab) Indian founder of Sikhism. Bom into a Hindu merchant caste, he worked as a storekeeper until a spiritual expe¬ rience incited him to leave his job and family and begin a 20-year phase of travel. He eventually settled in Kartarpur, a village in Punjab, to which he attracted many disciples, and he became the first Guru of the Sikhs. His doctrine stressed the unity and uniqueness of God and offered salva¬ tion through disciplined meditation on the divine name. It stipulated that meditation must be inward and rejected all external aids such as idols, temples, mosques, scriptures, and set prayers. After his death the stories told of his life were collected in anthologies called the Janam-sakhis.

Nanchang or Nan-ch'ang City (pop., 2003 est.: 1,419,813), capi¬ tal of Jiangxi province, southeastern China. An old walled city on the right bank of the Gan River, it was founded in 201 bc. In ad 959 it became the capital of the Southern Tang dynasty. At the end of the Mongol period it was a battleground between the founder of the Ming dynasty and local warlords. In the early 16th century a rebellion was launched against the Ming regime. Nanchang suffered from the Taping Rebellion. In 1927 it was the site of revolutionary activities of the Chinese Communist Party. Since 1949 it has become industrialized; its products include textiles, milled rice, and automotive parts.

Nanda dynasty ► napalm I 1325

Nanda dynasty Family that ruled Magadha, in northern India (c. 343-c. 321 bc). Legends regarding the low-class origins and ruthless con¬ quests of its founder, Mahapadma, are supported by classical scholarship. The brief period of Nanda rule, along with the succeeding and more lengthy tenure of the Mauryan empire, represent the political aspect of a great transitional epoch in which settled agriculture and the growing use of iron resulted in production surpluses and the growth of cities. There are references to the wealth of the Nandas, their sizable military, and administrative initiatives such as irrigation projects.

Nanga Parbat Vnoq-go-'psr-botX Peak, western Himalayas. It is located in the Pakistani-administered portion of the Kashmir region. In 1895 the British climber Albert F. Mummery led the first expedition to the 26,660-ft (8,126-m) summit, but he died in the attempt. Severe weather and fre¬ quent avalanches caused the deaths of at least 30 other climbers before the Austrian Hermann Buhl reached the top in 1953.

Nangnang or Lelang or Lo-lang Colony of China in northern Korea, established during the Han dynasty (206 bc-ad 220). It was located near modern-day Pyongyang, and from there the Chinese incorporated southern Korea and parts of Japan into their sphere of influence. The Chi¬ nese maintained a commandery there for 400 years. Its presence intro¬ duced the local people to wet-rice cultivation and iron and high-fired ceramic technology.

Nanjing Ynan-'jiqV or Nan-ching conventional Nanking \'nan-'kiq\ City (pop., 2003 est.: 2,966,000), capital of Jiangsu province, east-central China. Located on the southeastern bank of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) northwest of Shanghai, the site has been inhabited for thousands of years. The present city was founded in 1368 by the Ming dynasty, which had its capital there (1368-1421). It was taken by the British in the Opium Wars of 1842 and was largely destroyed in 1864 after having served (since 1853) as the capital of the Taiping revolutionaries. Nanjing was opened as a treaty port in 1899 and was the Nationalist capital from 1928 to 1937; it was then taken by the Japanese, and it was the site of the Nanjing Mas¬ sacre in the Sino-Japanese War of 1937—45. It was occupied by commu¬ nist forces in 1949 and became the provincial capital in 1952. Nanjing is a port city and a major industrial and communications centre with a num¬ ber of universities and colleges. Nearby monuments include mausoleums of Sun Yat-sen and a Ming emperor.

Nanjing, Treaty of (Aug. 29, 1842) Treaty that ended the first Opium War, the first of the unequal treaties between China and foreign imperi¬ alist powers. China paid the British an indemnity, ceded the territory of Hong Kong, and agreed to establish a “fair and reasonable” tariff. British merchants, who had previously been allowed to trade only at Guangzhou (Canton), were now permitted to trade at five “treaty ports” and with whomever they pleased (see Canton system). The treaty was supplemented in 1843 by the British Supplementary Treaty of the Bogue, which allowed British citizens to be tried in British courts and granted Britain any rights in China that China might grant to other countries. See also British East India Company; Lin Zexu.

Nanjing Massacre or Rape of Nanjing (December 1937-January 1938) Mass killing and rape of Chinese people in Nanjing by Japanese soldiers after the Japanese had captured the city on Dec. 13, 1937. The Japanese commander ordered the destruction of Nanjing, which had been the Nationalist Chinese capital. Estimates of the number killed range from 100,000 to more than 300,000, and tens of thousands of rapes were com¬ mitted. Japanese wartime brutality in China contributed to cool relations between the two countries into the 21st century. See also war crime; World War II.

Nanna See Sin

Nanni di Banco \'nan-ne-de-'baq-ko\ (b. 1384/907, Florence, Repub¬ lic of Florence—d. 1421, Florence) Florentine sculptor. Trained by his father, a sculptor who worked on the cathedral of Florence, Nanni received his first important commission from that cathedral, a life-size marble statue of the prophet Isaiah. The classically influenced Four Crowned Saints (c. 1411-13) for Or San Michele is considered his masterpiece. He is thought to have been the teacher of the Della Robbia family. His work exemplifies the stylistic transition from Gothic to Renaissance in early 15th-century Italy.

Nanning \'nan- , niq\ or Nan-ning formerly (1913-45) Yung-ning \'yuq-'niq\ City (pop., 2003 est.: 1,031,672), capital of Guangxi province, southern China. Located on the banks of the Yung River, it was the site

of a county seat first established in ad 318. A frontier prefecture under the Song dynasty, it was later ruled successively by the Ming and Qing dynas¬ ties and was opened to foreign trade in 1907. It was occupied by the Japa¬ nese during the Sino-Japanese War (1937^-5), although it was briefly a U.S. ah' base. It was a supply base for communist forces during the anti- French war in Indochina (see Indochina wars) and the Vietnam War. For¬ merly known mainly as a commercial and administrative centre, it now also has diversified manufacturing.

nanotechnology Manipulation of atoms, molecules, and materials to form structures on the scale of nanometres (billionths of a metre). These nanostructures typically exhibit new properties or behaviours due to quan¬ tum mechanics. In 1959 Richard Feynman first pointed out some potential quantum benefits of miniaturization. A major advancement was the inven¬ tion of molecular-beam epitaxy by Alfred Cho and John Arthur at Bell Laboratories in 1968 and its development in the 1970s, which enabled the controlled deposition of single atomic layers. Scientists have made some progress at building devices, including computer components, at nano¬ scales. Faster progress has occurred in the incorporation of nanomateri¬ als in other products, such as stain-resistant coatings for clothes and invisible sunscreens.

Nansen Vnan-S9n\, Fridtjof (b. Oct. 10, 1861, Store-Frpen, near Kris- tiania, Nor.—d. May 13, 1930, Lysaker, near Oslo) Norwegian explorer and statesman. In 1888 he led the first expedition to cross the ice fields of Greenland. On a later expedition, in 1895, in an attempt to reach the North Pole, he reached the farthest northern latitude then attained. He engaged in scientific research (1896-1917) and led oceanographic expe¬ ditions in the North Atlantic in 1900 and 1910-14. He undertook diplo¬ matic missions as Norway’s first minister to Britain (1906-08) and as head of Norway’s delegation to the new League of Nations (1920). He directed the repatriation from Russia of over 400,000 prisoners of war for the League and organized famine relief in Russia for the Red Cross. In 1922 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace; he used the prize money for international relief work. In 1931 the Nansen International Office for Refugees was established in Geneva.

Nantahala \,nan-t9-'ha-l3\ River River, western North Carolina, U.S. It flows 40 mi (64 km) north through the Nantahala National Forest into the Little Tennessee River and is noted for whitewater rafting and its scenery. The Nantahala Gorge is the subject of many Cherokee legends.

Nantes \'na"t\ Breton Naoned \'na-ned\ ancient Condivincum City (pop., 1999: 270,251), northwestern France. Located on the Loire River, west of Tours, it derives its name from the Namnetes, a Gallic tribe settled there before the Romans conquered Gaul. The Huns, the Normans, and dukes of Brittany claimed it before it passed to France in 1499. It rallied to King Henry IV of France after he signed the Edict of Nantes in 1598. During the French Revolution its populace suffered many executions. Occupied by German troops in World War II, it was heavily damaged by Allied bombing; it was taken by U.S. troops in 1944. Rebuilt into a major economic centre, it has important industrial plants and shipbuilding yards. It also boasts a castle, a cathedral, a university, and an art museum.

Nantes, Edict of (April 13, 1598) Law promulgated by Henry IV of France to grant religious liberty and full civil rights to the Protestant Huguenots. It stipulated that Protestant pastors were to be paid by the state, and public worship was permitted in most of the kingdom, though not in Paris. It also restored Catholicism in all areas where Catholic practice had been interrupted by the Wars of Religion. The edict was resented by the Catholic clergy; Cardinal de Richelieu annulled its political clauses in 1629, and the full edict was revoked by Louis XIV in 1685.

Nantucket Island (pop., 2000: 9,520), Atlantic Ocean, south of Cape Cod, Mass., U.S. It is separated from Martha's Vineyard by the Muskeget Channel. Of glacial origin, it has sandy beaches, a good harbour, and a moderate climate. Purchased from the Plymouth colony in 1641, it became part of New York and was settled in 1659, then ceded to Massachusetts in 1692. In the 1690s Quakers began arriving on the island. It was a whal¬ ing centre in the 18th century. The summer tourist trade is now its eco¬ nomic mainstay.

naos See cella

napalm \'na-,pam\ Organic compound, the aluminum soap or salt of a mixture of fatty acids, used to thicken gasoline for use as an incendiary in flamethrowers and firebombs. The thickened mixture, itself also called napalm, burns more slowly and can be propelled more accurately and over

1326 I Napata ► Napoleon III

greater distances than gasoline. When it comes in contact with surfaces, including the human body, it sticks tenaciously and continues to burn. It was developed and first used by the U.S. in World War II. Its use in the Vietnam War became highly controversial.

Napata Vna-p3-to\ Town in ancient Egypt. Located below the fourth cataract of the Nile River in the northern part of what is now The Sudan, it was the capital (c. 750-590 bc) of the Nubian kingdom of Kush and was part of the homeland of the Karmah culture. From the early 18th dynasty it came under Egyptian influence. Ruins in the area include pyramids and temples.

naphthalene Vnaf-tho-.lenX Simplest of the fused (condensed) ring hydrocarbons, an aromatic compound composed of two benzene rings shar¬ ing two adjacent carbon atoms (C 10 H 8 ). It is a white solid at room tem¬ perature, very volatile, with a characteristic odour. Naphthalene is an important raw material in the manufacture of dyes and synthetic resins and has been used as a moth repellent.

Napier Vna-porX, John (b. 1550, Merchiston Castle, near Edinburgh, Scot.—d. April 4, 1617, Merchiston Castle) Scottish mathematician and champion of Protestantism. He divided his life between attacks on the church of Rome and the pursuit of numerical calculations. On a number of occasions he urged James IV of Scotland to deal firmly with the Catho¬ lic threat. From 1594 he worked on developing secret weapons, includ¬ ing a metal chariot with small holes through which shot could be fired. He developed the concept of the logarithm to facilitate calculations involv¬ ing multiplication, division, roots, and powers. He also introduced the decimal point as a notation for decimal fractions. The set of calculating rods he designed was a precursor to the slide rule.

Naples Italian Napoli Vna-po-l e\ ancient Neapolis City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 993,386), capital of Campania, southern Italy. Located on the northern side of the Bay of Naples, southeast of Rome, it was founded c. 600 bc by refugees from an ancient Greek colony; it was conquered by the Romans in the 4th century bc. Part of the realms of the Byzantines and then the Saracens, in the 11th century it was conquered by the Nor¬ man ruler of Sicily, and through the 19th century it was the capital of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and the Kingdom of Naples. It was entered by Giuseppe de Garibaldi’s expedition in 1860. Heavily damaged in World War II by Allied and German bombing, it was later rebuilt, but it suffered severe earthquake damage in 1980. It is a commercial and cultural centre and a major port with diversified industries. Among the city’s attractions are medieval castles, an abundance of churches, numerous museums, including the National Archaeological Museum of Greco-Roman antiq¬ uities, and a university.

Naples, Bay of Semicircular inlet of the Tyrrhenian Sea, southern Italy. It extends southeastward for 20 mi (32 km) from Cape Miseno to Campanella Point. It is noted for its scenic beauty, which is enhanced by the volcanic hills surrounding it, including Mount Vesuvius. Its major port is Naples, and along its shore are ruins of the ancient cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum.

Naples, Kingdom of Former kingdom comprising the southern por¬ tion of the Italian peninsula. The region was held successively by Romans, Byzantines, Lombards, and Saracens before it was conquered by Normans in the 11th century and incorporated into their kingdom of Sicily. It became a separate kingdom in 1282, but it was reunited with Sicily in 1442 as one of the Two Sicilies. Again separating from Sicily in 1458, it was claimed by France and then by Spain, which ruled it for two centuries. It was ceded to the Austrian Habsburgs in 1713 but was conquered in 1734 by the Spanish Bourbons, who reestablished the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Napoleon annexed it to France and then made it an independent kingdom (1806-15), after which the Bourbons were restored. In 1860 Naples and Sicily voted for unification with northern Italy.

Napo Vna-po\ River River, northeastern Ecuador and northeastern Peru. It rises in Ecuador and flows east across the Peruvian border through dense rainforests for about 550 mi (885 km) to empty into the Amazon River. It is an important transport route. Cattle are raised along its banks, and the forests yield rubber, chicle, and timber.

Napoleon French Napoleon Bonaparte orig. Italian Napo- leone Buonaparte (b. Aug. 15, 1769, Ajaccio, Corsica—d. May 5, 1821, St. Helena Island) French general and emperor (1804-15). Bom to parents of Italian ancestry, he was educated in France and became an army officer in 1785. He fought in the French Revolutionary Wars and was pro¬

moted to brigadier general in 1793. After victories against the Austrians in northern Italy, he negotiated the Treaty of Campo Formio (1797). He attempted to conquer Egypt (1798-99) but was defeated by the British under Horatio Nelson in the Battle of the Nile. The Coup of 18-19 Bru- maire brought him to power in 1799, and he installed a military dictator¬ ship, with himself as First Consul. He introduced numerous reforms in government, including the Napoleonic Code, and reconstructed the French education system. He negotiated the Concordat of 1801 with the pope. After victory against the Austrians at the Battle of Marengo (1800), he embarked on the Napoleonic Wars. The formation of coalitions of Euro¬ pean countries against him led Napoleon to declare France a hereditary empire and to crown himself emperor in 1804. He won his greatest mili¬ tary victory at the Battle of Austerlitz against Austria and Russia in 1805. He defeated Prussia at the Battles of Jena and Auerstedt (1806) and Rus¬ sia at the Battle of Friedland (1807). He then imposed the Treaty of Tilsit on Russia, ending the fourth coalition of countries against France. Despite his loss to Britain at the Battle of Trafalgar, he sought to weaken British commerce and established the Continental System of port blockades. He consolidated his European empire until 1810 but became embroiled in the Peninsular War (1808-14). He led the French army into Austria and defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Wagram (1809), signing the Treaty of Vienna. To enforce the Treaty of Tilsit, he led an army of about 600,000 into Russia in 1812, winning the Battle of Borodino, but was forced to retreat from Moscow with disastrous losses. His army greatly weakened, he was met by a strong coalition of allied powers, who defeated him at the Battle of Leipzig (1813). After Paris was taken by the allied coalition, Napoleon was forced to abdicate in 1814 and was exiled to the island of Elba. In 1815 he mustered a force and returned to France to reestablish himself as emperor for the Hundred Days, but he was decisively defeated at the Battle of Waterloo. He was sent into exile on the remote island of St. Helena, where he died six years later. One of the most celebrated fig¬ ures in history, Napoleon revolutionized military organization and train¬ ing and brought about reforms that permanently influenced civil institutions in France and throughout Europe.

Napoleon II, duke von Reichstadt orig. Napoleon-Francois- Charles-Joseph Bonaparte (b. March 20, 1811, Paris, France—d. July 22, 1832, Schonbrunn, Austria) The only son of Napoleon and Marie- Louise, he was born during Napoleon’s reign as emperor and styled “King of Rome.” On Napoleon’s abdication (1814), Marie-Louise took her son to live at the court of her father. Emperor Francis II, rather than allow him to remain in France as the focus of resistance as Napoleon II. Given the Austrian title of duke of Reichstadt, he was controlled by Klemens, prince von Metternich. In 1830 Bonapartist insurgents attempted to restore Reich¬ stadt as Napoleon II, but he was already ill with tuberculosis, which would kill him.

Napoleon III or Louis-Napoleon orig. Charles-Louis- Napoleon Bonaparte (b. April 20, 1808, Paris, France—d. Jan. 9,

1873, Chislehurst, Kent, Eng.)

Emperor of France (1852-70). The nephew of Napoleon, he spent his youth in exile in Switzerland and Germany (1815-30). With the death in 1832 of Napoleon’s son,

Napoleon-Fran^ois-Charles-Joseph Bonaparte, duke von Reichstadt, he became the claimant to the French throne. After an abortive coup d’etat, he was exiled by King Louis- Philippe to the U.S. After another attempted coup (1840), he was arrested, tried, and imprisoned. He escaped to England (1846) and returned to Paris (1848), where he was elected to the national assembly. He evoked the legend of Napoleon to win the popu¬ lar vote as president of the Second Republic. Attempting to expand his power, he staged a coup in 1851 and made himself dictator; in 1852, as Napoleon III, he became emperor of the Second Empire. Seeking to reestablish French power, he led France into the Crimean War and helped negotiate the treaty at the Congress of Paris (1856). He sided with Sicily against Austria (1859) and was victorious at the Battle of Solferino. He aided Italy in achieving unity and annexed

Napoleon III, detail of a portrait by Hippolyte Flandrin; in the Versailles Museum.

H. ROGER-VIOLLET

Napoleonic Code ► narcolepsy I 1327

Savoy and Nice (1860). He promoted liberalized policies within France, which enjoyed prosperity during much of his reign. In the 1860s he gradu¬ ally introduced political liberalization. He expected material rewards from his “Latin empire” after installing Maximilian as emperor of Mexico (1864- 67) but was disappointed. He kept France neutral in the Austro-Prussian War (1866), but in 1870 Otto von Bismarck contrived to involve France in the disastrous Franco-Prussian War. After leading his troops to defeat in the Battle of Sedan (September 1870), Napoleon surrendered and was deposed as emperor.

Napoleonic Code French Code Civil French civil code enacted by Napoleon in 1804. It clarified and made uniform the private law of France and followed Roman law in being divided into three books: the law of persons, things, and modes of acquiring ownership of things. In Louisi¬ ana, the only civil-law state in the U.S., the civil code of 1825 (revised in 1870 and still in force) is closely connected to the Napoleonic Code. See also law code.

Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815) Series of wars that ranged France against shifting alliances of European powers. Originally an attempt to maintain French strength established by the French Revolutionary Wars, they became efforts by Napoleon to affirm his supremacy in the balance of European power. A victory over Austria at the Battle of Marengo (1800) left France the dominant power on the continent. Only Britain remained strong, and its victory at the Battle of Trafalgar (1805) ended Napoleon’s threat to invade England. Napoleon won major victories in the Battles of Ulm and Austerutz (1805), Jena and Auerstedt (1806), and Friedland (1807) against an alliance of Russia, Austria, and Prussia. The resulting Treaties of Tilsit (1807) and the Treaty of Schonbrunn (1809) left most of Europe from the English Channel to the Russian border either part of the French Empire, controlled by France, or allied to it by treaty. Napoleon’s suc¬ cesses resulted from a strategy of moving his army rapidly, attacking quickly, and defeating each of the disconnected enemy units. His enemies’ responding strategy was to avoid engagement while withdrawing, forcing Napoleon’s supply lines to be overextended; the strategy was successfully used against him by the duke of Wellington in the Peninsular War and by Mikhail, Prince Barclay de Tolly, in Russia. In 1813 the Quadruple Alliance formed to oppose Napoleon and amassed armies that outnumbered his. Defeated at the Battle of Leipzig, he was forced to withdraw west of the Rhine River, and after the invasion of France (1814) he abdicated. He rallied a new army to return in the Hundred Days (1815), but a revived Quadruple Alliance opposed him. His final defeat at the Battle of Water¬ loo was caused by his inability to surprise and to prevent the two armies, led by Wellington and Gebhard von Blucher, from joining forces to defeat him. With his second abdication and exile, the era of the Napoleonic Wars ended.

nappe \'nap\ In geology, a large body or sheet of rock that has been moved by faulting or folding a distance of about 1 mi (1.5 km) or more from its original position. A nappe may be the hanging wall of a low- angle thrust fault (a fracture in the rocks of the Earth’s crust caused by contraction), or it may be a large recumbent fold (i.e., an undulation in the stratified rocks that have an essentially horizontal axial plane); both processes position older rocks over younger rocks.

Naqadah or Naqada \no-'ka-d3\ Archaeological site, east-central Egypt. Located on the west bank of the Nile River north of ancient Karnak, it contains the remains of a Neolithic town and burial grounds of the pre- dynastic period (before c. 2925 bc). It was first excavated by British archaeologist Flinders Petrie in the late 19th century. A modern town at the site has pottery and silk industries.

Nara period (710-784) Period of Japanese history during which the emperor resided in Nara. The capital city was modeled on the capital of Tang-dynasty China, Chang'an, from whom the Japanese borrowed exten¬ sively in this period. Buddhism, which had entered Japan a little more than a century earlier, rose in popularity, and many temples and statues were commissioned. The Chinese writing system was introduced and modi¬ fied by the Japanese (see Japanese writing system), allowing two official histories and the earliest Japanese poetry collections to be produced. The Taiho Code, adopted officially in 701, was based on Chinese law, and the Chinese equal-field system of land distribution, though no longer rigorously enforced, continued to remain in effect. The imperial state extended its frontiers to include southern Kyushu and northern Honshu.

Narayan(swami) \n9-'ri-3n\, R(asipuram) K(rishnaswami)

(b. Oct. 10, 1906, Madras, India—d. May 13, 2001, Madras) Indian writer.

Narayan briefly worked as a teacher before devoting himself to writing. His first novel, Swami and Friends (1935), recounts the adventures of a group of schoolboys. His novels, which typically portray human relation¬ ships and the ironies of Indian daily life in which modern urban existence clashes with ancient tradition, include The English Teacher (1945), The Guide (1958), The Man-Eater of Malgudi (1961), The Vendor of Sweets (1967), A Tiger for Malgudi (1983), and The World of Nagaraj (1990). He also wrote short stories, memoirs, and modern prose versions of Indian epics.

Narayanan, Kocheril Raman (b. Oct. 27, 1920, Uzhavoor, India—d. Nov. 9, 2005, New Delhi) President of India (1997-2002). He was the first member of the country’s lowest social caste—the group tra¬ ditionally considered to be untouchable—to occupy the office. Raised in poverty, he attended the University of Travancore on a scholarship and graduated from the London School of Economics with top academic honours. In 1949 he became a diplomat, despite opposition from upper- caste officials, and was ambassador to several countries, including China and the U.S. After serving as a cabinet minister in parliament, he was named vice president in 1992 and president in 1997.

Narbonensis \,nar-b9-'nen-s3s\ or Gallia Narbonensis Ancient Roman province between the Alps, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Cevennes Mountains, comprising what is now southeastern France. Part of Roman Gallia (see Gaul), it was originally called Provincia (see Provence) and was renamed Gallia Narbonensis under Augustus. It became fully Romanized and was governed by a PROCONSUL. The mild climate attracted many Roman immigrants. Vineyards prospered, olive groves were cultivated, and splendid buildings were erected. The province was also famous for its culture, especially the schools at Massilia (see Marseille).

narcissism Vnar-so-.si-zomV Mental disorder characterized by extreme self-absorption, an exaggerated sense of self-importance, and a need for attention and admiration from others. First identified by Havelock Ellis in 1898, the disorder is named for the mythological Narcissus, who fell in love with his own reflection. In addition to an inflated self-image and addiction to fantasy, narcissism is characterized by an unusual coolness and composure, which is shaken only when the narcissistic confidence is threatened, and by the tendency to take others for granted or to exploit them. According to Sigmund Freud, narcissism is a normal stage in chil¬ dren’s development, but it is considered a disorder when it occurs after puberty.

Narcissus \nar-'si-sos\ In Greek mythology, a beautiful youth who fell in love with his own reflection. He was the son of the river god Ceph- issus and the nymph Leriope. His mother was told by a seer that he would have a long life, provided he never saw his own reflection. His callous rejection of the nymph Echo or of his lover Ameinias drew upon him the gods’ vengeance: he fell in love with his own image in the waters of a spring and wasted away. The narcissus flower sprang up where he died.

narcissus \nar-'si-sos\ Any of about 40 species of bulbous, fragrant, ornamental plants that make up the genus Narcissus in the amaryllis fam¬ ily, native mainly to Europe. Popular spring garden flowers include the daffodil, or narcissus ( N ’. pseudonar¬ cissus), the jonquil ( N.jonquilla ), and poet’s narcissus ( N . poeticus ). The stem usually bears one large blos¬ som. The central crown of each yel¬ low, white, or pink flower ranges in shape from the form of a trumpet, as in the daffodil, to a ringlike cup, as in the poet’s narcissus. Rushlike or flat¬ tened leaves arise from the base of the plant. Though poisonous, the bulbs were once used in medicines.

narcolepsy Sleep disorder with sudden, uncontrollable spells of day¬ time sleep and disturbances of nighttime sleep. It usually begins in youth or early adulthood and is presumably due to dysfunction of certain brain structures. Narcoleptics can fall asleep anywhere and anytime—for instance, while talking, eating, or driving. Sleep usually lasts a moment, rarely over an hour, and the narcoleptic is easily awakened. Sleep paraly¬ sis, normal when falling asleep or waking, occurs during full conscious¬ ness in narcolepsy, with brief but complete inability to move.

Daffodil (Narcissus pseudonarcissus).

WALTER CHANDOHA

1328 I narcotic ► Nash

narcotic Drug that produces analgesia (see analgesic), narcosis (stupor or sleep), and drug addiction. In most people narcotics also produce eupho¬ ria. Those that occur naturally in the opium poppy, notably morphine, have been used since ancient Greek times. The main therapeutic use of nar¬ cotics is for pain relief. Most countries limit the production, sale, and use of narcotics because of their addictive properties and detrimental effects and the incidence of drug abuse. With the development in the 19th cen¬ tury of the hypodermic needle and of heroin, five to 10 times as potent as morphine, the use and abuse of narcotics increased dramatically. A nar¬ cotic overdose can cause central nervous system depression, respiratory failure, and death.

Narmada River Wor-'mo-doN or Nerbudda River River, central India. Rising in Madhya Pradesh state, it is 801 mi (1,289 km) long. It flows west into the Gulf of Khambhat, and forms the traditional boundary between Hindustan and the Deccan. Called Namade by the Greek geog¬ rapher Ptolemy in the 2nd century ad, it has always been an important route between the Arabian Sea and the Ganges River valley. It is a pilgrimage route for Hindus who regard it their most sacred river after the Ganges.

Narodnik \na- , rod- l nik\ Russian Populist Member of a 19th-century socialist movement in Russia. In the 1860s and ’70s the movement attracted intellectuals who believed that political propaganda among the peasants {narod, “people”) would lead to their revolt and the liberaliza¬ tion of the tsarist regime. Attempts to arouse the peasants produced police persecution and arrests, which drove the socialists to more radical meth¬ ods, including terrorism. The revolutionary group Land and Freedom, led by Georgy Plekhanov, was formed in the mid-1870s and continued to work among the peasantry until it split in 1879. The movement’s populist ide¬ ology was revived in the 20th century by the Socialist Revolutionary Party.

Narragansett \,nar-3-'gan-s9t\ Bay Inlet of the Atlantic Ocean, south¬ eastern Rhode Island, U.S. It extends north for 28 mi (45 km) into the state, almost dividing it into two parts. The bay includes Rhode, Prudence, and Conanicut islands and Mount Hope Bay, which is crossed by one of New England’s longest bridges. Since colonial times it has been an active shipping centre; its chief ports are Providence and Newport. Much of the bay’s area is devoted to fishing and recreation.

Narses \'nar-,sez\ (b. c. 480, Armenia—d. 574, probably Rome or Con¬ stantinople) Byzantine general under Justinian I. A eunuch, he commanded the imperial bodyguard and rose to become grand chamberlain. He helped to quell a riot in 532 and save Justinian’s throne; his loyalty to the emperor brought him into the confidence of the emperor’s wife Theodora. In 538 Narses was sent on a military expedition to retake Italy, but his inability to cooperate with the commander allowed the Ostrogoths to triumph. He returned to Italy in 551 and conquered the Ostrogothic kingdom. He held power in Italy until removed by Justinian’s successor (567). It was rumoured that Narses had invited the Lombards, who conquered much of Italy, into the peninsula in retaliation for his dismissal.

narthex Long, narrow porch, usually colonnaded or arcaded, crossing the entire width of a church at its entrance. The narthex is usually sepa¬ rated from the nave by columns or a pierced wall. In Byzantine churches the space is divided into two parts: An exonarthex forms the outer entrance to the building and bounds the esonarthex, which opens onto the nave.

narwhal or narwal \'nar-,wal\ or narwhale Ynar-,wal\ Toothed whale (Monodon monoceros, family Monodontidae) of the Arctic, found in groups of 15-20 along coasts and sometimes in rivers. Narwhals are mottled gray, attain a length of 11.5-16 ft (3.5-5 m), and have no dorsal fin. They have only two teeth, at the upper jaw tip. The male’s left tooth is a straight, protruding tusk, up to 8.9 ft (2.7 m) long, that is grooved on the surface in a left-handed spiral. It was prized in medieval times as the unicorn horn. The tusk is thought to have evolved as a sexual display. Narwhals eat fishes, cephalopods, and crustaceans. They are hunted by humans for their tusks and meat. See photograph opposite.

NASA in full National Aeronautics and Space Administra¬ tion Independent U.S. government agency established in 1958 for research and development of vehicles and activities for aeronautics and space exploration. Its goals include improving human understanding of the universe, the solar system, and Earth and establishing a permanent human presence in space. NASA, previously the National Advisory Com¬ mittee for Aeronautics (NACA), was created largely in response to the Soviet Union’s launch of Sputnik in 1957. Its organization was well under way in 1961, when Pres. John F. Kennedy proposed that the U.S. put a man

on the Moon by the end of the 1960s (see Apollo). Later unmanned pro¬ grams (e.g., Viking, Mariner, Voyager, Galileo) explored other planets and interplanetary space, and orbiting observatories (e.g., the Hubble Space Telescope) have studied the cosmos. NASA also developed and launched various satellites with Earth applications, such as Landsat and communi¬ cations and weather satellites. It planned and developed the space shuttle and led the development and construction of the International Space Sta¬ tion.

NASDAQ Vnaz-dak\ in full National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotations U.S. market for over-the-counter securities. Established in 1971 by the National Association of Securities Dealers (NASD), NASDAQ is an automated quotation system that reports on the trading of domestic securities not listed on the regular stock exchanges. It publishes two composite price indexes daily as well as bank, insurance, transportation, utilities, and industrial indexes. By the 1990s it had surpassed the American Stock Exchange (AMEX) to become the sec¬ ond largest U.S. securities market, in terms of market capitalization, after the New York Stock Exchange. Members register with the Securities and Exchange Commission and meet requirements for assets, capital, public shares, and shareholders. In 1999 it merged with AMEX to form the Nasdaq-Amex Market Group, and in 2000 NASD sold nearly half its interest in NASDAQ to private investors. See also over-the-counter mar¬ ket.

Naseby \naz-be\, Battle of (June 14, 1645) Decisive battle in the English Civil Wars between the Parliamentary New Model Army and the royalist army of Charles I. The two armies met near Naseby, south of Leicester, and deployed along parallel ridges. The 10,000-man royalist force under Prince Rupert drove back part of the Parliamentary cavalry but then engaged in wild pursuit, leaving the royalist infantry exposed. The more disciplined Parliamentary force under Oliver Cromwell regrouped and counterattacked, routing the royalists and taking 4,000 prisoners. With the loss of his best soldiers, Charles could no longer meet the New Model Army in open battle and effectively lost the war.

Naser od-DTn Shah See Nasir al-DIn Shah

Nash, John (b. 1752, London?, Eng.—d. May 13, 1835, Cowes, Isle of Wight) British architect and city planner. From 1798 Nash was employed by the Prince of Wales. Acquiring considerable wealth, he built for himself East Cowes Castle, Isle of Wight (1798), which had much influence on Gothic Revival architecture. He subsequently dotted England and Ireland with castles, houses, and cottages in the Gothic or Italianate style. Regent’s Park, London (1811), comprises a canal, lake, wooded area, botanical garden, and, on the periphery, shopping arcades and pic¬ turesque groupings of residences. In 1821 he began to reconstruct Buck¬ ingham House, London, as a royal palace; dismissed before completing the project, he faced an inquiry into its cost and structural soundness. Nash’s East and West Park Villages, London (completed after his death by his chief assistant, James Pennethome), served as models for “garden suburbs” of separate houses informally arranged.

Nash, John Forbes (b. June 13, 1928, Bluefield, W.Va., U.S.) U.S. mathematician. He earned a doctorate from Princeton University at 22. He began teaching at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1951 but left in the late 1950s because of mental illness; thereafter he was infor¬ mally associated with Princeton. Beginning in the 1950s with his influ-

Narwhal (Monodon monoceros )

PAINTING BY RICHARD ELUS

Nash ► Nasser I 1329

ential thesis “Non-cooperative Games,” Nash established the mathematical principles of game theory. His theory, known as the Nash solution or Nash equilibrium, attempted to explain the dynamics of threat and action among competitors. Despite its practical limitations, it was widely applied by business strategists. He shared the 1994 Nobel Prize in Economics with John C. Harsanyi (b. 1920) and Reinhard Selten (b. 1930). A film version of his life, A Beautiful Mind (2001), won an Acad¬ emy Award for best picture.

Nash, (Frederic) Ogden (b. Aug. 19, 1902, Rye, N.Y., U.S.—d. May 19, 1971, Baltimore, Md.) U.S. writer of humorous poetry. Nash sold his first verse in 1930 to The New Yorker, on whose staff he worked. In 1931 he published Hard Lines, the first of 20 collections that include The Bad Parents’ Garden of Verse (1936), I’m a Stranger Here Myself { 1938), and Everyone but Thee and Me (1962). His audacious, quotable verse employs delightfully impossible rhymes, puns, and ragged stanzas, often inter¬ rupted by digressions. He wrote several children’s books and the lyrics for the musicals One Touch of Venus (1943) and Two’s Company (1952).

Nashe \'nash\, Thomas (b. 1567, Lowestoft, Suffolk, Eng.—d. c. 1601, Yarmouth, Norfolk?) English pamphleteer, poet, dramatist, and nov¬ elist. The first of the English prose eccentrics, Nashe wrote in a vigorous combination of colloquial diction and idiosyncratic coined compounds that was ideal for controversy. Among his works are the satire Pierce Penilesse His Supplication to the Divell (1592); the masque Summers Last Will and Testament (1592, published 1600); The Unfortunate Traveller (1594), the first picaresque novel in English; and Nashes Lenten Stuffe (1599). The play Dido, Queen of Carthage (1594) was a collaboration with Christopher Marlowe.

Nashville City (pop., 2000: 545,524), capital of Tennessee, U.S. It is located on the Cumberland River. Founded in 1779 as Nashborough, it was incorporated as the town of Nashville in 1784. It became a city in 1806 and the state capital in 1843. During the American Civil War, it was occupied by Federal troops (1862). The war’s last major battle (1864) took place outside the city. It is a financial and commercial centre, producing shoes, clothing, glass, and tires. Important industries include printing, publishing, and recording. Well known for country and western music, it is the site of Opry- land U.S.A. and the Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum. It is the home of many universities, including Vanderbilt and Fisk.

Nashville Convention (1850) Two-session meeting of proslavery U.S. Southerners. In 1849 Mississippi held a convention at the urging of John C. Calhoun, calling for all slaveholding states to send delegates to Nashville, Tenn., to form a united front against perceived Northern aggression. Delegates from nine Southern states met in June 1850; though extremists favoured secession, moderate Whigs and Democrats prevailed. The group adopted 28 resolutions defending slavery but was willing to allow an extension to the Pacific of the boundary established in the Mis¬ souri Compromise. After the Compromise of 1850, a smaller group of del¬ egates met in November; dominated by extremists, it denounced the compromise and called again for secession.

Nasi, Lake or Lake Nasijarvi \'na-se-,yar-ve\ Lake, southwestern Finland. About 20 mi (32 km) long and 8 mi (13 km) wide at its widest point, it is the largest of the Pyha lakes. Its southern banks are flat and barren, but the northern shore is more developed. Ferries have operated on the lake since 1858.

Nasir al-DTn Shah Xna-'ser-al-'den-'shaX or Naser od-DIn Shah

(b. (b. July 17, 1831, Tehran, Iran—d. May 1, 1896, Tehran) Qajar dynasty shah of Iran (1848-96) who began his reign as a reformer but became increasingly conservative. Domestically, he curbed the power of the clergy in secular affairs, introduced telegraph and postal services, built roads, opened the first school offering education along Western lines, and launched Iran’s first newspaper. Later in his rule, however, he steadfastly refused to deal with the growing pressure for reforms. He granted a series of concessionary rights to foreigners in return for large payments. Fore¬ most among these was a 50-year concession given in 1890 on the pur¬ chase, sale, and processing of all tobacco in the country, which led to a national boycott of tobacco and the withdrawal of the concession the fol¬ lowing year. The incident—popularly termed the “Tobacco Rebellion”—is often considered to be the origin of modem Iranian nation¬ alism.

Nasir-e Khusraw \na-'ser-e-k6s-'ro\ (b. 1004, Qubadiyan,

Khorasan—d. c. 1072/ 77, Yumgan, Central Asia) Persian poet, theolo¬

gian, and propagandist. Born into a family of government officials who belonged to the ShYite branch of Islam, he attended school only briefly. In 1045 he made a pilgrimage to Mecca and then traveled to Palestine and Egypt, which was then ruled by the Shfite Fajimid dynasty. He returned to his homeland to serve as a missionary for the Fatimid’s Isma'TlT sect of Shl'ites, but his efforts aroused the hostility of the majority Sunnites and he was obliged to flee. Considered one of the greatest Persian writers, he is remembered for his didactic and devotional poetry as well as for his Diary of a Journey Through Syria and Palestine.

Nasirah, Al- See Nazareth Naskapi See Montagnais and Naskapi

Nasmyth Vna-.smithX, James (b. Aug. 19, 1808, Edinburgh, Scot.—d. May 7, 1890, London, Eng.) Scottish engineer. Son of the artist Alex¬ ander Nasmyth (1758-1840), he is known mainly for his invention of the steam hammer (1839), an important metallurgical tool of the Industrial Revolution. He also devised tools such as a planing machine, a steam pile driver, and a hydraulic punching machine, and he manufactured more than 100 steam locomotives. He retired at 48 to devote himself to his hobby, astronomy.

NasranI \nas-'ra-ne\, Cape or Ra’s NasranI Vras-.nas-'ra-neX Inlet and cape, southeastern coast of the Sinai Peninsula, Egypt. The site of an Egyptian military base, it was captured by Israeli forces in the Sinai cam¬ paign of 1956 (see Suez Crisis). After the Six-Day War in 1967, Israel again occupied the site before withdrawing from the Sinai Peninsula in the early 1980s. In 1972 a new town, Ophira (now Sharm al-Shaykh), was built there. The region has been developed as a recreational and tourist area.

Nassau Historical region of Germany, former duchy, western part of modern Hesse. It is a thickly forested and hilly area north and east of the Rhine, crossed by the Lahn River and the Taunus Mountains. The title “Count of Nassau” was first assumed in the 12th century. Nassau joined the Confederation of the Rhine and became a duchy in 1806. It was annexed by Prussia in 1866. The present-day royal heads of The Netherlands and Luxembourg are descended from this family, called the house of Nassau.

Nassau City (pop., 1999 est.: 214,000), capital of The Bahamas. Located on the northeastern coast of New Providence island, it was settled by the English in the 17th century and became a rendezvous for pirates in the 18th century. Forts were built there to ward off attacks by encroach¬ ing Spaniards. During the American Civil War, it became a base for Con¬ federate blockade runners. It is now a popular resort; its economy is based on tourism.

Nasser, Gamal Abdel also spelled Jamal 'Abd al-Nasir (b. Jan. 15, 1918, Alexandria, Egypt—d.

Sept. 28, 1970, Cairo) Egyptian army officer who was prime minister (1954-56) and president (1956-70) of Egypt. In his youth, he took part in anti-British demonstrations. As an army officer, he led a coup that deposed the royal family (1952) and installed Gen. Muhammad Naguib as head of state. In 1954 he deposed Naguib and made himself prime minister. The Muslim Brotherhood tried to assassinate him but failed. In 1956 he promulgated a constitution that made Egypt a one-party social¬ ist state with himself as president. In the same year, he nationalized the Suez Canal (see Suez Crisis) and secured Soviet assistance to build the Aswan High Dam after the U.S. and Britain canceled their offer of aid. Gamd Abde | Nassel . photograph by Soon thereafter, Egypt weathered an Yousuf Karsh, attack by British, French, and Israeli ©karsh from rapho/photo researchers forces. A charismatic figure, he

aspired to lead the Arab world and succeeded briefly in forming the United Arab Republic with Syria (1958-61). He led the Arab world in the disas¬ trous Six-D ay War against Israel but had tentatively accepted a U.S. peace plan for Egypt and Israel when he died of a heart attack. He was suc¬ ceeded by Anwar el-Sadat.

1330 I Nasser ► Nation

Nasser, Lake or Lake Nubia Lake, southern Egypt and northern Sudan. About 300 mi (480 km) long, it was formed in the 1960s by the construction of the Aswan High Dam in order to control the annual floods of the Nile River, whose waters now feed the lake. Its waters, when dis¬ charged downstream, have brought some 1,250 sq mi (3,240 sq km) of additional land under irrigation. Its formation flooded a number of archaeological sites, including those found at Abu Simbel. In The Sudan it is known as Lake Nubia.

Nast, Thomas (b. Sept. 27, 1840, Landau, Baden—d. Dec. 7, 1902, Guayaquil, Ecua.) German-born U.S. political cartoonist. He arrived in the U.S. at six, and from 1862 to 1886 he worked as a cartoonist for Harper’s Weekly. His cartoons in support of the Northern cause in the American Civil War were so effec¬ tive that Abraham Lincoln called him “our best recruiting sergeant.” Many of his most effective cartoons were attacks on the New York City politi¬ cal machine of William Marcy Tweed in the 1870s; one led to Tweed’s identification and arrest in Spain.

Nast originated the Republican Par¬ ty’s elephant, the Democratic Party’s donkey, and one of the most popular images of Santa Claus. Left destitute by the failure of a brokerage house, he was appointed U.S. consul in Ecuador, where he died.

nasturtium Xnas-'tor-shoirA Any of various annual plants of the genus Tropaeolum (family Tropaeolaceae), native to Mexico, Central America, and northern South America, and cultivated elsewhere as garden plants. Brilliant yellow, orange, or red flowers are funnel-shaped and have a long spur that contains sweet nectar. The peppery-tasting leaves and flowers are sometimes used in salads, and the young flower buds and fruit are sometimes used as sea¬ soning. Nasturtium also is a genus of aquatic herbs in the mustard family (see WATERCRESS).

Natal \no-'tal\ Seaport and city (pop., 2002 est.: 734,500), northeast¬ ern Brazil. It is situated near the mouth of the Potengi River on the Atlantic Ocean coast. Founded by the Portuguese in 1597 near the site of a fort, Natal was given town status in 1611. It is the capital and principal commercial centre of the state of Rio Grande do Norte; it is also a busy port and naval base. It is the seat of the State University of Rio Grande do Norte. The Marine Research Institute and the Barreira do Inferno rocket base are located in the vicinity.

Natal \no-'tal\ Former province, southeastern Republic of South Africa. The area was occupied for centuries by BANTU-speaking peoples. It was given the name Natal by Vasco da Gama when he sighted the harbour of Port Natal (now Durban) on Christmas Day (Portuguese Natal) in 1497. The first European settlers arrived in 1824. In 1837 Afrikaners arrived in the interior and, after they defeated the Zulu there, established the Repub¬ lic of Natal. Annexed by the British in 1843, it was extended by numer¬ ous acquisitions. During the South African War, Natal was invaded by Afrikaner forces, which were checked by the British. In 1910 it became a province of the Union of South Africa and in 1961 of the Republic of South Africa. The fragmented, nonindependent black state, or homeland, of KwaZulu was later created within Natal, which was the scene of clashes by rival black factions (see African National Congress; Inkatha Freedom Party). After the South African elections of 1994, the region was united to form the province of KwaZulu/Natal.

Nataraja \,n3-t3-'ra-j3\ The Hindu god Shiva in his form as the cosmic dancer. The most common images show him with four arms and flying locks, dancing on a dwarf (a symbol of human ignorance) and encircled by a ring of flames. The Nataraja sculpture shows Shiva as the source of all movement within the cosmos, represented by the loop of flames.

The dance’s purpose is to release humans from illusion; the place where the god performs the dance is believed to lie both at the centre of the universe and within the human heart.

Natchez Trace Old road, south¬ eastern U.S. It follows an Indian trail (or trace) to the northeast from Natchez, Miss., across northwestern Alabama to Nashville, Tenn., and is more than 500 mi (800 km) long. A wagon road constructed in the early 19th century was used by traders and settlers. Among its historical land¬ marks are the Emerald and Bynum Indian ceremonial mounds and Chickasaw Village, in Mississippi, and Napier Mine and Metal Ford in Tennessee.

Nathan (fl. 10th century bc) Prophet at the courts of David and Solomon in ancient Israel. In II Samuel, God establishes his covenant with David through Nathan, who also appears rebuking David for taking Bathsheba from her husband. As punishment, David was not allowed to build the Temple at Jerusalem, since Nathan had a vision informing him that its con¬ struction must be postponed until Solomon succeeded to the throne. Nathan later anointed the new king, securing Solomon’s place against rivals, and may have recorded events during the reigns of David and Solomon.

Nathans, Daniel (b. Oct. 30, 1928, Wilmington, Del., U.S.—d. Nov. 16, 1999, Baltimore, Md.) U.S. microbiologist. He received a medical degree from Washington University. Working principally at Johns Hop¬ kins University, he used the restriction enzyme isolated from a bacterium by Hamilton O. Smith to investigate the structure of the DNA of a mon¬ key virus (SV40), the simplest virus known to produce cancer. His con¬ struction of a genetic map of the virus was the first application of restriction enzymes to the problem of identifying the molecular basis of cancer. He shared a 1978 Nobel Prize with Smith and Werner Arber.

nation People whose common identity creates a psychological bond and a political community. Their political identity usually comprises such characteristics as a common language, culture, ethnicity, and history. More than one nation may comprise a state, but the terms nation, state, and country are often used interchangeably. A nation-state is a state popu¬ lated primarily by the people of one nationality.

Nation, Carry (Amelia) orig. Carry Moore (b. Nov. 25, 1846, Garrard county, Ky., U.S.—d. June 9,

1911, Leavenworth, Kan.) U.S. tem¬ perance advocate. Though she held a teaching certificate, her education was intermittent. In 1867 she married a young physician but soon left him because of his alcoholism. In 1877 she married David Nation, a lawyer, who would divorce her for desertion in 1901. After a 1890 U.S. Supreme Court decision weakened the prohibi¬ tion laws of Kansas, where she was living, she joined the temperance movement; she came to believe that the unlawfulness of saloons meant they could be destroyed with impu¬ nity. A tall and heavy woman, she would march alone or with hymn¬ singing supporters into saloons and sing, pray, and shout while she smashed

Thomas Nast, self-portrait etching,

1892

COURTESY OF THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

Common nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus).

DEREK FELL

Nataraja, dancing Shiva, Indian bronze image, 1 2th- 1 3th century ad; in the Museum of Asiatic Art, Amsterdam.

COURTESY OF THE RUKSMUSEUM, AMSTERDAM

Carry Nation.

BROWN BROTHERS

Nation ► National Film Board of Canada I 1331

their fixtures and stock with a hatchet. Jailed many times, she paid her fines with proceeds from her lectures and sales of souvenir hatchets.

Nation, The U.S. weekly journal of opinion, the oldest continuously published U.S. periodical. Founded in 1865 by Frederick Law Olmsted and Edwin L. Godkin (1831-1902) as a reformist publication, it was sold to the New York Evening Post in 1881 and was a weekly edition of the paper until 1914. While Oswald Garrison Villard (1872-1949) was owner and editor (1918-34), it moved decisively to the political left and has remained there under subsequent owners and editors, as during its outspoken oppo¬ sition to Sen. Joseph McCarthy and to U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. In circulation it is one of the largest intellectual journals in America.

Nation of Islam or Black Muslims African American religious movement that mingles elements of Islam and black nationalism. It was founded in 1931 by Wallace D. Fard, who established its first mosque in Detroit, Mich. Fard retired into obscurity and his assistant Elijah Muham¬ mad, who founded a second temple in Chicago, took over in 1934. He asserted the moral and cultural superiority of Africans over whites and urged African Americans to renounce Christianity as a tool of the oppres¬ sors. His teachings also included the traditional Islamic tenets of mono¬ theism, submission to God, and strong family life. The Nation of Islam grew quickly after World War II, and in the early 1960s it achieved national prominence through the work of Malcolm X. Leadership disputes led Malcolm to form a separate organization and finally to his assassina¬ tion in 1965. In the 1970s Elijah Muhammad was succeeded by his son, Wallace D. Muhammad (b. 1933), who renamed the organization the American Muslim Mission. In 1985 he dissolved the Mission, urging its members to become orthodox Muslims. A splinter group headed by Louis Farrakhan retains the movement’s original name and principles. In the early 21st century there were approximately 10,000 members of the Nation of Islam.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration See NASA

National Assembly French Assemblee Nationale French par¬ liamentary body. The name was used first during the French Revolution to designate the revolutionary assembly formed by representatives of the Third Estate (1789) and then as a short form for the National Constituent Assembly (1789-91). It was used again when the National Assembly of 1871-75 drafted a new constitution. In the Third Republic (1875-1940), the name designated the two houses of parliament, the Senate and the Cham¬ ber of Deputies. In the Fourth Republic (1946-58) and Fifth Republic (from 1958), the name was applied only to the lower house (the former Cham¬ ber of Deputies). The National Assembly consists of 577 deputies, elected in single-seat constituencies for five-year terms.

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People See NAACP

national bank In the U.S., any commercial bank chartered and super¬ vised by the federal government and operated by private individuals. National banks were created during the Civil War under the National Bank Act of 1863 to combat financial instability caused by state banks and to help finance the war effort. When these banks purchased federal bonds and deposited them with the comptroller of the currency, they were per¬ mitted to circulate national bank notes, thereby creating a stable, uniform national currency. After the Civil War, the government began to retire the bonds issued during the war, which reduced the number of national bank notes that could be issued. Concern over the inflexibility of national bank notes led to the formation of the Federal Reserve System in 1913, which all national banks were required to join. The U.S. Treasury assumed the obli¬ gation of issuing national bank notes in 1935, effectively ending the issue of money by private commercial banks.

National Basketball Association (NBA) U.S. professional bas¬ ketball league. It was formed in 1949 by the merger of two rival orga¬ nizations, the National Basketball League (founded 1937) and the Basketball Association of America (1946). In 1976 the NBA was aug¬ mented by the absorption of four teams from the former American Bas¬ ketball Association (founded 1967). The NBA membership is divided into two conferences, each with three divisions. The Eastern Conference con¬ sists of the Atlantic Division (Boston Celtics, New Jersey Nets, New York Knicks, Philadelphia 76ers, Toronto Raptors), the Central Division (Chi¬ cago Bulls, Cleveland Cavaliers, Detroit Pistons, Indiana Pacers, Mil¬ waukee Bucks), and the Southeast Division (Atlanta Hawks, Charlotte Bobcats, Miami Heat, Orlando Magic, Washington Wizards). The West¬

ern Conference consists of the Northwest Division (Denver Nuggets, Min¬ nesota Timberwolves, Portland Trail Blazers, Seattle SuperSonics, Utah Jazz), the Pacific Division (Golden State Warriors, Los Angeles Clippers, Los Angeles Lakers, Phoenix Suns, Sacramento Kings), and the South¬ west Division (Dallas Mavericks, Houston Rockets, Memphis Grizzlies, New Orleans Hornets, San Antonio Spurs).

National Broadcasting Company See NBC

National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Organiza¬ tion that administers U.S. intercollegiate athletics. It was formed in 1906 but did not acquire significant powers to enforce its rules until 1942. Headquartered at Indianapolis, Ind., it functions as a general legislative and administrative authority, formulating and enforcing rules of play for various sports and eligibility criteria for athletes. It has about 1,200 mem¬ ber schools and conducts about 80 national championships in a total of about 20 sports.

National Convention French Convention Nationale Govern¬ ing assembly (1792-95) of the French Revolution. Comprising 749 depu¬ ties elected after the overthrow of the monarchy (1792), it sought to provide a new constitution for France. The struggle between the radical Montagnards and the moderate Girondins dominated the Convention until the Girondins were purged in 1793. The democratic constitution already approved by the Convention was not put into effect while the Monta¬ gnards controlled the assembly (1793-94). After the Thermidorian Reac¬ tion (1794), the balance of power in the Convention was held by members of the Plain. The Girondins were recalled, and the Constitution of 1795 was approved for the Directory regime that replaced the Convention.

national debt or public debt Total indebtedness of a government, especially as evidenced by securities issued to investors. The national debt grows whenever the government operates a budget deficit—that is, when government spending exceeds government revenues in a year. To finance its debt, the government can issue securities such as bonds or treasury bills. The level of national debt varies from country to country, from less than 10% of the gross domestic PRODUCT (GDP) to more than double it. Public borrowing is thought to have an inflationary effect on the economy and thus is often used during recessions to stimulate consumption, investment, and employment. See also deficit financing; John Maynard Keynes.

National Education Association (NEA) Voluntary association of U.S. teachers, administrators, and other educators associated with elemen¬ tary and secondary schools and colleges and universities. Founded in 1857 as the National Teachers Assn., it is among the world’s largest profes¬ sional organizations. Operating much like a labour union, it represents its members through numerous state and local affiliates. It seeks to improve the schools and working conditions, advance the cause of public educa¬ tion, promote federal legislation, and sponsor research.

National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) Independent agency of the U.S. government that supports the creation, dissemination, and per¬ formance of the arts. It was created by the U.S. Congress in 1965 and funds projects in literature, music, theatre, film, dance, fine arts, sculp¬ ture, and crafts. The majority of NEA grants go directly to institutions such as art museums, not-for-profit theatres, and symphony orchestras; to arts programs in schools; and to support events such as folk arts festivals. Some individual artists are funded for specific projects as well. Grants are often awarded by the NEA in cooperation with state and local arts agen¬ cies. NEA funding dropped in the 1990s, as Congressional opposition arose in response to certain NEA-supported projects.

National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) U.S. inde¬ pendent agency. Founded in 1965, it supports research, education, pres¬ ervation, and public programs in the humanities. It provides grants to museums, libraries, archives, television programs, historic sites, transla¬ tion and editorial projects by academic presses, educational and research institutions, and individuals.

National Film Board of Canada (NFB) Canadian department of film production. It was established in 1939 and directed by John Grier¬ son (1898-1972), who developed the studio into a leading producer of documentaries, including the World War II propaganda films Canada Car¬ ries On and The World in Action. The studio also made high-quality ani¬ mated movies by Norman McLaren (1914-87) and others, and it later expanded to produce feature films, including The Luck of Ginger Coffey (1964), The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz (1974), and The Company of Strangers (1990).

1332 I National Football League ► National League