Britannica Concise 2005

salt Chemical compound formed when the hydrogen of an acid is replaced by a metal or its equivalent, such as ammonium (NH 4 ). Typically, an acid and a base react to form a salt and water. Most inorganic salts ionize (see ion) in water solution. Sodium chloride —common table salt—is the most familiar salt; sodium bicarbonate (bicarbonate of soda), silver nitrate, and calcium carbonate are others.

SALT See Stratetic Arms Limitation Talks

salt dome Largely subsurface geologic structure that consists of a ver¬ tical cylinder of salt embedded in horizontal or inclined strata. In the broadest sense, the term includes both the core of salt and the strata that surround and are “domed” by the core. Major accumulations of oil and natural gas are associated with salt domes in the U.S., Mexico, the North Sea, Germany, and Romania; domes along the Gulf Coast contain large quantities of sulfur. Salt domes are also major sources of salt and potash on the Gulf Coast and in Germany, and they have been used for under¬ ground storage of liquefied propane gas. Storage “bottles,” made by drill¬ ing into the salt and then forming a cavity by subsequent solution, have been considered as sites for disposal of radioactive wastes.

Salt Lake City City (pop., 2000: 181,743), capital of Utah, U.S. Located on the Jordan River, near the southeastern end of Great Salt Lake, it was founded in 1847 by Brigham Young and a group of 148 Mormons as a refuge from religious persecution. It was known as Great Salt Lake City until 1868. It prospered from rail connections to become a hub of western commerce and became the state capital in 1896. The largest city in the state, it lies at an altitude of 4,390 ft (1,338 m). It is a commercial centre for nearby mining operations and has diversified manufacturing industries. It is the headquarters of the Mormon Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, which influences the social, economic, political, and cultural life of the state and region. It is the site of the Mormon Temple and Tabernacle. It was the host city of the 2002 Winter Olympic Games.

Salt River River, east-central Arizona, U.S. A tributary of the Gila River, it is formed at the confluence of the Black and White rivers. It flows west 200 mi (320 km) and empties into the Gila River southwest of Phoenix. It is part of the Colorado River drainage basin. A system of dams forms a chain of lakes that provides hydroelectric power. In pre-Columbian times the river valley was cultivated by Hohokam Indians who constructed sys¬ tems of irrigation canals.

Salta City (pop., 1999 est.: 457,223), northwestern Argentina. It lies in the irrigated Lerma valley in the Andes Mountains on a headstream of the Salado River. Founded in 1582 as San Felipe de Lerma, it was the scene of the defeat of the Spanish royal forces in 1813 during the Argentine war of independence. The economy is based on farming, lumbering, stock raising, and mining. Its nearby thermal springs are popular with tourists, and it has grown in importance as a centre of archaeological investiga¬ tions of pre-Columbian Indian cultures, including the Inca.

saltbox Clapboard house of the original New England settlers having two stories in front, a single story in the rear, and a double-sloped roof that is longer over the rear section. It arose from the tradition of locating the kitchen in a lean-to behind the house; the roof was simply extended over the lean-to, creating the characteristic long-in-back silhouette.

Saltillo \sal-'te-yo\ City (pop., 2000: 562,587), capital of Coahuila state, northeastern Mexico. Founded in 1575, it was the first Spanish settlement in the area. In 1824-36 it was the capital of a vast province that included what is now Texas and other areas of the American Southwest. It is now a commercial, communications, and manufacturing centre; its products include woolen fabrics, knitted goods, and flour. Gold, silver, lead, and coal are mined in the nearby mountains. Located at an elevation of about 5,250 ft (1,600 m), it has a cool, dry climate that has made it a summer resort.

Salton Sea Saline lake, southeastern California, U.S. The area that is now the lake was a salt-covered sink or depression about 280 ft (85 m) below sea level until 1905-06, when diversion controls on the Colorado River broke below the Califomia-Mexico border and floodwaters rushed north, filling the depression. In 1907 a line of protective levees was built to prevent further deepening of the depression. The lake has an area of 344 sq mi (890 sq km). Its surface is now about 235 ft (72 m) below sea

level, and its salinity is similar to that of seawater. Part of a state recre¬ ation area, it has swimming, boating, and camping facilities.

saltpetre or nitre also spelled saltpeter or niter Transparent, colourless, or white powder or crystals of potassium nitrate (KN0 3 ), found native in deposits. It is a strong oxidizing agent (see oxidation-reduction), used in fireworks, explosives, matches, fertilizers, glassmaking, steel tem¬ pering, and food curing; as a reagent; and as an oxidizer in solid rocket propellants. The term is also used for sodium nitrate (Chile saltpetre) and calcium nitrate (lime saltpetre), both of which are used in the nitric acid industry and as fertilizers, and for ammonium nitrate (Norway saltpetre), a high explosive and fertilizer.

Saluda \s3-'lii-d3\ River River, west-central South Carolina, U.S. Ris¬ ing in the Blue Ridge Mountains, in northern and southern forks that join northwest of Greenville, the main stream flows southeast past Pelzer. After a course of about 145 mi (233 km), it joins the Broad River at Columbia to form the Congaree River. The name Saluda is of Indian origin, prob¬ ably meaning “river of corn.”

saluki \s9-'lu-ke\ Breed of hound whose ancestors may date to 7000 bc. It was sacred to the Egyptians, who called it the “royal dog of Egypt” and used it to hunt gazelle. Keen-sighted and hardy, it resembles a greyhound, with long ears and silky coat. Colours can be solid white, tan, or reddish brown or a combination of black, tan, and white. It stands 18-28 in. (46-71 cm) tall and weighs 45-60 lb (20-27 kg).

Salvador or Bahia City (pop., 2002 est.: 2,519,500), port, and capi¬ tal of Bahia state, northeastern Brazil. Located at the southern tip of a pen¬ insula that separates All Saints Bay from the Atlantic Ocean, it is one of Brazil’s oldest cities, founded in 1549 as the Portuguese colonial capital. At the centre of the sugar trade along the bay, it became a prize for pri¬ vateers, and the Dutch captured it briefly in 1624. Retaken by the Portu¬ guese, it became a major centre for the African slave trade. It has grown continuously since 1940, and its port is one of the country’s finest. Impor¬ tant industries include food and tobacco processing, ceramics, and ship¬ building.

salvation In religion, deliverance from fundamentally negative condi¬ tions, such as suffering, evil, death, or samsara, or the restoration or eleva¬ tion of the natural world to a higher, better state. Eastern religions tend to stress self-help through individual discipline and practice, sometimes over the course of many lifetimes, though in Mahayana Buddhism bodhi- sattvas and certain buddhas may act as intervening divine agents. In Chris¬ tianity, Jesus is the source of salvation and faith in his saving power is stressed. Islam emphasizes submission to God. Judaism posits collective salvation for the people of Israel.

Salvation Army International Christian charitable movement. It was founded in 1865 by William Booth, with the aim of feeding and housing the poor of London. He adopted the name Salvation Army in 1878 and established the organization on a military pattern. Members are called soldiers, and officers earn ranks that range from lieutenant to brigadier. Converts are required to sign Articles of War and to volunteer their ser¬ vices. Doctrines are similar to those of other evangelical Protestant denominations, though Booth saw no need for sacraments. The meetings are characterized by singing and hand clapping, instrumental music, per¬ sonal testimony, free prayer, and an open invitation to repentance. Head¬ quartered in London, the Salvation Army now provides a wide variety of social services in more than 100 countries.

salvia \'sal-ve-9\ Any of about 700 species of herbaceous and woody plants that make up the genus Salvia, in the mint family. Some members (e.g., sage) are important as sources of flavouring. Easy to propagate, transplant, and grow in poor soil and drought conditions, salvias are a garden staple. Best-known is the 1-3-ft (30-90-cm) annual scarlet sage (S . splendens) from Brazil, whose blazing spikes contrast with dark green, oval leaves from midsummer to frost. Blue sage ( S. farinacea ), of south¬ western North America, is a favourite in dried winter bouquets.

Salween River \'sal-,wen\ Chinese Nu Jiang River, Southeast Asia. Rising in eastern Tibet, it flows generally south for about 1,500 mi (2,400 km) through Yunnan province, China, and eastern Myanmar (Burma), emptying into the Gulf of Martaban of the Andaman Sea at Moulmein. In its lower course, it forms the frontier between Myanmar and Thailand for about 80 mi (130 km). It is the longest river in Myanmar and is navigable by small craft in certain sections, but dangerous rapids hinder its use as a major waterway.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Salyut ► Samoa I 1675

Salyut \sal-'yut\ Any of a series of seven Soviet space stations (of two designs) placed into Earth orbit in the 1970s and early ’80s that served as living quarters and scientific laboratories or military reconnaissance platforms. Manned Soyuz spacecraft and robotic Progress cargo ferries routinely rendezvoused and docked with the Salyuts to transfer cosmo¬ nauts and supplies. Salyut 1 (launched 1971) was the world’s first space station; after staying aboard 23 days, the inaugural crew died while return¬ ing to Earth. Salyut 6 (1977), the first with an improved design, was a highly successful scientific station that hosted a series of international visitors. Salyut 7 (1982) was succeeded by Mir.

Salzburg ancient Juvavum City (pop., 2001: city, 142,662; urban agglom., 210,276), north-central Austria. Located on the Salzach River, it began as a Celtic settlement and later became the site of a Roman town. It was made a bishopric by St. Boniface in 739 and was raised to an arch¬ bishopric in 798. Its archbishops became princes of the Holy Roman Empire in 1278; Salzburg became the seat of their powerful ecclesiastical prin¬ cipality. A music centre for centuries, it is the birthplace of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart; the annual Salzburg Festival is held there. Notable buildings include Renaissance and Baroque houses, archiepiscopal pal¬ aces, and a 17th-century cathedral.

sama \sa-'ma\ In Sufism, the practice of listening to music, chanting, and dancing as a means of producing a state of religious ecstasy and mystical trance. Practitioners hold that music prepares the soul for a deeper com¬ prehension of divine realities and a better appreciation of divine music. God, as the source of beauty, is taken to be approachable through these activities because they contain or exemplify beauty. It is stressed that music is only a means to approach the spiritual realm, and strong ascetic training is required to ensure that music so employed does not arouse base instincts.

samadhi \so-'ma-de\ State of intense concentration or absorption of consciousness, the product of meditation. In Hinduism, it is achieved through Yoga, in which the consciousness is absorbed in the object of meditation. In Buddhism, samadhi is the result of mind-development as distinct from insight-development (see vipassana), and is attainable by non-Buddhists as well as Buddhists. In Zen Buddhism, samadhi allows the meditator to overcome dualistic subject-object awareness through unity with the object of meditation.

Samar Vsa-,mar\ Island (pop., 2000: 1,517,585), east-central Philip¬ pines. The third largest Philippine island after Luzon and Mindanao, it has an area of 5,050 sq mi (13,080 sq km) and is one of the Visayan group. In World War II it was occupied by the Japanese in 1942 and was retaken by the U.S. in 1944. The rugged interior is sparsely settled; permanent settlements are generally coastal. Coconuts and abaca are the main cash crops. The island is well forested, and there are logging and sawmill operations on the eastern coast.

Samara \s9-'ma-r formerly (1935-91) Kuybyshev Yku-e-bs-shafX City (pop., 2002: 1,158,100) and river port, western Russia. Located on the left bank of the Volga River at its confluence with the Samara River, it was founded in 1586 as a fortress protecting the Volga trade route. It was the scene of the rebellion of Yemelyan Pugacfiov against Catherine II in 1773-74. Samara later became a major trade centre. Its growth was stimulated during World War II by the relocation there of numerous gov¬ ernment functions when Moscow was threatened by German attack. It is highly industrialized and is the centre of a network of pipelines. Oil and petrochemicals are the major industries.

Samaria \so-'mar-e-3\ Central region, ancient Palestine. Extending about 40 mi (65 km) north-south and 35 mi (55 km) east-west, it was bounded by Galilee to the north, Judaea to the south, the Mediterranean Sea to the west, and the Jordan River to the east. It corresponds roughly to the northern portion of the modern West Bank territory. Ancient Shechem (near modern Nabulus) was the region’s crossroads and politi¬ cal centre until the Assyrian conquest of Israel in the 8th century bc. The town of Samaria, its capital, was built by King Omri c. 880 bc. It was taken by Sargon II in c. 724-721 bc, and its inhabitants were transported into captivity. It was rebuilt by Herod the Great, who renamed it Sebaste in honour of the Roman emperor Augustus (Greek, Sebastos). In ad 6 the region became part of the Roman province of Judaea.

Samaritan Member of a now nearly extinct Jewish community. Call¬ ing themselves Bene-Yisrael (“Children of Israel”), or Shamerim (“Obser¬ vant Ones”), they claim to be related to those Jews of ancient Samaria who were not deported from Israel by the Assyrians in 722 bc. The Pen¬

tateuch (first five books of the Old Testament) is their sole norm of reli¬ gious observance. Jews who returned to their homeland after the Babylonian Exile would not accept their help in building the Second Temple of Jerusalem. Consequently, in the 4th century bc the Samaritans built their own temple in Nabulus, at the base of Mount Gerizim, in the present-day West Bank. The modern population (about 500 persons) is distributed between Nabulus and the city of Holon in Israel. All live in semi-isolation, marrying only within their own community. They pray in Hebrew but have adopted Arabic as their vernacular.

Samarkand \,sa-m3r-'kand\ or Samarqand City (pop., 1999 est.: 362,300), east-central Uzbekistan. One of the oldest cities in Central Asia, it was known as Maracanda in the 4th century bc and was captured by Alexander the Great in 329. From the 6th century ad it was ruled by vari¬ ous Turkish, Arab, and Persian groups and was an important point on the Silk Road from China to Europe until its destruction by Genghis Khan in 1220. It became the capital of the empire of Timur (Tamerlane) c. 1370; he made it the most important economic and cultural centre in the region. The old city contains many fine examples of Central Asian architecture, some dating to the 14th century; this area was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2001. It became a provincial capital of the Russian Empire in 1887, and it grew considerably during the Soviet period.

samba Ballroom dance of Brazilian origin, popularized in the U.S. and Europe in the 1940s. Danced to music in 4 A time with a syncopated rhythm, the dance is characterized by simple forward and backward steps and tilting, rocking body movements. In Brazil an older African type of samba is also danced in circles or double lines as a group dance. For decades the samba has dominated Brazilian popular music.

Sambhar Vsam-boiA Lake Salt lake, east-central Rajasthan state, India. Located west of Jaipur, it is about 90 sq mi (230 sq km) in area and is India’s largest lake. The soluble sodium compounds stored in the lake’s underlying silt have accumulated by the evaporation of water brought down by annual river flooding. The lake’s bed, usually dry in the hot months, becomes cov¬ ered by salt sheets, which from a distance resemble snow.

Sam ha in See Halloween

Sami \'sa-me\ or Lapp Any of the descendants of ancient nomadic peoples who inhabited northern Scandinavia. They may be Paleo-Siberian or alpine peoples from central Europe. Reindeer hunting was the basis of their life from earliest times; herding was the basis of their economy until recently. They became nomadic a few centuries ago. The three Sami lan¬ guages, mutually unintelligible, are sometimes considered dialects of one language of the Finno-Ugric branch of the Uralic family. They number about 70,000.

samizdat \'sa-mez-,dat\ System whereby literature suppressed by the Soviet government was clandestinely written, printed, and distributed; also, the literature itself. Samizdat began appearing in the 1950s, first in Moscow and Leningrad, then throughout the Soviet Union. It typically took the form of carbon copies of typewritten sheets that were passed from reader to reader. The subjects included dissident activities, protests addressed to the regime, transcripts of political trials, analyses of socio¬ economic and cultural themes, and even pornography. Samizdat disap¬ peared when media outlets independent of the government emerged in the early 1990s.

Samkara See Sankara

Samkhya Vsoq-kya, 'som-kyaV One of the six orthodox systems (dar- shans) of Indian philosophy. It adopts a consistent dualism between matter and soul (see prakriti and purusha), which are sufficient to account for the existence of the universe; it does not hypothesize the existence of a god. Samkhya also makes a thoroughgoing distinction between psychological and physical functions on the one hand and pure “personhood” on the other.

Samnite Any member of an ancient warlike tribe of the mountainous centre of southern Italy. The Samnites were probably related to the Sab¬ ines. Originally allies of Rome against the Gauls (354 bc), they later fought three wars against the Romans (343-341, 316-304, 298-290). Though defeated, the Samnites later helped Pyrrhus and Hannibal in their wars against Rome. They also fought in the Social War and unsuccessfully took part in the civil war against Sulla (82 bc).

Samoa officially Independent State of Samoa formerly West¬ ern Samoa Island country, central South Pacific Ocean, among the westernmost of the island nations of Polynesia. Area: 1,093 sq mi (2,831 sq

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1676 I Samoa ► Samuelson

km). Population (2005 est.): 185,000. Capital: Apia (on Upolu Island). The people are mainly Polynesian, closely akin to Tongans and to New Zealand’s Maori. Languages: Samoan, English (both official). Religion: Christianity (mostly Protestant; also Roman Catholic, other Christians). Currency: tala. Samoa is part of the Samoan archipelago and consists of two major islands, Upolu and Savai’i, both of which are volcanic. There are also seven small islands, two of which, Apolima and Manono, are inhab¬ ited. Samoa has a developing economy based mainly on agriculture, with some light manufacturing, fishing, lumbering, and tourism. It is a consti¬ tutional monarchy with one legislative house; the paramount chief is the head of state, and the head of government is the prime minister. Polyne¬ sians inhabited the islands for thousands of years before Europeans arrived there in the 18th century. The islands were contested by the U.S., Britain, and Germany until 1899, when they were divided between the U.S. and Germany. In 1914 Western Samoa was occupied by New Zealand, which received it as a League of Nations mandate in 1920. After World War II it became a UN trust territory administered by New Zealand. It achieved independence in 1962. In 1997 the word Western was dropped from the country’s name.

Samoa, American See American Samoa

Samory in full Samory Toure Xsa-'mor-e-tu-'raV (b. c. 1830, near Sarranko, Upper Guinea—d. June 2, 1900, Gabon, French Congo) Mus¬ lim reformer and military adventurer. A member of the Malinke people, Samory in 1868 proclaimed himself a religious chief and led a band of warriors in establishing a chiefdom in the Kankan region of Guinea. He fought the French in 1883, 1886, and 1891, managing to expand into the Sudan, but he was ultimately forced to transfer his kingdom to the upper Ivory Coast. Captured in 1898, he died two years later.

Samos \'sa-,mos\ Island (pop., 1991:42,000), Greece. In the Aegean Sea, Samos is located off the western coast of Turkey, from which it is separated by the Samos Strait. Wooded and mountainous, the island has an area of 184 sq mi (476 sq km). Settled by the Ionians in the 11th century bc, it was a leading commercial centre of Greece by the 7th century bc. It was noted for its cultural achievements, especially in sculpture, during the 6th- century-Bc reign of Polycrates. Ruled successively by Persia, Athens, Sparta, Rome, Byzantium, and Turkey, it was annexed to Greece in 1912. The island is fertile and produces wine, olives, fruit, cotton, and tobacco.

Samoyed or Samoyede Vsa-mo-.yedX Breed of sturdily built, husky-

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typically believed to be a cosmological pillar that supports the vault of heaven. Because it is the axis around which the heavens revolve, all life depends on it as the source of all good. In one legend, the creator-smith Ilmarinen forged the sampo for Louhi, the hag-goddess of the underworld, and then stole it back, resulting in its near-destruction. In the Kalevala, sampo is a magic mill that grinds out an endless supply of salt, gold, and meal for its possessor.

Sampras, Pete (b. Aug. 12, 1971, Washington, D.C., U.S.) U.S. ten¬ nis player. He learned tennis after moving to southern California in 1978. He was a five-time U.S. Open champion (1990, 1993, 1995-96, 2002), seven-time Wimbledon champion (1993-95, 1997-2000), and two-time Australian Open champion (1994, 1997). In 2000 he won his 7th Wim¬ bledon men’s singles trophy, setting a world record of 13 grand-slam vic¬ tories; he claimed his 14th grand-slam title at the 2002 U.S. Open. He was known for his high-powered serves, accurate volleys, and unassum¬ ing demeanour. In 2003 Sampras retired from professional tennis.

Sampson, William T(homas) (b. Feb. 9, 1840, Palmyra, N.Y., U.S.—d. May 6, 1902, Washington, D.C.) U.S. naval officer. After gradu¬ ating from Annapolis, he served in the American Civil War. He was super¬ intendent of the U.S. Naval Academy (1886-90) and chief of the ordnance bureau (1893-97). In the Spanish-American War he commanded the Atlantic squadron in its blockade of the Spanish fleet at Santiago de Cuba (1898). When the Spanish tried to escape from the harbour, his squadron destroyed the fleet. Though he had outlined the plans for the battle, he was absent on shore when it took place. Credited with the victory, he was promoted to rear admiral.

samsara Nsom-'sar-o, soq-'sar-oV In Buddhism and Hinduism, the endless round of birth, death, and rebirth to which all conditioned beings are sub¬ ject. Samsara is conceived as having no perceptible beginning or end. The particulars of an individual’s wanderings in samsara are determined by karma. In Hinduism, moksha is release from samsara. In Buddhism, sam¬ sara is transcended by the attainment of nirvana. The range of samsara stretches from the lowliest insect (sometimes the vegetable and mineral kingdoms are included) to Brahma, the highest of the gods.

samskara Xsom-'skar-o, soq-'skar-aV In Hinduism, any of the personal sacraments traditionally observed at every stage of life, from the moment of conception to the scattering of one’s funeral ashes. The observance of the samskaras is based on custom and on such texts as the Puranas, and differs considerably according to region, caste, or family. The most gen¬ erally accepted list of 16 traditional samskaras includes ceremonies for conception, a male birth, name-giving, the upanayana, and marriage. There is also a body of noncanonical samskaras performed by and for the benefit of women.

Samson Israelite warrior hero of the Old Testament Book of Judges. His mother had been told by an angel that she would bear a son whose life would be dedicated to God and whose hair must never be cut. Samson per¬ formed many powerful acts, including slaying a lion and moving the gates of Gaza. When he revealed to a Philistine woman, Delilah, that his hair was the source of his strength, she shaved his head while he was sleeping, leav¬ ing him powerless. He was blinded and enslaved by the Philistines, but later his strength was restored and he pulled down the pillars of a temple where 3,000 Philistines had gathered, killing them and himself.

Samuel (c. 11th century bc) Old Testament prophet, the first after Moses and the last of the judges of ancient Israel. His story is told in two bib¬ lical books (1 and 2 Samuel) that relate the history of Israel in the 11th— 10th century bc. During this period, the first monarchy of Israel was established and the tribes of Israel united under a single kingdom with its capital at Jerusalem. Samuel received a revelation that led to the instal¬ lation of Saul as king, but later announced an oracle rejecting Saul and secretly anointed David as king. Scholars dispute whether the historical Samuel was the author of the two books that bear his name.

Samuel (d. Oct. 6, 1014) Tsar of Western Bulgaria (980-1014). Ruling originally in Macedonia, he conquered Serbia, northern Bulgaria, Alba¬ nia, and northern Greece. He revived the Bulgarian patriarchate and in the 980s defeated Basil II. However, his struggle with the Byzantines con¬ tinued until 1014, when Basil defeated Samuel’s army at the Battle of Belasitsa. At Basil’s order, the 15,000 Bulgarian prisoners were blinded and then returned to Samuel, who is said to have died of shock.

Samuel (of Mount Carmel and of Toxeth), Herbert Louis Samuel, 1st Viscount (b. Nov. 6, 1870, Liverpool, Eng.—d. Feb. 5, 1963, London) British politician. A social worker in the London slums, he entered the House of Commons in 1902, where he effected legislation that established juvenile courts and the Borstal system for youthful offend¬ ers. As postmaster general (1910-14, 1915-16), he nationalized the tele¬ phone system. Appointed the first British high commissioner for Palestine (1920-25), he improved the region’s economy and promoted harmony among its religious communities. He presided (1925-26) over the royal commission on the coal industry and helped to settle the general strike of May 1926. He led the Liberal Party in the House of Commons (1931-35), and after being made viscount (1937), he was leader of the party in the House of Lords (1944-55). As president of the British (later Royal) Insti¬ tute of Philosophy (1931-59), he wrote popular works such as Practical Ethics (1935) and Belief and Action (1937).

Samuelson, Paul (Anthony) (b. May 15, 1915, Gary, Ind., U.S.) U.S. economist. He received his Ph.D. from Harvard and taught at Mas¬ sachusetts Institute of Technology from 1940, becoming an emeritus pro-

like dog developed in Siberia, where Siberian peoples kept it as a sled dog, companion, and herd dog for their reindeer. It has erect ears, dark, almond-shaped eyes, and a charac¬ teristic “smile.” Its long, heavy coat is white, cream-coloured, grayish yellow (biscuit), or white-and- biscuit. It stands 19-24 in. (48-60 cm) tall and weighs 50-65 lb (23-30 kg). Gentle, loyal, and intelligent, it makes a capable guard and a good companion.

sampo \'sam-po\ In Finnish mythology, a mysterious object that has been variously identified but is

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

samurai ► San Gabriel Mountains I 1677

fessor in 1986. His Foundations of Economic Analysis (1947) outlines a basic theme of his work, the universal nature of consumer behaviour as the key to economic theory. His studies included the dynamics of eco¬ nomic systems, analyses of public goods, welfare economics, and public expenditure. His most influential work was perhaps his mathematical for¬ mulation of multiplier and accelerator effects and, in consumption analy¬ sis, his development of the theory of revealed preference. His classic Economics (1948) is the best-selling U.S. economics textbook of all time. For his fundamental contributions to nearly all branches of economics, he became in 1970 the third person to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Eco¬ nomic Sciences.

samurai Member of the Japanese warrior class. In early Japanese his¬ tory, culture was associated with the imperial court, and warriors were accorded low status. The samurai became important with the rise in pri¬ vate estates ( shoen ), which needed military protection. Their power increased, and when Minamoto Yoritomo became the first shogun (mili¬ tary ruler) of the Kamakura period (1192-1333), they became the ruling class. They came to be characterized by the ethic of bushido, which stressed discipline, stoicism, and service. Samurai culture developed fur¬ ther under the Ashikaga shoguns of the Muromachi period (1338-1573). During the long interval of peace of the Tokugawa period (1603-1867), they were largely transformed into civil bureaucrats. As government employees, they received a stipend that was worth less and less in the flourishing merchant economy of the 18th—19th centuries in Edo (Tokyo) and Osaka. By the mid-19th century, lower-ranking samurai, eager for societal change and anxious to create a strong Japan in the face of West¬ ern encroachment, overthrew the shogunal government in the Meiji Resto¬ ration of 1868. Feudal distinctions were abolished in 1871. Some samurai rebelled (see Saigo Takamori), but most threw themselves into the task of modernizing Japan. See also daimyo; han.

San formerly Bushmen Group of peoples now living mainly in and around the Kalahari Desert region of southern Africa, chiefly Botswana, Namibia, and northwestern South Africa. They are closely related to the Khoekhoe. San languages belong to the Khoisan family. Two well-known San groups are the !Kung (Ju) and the IGui. The San are, for the most part, physically indistinguishable from the Khoekhoe or from their Bantu¬ speaking neighbours. Traditional San society centres on the nomadic band of related families. San shelters are semicircular structures of branches, twigs, and grass; their equipment is portable, their possessions few and light. They have traditionally hunted, using bows and snares, and gath¬ ered wild vegetables, fruits, and nuts. Numbering in the tens of thousands, most San have been restricted, because of historical and political factors, to harsh, semiarid areas, and they work for wages on European farms or serve other Africans, notably the Tswana.

San Vsan\, Saya orig. Ya Gyaw (b. Oct. 24, 1876, East Thayetkan, Shewbo district, Burma—d. Nov. 16, 1931, Tharrawaddy) Political leader of Burma (Myanmar). A Buddhist monk, physician, and astrologer in Siam (Thailand) and Burma, he joined an extreme nationalist group dedi¬ cated to organizing peasant discontent. Claiming the throne of Burma, he had himself crowned in 1930 and initiated an anti-British revolt in the Tharrawaddy district. Within two years the rebels, armed only with spears and swords and protected by charms they believed would make them invulnerable to bullets, were defeated by British troops with machine guns; Saya San was captured, tried, and hanged. The revolt exposed the precarious and unpopular position of the British in Burma.

San Andreas \,san-an-'dra-3s\ Fault Zone of transform faults at the boundary between two tectonic plates in the western U.S. The fault runs along the coast of northern California for more than 800 mi (1,300 km) and passes seaward in the vicinity of San Francisco. Movement along the fault is characterized by frequent earthquakes, including the major San Francisco quake of 1906, when parts of the fault line moved as much as 21 ft (6.4 m); the less serious earthquake of 1989; and a destructive quake centred in the Los Angeles suburb of Northridge in 1994.

San Antonio City (pop., 2000: 1,144,646), south-central Texas, U.S. It is situated at the headwaters of the San Antonio River. Founded in 1718 by the Spanish as a mission on the site of a Coahuiltecan Indian village, it was laid out as a town in 1731. The mission, called the Alamo, became a military post in 1794; it was the site of a historic siege in 1836. In the late 19th century, as the starting point of the Chisholm Trail, the town became a major cattle centre. Military installations, especially for avia¬ tion and aerospace, spurred the city’s rapid growth after 1940. The

economy is now diversified—government, business, manufacturing, edu¬ cation, and tourism are all important aspects of San Antonio’s growth.

San Bernardino City (pop., 2000: 185,410), southern California, U.S. Located east of Los Angeles, it was laid out as a town by Mormons in 1852 and developed as a trade centre chiefly for the surrounding citrus groves and vineyards. Other industries, including aerospace and electron¬ ics, are now the economic mainstays. It is part of the San Bernardino- Riverside-Ontario metropolitan complex.

San Bernardino Pass Mountain pass, Lepontine Alps, southeastern Switzerland. Its altitude is 6,775 ft (2,065 m). The village of San Bernar¬ dino, just south of the pass, is a popular year-round resort. A tunnel beneath the pass was opened in 1967, improving travel through the region. The pass was named for St. Bernardine of Siena, who preached in the area in the early 15th century.

San Cristobal \,san-kres-'t6-bal\ Island One of the Galapagos Islands, eastern Pacific Ocean, Ecuador. It is the most populated and fertile island of the archipelago, producing sugar, coffee, cassava, and limes. Volcanic in origin and with an area of 195 sq mi (505 sq km), it is the only island of the group that has a regular supply of fresh water. Charles Darwin landed there at the settlement of San Cristobal in 1835 and compiled data that he later used in his book On the Origin of Species (1859).

San Diego City (pop., 2000: 1,223,400) and port, southern California, U.S. It is located on San Diego Bay, the site of major naval and military bases. Sighted by the Spanish in 1542 and named San Miguel, the area was renamed San Diego in 1602. In 1769 the Spanish established a mili¬ tary post on the site, and Junipero Serra dedicated the first California mis¬ sion there. The U.S. acquired it from Mexico in 1846, and a new city was laid out in 1867. The arrival of the Santa Fe railroad in 1885 stimulated the city’s growth. Industrial development is dominated by aerospace, elec¬ tronics, and shipbuilding, and the city is the main commercial outlet for the farm produce of southern California. Balboa Park and its San Diego Zoo are renowned, as are the area universities.

San Diego Zoo One of the world’s largest collections of mammals, birds, and reptiles, located in San Diego, Calif., and administered by the Zoological Society of San Diego. The 100-acre (40.5-hectare) zoo, founded in 1916, has more than 800 animal species and more than 6,500 plant species. The 1,800-acre (730-hectare) San Diego Wild Animal Park opened in 1972 some 30 mi (50 km) northeast, in the San Pasqual Val¬ ley; there some 400 species of animals roam through simulated Asian and African habitats. The research department Conservation and Research for Endangered Species has contributed to the zoo’s success in managing and breeding endangered species.

San Fernando Valley Valley, southern California, U.S. Northwest of central Los Angeles, the valley is bounded by the San Gabriel, Santa Sus- ana, and Santa Monica mountains and the Simi Hills. Originally an agri¬ cultural area, it occupies 260 sq mi (670 sq km) and now contains several residential suburbs of Los Angeles, including Encino, North Hollywood, Studio City, and Van Nuys.

San Francisco City (pop., 2000: 776,733) and port, northern Califor¬ nia, U.S. San Francisco lies on the northern end of a peninsula between the Pacific Ocean and San Francisco Bay. The Golden Gate Bridge spans the strait to the north that separates San Francisco from Marin county. Founded in the 18th century by the Spanish, it came under Mexican con¬ trol after Mexican independence in 1821. Occupied by U.S. forces in 1846, it grew rapidly after the discovery of gold in nearby areas (see gold rush). San Francisco suffered extensive damage from the earthquake and fire of 1906 and from an earthquake in 1989. The city was prominent in the American cultural revolution of the 1960s. It is a commercial, cul¬ tural, educational, and financial centre and one of the country’s most cos¬ mopolitan cities.

San Francisco Bay Large, nearly landlocked bay indenting west- central California, U.S. A drowned river valley paralleling the coastline, it is connected with the Pacific Ocean by the Golden Gate Strait, which is spanned by the Golden Gate Bridge. The bay is one of the world’s fin¬ est natural harbours. Treasure, Yerba Buena, Angel, and Alcatraz islands are there; the cities of San Francisco, Oakland, and Berkeley are nearby.

San Gabriel Mountains Segment of the Pacific Coast Ranges, south¬ ern California, U.S. Many peaks exceed 9,000 ft (2,700 m); the highest is San Antonio Peak, or Old Baldy, at 10,080 ft (3,072 m). The range also

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1678 I San Jacinto Mountains ► San Marino

includes Mount Wilson Observatory, northeast of Pasadena. The moun¬ tains are largely within the Angeles National Forest.

San Jacinto \,san-j9-'sin-to\ Mountains Segment of the Pacific Coast Ranges, southwestern California, U.S. San Jacinto Peak is the highest point in these mountains, at 10,804 ft (3,293 m); the city of Palm Springs lies at its eastern base. The range is largely within conservation areas, including the Mount San Jacinto State Park and a division of the San Ber¬ nardino National Forest. The mountains attract tourists, provide outdoor recreation, and are an important watershed for the surrounding area.

San Joaquin \,san-wa-'ken\ River River, central California, U.S. Formed by forks rising in the Sierra Nevada, it flows past Stockton, Calif., to join the Sacramento River above Suisun Bay. It is 350 mi (560 km) long and is dammed for hydroelectric power. Its valley is the southern part of the Central Valley, one of the most productive agricultural regions in the U.S.

San Jose \,saq-ho-'sa\ City (pop., 2000: 309,672), capital of Costa Rica. Founded c. 1736 as Villa Nueva in a broad, fertile valley about 3,800 ft (1,160 m) above sea level, it developed slowly as a tobacco centre in the Spanish colonial era. In 1823 it became the capital and in the 1840s the centre of coffee production, which remained the chief source of the coun¬ try’s income through the 19th century. The political, social, and economic centre of Costa Rica, it grew rapidly throughout the 20th century in both population and area.

San Jose \,san-h6-'za\ City (pop., 2000: 894,943), west-central Cali¬ fornia, U.S. Located southeast of San Francisco, San Jose was the first civic settlement in California. Founded in 1777 as a farming community, it became a Spanish military supply base and was the state’s first capital (1849-52). In 1850 it became the first chartered city in California. It was a trade depot for the California gold fields. The railroad from San Fran¬ cisco improved trade connections for the produce of nearby farms. San Jose is a processing and distribution centre for a rich agricultural area producing fruit and wine. It is part of Silicon Valley, and its industries include the manufacture of electronic, computer, and aerospace compo¬ nents, auto parts, and consumer goods.

San Jose scale Species (Aspidiotus pemiciosus ) of scale insect first discovered in North America at San Jose, Cal., in 1880 but probably a native of China. A waxy gray secretion (the scale) covers the yellow females, which are about 0.06 in. (1.5 mm) in diameter. The scale is elevated in the center and is surrounded by a yellow ring. The female produces several generations of living young each year. San Jose scales can completely cover tree branches and may eventually kill the tree.

San Juan \san-'hwan\ City (pop., 2000: metro, area, 421,958), seaport, and capital of Puerto Rico. It was visited in 1508 by Juan Ponce de Leon and founded in the early 16th century by the Spanish. It became heavily fortified and was a starting point for expeditions to unknown parts of the New World. Several times it was attacked by the British, including Fran¬ cis Drake in 1595. In 1898, during the Spanish-American War, San Juan fell to the U.S. The city expanded rapidly in the 20th century and is one of the major ports and tourist resorts of the West Indies. Industries include petroleum and sugar refining, brewing, and distilling. San Juan is the commonwealth’s financial capital and many U.S. banks and corporations maintain offices there. El Morro and San Cristobal fortifications are among the city’s historic remnants.

San Juan Island National Historical Park Historical park, San Juan Islands, northwestern Washington, U.S. Established in 1966, it cov¬ ers 1,752 ac (710 ha). The San Juan Islands archipelago consists of 172 islands and makes up a county of Washington state.

San Juan Mountains Segment of the southern Rocky Mountains, southwestern Colorado and northern New Mexico, U.S. The mountains extend from southwestern Colorado along the course of the Rio Grande to the Chama River in northern New Mexico. Many peaks in the north¬ ern section exceed 14,000 ft (4,300 m), including Mounts Eolus, Sneffels, and Redcloud. Uncompahgre Peak is the highest, at 14,309 ft (4,361 m). Composed mainly of volcanic rocks, the mountains have a rugged, well- forested terrain.

San Juan River River and outlet of Lake Nicaragua, southern Nica¬ ragua. It flows from the lake’s southeastern end, forms the border of Nicaragua and Costa Rica, and empties into the Caribbean Sea; it is 124 mi (199 km) long. Near its mouth it divides and forms the Juanillo Menor, Colorado, and San Juan rivers.

San Juan River River, southwestern U.S. It rises in the San Juan Mountains of southern Colorado, on the western side of the Continental Divide. It flows southwest into New Mexico, northwest into Utah, and west to the Colorado River. It is 360 mi (580 km) long and not navigable. The section of the river where the boundaries of New Mexico, Utah, Arizona, and Colorado meet, where the San Juan has carved numerous S-shaped canyons more than 1,000 ft (300 m) deep, is known as the Goosenecks.

San Luis Potosi City (pop., 2000: 629,208), capital of San Luis PotosI state, Mexico. Situated on the central plateau, it is about 6,100 ft (1,850 m) above sea level. Founded as a Franciscan mission in 1583 and made a city in 1658, it was the centre of the region’s colonial administration. It was the site of Benito Juarez’s government in 1863. In 1910 Francisco AAadero drew up the basic social and political program of the Mexican Revolution in the city. It is the hub of a rich silver mining and agricultural region and is a leading manufacturing, metal smelting, and refining centre.

San Luis Potosi \san-'lwes-po-to-'se\ State (pop., 2000: 2,299,360), northeastern Mexico. It has an area of 24,351 sq mi (63,068 sq km), and its capital is San Luis Potosi. It is a fertile area, and crops are cultivated in the uplands and in the lower tropical valleys. Livestock raising is impor¬ tant, and hides, tallow, and wool are exported. Some of the richest silver mines in Mexico are located in the state.

San Marco Basilica See Saint Mark's Basilica

San Marino officially Republic of San Marino Country, central Italian peninsula, southern Europe. It is located near the Adriatic Sea but is surrounded by Italy. Area: 24 sq mi (61 sq km). Population (2005 est.):

30,100. Capital: San Marino. Most of the people are Sammarinesi with a significant J

minority of Italians. Language: Italian * ‘ 2 ‘ 3 k!n

(official). Religion: Christianity (predomi¬ nantly Roman Catholic). Currency: euro.

San Marino has an irregular rectangular form with a maximum length of 8 mi (13 km). It is crossed by streams that flow into the Adriatic Sea and is dominated by Mount Titano (2,424 ft [739 m]), on which the capital, the town of San Marino, is located, surrounded by triple walls. The economy is based on private enterprise and includes tourism, commerce, agriculture, crafts, and fine printing, particularly of postage stamps. San Marino is a republic with one legislative house; its heads of state and government are two captains-regent. According to tradition, it was founded in the early 4th century ad by St. Marinus. By the 12th century it had developed into a commune and remained independent despite chal¬ lenges from neighbouring rulers, including the Malatesta family in nearby Rimini. San Marino survived the Renaissance as a relic of the self- governing Italian city-state and remained an independent republic after the

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

San Marino ► Sancho III Garces I 1679

unification of Italy in 1861-70. It is one of the smallest republics in the world and may be the oldest one in Europe. At the beginning of the 21st century, its citizens enjoyed a high standard of living.

San Marino City (pop., 2000: 12,945), southwestern California, U.S. It is east of Los Angeles and south of Pasadena. In 1903 railroad magnate Henry E. Huntington (1850-1927) purchased the San Marino Ranch and founded the community, which was incorporated in 1913. His estate, deeded to the public, includes the Huntington Library (with rare English and American books and manuscripts). Art Gallery (where Thomas Gains¬ borough’s Blue Boy is displayed), and Botanical Gardens.

San Martin V.san-mar-'tenN, Jose de (b. Feb. 25, 1778, Yapeyu, Vice¬ royalty of Rio de la Plata—d. Aug. 17, 1850, Boulogne-sur-Mer, Fr.) National hero of Argentina who helped lead the revolutions against Span¬ ish rule in Argentina (1812), Chile (1818), and Peru (1821). Son of a pro¬ fessional soldier and colonial administrator, he was educated in Spain. Initially he fought loyally for Spain against the Moors (1791), the British (1798), and the Portuguese (1801), but in 1812 he returned to the New World to help the revolutionaries. His greatest campaign was the libera¬ tion of Lima, without which the independence of the Argentine provinces could not have been secured. His bold strategy was to lead an army over the Andes, a daunting undertaking. In 1817 he liberated Chile, which he turned over to Bernardo O' Higgins, and proceeded to Peru by ship, where he blockaded the chief port until the royalists withdrew. He then entered Lima and declared the independence of Peru, though he lacked adequate forces to subdue the royalists in the interior. The following year he met with Simon Bolivar; what passed between them is unknown, but San Mar¬ tin soon afterward went into exile in France, leaving Bolivar to complete the liberation of Peru.

San Pedro Sula \san-'pa-thro-'su-la\ City (pop., 2001: 439,086), north¬ western Honduras. It is located about 100 mi (160 km) northwest of Teg¬ ucigalpa. Founded by the Spanish in 1536, the city has been almost completely rebuilt. It is the country’s chief industrial centre and second largest city; it produces a wide variety of items, including textiles, food¬ stuffs, clothing, beverages, and furniture.

San Salvador City (pop., 1992: city, 415,346; metro, area 1,522,126), capital of El Salvador. Founded near Suchitoto by the Spanish in 1525, it was moved to its present site in 1528 and declared a city in 1546. It became the capital of the country in 1839. During the late 1970s it became the focus of violence between the government and left-wing political groups. It is the country’s financial, commercial, and industrial centre, producing textiles and clothing, leather goods, and wood products. It is also the site of the University of El Salvador. Devasted by earthquakes in 1854, 1873, 1917, and 1986 and by heavy floods in 1934, it has been reconstructed frequently.

San Salvador See Bahamas

San Sebastian See Donostia-San Sebastian

San Simeon Former estate of William Randolph Hearst in southern Cali¬ fornia. It was built on a vast private estate of 245,000 acres (99,000 hect¬ ares), developed in the 1860s by Hearst’s father. In 1919-20, with the architect Julia Morgan, Hearst began construction of a complex of luxu¬ rious buildings and gardens to serve as a country house. The main resi¬ dence, later called Hearst Castle, is a Spanish Renaissance building with 150 rooms, a cathedral-like facade, and two bell towers. Lavish interior decorations were obtained from European churches and palaces. The site’s embellishment continued (1919—48) with numerous subsidiary buildings, Mediterranean gardens, statuary, pools, fountains, a pergola, and priceless art treasures collected from all over the world. The complex is now a state historical monument.

San Stefano Vsan-'ste-fa-.noX, Treaty of (1878) Peace settlement imposed on the Ottoman government by Russia at the end of the Russo- Turkish War. It established an independent Bulgarian principality that included most of Macedonia, realigned other European provinces of the Ottoman Empire, and ceded parts of Asian Turkey to Russia. Opposed by Austria-Hungary and Britain, it was modified at the Congress of Berlin.

Sanaa \sa-'na\ Arabic Sana a’ City (pop., 2004: 1,747,627), capital of Yemen. Located in the western part of the country, it was built on the site of an ancient pre-Islamic stronghold that has been traditionally dated to the 1st or 2nd century bc. Its people converted to Islam in 632. Nominally under Ottoman sovereignty from the mid-16th century, it was effectively

controlled from the early 17th century until 1872 by the imams (leaders) of the Zaydl ShTite sect. It became the capital of an independent Yemen after the Ottoman defeat in World War I (1914-18). In 1990 it became the capital of the unified country. For many centuries it has been the chief economic, political, and religious centre of the Yemen highlands. The old walled city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1986.

Sanaga River \,sa-na-'ga\ River, central Cameroon. It flows southwest into the Bight of Biafra opposite the island of Bioko. It is about 325 mi (525 km) long. Falls and rapids are found along much of its upper course. Dams and reservoirs regulate water flow and harness the river’s hydro¬ electric power.

Sanchez Cotan Vsan-chath-ko-'tanV Juan (b. 1561, Orgaz, Spain—d. Sept. 8, 1627, Granada) Spanish painter. Profoundly religious, he was influenced early by the spirit of Catholic mysticism that dominated the intellectual life of Toledo, where he was a still-life painter. He entered a monastery in 1603 and remained a Carthusian lay brother until his death. Though his religious paintings are not exceptional, his still lifes are considered among the best produced in Europe; their detailed realism, visual harmony, and illusion of depth convey humility and mystic spiritu¬ ality. His concern with the relation¬ ships among objects and with achieving the illusion of reality through the use of light and shadow was a major influence on the work of Francisco de ZurbarAn and other later Spanish painters.

Sanchi sculpture \'san-che\ Early Indian sculpture that embellished the gateways of the Buddhist relic mound called the Great Stupa at San¬ chi, in Madhya Pradesh, a magnifi¬ cent monument of the 1st century bc.

The two square posts of each gate¬ way are topped by capitals of sculp¬ tured animals or dwarfs, surmounted by three crossbars that end in spirals and are covered with crowded relief sculptures depicting events of the Buddha’s life. In the angle between the lowest crossbar and the pillar are sensuous figures of female earthly spirits.

Sancho I known as Sancho the Founder (b. 1154, Coimbra,

Port.—d. March 26, 1211) Second king of Portugal (1185-1211). The son of Afonso I, he resettled depopu¬ lated areas of Portugal, established new towns, and rebuilt frontier strongholds and castles. He encouraged foreign settlers and granted large tracts to military orders. When Portugal was invaded by the Almohad Moors, he sent a Crusader fleet against them (1189), but he lost control of Portuguese lands south of the Tagus River (1191).

Sancho II known as Sancho the Cowled (b. 1207, Coimbra, Port.—d. Jan. 4, 1248, Toledo, Castile) Fourth king of Portugal (1223— 45). His reign was marked by a series of vain attempts to bring political stability to his strife-ridden realm. He renewed the war against the Moors and gained control over most of the Algarve (1238-39). He was deposed (1245) in favour of his brother Afonso III.

Sancho III Garces \'san-cho...gar-'thas\ known as Sancho the Great (b. c. 992—d. Oct. 18, 1035) King of Navarra (1000-35). Son of Garcia III, he proved to be a skilled politician and succeeded in extend¬ ing control over all the Christian states of Spain. In 1010 he married Munia, daughter of the count of Castile, and he elevated Castile to a king¬ dom in 1029. By dividing his kingdom between his four sons, he made fratricidal wars inevitable after his death.

"Quince, Cabbage, Melon, and Cucumber," oil on canvas by Juan Sanchez Cotan, c. 1602; in the San Diego Museum of Art, Calif.

SAN DIEGO MUSEUM OF ART, GIF OF ANNE R. AND AMY PUTNAM

Indian sculpture that embellished

Architraves of the north gateway (toran) to the Great Stupa (stupa No. 1) at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, India

ART RESOURCE-EB INC.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1680 I SancholV ► Sanders

Sancho IV known as Sancho the Brave (b. 1257—d. April 25,1295, Toledo, Castile) King of Castile and Leon (1284-95). The second son of Afonso X, he won the backing of nobles and military orders in his effort to gain recognition as heir, and he usurped the throne on his father’s death. Sancho defeated an invasion of Andalusia by the king of Fes (1290) and won the support of Aragon by marrying his son to the daughter of James II. He depended greatly on his warrior-queen, Maria de Molina (d. 1321).

sand Mineral, rock, or soil particles that are 0.0008-0.08 in. (0.02-2 mm) in diameter. Most rock-forming minerals are found in sand, but quartz is by far the most common. Most sands also contain a small quan¬ tity of feldspar, as well as white mica. All sands contain small quantities of heavy rock-forming minerals, including garnet, tourmaline, zircon, rutile, topaz, pyroxenes, and amphiboles. In the pottery and glassmaking industries very pure quartz sands are used as a source of silica. Similar sands are used for lining the hearths of steel furnaces. Molds used in foundries for casting metal are made of sand with a clay binder. Quartz and garnet sands are used extensively as abrasives. Among ordinary sand’s many uses, it is a basic ingredient of mortar, cement, and concrete. See also tar sand.

Sand, \'sa n d,\ English \'sand\ George orig. Amandine-Aurore-

Lucile Dupin (b. July 1, 1804,

Paris, France—d. June 8, 1876,

Nohant) French writer. During child¬ hood she gained a love of the coun¬ tryside that would inform most of her works. Married in 1822, she soon tired of her husband, Casimir Dude- vant, and began a series of liaisons; her lovers included Prosper Merimee,

Alfred de Musset, and, most impor¬ tantly, Frederic Chopin. She became famous (under her pseudonym) with her novel Indiana (1832), a protest against conventions that bind an unhappy wife to her husband. Lilia (1833) extended her iconoclastic views on social and class associa¬ tions. Similar themes, along with her sympathy for the poor, are evident in her finest works, the so-called rustic novels, including The Devil’s Pool (1846), The Country Waif( 1848), and Little Fadette (1849).

Sand Creek Massacre or Chivington Massacre (Nov. 29,1864) Surprise attack by U.S. troops on a Cheyenne camp. A force of 1,200 men, mostly Colorado volunteers under Col. John M. Chivington, attacked sev¬ eral hundred Cheyenne camped on Sand Creek near Fort Lyon in south¬ eastern Colorado Territory. The Indians had been conducting peace negotiations with the fort’s commander; when the attack began, they raised a white flag, but the troops continued to attack, massacring more than 200 of them. The slayings led to the Plains Indian wars.

sand dollar Any echinoderm (order Clypeastroida, class Echinoidea) that has a coinlike, thin-edged body. Five “petals” spread out from the center of the upper body. It burrows in sand, feeding on organic particles wafted to the mouth, located in the center of the body’s underside. Small spines covering the body are used for digging and crawling. Tests (exter¬ nal skeletons) of the common sand dollar ( Echinarachnius parma), which often wash up on beaches in North America and Japan, are 2^1 in. (5-10 cm) in diameter.

sand dune Hill, mound, or ridge of windblown sand or other loose material such as clay particles. Dunes are commonly associated with desert regions and seacoasts, and there are large areas of dunes in non¬ glacial parts of Antarctica.

sand flea or beach flea Hopping terrestrial crustacean (family Tal- itridae). The European sand flea ( Talitrus saltator ) is about 0.6 in. (1.5 cm) long. The long-horned sand flea ( T. longicornis ), found on the North American Atlantic coast, has antennae the same length as the waxy white body, up to 1 in. (2.5 cm) long. During the day, sand fleas lie buried near the high-tide mark; at night, they forage for organic debris. The common sand flea ( Orchestia agilis, or platensis ) lives along Atlantic coasts of Europe and the Americas.

sand fly Any of several species in the dipteran family Phlebotomidae (sometimes considered part of the family Psychodidae) with aquatic lar¬ vae that live in the intertidal zone of coastal beaches, in mud, or in wet organic debris. The genus Phlebotomus transmits the pappataci fever virus, and in parts of South America, Africa, and Asia it carries the pro¬ tozoan parasites that cause kala azar, Oriental sore, espundia, and bar- tonellosis. The name is also used for species of the blackfly and biting midge families.

sand shark Any of about six species of shallow-water, bottom¬ dwelling sharks in the genus Odon- taspis (family Odontaspididae), found along tropical and temperate coastlines of all oceans. They are 10-20 ft (3-6 m) long and are brown or gray above, paler below. Vora¬ cious but generally sluggish, they have long, slim, pointed teeth and prey on fishes and invertebrates. Two species, the sand tiger ( O. taurus) of the Atlantic and the gray nurse (O. arenarius ) of Australia, are potentially dangerous.

sandalwood Any semiparasitic plant of the genus Santalum (family Santalaceae; the sandalwood family), or its wood, especially the wood of the true, or white, sandalwood, Santalum album, which is used in mak¬ ing furniture and from which oil used in making perfumes, soaps, candles, and incense is derived. The approximately 10 species of Santalum are distributed throughout South Asia and the islands of the South Pacific. The sandalwood family contains more than 400 species of semiparasitic shrubs, herbs, and trees in about 36 genera, found in tropical and temper¬ ate regions. In some genera the leaves are reduced to scalelike structures. The green leaves contain some chlorophyll, which allows the plants to make food, but all sandalwoods are parasites to a certain extent, obtain¬ ing water and nutrients from their hosts. Most, including S. album, are root parasites, but some are stem parasites.

Sandalwood Island See Sumba

sandbar or offshore bar Submerged or partly exposed ridge of sand or coarse sediment that is built by waves offshore from a beach. The swirling turbulence of waves breaking off a beach excavates a trough in the sandy bottom. Some of this sand is carried forward onto the beach and the rest is deposited on the offshore flank of the trough. Sand sus¬ pended in the backwash and in rip currents adds to the bar, as does some sand moving shoreward from deeper water. The bar’s top is kept below still-water level by the plunge of the waves breaking over it.

Sandburg, Carl (b. Jan. 6, 1878, Galesburg, Ill., U.S.—d. July 22, 1967, Flat Rock, N.C.) U.S. poet, historian, novelist, and folklorist.

Sandburg tried many occupations and fought in the Spanish-American War before moving to Chicago in 1913, where he worked in journal¬ ism. He won recognition in 1914 with poems, including “Chicago,” perhaps his best-known, published in Poetry magazine. His Whitmanesque free verse eulogizing American workers appeared in such volumes as Smoke and Steel (1920) and The People, Yes (1936). The American Songbag (1927) and New American Songbag (1950) collect folk songs he performed. His other works include Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years (1926), Abraham Lincoln: The War Years (1939, Pulitzer Prize), Remem¬ brance Rock (1948), and four chil¬ dren’s books, including Rootabaga Stories (1922).

Sanders, Barry (b. July 16, 1968, Wichita, Kan., U.S.) U.S. football player. He attended Oklahoma State University, where he won the Heis- man Trophy (1988) and set 34 college rushing records. As a running back for the Detroit Lions (1989-99), he rushed for 15,269 yd, placing him third behind Emmitt Smith and Walter Payton in all-time career rushing

George Sand

COURTESY OF THE MUS^E CARNAVALET, PARIS

Sand shark (Odontaspis).

GRANT HEILMAN—EB INC.

Carl Sandburg, 1949.

COURTESY OF THE ILLINOIS STATE HISTORICAL LIBRARY, SPRINGFIELD

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Sanders ► sankin kotai I 1681

yardage. He holds records for the most games with 150 yd or more rush¬ ing (25), the most 100-yd games in a season (14), and the most touch¬ down runs of 50 or more yards (15). A runner with exceptional speed and balance, Sanders was known for his array of jukes and spins that left defenders grasping at air.

Sanders, Otto Liman von See Otto Liman von Sanders

sandhill crane Crane species (Grus canadensis family Gruidae), 35—43 in. (90-110 cm) long, with a red crown, a bluish or brownish gray body tinged with sandy yellow, and a long, harsh, penetrating call. It is one of the oldest of all existing bird species. It breeds from Alaska to Hudson Bay; it formerly bred in south-central Canada and the Great Lakes region of the U.S. but is now uncommon in those regions. A smaller, non- migratory subspecies breeds in Florida and southern Georgia. Sandhill cranes have been used as surrogate parents in efforts to save the whoop¬ ing crane from extinction.

Sandinista Any member of Nicaragua’s Sandinista National Libera¬ tion Front (FSLN). Named for Cesar Augusto Sandino, a hero of Nica¬ raguan resistance to U.S. occupation (1927-33), the group was founded in 1962 to oppose the Somoza family’s dictatorship. They organized sup¬ port among students, workers, and peasants. From bases in Honduras and Costa Rica, they attacked the Nicaraguan National Guard. They split into factions in the mid-1970s but reunited during the revolution of 1978-79 that finally succeeded in overthrowing Pres. Anastasio Somoza. A junta headed by Daniel Ortega led the Sandinista government (1979-90), which implemented literacy and community health programs. In an effort to topple the government, the U.S. imposed a trade embargo, pressured inter¬ national lending institutions to withhold aid, and trained and supported the contras. The FSLN lost support over time and was voted out of power in 1990. See also Violeta Chamorro.

sandpainting Type of art practiced among the Navajo and Pueblo Indi¬ ans and among Tibetan Buddhists. Sandpaintings are stylized, symbolic pictures (in Tibet, mandalas) prepared by trickling small quantities of crushed, coloured sandstone, charcoal, or pollen on a background of clean smoothed sand. The pictures may include representations of deities, cos¬ mic worlds, animals, lightning, rainbows, plants, and other symbols described in chants that accompany various religious and healing rites.

sandpiper Any of numerous shorebirds (family Scolopacidae) found either breeding or wintering nearly worldwide. Sandpipers, 6-12 in.

(15-30 cm) long, have a moderately long bill and legs, long, narrow wings, and a fairly short tail. Their plumage has a complicated “dead- grass” pattern of browns, buffs, and blacks above, white or cream below.

They run along ocean and inland beaches and mudflats, picking up insects, crustaceans, and worms and uttering thin, piping cries. Many spe¬ cies migrate in great flocks, from the Arctic to South America and New Zealand.

sandstone Sedimentary rock formed from sand-sized grains (0.0025-0.08 in., or 0.06-2 mm, in diam¬ eter). The spaces between grains may be empty or filled with either a chemical cement of silica or calcium carbonate or a fine-grained matrix of silt and clay particles. The principal mineral constituents of the grain framework are quartz, feldspar, and rock fragments. Sandstones are quar¬ ried for use as building stone. Because of their abundance, diversity, and mineralogy, sandstones are also important to geologists as indicators of erosional and depositional processes. See also graywacke.

Sandwich, John Montagu, 4th earl of (b. Nov. 13, 1718—d. April 30, 1792, London, Eng.) British first lord of the Admiralty (1748- 51, 1771-82). He served as secretary of state for the north (1763-65, 1770-71) and led the prosecution of John Wilkes. Appointed first lord of the Admiralty during the American Revolution, he was criticized for keep¬ ing much of the British fleet in European waters to avoid French attack. His promotion of exploration led Capt. James Cook to name the Sandwich Islands (later Hawaii) after him in 1778. The sandwich was named after him in 1762 when he spent 24 hours at a gaming table without other food.

White-rumped sandpiper (Calidris fus- cicollis)

HELEN CRUICKSHANK FROM THE NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCIETY COLLECTION/PHOTO RESEARCHERS

Sangallo the Younger, Antonio da See Antonio da Sangallo the Younger

Sanger, Frederick (b. Aug. 13, 1918, Rendcombe, Gloucestershire, Eng.) British biochemist. Educated at the University of Cambridge, he thereafter worked principally at the Medical Research Council in Cam¬ bridge (1951-83). He spent 10 years elucidating the structure of the insu¬ lin molecule, determining the exact order of all its amino acids by 1955. His techniques for determining the order in which amino acids are linked in proteins made it possible to discover the structure of many other com¬ plex proteins. In 1958 he won a Nobel Prize for his work. In 1980 Sanger became the fourth person ever to be awarded a second Nobel Prize, which he shared with Paul Berg and Walter Gilbert (b. 1932), for determining the sequences of nucleotides in the DNA molecule of a small virus.

Sanger, Margaret orig. Margaret Higgins (b. Sept. 14, 1879,

Corning, N.Y., U.S.—d. Sept. 6,

1966, Tucson, Ariz.) U.S. birth- control pioneer. She practiced obstet¬ rical nursing on New York’s Lower East Side, where she noticed a rela¬ tionship between poverty, uncon¬ trolled fertility, and high rates of infant and maternal deaths. In 1914 she published The Woman Rebel (later Birth Control Reviews), which was banned as obscene. She was arrested in 1916 for mailing birth- control literature and again when she opened the country’s first birth- control clinic. Her legal appeals brought publicity and support to her cause, and the federal courts soon granted physicians the right to pre- .. . c

scribe contraceptives. In 1921 she courtesy of planned parenthood federation of founded the American Birth Control America, inc.

League. She soon took her campaign

worldwide, organizing the first World Population Conference (1927) and becoming the founding president of the International Planned Parenthood Federation (1953).

sang ha Vseq-goV Buddhist monastic order, traditionally composed of four groups: monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen. Established by the Buddha, it is the world’s oldest body of celibate clerics. Together with the Buddha and the dharma, it makes up the Threefold Refuge, a basic creed of Buddhism. Buddha established the bhiksu sangha for men and later the bhiksuni sangha for women. Members depend on alms from the commu¬ nity, since they are discouraged from engaging in commerce or agricul¬ ture. They live according to the Vinaya Pitaka.

Sangre de Cristo Vsaq-gre-do-'kris-toV Mountains Segment of the southern Rocky Mountains. The mountains extend southeast for about 250 mi (400 km) from south-central Colorado to north-central New Mexico. Many of the peaks exceed 14,000 ft (4,300 m); Blanca Peak, at 14,345 ft (4,372 m), is the highest. Tourism and mining are the main economic activities.

Sanhedrin \san-'he-dron, san-'he-dronV Jewish council that operated in Roman Palestine from the time of the Maccabees (c. 165 bc) to the end of the patriarchate (ad 425). While the term refers to the supreme Jewish court, the Sanhedrin’s exact composition and powers—religious, judicial, and legislative—are reported variously in different sources. It is men¬ tioned in various books of the Bible (Mark, Luke, Acts) as having taken part in or adjudicated the trials of Jesus, St. Peter the Apostle, and St. John the Baptist. According to Talmudic sources, the Great Sanhedrin was a court of 71 sages that met on fixed occasions in the Temple of Jerusalem, acting as a religious legislative body, trial court, and administrator of ritu¬ als.

sankin kotai \ , san-,kin-ko-'tI\ In Japanese history, a system of alter¬ nating residency practiced during the Tokugawa period (1603-1867). The daimyo (domain lords) were required to reside alternately in their HAN (feudal domains) and in Edo (modem Tokyo), the capital of the Tokugawa shogunate. The system, inaugurated in 1635, lasted until 1862. It kept the daimyo from building up power bases in their domains that could threaten the shogunate, and, because of the expense of maintaining two residences, prevented them from building up wealth. It also contributed to the flow-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1682 I sannyasi ► Santa Fe Trail

ering of an urban culture and a commercial economy and encouraged improvements to roads and communications.

sannyasi \,s9n-'ya-se\ In Hinduism, one who renounces all ties with family and society and pursues spiritual liberation. Sannyasis are a class of sadhu that do not live in communities, instead leading a mendicant, itinerant life. Those recognized as having achieved full self-knowledge are considered free of all worldly rules and duties, including those per¬ taining to caste, and are not required to carry out image worship or offer¬ ings. After death, their bodies, rather than being cremated, are buried in a seated, meditative posture.

sansculotte \ l sa n -kue-'l6t,\ English \,sanz-ku-'lat\ (French sans-culotte, “without breeches”) In the French Revolution, one of the ill-clad and ill- equipped volunteers of the Revolutionary army; also a Parisian ultradem¬ ocrat of the Revolution. The working-class sansculottes wore long trousers to distinguish themselves from the upper classes, who wore knee- breeches ( culotte ). Allied with the Jacobins (see Jacobin Club) in the Reign of Terror, sansculottes included ultrademocrats of all classes. Their influ¬ ence waned after the fall of Maximilien Robespierre in 1794. See also Jacques Hebert.

Sanskrit language Old Indo-Aryan language, the classical literary language of Hinduism. The most ancient form is Vedic, attested in its ear¬ liest form in parts of the Rig Veda, dating from the late 2nd millennium bc. Late Vedic Sanskrit was described and codified in a grammar by Panini, dating from about the 5th century bc. Literary activity in so-called Classical Sanskrit, in many respects similar to the language described by Panini, flourished c. 500 bc-c. ad 1000. Today Sanskrit (now usually written in the Devanagari script) serves as a learned language and lingua franca for Brahman scholars. It is an archaic Indo-European language with an elaborate system of nominal and verbal inflection.

Sansovino V.san-so-'ve-noV Andrea orig. Andrea Contucci (b. c.

1467, Monte San Savino, Republic of Florence—d. 1529, Monte San Savino) Italian sculptor. The fine detail and high emotional pitch of his marble Altar of the Sacrament in Florence’s Santo Spirito (1485-90) typify his early work; his marble Baptism of Christ (1502), above one of the Baptistery doors in Florence, marks a shift to High Renaissance style with its dignified poses and strong but controlled emotion. His tombs for two cardinals in Rome’s Santa Maria del Popolo (completed 1509) were his most influential innovation, with their triumphal-arch form and the novel sleeping attitude of the deceased cardinals. His works display the transition from early to High Renaissance, and his graceful style acted as a counterbalance to Michelangelo’s titanic, muscular sculpture throughout the 16th century.

Sansovino V.san-so-'ve-noV, Jacopo orig. Jacopo Tatti (b. July 2, 1486, Florence, Republic of Florence—d. Nov. 27, 1570, Venice, Repub¬ lic of Venice) Italian sculptor and architect. He trained in Florence under Andrea Sansovino, whose name he adopted. In 1505-06 he moved to Rome to study architecture and work on the restoration of ancient sculp¬ ture. After the sack of Rome in 1527 he fled to Venice, where he was appointed state architect (1529). His Library of St. Mark’s (begun 1537) is one of the major architectural works of the 16th century. His vivid sculptures were often important decorative elements of his buildings. His best-known statues are the colossal figures of Mars and Neptune on the staircase of the Doges’ Palace (1554-66). He was more successful than any other Renaissance architect in fusing architecture and sculpture.

Santa Ana City (pop., 2000: 337,977), southwestern California, U.S. Located east of Long Beach, the site was laid out in 1869. The commu¬ nity developed as a centre for the farm produce of the Santa Ana valley after the Southern Pacific Railroad connected it to Los Angeles in 1878. Nearby military installations and freeway construction spurred residential and industrial growth after World War II.

Santa Ana \,san-ta-'a-na\ City (pop., 1992: 139,389), northwestern El Salvador. It is one of the country’s largest cities and a major coffee- producing centre with one of the world’s largest coffee mills. Other indus¬ tries include the manufacture of cotton textiles, furniture, and leather goods. There are summer resorts at nearby Lake Coatepeque, and the ruined Indian city of Chalchuapa is 9 mi (14 km) west. Santa Ana Vol¬ cano, which reaches 7,755 ft (2,365 m), is also nearby.

Santa Anna, Antonio (Lopez de) (b. Feb. 21, 1794, Jalapa, Mex.—d. June 21, 1876, Mexico City) Soldier and several times presi¬ dent of Mexico (1833-36, 1844^-5, 1847, 1853-55). He fought on both

sides of nearly every issue of the day.

He is famous for his glorious victo¬ ries, including his thwarting of Spain’s attempt to reconquer Mexico (1829), and for his ignominious fail¬ ures, including his defeat and capture by Sam Houston at San Jacinto in the Texas revolt (1836). When the Mexi¬ can War broke out, he contacted Pres. James K. Polk to broker a peace, but on arriving in Mexico he led Mexican forces against the U.S.

(1846-47) and was driven into exile.

When Maximilian was made emperor of Mexico, Santa Anna offered his services both to Maximilian and to his opponents; neither side accepted.

He lived abroad 1855-74, finally returning to Mexico to die in pov¬ erty. See also Alamo; caudillo; La Reforma.

Santa Barbara City (pop., 2000:

92,325), southern California, U.S.

Located on the Pacific coast, Santa Barbara was named for the patron saint of mariners in 1602, and it became the site of a Spanish military post in 1782. The mission of Santa Barbara was built in 1786; it is the western headquarters of the Franciscan Order and has been in continuous use since its founding. The city developed into a busy port and was incorporated as a city in 1850. After the arrival (1887) of the Southern Pacific Rail¬ road, Santa Barbara became a popular seaside resort. Its economy is bol¬ stered by livestock farms and petroleum production. Its educational institutions include the University of California at Santa Barbara (1891).

Santa Barbara Islands See Channel Islands (California)

Santa Claus See Saint Nicholas

Santa Cruz \,san-ta-'krus\ City (pop., 2001: 1,116,059), east-central Bolivia. Founded by Spaniards from Paraguay in 1561 at what is now San Jose de Chiquitos, it was attacked repeatedly by Indians until 1595. It then was moved to its present location and renamed Santa Cruz de la Sierra. In 1811 its inhabitants declared their independence from Spain. Bolivia’s largest city, it is a trade centre for crops, including sugarcane and rice, grown in the surrounding area. It has an oil refinery and is the seat of a university.

Santa Cruz de Tenerife N.san-ta-'krUth-tha-.ta-ne-'re-faX Port city (pop., 2001: 188,477), capital of the island of Tenerife in the Canary Islands, Spain. Founded in 1494, it occupies a small plain between two usually waterless ravines. It was attacked by the British in 1657 and 1797; the latter assault was led by Horatio Nelson. After 1877 growth was spurred by the banana and tomato trade and, later, by harbour improve¬ ments and tourism. In 1936 Francisco Franco, then captain general of the Canary Islands, organized from Santa Cruz the national uprising that led to the Spanish Civil War. Industries include oil refining.

Santa Fe City (pop., 2000: 62,203), capital of New Mexico, U.S. It lies at the foot of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains. Founded by the Spanish in 1610, it was the administrative, military, and missionary headquarters of a vast, sparsely populated Spanish colonial province during the 18th cen¬ tury. In the Mexican War in 1846, the city was occupied by U.S. forces under Gen. Stephen Kearny. After New Mexico was ceded to the U.S., Santa Fe became the capital of the territory in 1851. In 1912 it became the state capital. It was the western terminus of the Santa Fe Trail. It is a major tourist centre noted for Indian and Mexican handicrafts, and its large Spanish-American population has made it the cultural capital of the southwest. A popular summer resort, it also attracts winter skiers.

Santa Fe Railway See Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad Co.

Santa Fe Trail Historic wagon trail from Independence, Missouri, to Santa Fe, New Mexico, U.S. An important commercial route from 1821 to 1880, it was opened by William Becknell and used by merchant wagon caravans. From the Missouri River the trail followed the divide between the tributaries of the Arkansas and Kansas rivers to the site of modern Great Bend, Kan., then proceeded along the Arkansas River. At the west¬ ern end three routes turned south to Santa Fe, the shortest being the

Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, daguerreotype by F.W. Seiders.

COURTESY OF THE SAN JACINTO MUSEUM OF HISTORY ASSOCIATION, SAN JACINTO MONUMENT, TEXAS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Santa Gertrudis ► Sao Francisco I 1683

Cimarron Cutoff through the valley of the Cimarron River. When the Santa Fe railroad was completed in 1880, use of the trail ceased.

Santa Gertrudis Heaviest breed of beef cattle, developed in the 20th century by the King Ranch in Texas by crossing Brahman bulls with shorthorn cows. It is usually solid red with occasional small white mark¬ ings on the forehead or the flanks. It has a long, deep body and much loose skin about the neck, brisket, and navel.

Santa Isabel or Ysabel Island, central Solomon Islands, western South Pacific Ocean. Located 50 mi (80 km) northwest of Guadalcanal, Santa Isabel is about 130 mi (209 km) long and 20 mi (32 km) wide at its widest point. Mount Marescot, rising 4,000 ft (1,219 m), is the highest peak. The island was under German control from 1886 to 1899; Rekata Bay on the northwestern coast was a Japanese military base during World War II. Coconut plantations and timber development are important to the economy.

Santa Isabel See Malabo

Santa River River, west-central Peru. Rising in the Cordillera Blanca branch of the Andes Mountains, it descends to the northwest to form the Huaylas Valley, a densely populated agricultural region. Below Huallanca, it veers west and plunges through a spectacular gorge, the Pato Canyon, to enter the Pacific Ocean after a course of 200 mi (300 km). It is har¬ nessed by hydroelectric stations to provide power.

Santa Rosa City (pop., 2000: 147,595), western California, U.S. Santa Rosa lies at the foot of the Sonoma Mountains, northwest of San Fran¬ cisco. Founded in 1833 and incorporated in 1868, it developed as a pro¬ cessing and shipping centre for the agricultural produce of the Sonoma valley. The economy relies on retail services catering to an increasing residential population. The city was the site of the home and gardens of plant breeder Luther Burbank. Nearby is the Jack London Memorial.

Santander V.san-.tan-'derX Port city (pop., 2001: 180,717), capital of the autonomous community ( comunidad autonoma ) of Cantabria, north¬ ern Spain. A major seaport and summer resort, it is situated on the south¬ ern shore of Cape Mayor, a rocky peninsula extending east and sheltering Santander Bay, an inlet of the Bay of Biscay. The city was rebuilt after a disastrous fire in 1941. In addition to tourism, the economy is based on fishing, iron refining, and shipbuilding. The caves of Altamira and Castillo are nearby.

Santayana \,san-ta-'ya-na\, George orig. Jorge Augustin Nicolas Ruiz de Santillana (b. Dec. 16, 1863, Madrid, Spain—d. Sept. 26, 1952, Rome, Italy) Spanish-born U.S. philosopher, poet, and humanist. Santayana moved to the U.S. as a boy in 1872. After graduating from Harvard, he taught philosophy there (with William James and Josiah Royce) from 1889 to 1912, and he began producing important contributions to aesthetics, speculative philosophy, and literary criticism, including The Sense of Beauty (1896), Interpretations of Poetry and Religion (1900), and The Life of Reason (1905-06). He returned to Europe in 1912. Scepticism and Animal Faith (1923) best conveys his theory of immediately appre¬ hended essences and describes the role played by “animal faith” in various forms of knowledge. He also wrote a novel. The Last Puritan (1935), and an autobiography. Persons and Places, 3 vol. (1944-53).

Santee \san-'te\ River River, southeast-central South Carolina, U.S. The Santee flows southeast into the Atlantic Ocean after a course of 143 mi (230 km). It has been dammed to form the reservoir Lake Marion, which is connected by a navigable waterway, Lake Moultrie, and the Cooper River to Charleston. The entire river system is the most impor¬ tant waterway and source of hydroelectric power in South Carolina.

Santeria \,san-te-'re-9\ Religious movement that originated in Cuba. It combines West African Yoruba beliefs and practices with elements of Roman Catholicism. It includes belief in one supreme being, but worship and rituals centre on orishas, deities or patron saints (with parallels among the Roman Catholic saints) that combine a force of nature and humanlike characteristics. Practices may include trance dancing, rhythmic drum¬ ming, spirit possession, and animal sacrifice. Santeria has a considerable following in the U.S., particularly in Florida and in other areas with large African and Hispanic populations. See also Candomble; Macumba; Vodou.

Santiago V.san-te-'a-goN City (pop., 2002 prelim.: 4,630,000), capital of Chile. It is located in central Chile, on the Mapocho River at an eleva¬ tion of about 1,700 ft (520 m). Founded in 1541 by the Spanish, the city has suffered repeatedly from earthquakes, floods, and civil disorder. It was

only slightly damaged during the War of Independence (1810-18) and became the capital of an independent Chile at the war’s end. It is the country’s economic and cultural centre and principal industrial city, pro¬ ducing textiles, footwear, and foodstuffs. The city boasts a cosmopolitan cultural life and is the home of the University of Chile.

Santiago (de los Caballeros) City (pop., 1993: 365,463), north- central Dominican Republic. Founded c. 1500, it was destroyed by an earthquake in 1562 and rebuilt a few miles away. Ruins of the old city are still visible in the district of San Francisco de Jacagua. It is the coun¬ try’s second largest city; its economy depends mainly on the production of pharmaceuticals, cigarettes, rum, and coffee.

Santiago de Compostela City (pop., 2001: 90,188), capital of Gali¬ cia autonomous community ( comunidad autonoma ), northwestern Spain. Santiago de Compostela contains a Romanesque cathedral completed in 1211 that was built on what was said to be the tomb of Jesus’ apostle St. James. This tomb, discovered in the 9th century, became the most impor¬ tant Christian pilgrimage site in Europe after Rome. The town that grew up around the tomb was destroyed in 997 by the Moors and was rebuilt in the Middle Ages. Chief economic activities include agriculture, silver- work, wood engraving, and the manufacture of linen and paper. The city is home to several colleges and a university.

Santiago de Cuba Seaport city (pop., 1994 est.: 440,000), eastern Cuba. The second largest city in Cuba, it was founded in 1514 and moved to its present site in 1522. It commanded a strategic location on the north¬ ern Caribbean Sea in the early colonial period and was the capital of Cuba until 1589. It was a focal point of the Spanish-American War, and in 1898 the entire Spanish fleet was destroyed near its coast. In 1953 it was the scene of Fidel Castro’s attack against the Moncada army barracks. It is the centre of an agricultural and mining region and exports copper, iron, manganese, sugar, and fruit.

Santo Domingo City (pop., 1993: metro, area, 1,556,000), capital of the Dominican Republic. It is situated on the southeastern coast of the island of Hispaniola, at the mouth of the Ozama River. Founded in 1496 by Christopher Columbus’s brother Bartolomeo as the capital of the first Spanish colony in the New World, it became the oldest permanent city established by Europeans in the Western Hemisphere. It was under French control (1795-1809), and it was annexed to Spain (1861-65). It became the capital of the Dominican Republic when the country gained indepen¬ dence from Spain in 1865. The city was renamed Ciudad Trujillo in 1936 for Pres. Rafael Trujillo, but it reverted to its original name after his assas¬ sination in 1961. It is the commercial and cultural centre of the republic and its principal seaport. Important industries include metallurgy and pet¬ rochemicals. It is the reputed site of the tomb of Christopher Columbus.

Santo Tome de Guayana See Ciudad Guayana Santorini See Thira

Santorio, Santorio Latin Sanctorius (b. March 29, 1561, Capodistria—d. Feb. 22, 1636, Venice) Italian physician. He adapted sev¬ eral of Galileo’s inventions to develop a medical thermometer and a pulse clock. To test Galen’s assertion that respiration also occurs through the skin as “insensible perspiration,” Santorio built a large scale on which he frequently ate, worked, and slept, so he could study his body-weight changes in relation to his solid and liquid intake and output. After 30 years, he found the total of visible excreta was less than the amount ingested; his study marked the introduction of quantitative procedure into medical research. His On Medical Measurement (1614) was the first systematic study of basal metabolism.

SanusT \sa-'nu-se\, al- in full STdi Muhammad ibn ‘All al-Sanusi al-Mujahir7 al-Hasam al-ldrTs! (b. c. 1787, Tursh, near Mostaganem, North Africa—d. Sept. 7, 1859, Jaghbub, Cyrenaica) North African Muslim theologian. He received his religious training in Fes, Mor., which was under strong French influence at the time. He became convinced that the Islamic community needed to revitalize itself in order to shake off foreign domination. Using tactics he had developed preach¬ ing among Bedouin in the Hejaz, he organized tribes in Cyrenaica to resist Italian domination, founding a militant mystical movement, the Sanusiyyah (1837), which helped Libya win its independence in the 20th century. Libya’s first king, Idris I, was his grandson.

Sao Francisco \ 1 sau n m-fra n - , ses-kii\ River River, eastern Brazil. The largest river wholly within Brazil, it flows north and east across the great

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1684 I Sao Paulo ► Sapporo

Central Plateau for about 1,811 mi (2,914 km) to its mouth on the Atlan¬ tic Ocean. The upper river valley is an area of thorny forest vegetation; the climate of the river basin is dry and hot. The fish of the river are an important food source. Hydroelectric dams harness the river and provide power throughout northeastern Brazil.

Sao Paulo \sau n m-'pau-lu\ City (pop., 2002 est.: city, 9,969,100; metro, area, 18,390,800), southeastern Brazil. It is located 30 mi (48 km) from its Atlantic Ocean port of Santos. Founded by Portuguese Jesuits in 1554, it became a base for exploration in the 17th century and a city in 1711. In 1822 it was the scene of the declaration of Brazilian independence by Emperor Pedro I. It developed rapidly from the late 19th century. It is the foremost industrial centre in Latin America, producing steel, motor vehicles, machine tools, and a wide range of consumer goods, including textiles and appliances. It is also Brazil’s largest city, an important cultural and pub¬ lishing centre, and one of the most populous cities in the world.

Sao Tome \sau n -tu-'ma\ City (pop., 1991 est.: 43,420), capital of Sao Tome and Principe. It is on the northeastern coast of the island of Sao Tome, located on the Equator in the Gulf of Guinea. It is the country’s largest city and its major port.

Sao Tome and Principe \sau n -tu-'ma...'pren-se-pe\ officially Demo¬ cratic Republic of Sao Tome and Principe Island country, cen¬ tral Africa. It is situated on the Equator in the Gulf of Guinea, west of the African mainland. Area: 386 sq mi (1,001 sq km). Population (2005 est.):

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ROLAS ISLAND »> 2002 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

157,000. Capital: Sao Tome. Most of the people are a mixture of African and Euro¬ pean ancestry or are Fang or Angolares (descendants of former Angolan slaves).

Languages: Portuguese (official), Creole.

Religion: Christianity (predominantly Roman Catholic; also Protestant). Currency: dobra. The country consists of the two main islands, Sao Tome and Principe, which are separated by about 90 mi (145 km), and a num¬ ber of islets. The two main islands each have northeastern lowlands, cen¬ tral volcanic highlands, and swift-flowing streams. The economy, partly government-controlled and partly private, is based on agriculture and fish¬ ing; it has long depended heavily on international assistance. The coun¬ try is a republic with one legislative house; its chief of state is the president, and the head of government is the prime minister. First visited by European navigators in the 1470s, the islands were soon colonized by the Portuguese and were used in the trade and transshipment of slaves. Sugar and cocoa were the main cash crops. The islands became an over¬ seas province of Portugal in 1951 and achieved independence in 1975.

Saone \'son\ River ancient Arar River, eastern France. It flows gen¬ erally south to join the Rhone River at Lyon. It is navigable upstream from

Lyon for 233 mi (375 km) and has 30 locks along its course, which is almost completely canalized. Barge traffic is heavy along its lower course, and it is connected by canal to both the Rhine and Seine rivers.

Saoshyant \saush-'yant\ In Zoroastrianism and Parsiism, the final sav¬ iour of the world. He is the foremost of the three saviours who are post¬ humous sons of Zoroaster. He is expected to appear at the end of the last millennium of the world, miraculously conceived by a virgin who has swum in a lake where Zoroaster’s seed is preserved. He will vanquish demonic power and resurrect the bodies of the dead, bestowing eternal perfection on them after all souls have been cleansed.

Sapir \so-'pir\, Edward (b. Jan. 26, 1884, Lauenburg, Pomerania, Ger.—d. Feb. 4, 1939, New Haven, Conn., U.S.) Polish-born U.S. lin¬ guist and anthropologist. He was a founder of ethnolinguistics, which considers the relationship of culture to language, and a principal devel¬ oper of the American (descriptive) school of structural linguistics. He became widely known for his contributions to the study of American Indian languages. His best-known work is Language (1921).

sapodilla \,sa-p3-'di-b\ Tropical evergreen tree (. Manilkara zapota ) of the family Sapotaceae, native to southern Mexico and northern Cen¬ tral America, and its distinctive fruit.

The rusty-brown fruit is eaten fresh in many tropical and subtropical areas. Its sweet flavour has been compared to a combination of pears and brown sugar. When the fruit is ripe, its shiny black seeds are sur¬ rounded by clear, yellowish brown, juicy flesh; when immature, its flesh contains both tannin and milky latex and is distasteful. The latex is the chief source of gum chicle, once important in the chewing-gum indus¬ try.

sapper Military engineer. The name is derived from the French word sappe (“trench”), which became connected with military engineering in the 17th century, when attackers dug covered trenches to approach the walls of a besieged fort and also undermined the walls by tunneling beneath them. In modern armies, sappers provide tactical support by car¬ rying out construction, including earthworks, portable bridges, and tank traps; build major facilities such as airports, supply roads, fuel depots, and barracks; and handle additional tasks, including disarming and dis¬ posing of land mines and unexploded bombs and preparing and distribut¬ ing maps.

sapphire Transparent to translucent natural or synthetic variety of corundum that is highly prized as a gemstone. Its colour is due mainly to the presence of small amounts of iron and titanium and normally ranges from very pale blue to deep indigo. Colourless, gray, yellow, pale pink, orange, green, violet, and brown varieties also are known as sapphire; red varieties are called ruby. Synthetic sapphire has been produced commer¬ cially since 1902. Much is used in jewelry, but most is used in the manu¬ facture of jewel bearings, gauges, dies, and other specialized components; some also is used as a high-grade abrasive. It is found in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, India, and Montana in the U.S.

Sappho \'sa-fo\ (fl. 610-c. 570 bc, Lesbos, Asia Minor) Greek lyric poet. Although legends about her abound, little is known of her life. She was born on the island of Lesbos and became the leader of a thiasos, an informal female community, whose purpose was the education of young women, especially for marriage. The principal themes of her poetry are personal and reflect the activities and atmosphere of the thiasos. Her writ¬ ing, mostly vernacular and not formally literary, is concise, direct, pic¬ turesque, and various. It includes nuptial songs and an expression of her love for other women, which produced the word lesbian (from the island’s name). Though she was much admired in antiquity, most of her work was lost by the early Middle Ages; only an ode to Aphrodite—28 lines long—is complete.

Sapporo \sa-'p6-ro\ City (pop., 2000 prelim.: 1,822,300), Hokkaido, Japan. Located on the Ishikari River, the city was laid out in 1871 with wide, tree-lined streets; it became the capital in 1886. It is a major com-

Sapodilla ( Manilkara, or Achras, zapota)

WALTER DAWN

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

sapsucker ► Sarazen I 1685

mercial centre, with Otaru, on the Sea of Japan (East Sea), as its port. Chief industries are lumbering, printing, and publishing. A popular cen¬ tre for skiing and winter sports, it was the site of the 1972 Winter Olym¬ pic Games. The annual Snow Festival features giant sculptures carved from packed snow. It is the site of two universities.

sapsucker Either of two species of North American woodpeckers that drill holes in neat, close rows to obtain sap and insects. The yellow- bellied sapsucker ( Sphyrapicus var- ius), about 8 in. (20 cm) long, is one of the few migratory species of woodpecker, breeding in northern regions and southern mountains and migrating as far as the West Indies and Central America. Both sexes have bold head markings. William¬ son’s sapsucker ( S. thyroideus), which lives in high pine forests of the western U.S., is uncommon throughout its range.

Saqqarah or Sakkara

\s3-'kar-o\ Site of ancient ruins.

Lower Egypt. Part of the necropolis of the ancient city of Memphis, it is located southwest of Cairo and west of the modem village of Saqqarah.

The earliest remains are from the Archaic Period, in a cemetery at the northern end of the site, where large mud-brick tombs, or mastabas, have been found dating to the beginning of Egyptian history. South of the Archaic cemetery lies the Step Pyra¬ mid, the oldest pyramid in Egypt. It was built by Djoser, second king of the 3rd dynasty, who ruled c. 2650-c. 2575 bc.

sarabande \'sar-3-,band\ Stately processional dance in triple metre popular in the French court and throughout Europe in the 17 th—18th cen¬ tury. Of Spanish or Mexican origin, it began as a vigorous dance, set to lively music and castanets, for a double line of couples. At first consid¬ ered improper, it was forbidden in Spain in 1583. In the early 17th cen¬ tury it was modified to its slow, dignified court version in France and Italy. The slow sarabande, usually with an accented dotted note on the second beat, became a standard movement of the baroque suite.

Saracen Vsar-o-sonV In the Middle Ages, any person—Arab, Turk, or other—who professed the religion of Islam. The name spread into west¬ ern Europe through the Byzantines and the Crusaders. It was also applied to nomadic people of the deserts between Syria and Arabia.

Saragossa See Zaragoza

Sarah (fi. early 2nd millennium bc) In the Hebrew scriptures, the wife of Abraham and mother of Isaac. She was childless until age 90. In Gen¬ esis, God promised Abraham that she would be “a mother of nations,” but Sarah refused to believe and had already given her maidservant Hagar to Abraham, with whom he fathered Ishmael. Nevertheless, Sarah did con¬ ceive in her old age and give birth to Abraham’s son Isaac.

Sarajevo Vsa-ra-ye-,v6,\ English \,sar-3-'ya-vo\ City (pop., 1997 est.: 360,000), capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina. After the Turks invaded in the late 15th century, it developed as a trading centre and stronghold of Muslim culture. From 1878 it was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (see Austria-Hungary). In 1914 Archduke Francis Ferdinand was assassi¬ nated by a Serbian nationalist, which action precipitated World War I. After Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence from Yugoslavia in 1992, it became a focal point of fierce civil war as Serb militias drove thousands of Bosnian Muslims from the countryside to take refuge in the city (see Bosnian conflict). Its pre-civil war industries included a brew¬ ery, furniture factory, tobacco factory, and automobile plant. It was the host of the 1984 Winter Olympic Games and is the centre of a road net¬ work. A rail connection to the Adriatic Sea was damaged during fighting in the 1990s but is now operational. Sarajevo retains a Muslim character, with many mosques and an ancient marketplace.

Saramago V.sa-ra-'ma-giiV Jose (b. Nov. 16, 1922, Azinhaga, Port.) Portuguese novelist. From a poor family, Saramago studied part-time while working in a welder’s shop. Later he began working as a journalist and translator. He published his first novel, Country of Sin, in 1947. His breakthrough work, Baltasar and Blimunda (1982), alternates allegorical fantasy with grimly realistic descriptions of the construction of a convent by thousands of labourers pressed into service. Saramago’s later novels, in which magic realism is mixed with outspoken political commentary, include The Stone Raft (1986), perhaps his best-known work, and Blind¬ ness (1995). He received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1998.

Saranac \'sar-3-,nak\ Lakes Three lakes, northeastern New York, U.S. Located in the Adirondack Mountains region, they are Upper, Middle, and Lower Saranac Lakes. Their elevation is 1,540 ft (469 m) above sea level. The village of Saranac Lake (pop., 2000: 5,041) is a summer and winter sports resort. Tourism and wood-based industries are the chief sources of income.

Sarandon \s9-'ran-d3n\, Susan orig. Susan Abigail Tomalin (b.

Oct. 4, 1946, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. film actress. After reading with her husband, Chris Sarandon (divorced 1979), at one of his auditions, she was cast as the female lead in Joe (1970). After winning fans in the campy Rocky Horror Picture Show (1975), she proved her talent in films such as Pretty Baby (1978), Atlantic City (1981), and The Witches ofEastwick (1987). Her later films include Bull Durham (1988), Thelma and Louise (1991), Lorenzo’s Oil (1992), Dead Man Walking (1995, Academy Award), Cradle Will Rock (1999), and Igby Goes Down (2002).

Sarapeum X.ser-s-'pe-sirA Either of two temples of ancient Egypt that were dedicated to the worship of the Greco-Egyptian god Sarapis. The original temple was built on the western bank of the Nile, near Saqqara, during the reign of Ramses II on a site originally dedicated to the worship of Osiris. The other Sarapeum was at Alexandria and was built during the reign of Ptolemy I Soter. In Roman times, other Sarapeums were con¬ structed throughout the empire.

Sarasate \,sa-ra-'sa-ta\ (y Navascuez), Pablo (Martin Mel- iton) de (b. March 10, 1844, Pamplona, Spain—d. Sept. 20, 1908, Biar¬ ritz, France) Spanish violinist. After his debut at age eight, he was sent to study in Madrid, where the queen gave him the Stradivarius that he would play his whole life. After finishing his studies in Paris, he toured the world. He had many pieces written for him (by Max Bruch, Camille Saint-Saens, etc.) and wrote scores of brilliant virtuoso works himself, including Zigeunerweisen (1878) and the Carmen Fantasy (1883).

Saratoga, Battles of (1777) Engagements in the American Revolu¬ tion. British troops under John Burgoyne marched from Canada to join with other British troops, and, after camping at Saratoga, N.Y., engaged the Continental Army under Horatio Gates at the First Battle of Saratoga (September 19), also known as the Battle of Freeman’s Farm. Failing to break the American lines, the British faced a counterattack led by Bene¬ dict Arnold at the Second Battle of Saratoga (October 7), or the Battle of Bemis Heights. With his forces reduced to 5,000 men, Burgoyne began to retreat, but Gates, with 20,000 men, surrounded the British at Saratoga and forced their surrender (October 17). The American victory induced the French to offer open recognition and military aid.

Saratov \s9-'ra-t3f\ City (pop., 2001: 864,400), western Russia. Located on the Volga River, it was founded in 1590 as a fortress to protect the trade route along the Volga. It was moved to a new site in 1616 and again in 1674 after the fortress was destroyed in a revolt. Linked to Moscow by railroad in the 1870s, Saratov became a major commercial centre. Its road bridge across the Volga (opened 1965) is one of the longest in Europe. A major industrial centre, it produces electric and petrochemical equipment and machine tools. Its educational institutions include a university (founded 1909) and a music conservatory.

Sarazen Vsar-s-zsnV Gene orig. Eugene Saraceni (b. Feb. 27, 1902, Harrison, N.Y., U.S.—d. May 13, 1999, Naples, Fla.) U.S. golfer, prominent in the 1920s and ’30s. Bom to a poor Italian immigrant fam¬ ily, Sarazen began caddying when he was eight. He became a professional golfer in 1920. Sarazen was the first to win the four tournaments that comprise golf’s grand slam in modem times. Sarazen won the U.S. Open (1922, 1932), the British Open (1932), and the PGA Championship (1922-23, 1933) and completed the grand slam with his Masters victory in 1935. That Masters victory was highlighted by his famous double eagle, two strokes (three under par) on the par-five 15th hole.

Yellow-bellied sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius)

KENNETH W. FINK FROM ROOT RESOURCES

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1686 I sardine ► Sarnoff

sardine Any of certain species of small (6-12 in., or 15-30 cm, long) food fishes of the herring family (Clupeidae), especially in the genera Sardina, Sardinops, and Sardinella. The common herring (Clupea haren- gus) is found throughout the North Atlantic. The five species of Sardinops live in the Pacific and Indian oceans. Sardines are small, silvery, slender fishes with a single short dorsal fin and no scales on the head. They live in dense schools, migrating along the coast. They are usually fished with an encircling net, particularly the purse seine, and mainly at night, when they surface to feed on plankton. See also pilchard, sprat.

Sardinia Italian Sardegna \sar-'dan-ya\ Island and autonomous region (pop., 2001 prelim.: 1,599,511), Italy. Off the southern Italian coast, Sardinia is the second largest island in the western Mediterranean Sea. It measures 9,194 sq mi (23,813 sq km); its capital is Cagliari. Thou¬ sands of structures made of basalt blocks, called nuraghi, are a dominat¬ ing feature of the island. These truncated conic structures of blocks taken from extinct volcanoes were built in prehistoric times without any mor¬ tar. Some date to c. 1500^100 bc. Phoenicians were Sardinia’s first recorded settlers c. 800 bc. Greeks and Carthaginians followed; Roman rule began in 238 bc. In the early Middle Ages Pisa and Genoa struggled over its domination. The kingdom of Sardinia, centred on the lands of Piedmont in northwestern Italy and the island of Sardinia, was ruled by the house of Savoy from 1720 until the unification of Italy in 1861. Agri¬ culture, fishing, and mining are economic mainstays of the island.

Sardinian language Romance language spoken in Sardinia, the most similar to Vulgar Latin of the modem Romance languages. Its only stan¬ dard form is the sardo illustre , a literary language used mostly for folk verse. Italian is the island’s official language, and few literary works exist in Sardinian. The earliest written materials date from c. 1080.

Sardis Vsar-dssV or Sardes \'sar-dez\ Ancient city, Anatolia. Located east of Smyrna (modern Izmir), it was the chief city and capital of the kingdom of Lydia from the 7th century bc and the first city where gold and silver coins were minted. It fell to the Persians c. 546 bc and passed to the Romans in 133 bc. Destroyed by an earthquake in ad 17, it was rebuilt and remained one of the great cities of Anatolia until the later Byzantine period. It was obliterated by Timur in 1402. Its ruins include the ancient Lydian citadel, but excavations have uncovered more remains of the Hel¬ lenistic and Byzantine city than of the ancient Lydian town.

Sardou \sar-'du\, Victorien (b. Sept. 5, 1831, Paris, France—d. Nov. 8, 1908, Paris) French playwright. He owed his initial success to the actress Pauline Dejazet, for whom he wrote several of his 70 works, including A Scrap of Paper (1860). Several later works, including Fedora (1882), were written for Sarah Bernhardt. His La Tosca (1887) was adapted by Giacomo Puccini as an opera. His last success was Madame Sans-Gene (1893). In 1877 he was elected to the Academie Fran^aise. His plays rely heavily on theatrical devices and plot contrivances, and he is remembered as a craftsman of the bourgeois drama that George Bernard Shaw belittled as “Sardoodledom.”

Sarekat \'sar-o-kat\ Islam First nationalist political party in Indonesia to gain wide popular support. Founded in 1912 to promote the interests of Muslim merchants, it soon began working for the self-government of the Dutch East Indies. Its religious appeal helped it grow rapidly, and by 1916 it claimed 350,000 members. As it became increasingly involved in revolutionary activities, communist elements entered the organization. A struggle for power ensued between religious leaders and communists, which culminated in the party dividing in 1921. Sarekat Islam declined after the departure of its left wing.

Sarema See Saaremaa

Sargasso Sea Body of still water in the North Atlantic Ocean. Ellip¬ tical in shape and strewn with a brown floating seaweed of the genus Sar- gassurn, it lies between the parallels 20° and 35° N and the meridians 30° and 70° W and encompasses the Bermuda islands. It was first mentioned by Christopher Columbus, who crossed it in 1492. The presence of the sea¬ weed suggested the proximity of land and encouraged him to continue, but many early navigators feared becoming entangled in the floating veg¬ etation and turned back.

sargassum \sar-'ga-sum\ Any of the brown algae that make up the genus Sargassum. They are adapted for a free-floating tropical environ¬ ment, even though many species grow attached to rocks along the coast. The Sargasso Sea, a free-floating mass of seaweed (mostly S. natans), occurs in the Atlantic Ocean. Sargassums are also known as sea holly

because of their highly branched stems with hollow, berrylike floats and many leaflike, sawtooth-edged blades. They are used as fertilizer in New Zealand and as a component of soups and soy sauce in Japan.

Sargent, John Singer (b. Jan. 12, 1856, Florence, Italy—d. April 15, 1925, London, Eng.) U.S.-British painter. Son of wealthy American par¬ ents, he was born in Italy and grew up in Europe, not seeing the U.S. until 1876. Having studied painting in Paris, in 1879 he traveled to Madrid and Haarlem to study the works of Diego Velazquez and Frans Hals; his finest works were painted soon afterward. Best known is his portrait Madame X, which created a scandal at the 1884 Salon; critics found it eccentric and erotic, and the sitter’s mother claimed it made her daughter a laugh¬ ingstock. Discouraged, he moved permanently to London, though he often visited the U.S. Not until about 1887 did he achieve the acclaim he was to enjoy in the U.S. and England the rest of his life. His elegant portraits created an enduring image of high society of the Edwardian age; the best, painted with his slashing brushstrokes, capture his subjects in revealing, off-guard moments. He largely gave up portraiture in 1907 and devoted the rest of his life to murals and landscapes.

Sargon Vsar-gan\ (fl. 23rd century bc) Ancient Mesopotamian ruler (r. 2334-2279 bc). What is known of him comes from legends and tales; his capital city, Agade, has never been located. Perhaps originally a royal cupbearer, he came to prominence by defeating a Sumerian king, thereby attaining an empire in southern Mesopotamia and becoming the first emperor whose native tongue was Akkadian rather than Sumerian. He enlarged the empire from Iraq to Anatolia, and trade flourished with the Indus valley, Oman, the Persian Gulf coast, Cappadocia, and perhaps Greece.

Sargon II (d. 705 bc) Assyrian king (r. 721-705 bc). He continued the empire-building work of his pre¬ sumed father, Tiglath-pileser III. One of his aims was to prove the might of the Assyrian god Ashur by enlarg¬ ing the empire he had inherited. His conquests ranged from southern Babylonia to Armenia and the Medi¬ terranean. He probably died in battle in northwestern Persia. His son, Sen¬ nacherib, succeeded him.

Sarmatian \sar-'ma-sh9n\ Any member of a people originally of Ira¬ nian stock who migrated from Cen¬ tral Asia to the Ural Mountains in the 6th-4th centuries bc and settled in southern European Russia and the eastern Balkans. Closely related to the Scythians, they were expert horsemen and warriors and gained wide influence through administra¬ tive and political astuteness. Women fought alongside men and may have inspired Greek tales of Amazons. By the 5th century bc they controlled the land between the Urals and the Don, and by the 2nd century they had conquered the Scythians to rule almost all southern Russia. Allied with Germanic tribes, they continued to pose a threat to the West until the 1st century ad. After invading Dacia and the lower Danube, they were overrun by the Goths. Many joined the Gothic invasion of western Europe. Sarmatia was destroyed by Huns after ad 370. Their descendants cannot be traced after the 5th century.

Sarmiento Nsarm-'yan-toN, Domingo Faustino (b. Feb. 14, 1811, San Juan, Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata—d. Sept. 11, 1888, Asuncion, Para.) Educator, statesman, writer, and president of Argentina (1868-74). A rural schoolteacher, he entered provincial politics and was exiled to Chile by Juan Manuel de Rosas for his outspokenness. There he became an important figure in journalism and education. In his important book Facundo (1845), he denounced the Rosas dictatorship and the culture of the gauchos. He returned to Argentina to help overthrow Rosas in 1852. Elected president in 1868, he ended the Paraguayan War, developed the public school system, established technical and professional schools, and upheld civil liberties.

Sarnoff, David (b. Feb. 27, 1891, Minsk, Russia—d. Dec. 12, 1971, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Russian-born U.S. communications executive.

(r. 721-705 bc). He continued the

Sargon II, detail of a relief from the palace at Khorsabad; in the Louvre, Paris

COURTESY OF THE MUSEE DU LOUVRE, PARIS; PHOTOGRAPH, MAURICE CHUZEVILLE

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Saro-Wiwa ► Sarvastivada I 1687

After immigrating with his family to New York in 1900, he left school to work for the Marconi telegraph com¬ pany. In 1912 he heard the distress signal from the sinking Titanic and remained at his instrument for 72 hours relaying news. In 1921 he became general manager of the newly formed Radio Corp. of America (RCA Corp.). He had pro¬ posed the first commercially mar¬ keted radio receiver in 1916, and by 1924 it had earned $80 million in sales. He formed the radio network NBC in 1926. Perceiving television’s potential, he set up an experimental television station (1928) and demon¬ strated the new medium at the New York World’s Fair (1939). During World War II he was a communica¬ tions consultant to Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower and was made a brigadier general. President of RCA (1930-47), he served as chairman of the board until 1970.

Saro-Wiwa V.sa-ro-'we-woV Ken orig. Kenule Beeson Saro- Wiwa (b. Oct. 10, 1941, Bori, near Port Harcourt, Nigeria—d. Nov. 10, 1995, Port Harcourt) Nigerian writer and activist. He taught at the Uni¬ versity of Lagos and held government office before turning to writing. His first novels were Songs in a Time of War and Sozaboy (both 1985); his television series Basi and Company satirized the Nigerian desire to get rich with little effort. He also wrote poetry, children’s stories, and a newspaper column. His support of the Ogoni people against the oil indus¬ try put him at odds with the government; he was spuriously charged with four murders and executed despite worldwide protest.

Saronic \s9-'ra-nik\ Gulf Gulf of the Aegean Sea, southeastern coast of Greece. Some 50 mi (80 km) long and 30 mi (50 km) wide, it separates Attica and the Peloponnese and is linked to the Gulf of Corinth by the Corinth Canal. It was the site of a major Athenian victory over the Per¬ sians in 480 bc (see Battle of Salamis). Its ports include Piraeus and Megara.

Saroyan \s3-'r6i-3n\, William (b. Aug. 31, 1908, Fresno, Calif., U.S.—d. May 18, 1981, Fresno) U.S. writer. Saroyan was the largely self-educated son of an Armenian immigrant. He made his initial impact during the Depression with brash, original, and irreverent stories celebrat¬ ing the joy of living in spite of poverty, hunger, and insecurity. Much of his fiction is based on his childhood and family. His story collections include The Daring Young Man on the Flying Trapeze (1934), Inhale and Exhale (1936), and My Name is Aram (1940). His other works include the play The Time of Your Life (1939, Pulitzer Prize) and The Human Com¬ edy (1943), a sentimental novel of life in a small California town.

Sarpi \'sar-pe\, Paolo (b. Aug. 14, 1552, Venice—d. Jan. 14, 1623, Venice) Italian patriot, scholar, and state theologian. At age 20 Sarpi became court theologian to the duke of Mantua, a post that gave him lei¬ sure to study Greek, Hebrew, mathematics, anatomy, and botany. Later, as consultor to the government, he incurred the wrath of Pope Paul V by supporting Venice’s right to restrict church construction in the city and to try priests accused of crimes unrelated to religion (e.g., murder) in the state’s courts. His History of the Council of Trent (1619), an important work decrying papal absolutism, was published under a pseudonym; though placed on the Index librorum prohibitorum, it went through several editions and five translations in 10 years.

Sarraute \sa-'r6t\, Nathalie orig. Nathalie llyanova Tcher- niak (b. July 18, 1900, Ivanova, Russia—d. Oct. 19, 1999, Paris, France) French novelist and essayist. She practiced law until c. 1940, when she became a full-time writer. Tropismes (1939), a collection of sketches, introduced her idea of tropisms, the “things that are not said and the movements that cross our consciousness very rapidly.” An early practi¬ tioner and leading theorist of the nouveau roman (“new novel”), the French antinovel, she discarded conventions of plot, chronology, charac¬ terization, and point of view. Her novels—including Portrait of a Man Unknown (1948), Martereau (1953), Le planetarium (1959), and Here (1997)—and her plays focus on the unspoken “subconversations” in human interactions.

SARS in full severe acute respiratory syndrome Highly con¬ tagious respiratory illness characterized by a persistent fever, headache, and bodily discomfort, followed by a dry cough that may progress to great difficulty in breathing. SARS appeared in November 2002 in Guangdong province, China, and was brought to Hong Kong in February 2003. As it spread from there to other countries of East Asia and the world, health authorities instituted an unprecedented series of control measures, includ¬ ing quarantines and prohibitions on travel, and in June 2003 the global outbreak was declared to be contained. By that time more than 8,000 cases had been reported, and some 800 people had died. SARS is believed to be caused by a mutant coronavirus, a type usually associated with pneu¬ monia and the common cold. A specific vaccine has not been developed. Treatment is usually restricted to easing the patient’s symptoms— providing mechanical ventilation if necessary—until the illness has run its course.

sarsaparilla X.sas-ps-'ri-bV Aromatic flavouring agent originally made from the dried roots of several tropical smilax vines. Native to the south¬ ern and western coasts of Mexico to Peru, the plants are large, perennial, climbing or trailing vines with short, thick, underground stems that pro¬ duce many prickly, angular, aboveground stems supported by tendrils. Once a popular tonic, sarsaparilla now is blended with wintergreen and other flavours and used in root beer and other carbonated beverages, or to flavour and mask the taste of medicines. In North America, the strongly aromatic roots of the wild sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis) and false, or bristly, sarsaparilla (A. hispida ), of the ginseng family, are sometimes sub¬ stituted for true sarsaparilla.

Sarto, Andrea del See Andrea del Sarto

Sartre VsartrA, Jean-Paul (b. June 21, 1905, Paris, France—d. April 15, 1980, Paris) French philosopher, novelist, and playwright, the fore¬ most exponent of existentialism. He studied at the Sorbonne, where he met Simone de Beauvoir, who became his lifelong companion and intellec¬ tual collaborator. His first novel,

Nausea (1938), narrates the feeling of revulsion that a young man expe¬ riences when confronted with the contingency of existence. Sartre used the phenomenological method of Edmund Husserl (see phenomenology) with great skill in three successive publications: Imagination: A Psy¬ chological Critique (1936), Sketch for a Theory of the Emotions (1939), and The Psychology of Imagination (1940). In Being and Nothingness (1943), he places human conscious¬ ness, or nothingness ( neant ), in opposition to being, or thingness {etre)\ consciousness is nonmatter and thus escapes all determinism. In his postwar treatise Existentialism and Humanism (1946) he depicts this radi¬ cal freedom as carrying with it a responsibility for the welfare of others. In the 1940s and ’50s he wrote many critically acclaimed plays— including The Flies (1943), No Exit (1946), and The Condemned ofAltona (1959)—the study Jean Genet (1952), and numerous articles for Les Temps Modernes, the monthly review that he and de Beauvoir founded and edited. A central figure of the French left after the war, he was an out¬ spoken admirer of the Soviet Union—though not a member of the French Communist Party—until the crushing of the Hungarian uprising by Soviet tanks in 1956, which he condemned. His Critique of Dialectical Reason (1960) faults Marxism for failing to adapt itself to the concrete circum¬ stances of particular societies and for not respecting individual freedom. His final works include an autobiography, The Words (1963), and Flau¬ bert (4 vol., 1971-72), a lengthy study of the author. He declined the 1964 Nobel Prize for Literature.

Sarvastivada \s3r-,vas-ti-'va-d9\ One of the 18 schools of Hinayana Buddhism that developed during the first four or five centuries after the Buddha’s death. The name literally means the teaching that everything exists, which relates to the notion that the past, present, and future all exist. The Sarvastivada school was particularly influential in northwest¬ ern India and portions of Southeast Asia.

Sarnoff, 1971

AP/WIDE WORLD PHOTOS

Jean-Paul Sartre, photograph by Gisele Freund, 1968.

GISELE FREUND

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1688 I Sasanian dynasty ► satire

Sasanian dynasty or Sassanian \sa-'sa-ne-on\ dynasty Persian dynasty (ad 224-651). Founded by Ardashlr I (r. ad 224-241) and named for his ancestor Sasan (c. 1st century ad), it replaced the Parthian empire (see Parthia). Its capital was Ctesiphon. The dynasty battled the Roman Republic and Empire and its successor the Byzantine Empire in the west and the Kushans and Hephthalites in the east throughout much of its exist¬ ence. In the 3rd century its empire stretched from Sogdiana and Georgia to northern Arabia, and from the Indus River to the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Traditions of the Achaemenian dynasty were revived, Zoroastrian¬ ism was reestablished as the state religion, and art and architecture expe¬ rienced a renaissance. Its important rulers included Shapur I (d. 272), Shapur II (309-379), Khosrow I, and Khosrow II. The Sasanids were the last native Persian dynasty before the Arab conquest of the region in the late 7th century.

Saskatchewan \sas-'ka-ch9-,wan\ Province (pop., 2000: 978,933), western Canada. It is bounded to the north by the Northwest Territories, to the east by Manitoba, to the south by the U.S. state of Montana, and to the west by Alberta. The capital of Saskatchewan is Regina. A plains region, with prairie to the south and wooded country to the north, it sup¬ ports rich and varied wildlife. The Cree Indians inhabited the region for some 5,000 years before it was claimed by the Hudson's Bay Co., which controlled the area from 1670 until it surrendered the land to the British in 1868. It was part of Rupert’s Land (the territories granted to the Hud¬ son’s Bay Co.) until 1869, and in 1870 it became part of the Dominion of Canada. From 1882 the extension of the railroad brought large num¬ bers of European settlers. The province was created in 1905. Its economy is based on oil, gas, and potash production, grains, and livestock. The largest city is Saskatoon.

Saskatchewan, University of Canadian public university in Saska¬ toon, founded in 1907. It has colleges of arts and sciences, graduate stud¬ ies, agriculture, veterinary medicine, engineering, law, medicine, dentistry, nursing, pharmacy, commerce, education, and physical educa¬ tion.

Saskatchewan River River, southwestern and southern central Canada. The largest river system of Alberta and Saskatchewan, it rises in the Canadian Rockies as the North and South Saskatchewan rivers, which are 800 mi (1,287 km) and 865 mi (1,392 km) long, respectively. The combined streams continue east 340 mi (550 km) to enter Lake Winnipeg. Once important as a fur-trading route, it now provides hydroelectric power and irrigation.

Saskatoon \,sas-k9-'tun\ City (pop., 2001: 196,811), south-central Saskatchewan, Canada. It was founded on the Saskatchewan River in 1883 as the proposed capital of a temperance colony. It grew rapidly follow¬ ing the arrival of the railroad in 1890 and the town’s amalgamation with two adjoining settlements in 1906. Saskatchewan’s largest city, it is a cul¬ tural and educational centre and a major transportation hub and distribu¬ tion centre. Its educational institutions include the University of Saskatchewan (founded 1907).

Sasquatch See Bigfoot

sassafras Vsa-s3-,fras\ North American tree ( Sassafras albidum) of the laurel family. The aromatic leaf, bark, and root are used as a flavouring, as a traditional home medicine, and as a tea. The aromatic roots yield about 2% oil of sassafras, once the characteristic ingredient of root beer. The tree is native to sandy soils from Maine to Ontario and Iowa and south to Florida and Texas. It is usually small but may attain a height of 65 ft (20 m) or more. It has furrowed bark, bright green twigs, small clusters of yellow flowers followed by dark blue berries, and three distinctive forms of leaves, often on the same twig: three-lobed, two-lobed (mitten¬ shaped), and entire.

Sassandra River \s9-'san-dro\ River, western Cote d’Ivoire. It rises as the Tienba in the northwestern highlands and becomes the Sassandra at its confluence with the Feredougouba. It courses southeast 400 mi (650 km) to empty into the Gulf of Guinea at the seaport of Sassandra. Its upper reaches have been panned for diamonds; its lower course marks the east¬ ern boundary of the Tai Reserve, known for its pygmy hippopotamus.

Sassanian dynasty See Sasanian dynasty

Sassetta orig. Stefano di Giovanni (d. c. 1450, Siena, Republic of Siena) Italian painter. His interest in Florentine art is evident in his monu¬ mental Madonna of the Snow altarpiece for Siena Cathedral (1430-32)

and in his most ambitious work, an altarpiece for San Francesco at San- sepolcro (1437-44). His fusion of traditional and contemporary elements transformed Sienese painting from the Gothic to the Renaissance style, and he is considered one of the greatest Sienese painters of the 15th cen¬ tury.

SAT in full Scholastic Aptitude Test Standardized test taken by U.S. high school students applying to colleges. It is divided into two principal sections, verbal and mathematical. Promulgated largely through the efforts of James B. Conant as a means of promoting merit-based (rather than class-based) college admissions, it was administered to few students before the end of World War II but by the end of the 20th century was taken by millions each year. Scores declined as the test came to be more widely administered, and in 1995 the score of 500 for each section (mid¬ way between the extremes of 200 and 800) was reestablished as the actual mean score of those tested. The test, which most colleges use as one mea¬ sure of an applicant’s ability, has been denounced as biased in favour of men and the white middle class. Other critics claim that the SAT is inad¬ equate for testing various important capacities.

satanism Worship of Satan, or the devil, the personality or principle regarded in the Judeo-Christian tradition as embodying absolute evil, in complete antithesis to God. Cults associated with satanism have been documented, however sketchily, back to the 17th century. Their central feature is the black mass, a corrupted and inverted rendition of the Chris¬ tian Eucharist. Practices are said to include animal sacrifice and deviant sexual activity. Worship is motivated by the belief that Satan is more powerful than the forces of good, and so is more capable of bringing about the results sought by his adherents.

satellite Natural object (moon) or spacecraft (artificial satellite) orbiting a larger astronomical body. Most known natural satellites orbit planets; the Earth’s Moon is the most obvious example and was the only one known until the discovery of the Galilean satellites of Jupiter in 1610. All the solar system’s planets except Mercury and Venus have moons, which vary greatly in size, composition (from rock to mostly ice), and activity (from cold and inert to volcanic). Some asteroids are also known to have their own moons. The first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was launched into orbit around Earth in 1957. Since then, thousands have been sent into orbit around Earth as well as the Moon, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and other bod¬ ies. Artificial satellites are used for scientific research and other purposes, such as communication (see communications satellite), weather forecast¬ ing, Earth resources management, and military intelligence. See also Land- sat.

satellite, communications See communications satellite sati See suttee

Satie \sa-'te\, Erik orig. Eric Alfred Leslie Satie (b. May 17, 1866, Honfleur, Calvados, France—d. July 1, 1925, Paris) French composer. He studied at the Paris Conservatoire (1879-82) but dropped out. From 1888 he played piano at the cafe Le Chat Noir; he became associated with the Rosicrucian movement in about 1890 and wrote several works under its influence. Living in austere poverty in a working-class district, he began to gain prominence in 1911, when he was lauded as a forerunner of mod¬ em music; his admirers included Claude Debussy, Jean Cocteau, and the group of composers known as Les Six. Satie’s music represents the first definite break with 19th-century French Romanticism; it also stands in opposition to Impressionism (a movement he frequently mocked). His mostly short piano works are spare and unconventional, and they char¬ acteristically take the form of parody, with flippant titles such as Three Pieces in the Form of a Pear (1903).

satin Fabric constructed by the satin weaving method, one of the three basic textile weaves. Satin weave superficially resembles twill but does not have the regular step in each successive weft that characterizes twills. Thus, there is no strong diagonal line, and the fabric is smooth-faced, with an unbroken surface made up of long floating warp yams. Because satins are susceptible to the wear caused by rubbing and snagging, they are con¬ sidered luxury fabrics. Satin is made in different weights for various uses, including dresses (particularly evening wear), linings, bedspreads, and upholstery. Though originally of silk, it may be made of yams of other fibres.

satire Artistic form in which human or individual vices, folly, abuses, or shortcomings are held up to censure by means of ridicule, derision, burlesque, irony, or other methods, sometimes with an intent to bring

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Satnami sect ► Sa'ud I 1689

about improvement. Literature and drama are its chief vehicles, but it is also found in such mediums as film, the visual arts (e.g., caricatures), and political cartoons. Though present in Greek literature, notably in the works of Aristophanes, satire generally follows the example of either of two Romans, Horace or Juvenal. To Horace the satirist is an urbane man of the world who sees folly everywhere but is moved to gentle laughter rather than to rage. Juvenal’s satirist is an upright man who is horrified and angered by corruption. Their different perspectives produced the sub¬ genres of satire identified by John Dryden as comic satire and tragic sat¬ ire.

Satnami sect \,s3t-'na-me\ Religious community in India that chal¬ lenges political and religious authority by worshiping the supreme god Satnam. Combining practices from Islam and Hinduism, Satnamis typically reject both the worship of images and the caste system, while retaining an underlying orthodox Vedanta philosophy. Modern Satnamis are con¬ fined almost entirely to the low-status Camar caste, and they advocate social equality as well as ethical and dietary self-restraint.

Sato \'sa-to\, Eisaku (b. March 1, 1901, Tabuse, Yamaguchi prefec¬ ture, Japan—d. June 3, 1975, Tokyo) Prime minister of Japan (1964-72) who presided over Japan’s post-World War II reemergence as a major world power. For his policies on nuclear weapons, which led to Japan signing the nuclear nonproliferation treaty, he shared the 1974 Nobel Prize for Peace. As prime minister Sato improved relations with other Asian countries and oversaw the return of the Ryukyu Islands from U.S. to Japanese jurisdiction.

satrap Provincial governor in the Achaemenian empire. Darius I (r. 522- 486 bc) established 20 satrapies with an annual tribute. Appointed by the king, satraps were usually of the royal family or Persian nobility and held office indefinitely. They collected taxes, were the highest judicial author¬ ity, and were responsible for internal security and for raising and main¬ taining an army. Controls guarded against the abuse of power, but after the mid 5th century bc, with central authority weakened, satrapies became virtually independent. Alexander the Great and his successors retained the satraps.

Satsuma \'sat-su-,ma\ Japanese feudal domain ( han ) in southern Kyushu noted for its role in Japan’s modernization. Satsuma (part of modern-day Kagoshima prefecture) was ruled by the Shimazu family from the end of the 12th century to the AAeiji Restoration in 1868. In 1609 the family had conquered the Ryukyu Islands, and trade with the Ryukyus continued during the Tokugawa period, when the rest of the country was forbidden contact with the outside world. This trade both enriched Sat¬ suma and provided experience with foreign affairs that would prove use¬ ful in the 19th century when Western powers started pressuring Japan to end its isolation. The domain also developed expertise in Western learn¬ ing: Shimazu Shigehide (1745-1833) founded schools of medicine, math¬ ematics, and astronomy; Shimazu Nariakira (1809-58) adopted Western- style military techniques and armaments. These advantages, along with a traditional enmity toward the Tokugawa family, put the men of Satsuma in a prime position to become leaders in the movement to overthrow the shogunal government. See also Okubo Toshimichi; Saigo Takamori.

Satsuma Rebellion See Saigo Takamori

saturation State of an organic compound in which all its carbon atoms are linked by single covalent bonds. Saturation also means the state of a solution or vapour (see vaporization) in which it has the highest possible concentration of the dissolved or vaporized material at a given pressure and temperature. Though it is sometimes possible to bring about super¬ saturation (a concentration exceeding the equilibrium value), such solu¬ tions or vapours are unstable and spontaneously revert to the saturated state, accompanied by the transformation of the excess material to the solid or liquid form (precipitation). See also fatty acid; hydrogenation.

Saturn Roman god of agriculture, equated with the Greek deity Cronus. His wife was Ops, the goddess of plenty, and his children included Juno, Neptune, and Ceres. His festival, Saturnalia (beginning December 17), became the most popular Roman festival; its influence is still felt in the celebration of Christmas and the Western New Year. During Saturnalia, all business transactions were suspended, presents were exchanged, and slaves were given token freedom. The remains of Saturn’s temple are located in the Forum in Rome. Saturday is named for Saturn.

Saturn Sixth planet from the Sun, named for the Roman god of sowing and seed. The second largest nonstellar object in the solar system after

Jupiter, it is about 95 times as massive as Earth and has more than 700 times its volume. Saturn’s outer layers are gaseous, mainly hydrogen. Models of its interior suggest a rock-and-ice core surrounded by a shal¬ low layer of liquid metallic hydrogen encased by an envelope of molecu¬ lar hydrogen. Its mean density, about 70% that of water, is the lowest of any known object in the solar system. Saturn has at least 47 moons (including Titan, the largest) and an extensive ring system, with several main sections visible from Earth with a telescope. Saturn’s rings, first observed in 1610 by Galileo, are made up of countless separate particles ranging mainly from inches to many feet in size but also including dust in some regions. Water ice probably constitutes most of the ring material. Saturn’s day is about 10.6 hours; its year is 29.4 Earth years. Its rapid rotation, acting on electric currents in the core, generates a strong mag¬ netic field and large magnetosphere. Saturn’s fast spin also makes it the most flattened (oblate) of the planets; its polar diameter of 67,560 mi (108,728 km) is 10% smaller than its equatorial diameter. Its average dis¬ tance from the Sun is 887 million mi (1.43 billion km).

Saturn Any of a series of large two- and three-stage launch vehicles for spacecraft, developed by the U.S. beginning in 1958 and first flight-tested in 1961. Saturn I, the first U.S. rocket specifically developed for space- flight, was a two-stage vehicle; it and its Saturn IB derivative placed unmanned and manned versions of Apollo spacecraft into Earth orbit and launched unmanned satellites. Saturn V was the largest launch vehicle ever built by the U.S. and was used for the lunar missions of Apollo and to launch the Skylab space station.

saturniid Vso-'tor-ne-odX moth or giant silkworm moth Any of

some 800 moth species of the prin¬ cipally tropical family Saturniidae.

Adults have a stout, hairy body and broad wings, often vividly coloured and patterned. Most species have a central eyespot on each wing.

Among the saturniids are the io moth (Automeris io)’, the giant cecropia moth (Hyalophora cecropia), the largest moth native to North America, with a wingspan of 6 in.

(15 cm); several species of Anther- aea that are used as a source of com¬ mercial silk; the emperor moth {Saturnia pavonia)’, and the LUNA MOTH.

Saturninus X.sa-tor-'nI-nosV Lucius Appuleius (d. 100 bc) Roman politician. From 104 he opposed the Senate, which objected to his extrem¬ ist liberal positions. As tribune (103) he supported Rome’s proletariat by reducing the price of grain, assigning land grants to veterans, and setting up a court to try cases of treason. The consul, Marius, initially supported him but later withdrew his backing. When Saturninus and his followers seized the Capitoline Hill, Marius restored order, locking the leaders of the action in the Senate house. Their enemies tore off the roof and stoned them to death. The Senate then rescinded most of Saturninus’s legisla¬ tion, but his land grants seem to have been recognized.

satyagraha V.sot-'ya-gro-hoX Philosophy of nonviolent protest, or pas¬ sive resistance. Mohandas K. Gandhi introduced it in South Africa (1906) and, from 1917, developed it in India in the period leading up to inde¬ pendence from Britain. Satyagraha seeks to conquer through submission. It involves refusing to submit to or cooperate with anything perceived as wrong, while adhering to the principle of nonviolence in order to main¬ tain the tranquillity of mind required for insight and understanding. The principle played a significant role in the U.S. civil rights movement led by Martin Luther King. See also civil disobrdience.

satyr and silenus Vsa-t9r...si-Te-n9s\ In Greek mythology, wild wood¬ land creatures that are part man and part beast, the bestial part being rep¬ resented as the legs of a goat or horse. From the 5th century bc, the name Silenus was applied to the foster father and tutor of Dionysus. Satyrs and sileni are depicted in art and literature in the company of nymphs, whom they constantly pursue. Praxiteles' sculptures represented a new artistic type in which the satyr was young and handsome.

Sa'ud \sa-'iid\ in full Sa'ud ibn 'Abd al-'AzTz al-Faysal Al Sa'ud (b. Jan. 15, 1902, Kuwait—d. Feb. 23, 1969, Athens, Greece) King of Saudi Arabia (1953-64). Son and successor of Ibn Sa'ud, he continued his father’s program of modernization, emphasizing the construction of

Polyphemus moth (Antheraea polyphe- mus)

WILLIAM E. FERGUSON

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1690 I Sa'ud dynasty ► Saura

medical and educational facilities, based on revenues from the oil indus¬ try. His financial mismanagement led to increasing opposition within the family to his rule. He was deposed in favour of his more financially com¬ petent brother, Faysal ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz (1905-75).

Sa'ud \sa-’iid\ dynasty or Al Sa'ud ("Sa'ud family") Rulers of Saudi Arabia. In the 18th century Muhammad ibn Sa'ud (d. 1765), chief of an Arabian village that had never fallen under control of the Ottoman Empire, rose to power together with the Wahhabi religious movement. He and his son 'Abd al-'AzIz I (r. 1764-1803) conquered much of Arabia; Sa'ud I (r. 1803-14) conquered Medina in 1804 and Mecca in 1806. The Ottoman sultan induced the viceroy of Egypt to crush the Sa'udls and Wahhabis, which was accomplished by 1818. A second Sa'ud! state was formed in 1824 by Muhammad ibn Sa'ud’s grandson Turk! (r. 1823-34), who made Riyadh his capital. When Turkl’s son Faysal (r. 1843-65) died, succession disputes led to civil war. Power did not return to Sa'ud! hands until 1902, when Ibn Sa'ud recaptured Riyadh. He established the king¬ dom of Saudi Arabia by royal decree in 1932. A number of his sons later ruled the country, including Abdullah (b. 1924), who assumed the throne in 2005.

Saudi Vsau-de, ( so-de\ Arabia officially Kingdom of Saudi Ara¬ bia Country, Middle East, southwestern Asia. It occupies four-fifths of the Arabian Peninsula and is bounded by the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf.

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