Britannica Concise 2005

Shandong, Henan, and Shanxi, and Inner Mongolia; Beijing and Tianjin municipalities are enclaves within it.

It has an area of 78,200 sq mi (202,700 sq km). Its capital is Shijiazhuang. Historically a chief barrier to northern invasion, it con¬ tains part of the Great Wall of China.

From 1644 to 1912 it was ruled by the Qing dynasty. It was occupied by the Japanese in 1937 and taken by the Chinese communists in 1949.

The provincial capital was at Baod- ing until 1958, when it was trans¬ ferred to Tianjin, and in 1966 it returned to Baoding. In 1968 the pro¬ vincial capital was moved to Shijiaz¬ huang. Culturally and economically,

Hebei is the most advanced province in northern China. The North China Plain, covering southern Hebei, has been inhabited by humans for several millennia. The fossil remains of Homo erectus pekinensis were discovered there.

Hebert, Anne (b. Aug. 1, 1916, Sainte-Catherine-de-Fossambault, Que., Can.—d. Jan. 22, 2000, Montreal, Que.) Canadian novelist and poet. Daughter of a poet and critic, Hebert began her career by writing poetry. After the mid 1950s, however, she moved to Paris, where she produced a number of novels that are psychological examinations of violence, rebel¬ lion, and the quest for personal freedom. She was three times the recipi¬ ent of Canada’s highest literary award, the Governor General’s Award, once for her poetry in Poems (1960) and twice for her fiction ( Kamour- ska, 1970, and Burden of Dreams, 1992).

Hebert \a-'ber\, Jacques (-Rene) known as Pere Duchesne

Vper-diE-'shenX (b. Nov. 15, 1757, Alengon, France—d. March 24, 1794, Paris) French Revolutionary political journalist and chief spokesman for the extremist sansculottes. He wrote political satires under his pen name, and his newspaper, Le Pere Duchesne, was widely read. He became influ¬ ential in the Cordeliers Club and with his followers, called Hebertists, helped overthrow the monarchy in 1792. He strongly supported the con¬ version of the Cathedral of Notre-Dame and 2,000 other churches to the worship of Reason. As spokesman for the sansculottes, he pressured the Jacobin regime to institute the Reign of Terror. By 1794 he was regarded as a dangerous extremist, and the Committee of Public Safety had him arrested and guillotined.

Hebraic law Law codes of ancient Israel found in the Jewish Scrip¬ ture (Old Testament). Three separate codes are usually distinguished: the Book of the Covenant, the Deuteronomic Code, and the Priestly Code. The Book of the Covenant is found in Exodus 20-23 and is similar to the much earlier Code of Hammurabi in Babylon. The Deuteronomic Code in Deuteronomy 12-26 is a revision of earlier Israelite laws and was used in the effort to purify the worship of Yahweh (God) from Canaanite and other influences (see Deuteronomic Reform). The Priestly Code, found in parts of Exodus, all of Leviticus, and much of Numbers, covers mostly ceremonial practices.

Hebrew alphabet Script used to write the Hebrew language and a number of other languages used as vernaculars by Jews, including Ladino and Yiddish. The modern 22-letter alphabet in use today differs only slightly from the script adapted by Jewish scribes in the early centuries bc from the square script used to write Imperial Aramaic. Prior to this adaptation, Hebrew was written in a linear script borrowed ultimately from the Phoe¬ nicians and first attested in the 9th century bc; though the linear script passed out of favour among Jews, Samaritans, adherents of an ancient offshoot of Judaism, continued to use it into modern times. Hebrew is written from right to left, and the letter shapes—at least originally— represented only consonants. Later certain of the consonants were utilized to denote vowels in certain positions, and by c. ad 600 a system of dia¬ critics, or “points,” were used to show all vowels in the text of the Bible.

Hebrew calendar See Jewish calendar

Hebrew language Semitic language that is both a sacred language of Judaism and a modern vernacular in Israel. Like Aramaic, to which it is closely related, Hebrew has a documented history of nearly 3,000 years. The earliest fully attested stage of the language is Biblical Hebrew: the earlier parts (“Standard Biblical Hebrew”) date before 500 bc and include even older poetic passages; the later parts (“Late Biblical Hebrew”) were composed c. 500-200 bc. Post-Biblical Hebrew, variously termed Rab¬ binic or Mishnaic Hebrew (see Mishna), is characterized by an early period when Hebrew was still probably to some degree a vernacular and a later period, after c. ad 200, when Aramaic became the everyday speech of Jews in the Middle East. The 6th and 7th centuries marked a transi¬ tion to Medieval Hebrew. The resurrection of Hebrew as a vernacular is closely linked with the 18th-century Haskala movement and 20th-century Zionism. Contemporary Israeli Hebrew is spoken by about five million people in Israel and abroad. See also Ashkenazi; Sephardi; Hebrew alphabet.

Hebrew University of Jerusalem Independent university in Jerus¬ alem, Israel, founded in 1925. The foremost university in Israel, it attracts many Jewish students from abroad; Arab students also attend. It has fac¬ ulties of humanities, science, social science, law, agriculture, dentistry, and medicine; schools of education, social work, pharmacy, home eco¬ nomics, and applied science and technology; and a graduate library school.

Hebrides Vhe-bro-.dezV or Western Isles ancient Ebudae Group of islands, western Scotland, in the North Atlantic Ocean. They are sepa¬ rated into two groups, the Outer Hebrides and the Inner Hebrides, divided by the Little Minch Strait. The Outer Hebrides are administered as the Eilean Siar (Western Isles) council area (pop., 2001: 26,502). The north¬ ern Inner Hebrides lie within the Highland council area, and the southern Inner Hebrides are part of Argyll and Bute council area. Composed of more than 40 islands, only a few of which are inhabited, the Hebrides were originally settled by Celts. Norse raids, which led to Norse rule, began after the 8th century and lasted until 1266, when the islands were ceded to Scotland. Their economy centres on farming, fishing, and weav¬ ing, the latter noted especially for Harris tweed.

Hebe carrying nectar and ambrosia, detail of a vase painting; in the Jatta Museum, Ruvo di Puglia, Italy

AUNARI—GIRAUDON FROM ART RESOURCE

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Hebron ► Hegel I 855

Hebron Vhe-bran \ Arabic Al-Khalll \,al-ka-'lel\ City (pop., 1997 est.: 119,401) in the West Bank territory, southwest of Jerusalem. It is a sacred city of Judaism and Islam as the home and burial place (at the Cave of Mach- pelah) of the patriarch Abraham. King David made Hebron his capital briefly in the 10th century bc. Various Muslim dynasties ruled the city from ad 635 until after World War I (1914-18), except from 1100 to 1260, when the Cru¬ saders controlled it. It was part of the British mandate of Palestine from 1923 until the first Arab-Israeli war in 1948, when it came under the control of Transjordan (later Jordan). Along with the rest of the West Bank, it was annexed by Jordan in 1950 but was captured by Israel during the Six- Day War (1967). It remained under full Israeli administration until 1997, when Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization agreed on a partial Israeli pullout from Hebron and other West Bank cities.

Hecate Yhe-ko-teX Greek goddess of magic and spells. She probably originated in Asia Minor. Hesiod held her to be the daughter of the Titan Perses and represented her as the bestower of wealth and the blessings of daily life. She witnessed the abduction of Persephone by Hades and assisted in the search for her. Pillars called Hecataea were erected at doorways and crossroads to ward off evil spirits. She was sometimes depicted as three bodies back to back, so that she could look in all directions at a crossroads.

Hecatompylos \ I he-k3-'tam-p3- l las\ Ancient city, western Khorasan, Iran. For a time the capital of the kingdom of Parthia, it was located at the southern foot of the eastern Elburz Mountains. It was a Seleucid mili¬ tary outpost c. 300 bc. By c. 200 bc it was the Iranian Arsacid capital. Known to have been on the Silk Road between the Middle East and China, it may have been located between the Iranian cities of Damghan and Shahrud, but its precise site has not been established.

Hecht Vhekt\, Ben (b. Feb. 28, 1894, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. April 18, 1964, New York City) U.S. journalist, novelist, playwright, and film writer. He worked for Chicago newspapers 1910-22; at the Daily News he perfected a type of human-interest sketch that was widely emulated. Later he divided his time between New York and Hollywood. With Charles MacArthur he wrote the plays The Front Page (1928), which influenced both the public’s and the newspaper industry’s ideas about the newspa¬ per world; Twentieth Century (produced 1932); and Ladies and Gentle¬ men (produced 1939). His film scripts, often written with MacArthur, include Gunga Din (1938), Wuthering Heights (1939), Spellbound (1945), and Notorious (1946).

Heckman, James J. (b. April 19, 1944, Chicago, Ill., U.S.) U.S. economist and winner of the 2000 Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences, along with Daniel McFadden, for development of methods for analyzing individual or household behaviour. Heckman studied mathematics at Colorado College (B.A. 1965) and economics at Princeton University (M.A. 1968, Ph.D. 1971). He taught at Columbia University (1970-74) and the University of Chicago (1973- ). The Heckman correction, a two- step statistical approach, offers a means of addressing errors in statistical sampling. He received the John Bates Clark medal from the American Economics Association in 1983.

Heckscher Vhek-shorX, Eli Filip (b. Nov. 24, 1879, Stockholm, Swed.—d. Nov. 26, 1952, Stockholm) Swedish economist and economic historian. He taught at the Stockholm School of Economics from 1909 and was a founder and director of the Stockholm Institute for Economic History. He wrote mainly on economic history, producing such works as The Continental System (1922) and Mercantilism (1935). He originated the concept of commodity points, which limit the fluctuation of paper currencies, and argued in favour of free trade, asserting that differing pro¬ ductive factors were responsible for differing commodities trading advan¬ tages among nations. This hypothesis, expanded on by his student Bertil Ohlin (1899-1979), is now known as the Heckscher-Ohlin theory.

Hector In Greek legend, the eldest son of Priam and Hecuba, the husband of Andromache, and the chief warrior of the Trojan army. In Homer’s Iliad he is notable not only for his military prowess but also for his nobility of character. He was a favorite of Apollo, who helped him slay Achilles’ friend Patroclus in combat; in reprisal, Achilles killed Hector in battle and dragged his naked body around the walls of Troy.

Hecuba Vhe-kyo-boV In Greek legend, the wife of the Trojan king Priam and mother of Hector. At the end of the Trojan War she was taken pris¬ oner. According to Euripides, her youngest son, Polydorus, had been placed in the care of Polymestor, king of Thrace. When she arrived in Thrace,

she learned that Polydorus had been murdered. In revenge, she blinded Polymestor and killed his two sons. In other versions of the legend, she was later turned into a dog, and her grave beside the Hellespont became a landmark for ships.

hedgehog Any of 14 species of insectivores in the family Erinaceidae. They eat primarily insects and other arthropods but will also eat plant material. The nine species of spiny hedgehogs have short, barbless spines on the back, a round body, small head, pointed face, and little or no tail. Species range from 4 to 17 in. (10 to 44 cm) long. Spiny hedgehogs are native to Great Britain, northern Africa, and Asia; one species was intro¬ duced into New Zealand. The five species of gymnure, or hairy hedge¬ hog, are Asian. They have coarse guard hairs but no spines and are extremely malodorous. The common gymnure may be 18 in. (46 cm) long and have a 12-in. (30-cm) tail. See also porcupine.

hedgerow Fence or boundary formed by a dense row of shrubs or low trees. Hedgerows enclose or separate fields, protect the soil from wind erosion, and serve to keep cattle and other livestock enclosed. To lay a hedge, the trunks of closely planted saplings of species suitable for hedge¬ rows (e.g., hawthorn) are cut a good portion of the way through and the sapling laid down on the ground. New growth rises vertically, forming an impenetrable mesh of branches. In Britain, hedgerows have been a fea¬ ture of the countryside since the enclosure movement and provide a habi¬ tat for numerous songbirds and small animals. As large-scale mechanized farming has become dominant, hedgerows are being removed to combine small fields into larger ones.

hedging Method of reducing the risk of loss caused by price fluctua¬ tion. It consists of the purchase or sale of equal quantities of the same or very similar commodities in two different markets at approximately the same time, with the expectation that a future change in price in one mar¬ ket will be offset by an opposite change in the other market. For example, a grain-elevator operator may agree to buy a ton of wheat and at the same time sell a futures contract for the same quantity of wheat; when the wheat is sold, he buys back the futures contract. If the grain price has dropped, he can buy back the futures contract for less than he sold it for; his profit from doing so will be offset by his loss on the grain. Hedging is also com¬ mon in the securities and foreign-exchange markets. See also stock option.

Heeger, Alan J. (b. Jan. 22, 1936, Sioux City, Iowa, U.S.) U.S. chem¬ ist. He received a Ph.D. from the University of California at Berkeley in 1961. With Alan G. MacDiarmid and Shirakawa Hideki, Heeger determined that certain plastics can be chemically modified to conduct electricity almost as readily as metals. The finding led to the discovery of other con¬ ductive polymers and contributed to the emerging field of molecular elec¬ tronics. Heeger, who taught at several institutions, founded the UNIAX Corp. in 1990. In 2000 he shared the Nobel Prize for Chemistry with MacDiarmid and Shirakawa.

Hefei Vh3-'fa\ or Ho-fei Vho-'fa \ formerly Luzhou or Lu-chou City (pop., 1999 est.: 1,000,655), central China. The capital of Anhui province since 1949, the present city dates from the Song dynasty (960-1126). It is a natural centre of communications, with easy water transport to the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) and important land routes running through it. A railway built in the 1930s transports much of its produce. It is the main location of China’s University of Science and Technology.

Hefner, Hugh (Marston) (b. April 9, 1926, Chicago, Ill., U.S.) U.S. magazine publisher and entrepreneur. After serving in the U.S. Army (1944-46), he attended the University of Illinois, graduating in 1949. In 1953 he founded Playboy , a magazine for men. Playboy's, intellectually respectable articles and its forthright philosophy of hedonism made it a seminal influence on the “sexual revolution” of the 1960s. Hefner later expanded his enterprise into nightclubs and other entertainment media.

Hegel Vha-goU, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (b. Aug. 27, 1770, Stutt¬ gart, Wiirttemberg—d. Nov. 14, 1831, Berlin) German philosopher. After working as a tutor, he was headmaster of the gymnasium at Niirnberg (1808-16); he then taught principally at the University of Berlin (1818— 31). His work, following on that of Immanuel Kant, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, and F.W. Schelling, marks the pinnacle of post-Kantian German idealism. Inspired by Christian insights and possessing a fantastic fund of concrete knowledge, Hegel found a place for everything—logical, natural, human, and divine—in a dialectical scheme that repeatedly swung from thesis to antithesis and back again to a higher and richer synthesis. His panoramic system engaged philosophy in the consideration of all the problems of

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

856 I Hegelianism ► Heimlich maneuver

history and culture, none of which could any longer be deemed foreign to its competence. At the same time, it deprived all the implicated ele¬ ments and problems of their autonomy, reducing them to symbolic mani¬ festations of the one process, that of the Absolute Spirit’s quest for and conquest of its own self. His influence has been as fertile in the critical reactions he precipitated as in his positive impact. His principal works are Phenomenology of Mind (1807), Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sci¬ ences (1817), and Philosophy of Right (1821). He is regarded as the last of the great philosophical system builders. See also Hegelianism.

Hegelianism Mii-'ga-le-o-.ni-zomX Diversified philosophical movement that developed out of G. W. F. Hegel’s system of thought. Four stages can be distinguished. The first consists of the Hegelian school in Germany in the period 1827-50. The school divided into three currents. The right, or “Old Hegelians,” sought to uphold Hegelianism’s compatibility with evangelical orthodoxy and conservative political policies. The left, or “Young Hegelians,” interpreted Hegel’s identification of the rational with the real in a revolutionary sense. The center preferred to fall back on interpretations of the Hegelian system in its genesis and significance. In the second phase (1850-1904), usually called Neo-Hegelian, the works of the center played a preponderant role. After Wilhelm Dilthey discovered unpublished papers from Hegel’s youth in the early 20th century, there arose in Germany yet another movement; this third phase, the Hegel renaissance, stressed the reconstruction of the genesis of Hegel’s thought. In the fourth stage, after World War II, the revival of Marxist studies in Europe finally thrust into the foreground the value of the Hegelian heri¬ tage for Marxism.

Hegira See Hijrah Heh See Hu, Sia, and Heh

Hei-lung-chiang See Heilongjiang

Heian \'ha-'an\ period (794-1185) Period of Japanese history named for the capital city of Heian-kyo (Kyoto). It is known mainly for the flour¬ ishing culture of the court aristocracy, which devoted itself to the pursuit of aesthetic refinement as displayed in poetry and calligraphy. Murasaki Shikibu’s contemporaneous novel The Tale ofGenji depicts that life. A less refined view of Heian Japan is offered in one portion of Konjaku monoga- tari, a collection of stories and folktales. Aesthetics were also emphasized by the Shingon Buddhist sect, which, along with the broadly syncretic Tendai (Chinese Tiantai) sect, replaced the earlier Nara Buddhist sects in influence. Pietism gained popularity in the late Heian, leading to the founding of the Pure Land sect by Honen. Politically, civilians dominated until 1156, when warriors were called in to settle a political dispute and never left. A brief period of rule by the Taira military clan ensued. See also Fujiwara family; Gempei War; Sugawara Michizane; Taira Kiyomori.

Heidegger Vhi-di-goA, Martin (b. Sept. 26, 1889, Messkirch, Schwarzwald, Ger.—d. May 26,

1976, Messkirch, W.Ger.) German philosopher. He taught at the univer¬ sities of Marburg (1923-27) and Freiburg (1927—44). In 1927 he pub¬ lished his magnum opus, Being and Time. It strongly influenced Jean- Paul Sartre and other existentialists, and, despite Heidegger’s protesta¬ tions, he was classed as the leading atheistic existentialist. His declared purpose in the work was to raise anew the question of the meaning of being. His preliminary analysis of human existence ( Dasein , or “being- there”) employed the method of phe¬ nomenology. In the early 1930s his thought underwent a Kehre (“turning around”), which some have seen as an abandonment of the problem of Being and Time. Heidegger joined the Nazi Party in 1933 and supported Hitler’s policies as rector of Freiburg (1933-34) and less actively through the end of the war. His complicity with the Nazis, which he never pub¬ licly disavowed, has prompted debates about whether his philosophy is inherently “totalitarian.” Heidegger’s work strongly influenced hermeneu¬ tics and POSTSTRUCTURALISM.

Heidelberg Vhld^T-.borkX City (pop., 2002 est.: 141,509), southwest¬ ern Germany, situated on the Neckar River. First mentioned in historical record in 1196, it was the capital of the Rhenish Palatinate and the resi¬ dence of the electoral counts palatine until 1720. It was a centre of Ger¬ man Calvinism in the 16th century. Heidelberg was devastated during the Thirty Years' War (1622) and by the French in 1689 and 1693. It is the site of the 13th-century Heidelberg Castle, a major tourist attraction, and of the University of Heidelberg (1386), the oldest university in Germany.

Heidelberg, University of German Ruprecht-Karl- Universitat Heidelberg Autonomous university at Heidelberg, Ger¬ many. It was founded in 1386 and modeled on the University of Paris. The first college was founded by the Cistercian order. The university suffered a decline in the 17th—18th centuries but regained its prestige after a reor¬ ganization in the early 19th century, becoming a centre of sciences, law, and philosophy.

Heiden, Eric (Arthur) (b. June 14, 1958, Madison, Wis., U.S.) U.S. speed skater. He became the first American to win the world speed-skating championship, and he retained the title for three years (1977-79). In the 1980 Winter Olympics he became the first person to win gold medals in all five speed-skating events. He later turned to competitive cycling.

Heidenstam Vha-don-stanA, (Carl Gustaf) Verner von (b. July 6, 1859, Olshammar, Swed.—d. May 20, 1940, Ovralid) Swedish poet and novelist. His first book of poems, Pilgrimage and Wander Years (1888), drew on his years living in southern Europe and the Middle East and was an immediate success. With his essay “Renaissance” (1889), he became a leader of the opposition in Sweden to naturalism, calling for a rebirth of the literature of fantasy, beauty, and nationalism. Many of the poems he wrote in this vein are translated in Sweden’s Laureate (1919). He also wrote historical fiction, including The Charles Men (1897-98) and The Tree of the Folkungs (1905-07). He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1916.

Heifetz Vhi-fotsV, Jascha (b. Feb. 2, 1901, Vilnius, Lithuania, Russian Empire—d. Dec. 10, 1987, Los Angeles, Calif., U.S.) Lithuanian-born U.S. violinist. He studied with his father from age five, performing Felix Mendelssohn’s Violin Concerto at age eight. From 1909 to 1914, although it was illegal for a Jew to live in St. Petersburg, he studied there with Leopold Auer (1845-1930). He immigrated to the U.S. in 1917, where for many years he performed in a trio with Artur Rubinstein and Gregor Piatigorsky (1903-76). His impeccable technique and musical flair made him perhaps the world’s most famous violinist. He retired in 1972, hav¬ ing taught at the University of Southern California from 1959.

Heilong Jiang See Amur River

Heilongjiang Vha-T6q-'jyai]\ or Hei-lung-chiang Vha-Tuq-'jyaqX conventional Heilungkiang Province (pop., 2000 est.: 36,890,000), northeastern China. With an area of 179,000 sq mi (463,600 sq km), it is China’s northernmost province; its capital is Harbin. It borders Russia (mostly along the Amur River), Jilin province, and Inner Mongolia. It was part of an area formerly known as Manchuria. Little developed before the late 19th century, it was under Russian dominance until 1917, when it came under Chinese control. It was taken by Japan in 1931 but retaken in 1945 by Soviet forces, who returned it to Chinese (communist) con¬ trol. After the 1960 Sino-Soviet rift, its border was the scene of frequent clashes. The area is now one of expanding industrialization.

Heimdall \'ham-,dal\ In Norse mythology, the watchman of the gods. Called the shining god, he was noted for his white skin, and he dwelt at the entrance to Asgard and guarded the rainbow bridge that connected it with earth. Endowed with extraordinary vision and hearing, Heimdall carried a horn that could be heard throughout heaven and earth; with it he would one day announce Ragnarok, the end of the world, and on that day he and his enemy Loki would kill each other.

Heimlich maneuver \'hlm-lik\ Emergency procedure for dislodging a foreign body from a choking victim’s throat, devised by the U.S. sur¬ geon Henry J. Heimlich. It is used only when the airway is totally obstructed, as shown by inability to speak or breathe. The rescuer reaches around the victim from behind, grasps one fist in the other just below the victim’s rib cage, and makes several upward thrusts into the victim’s belly. This expels the foreign object with air from the victim’s own lungs. An unconscious victim is laid faceup and the thrusts are given by a kneeling or squatting rescuer.

Martin Heidegger.

CAMERA PRESS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Heine ► helicopter I 857

Heine Vhl-noV (Christian Johann) Heinrich orig. Harry Heine

(b. Dec. 13, 1797, Diisseldorf, Prussia—d. Feb. 17, 1856, Paris, France) German poet. Born of Jewish parents, he converted to Protestantism to enter careers that he never actually pursued. He established his interna¬ tional literary reputation with The Book of Songs (1827), a collection of bittersweet love poems. His prose Pictures of Travel, 4 vol. (1826-31), was widely imitated. After 1831 he lived in Paris. His articles and stud¬ ies on social and political matters, many critical of German conservatism, were censored there, and German spies watched him in Paris. His second verse collection, New Poems (1844), reflected his social engagement. His third, Romanzero (1851), written while suffering failing health and finan¬ cial reverses, is notably bleak but has been greatly admired. He is regarded as one of Germany’s greatest lyric poets, and many of his poems were set as songs by such composers as Franz Schubert, Robert Schumann, and Johannes Brahms.

Heinlein \'hln-lln\, Robert A(nson) (b. July 7, 1907, Butler, Mo., U.S.—d. May 8, 1988, Carmel, Calif.) U.S. science-fiction writer. He pursued graduate study in physics and mathematics and began his writ¬ ing career in the pulp magazine Astounding Science Fiction in the 1930s. The first of his many novels and story collections was Rocket Ship Gali¬ leo (1947). Stranger in a Strange Land (1961), his best-known work, attracted a large cult following. His other books include Double Star (1956), Methuselah's Children (1958), Starship Troopers (1959), The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress (1966), and I Will Fear No Evil (1970). He won an unprecedented four Hugo Awards, and his sophisticated works did much to develop the genre.

Heinz, H(enry) J(ohn) (b. Oct. 11, 1844, Pittsburgh, Pa., U.S.—d. May 14, 1919, Pittsburgh) U.S. entrepreneur, founder of a major manu¬ facturer of processed foods. He joined his father’s brick-manufacturing business in Pittsburgh and simultaneously built up a produce business, delivering produce grown on his own land to local grocers. In 1876, with a brother and a cousin, he formed the F. & J. Heinz Co., a maker of pick¬ les, ketchup, baked beans, and other prepared foods. It was reorganized in 1888 as the H.J. Heinz Co. and incorporated in 1905. Heinz served as its president until his death.

heir One who inherits or is entitled to succeed to the possession of prop¬ erty after the death of its owner. In most jurisdictions, statutes of descent determine transfer of title to property if no will names the recipient. One may be either heir apparent or heir presumptive during the lifetime of the property holder. An heir apparent’s right to an inheritance cannot be voided or undone except by exclusion under a valid will. An heir pre¬ sumptive’s right to inherit may be defeated by the birth of a nearer rela¬ tive. In Britain, the heir apparent of the monarch is the eldest son. If there are no sons, the eldest daughter is heiress presumptive. See also primo¬ geniture.

Heisei emperor See Akihito

Heisei Vha-'sa\ period Japanese reign period that began in 1989 when Akihito became emperor on the death of his father, Hirohito. The Heisei period has been a sober one for the Japanese, marked by turbulent poli¬ tics (with 11 prime ministers in its first dozen years), an economic slow¬ down, and crises in the financial world. A devastating earthquake in Kobe and a nerve-gas attack on a Tokyo subway line by members of AUM Shin- rikyo (both in 1995) contributed to the generally dark picture of the period. Positive events have included the wedding of the crown prince and host¬ ing the 1998 Winter Olympic Games in Nagano. See also Showa period.

Heisenberg Vhl-zffi-borgX, Werner (Karl) (b. Dec. 5, 1901, Wurzburg, Ger.—d. Feb. 1, 1976, Munich, W.Ger.) German physicist. Educated at Munich and Gottingen, he taught at the University of Leipzig (1927—41) and directed the Max Planck Institute for Physics (1942-76). In 1925 he solved the problem of how to account for the stationary dis¬ crete energy states of an anharmonic oscillator, a solution that launched the development of quantum mechanics. In 1927 he published his famous uncertainty principle. He also made important contributions to the theories of the hydrodynamics of turbulence, the atomic nucleus, ferromagnetism, cosmic rays, and subatomic particles. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1932 for his work on quantum mechanics. He led Germa¬ ny’s efforts in World War II (1939-45) to develop an atomic bomb.

Heisenberg uncertainty principle See uncertainty principle

Heisman, John (William) (b. Oct. 23, 1869, Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.—d. Oct. 3, 1936, New York City, N.Y.) U.S. collegiate gridiron

football coach and one of the game’s greatest innovators. Heisman played football for both Brown University and the University of Pennsylvania. He was responsible for legalizing the forward pass in 1906, and he origi¬ nated the centre snap and the “hike” count signals of the quarterback in starting play. He coached at several colleges between 1892 and 1927, compiling a record of 185 wins, 68 losses, and 18 ties. The Heisman Tro¬ phy was named for him.

Heisman Trophy Annual award given to the outstanding college grid¬ iron football player in the U.S. The trophy was instituted in 1935 by New York City’s Downtown Athletic Club and was officially named the fol¬ lowing year for the club’s first athletic director, the player-coach John Heisman. The winner is determined by a poll of sports writers.

Hejaz \he-'jaz\ Arabic Al-Hijaz \,al-he-'jaz\ Region of western Saudi Arabia. It occupies an area of 134,600 sq mi (348,600 sq km) along the Red Sea coast of the Arabian Peninsula, from Jordan to c AsIr province. Its northern portion was inhabited by the 6th century bc. In the 7th century ad two of its cities, Mecca and Medina, were the birthplace of Islam; they remain Islam’s holiest cities. In 1258 the region fell to the Mamluk dynasty and in 1517 to the Ottomans. In 1916 Sharif Husayn ibn c AlI revolted and proclaimed himself king of the Hejaz. Ibn Sa c 0d, the ruler of Nejd, assumed the title in 1926, and in 1932 he united Hejaz, Nejd, and other districts to form the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Hejira See Hijrah

Hel In Norse mythology, the realm of the dead and, later, the goddess of the dead. She was the daughter of Loki. Her kingdom, Niflheim, or the World of Darkness, was divided into several sections. Murderers, perjur¬ ers, and adulterers suffered torment in a castle filled with serpents’ venom, while the dragon Nidhogg sucked their blood. Those who fell in battle went to Valhalla and thus avoided Hel.

Helen In Greek mythology, the most beautiful woman in Greece, who was the indirect cause of the Trojan War. She was a daughter of Zeus, either by Leda or by Nemesis. Her brothers were the Dioscuri, and her sis¬ ter was Clytemnestra, wife of Agamemnon. Helen was the wife of Mene- laus. When Paris, son of Priam, was asked to decide which goddess was the most beautiful, he chose Aphrodite, who rewarded him with the most beautiful woman in the world. Seducing Helen with the goddess’s help, Paris carried her off to Troy, and the Greeks sent a military force to pur¬ sue them. At the war’s end, with Paris dead, Helen returned to Sparta with Menelaus.

Helena Vhe-l9-no\ City (pop., 2000: 25,780), capital of Montana, U.S. Located near the Missouri River in west-central Montana, in an area vis¬ ited by the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1805), it was settled after gold was discovered there in 1864 (in Last Chance Gulch, now the city’s main street). It became capital of the territory in 1875 and of the state in 1889. In addition to state government activities, Helena is an agricultural and livestock trade centre and has light manufactures. The capitol building has a copper-covered dome surmounted by a reproduction of the Statue of Liberty.

Helena, Saint (b. c. 248, Drepanon?, Bithynia, Asia Minor—d. c. 328, Nicomedia; Western feast day Aug. 18; Eastern feast day [with Constan¬ tine] May 21) Roman empress and mother of Constantine I. She was the wife of Constantius I (Constantius Chlorus) before he became caesar (sub¬ emperor), and she bore Constantine before she was renounced for politi¬ cal reasons. She became a Christian under her son’s influence. Implicated in the execution of her daughter-in-law (326), she made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land and had churches built in Jerusalem and Bethlehem on the sites of the Ascension and the Nativity. By the late 4th century she was reputed to have found Christ’s cross.

Helga, Saint See Saint Olga helicon See sousaphone

Helicon, Mount Mountain, east-central Greece, part of the Helicon range, a continuation of the higher Parnassus range. Located near the Gulf of Corinth, it is 5,738 ft (1,749 m) high. It was celebrated by the ancient Greeks as the home of the Muses; on it were the fountains of Aganippe and Hippocrene, the supposed sources of poetic inspiration.

helicopter Aircraft with one or more power-driven horizontal rotors that enable it to take off and land vertically, move in any direction, or remain stationary in the air. Since a rotor is essentially a rotating airfoil,

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

858 I helioflagellate ► Heller

a helicopter is often described as a rotary-wing aircraft, in contrast to a conventional fixed-wing airplane. One of the earliest ideas for flying, it appeared in China and Renaissance Europe as a toy and in Leonardo da Vinci’s designs. The Frenchman Paul Cornu made the first manned flight in 1907. Igor Sikorsky produced the first successful prototype in 1939, which was followed by rapid development in the U.S. and Europe. It is widely used for civilian transport, rescue work, and various commercial purposes. It has been used by military forces since the Korean War (1950- 53) for transporting material, moving assault troops, and directly attack¬ ing other forces.

helioflagellate V.he-le-o-'fla-js-taA Any of a class of freshwater pro¬ tozoans. They are sometimes considered relatives of heliozoans (organ¬ isms that for movement have extensions of cytoplasm called pseudopodia, but no flagella) because of their slender, radiating pseudopodia. The cores of the pseudopodia of some helioflagellates radiate from a central gran¬ ule, as they do in some heliozoans. Helioflagellate life cycles alternate between flagellate and heliozoan phases. Some members are spherical, others oval.

Heliogabalus See Elagabalus

heliopause Boundary between the heliosphere—the teardrop-shaped region around the Sun created by the solar wind and filled with solar mag¬ netic fields and outward-moving gas—and the zone of transition to the interstellar medium. Its tail is estimated to reach 50-100 astronomical units from the Sun, encompassing the orbits of all the major planets. Its shape changes, influenced by a wind of interstellar gas produced by the Sun’s motion through it.

Heliopolis \,he-le-'a-p3-bs\ biblical On Ancient holy city, Egypt. The city, which is now mainly ruins lying northeast of Cairo, was the seat of worship of the Egyptian sun god Ra. Its great temple of Ra was second in size only to that of Amon at Thebes, and its priesthood wielded great influence. In the New Kingdom, the temple became the repository of royal records. The city’s surviving monument is the obelisk of Sesostris I, the oldest in existence. Two obelisks erected there by Thutmose III and known as Cleopatra’s Needles now stand on the Thames River embankment in London and in Central Park, New York City.

Helios \'he-le-,os\ Sun god of ancient Greece. He drove his chariot from east to west across the sky each day and sailed across the ocean each night in a huge cup. He was especially worshiped on Rhodes, where he was considered the chief god as early as the 5th century bc. In Greece he was later displaced by Apollo. The Romans worshiped him as Sol.

heliotrope Vhe-le-s-.tropN Any of about 250 species of tropical or tem¬ perate, mostly herbaceous, plants that make up the genus Heliotropium, in the borage family, found through¬ out the world. Included are many weedy species. The best known is garden heliotrope ( H . arborescens ), a shrubby perennial that bears fragrant, purple to white, flat-clustered, five- lobed flowers in coiled sprays, simi¬ lar tO FORGET-ME-NOTS.

helium Chemical element, chemical symbol He, atomic number 2. A noble gas, it is colourless, odourless, taste¬ less, completely unreactive, and non¬ toxic. First found by spectroscopy of the Sun’s atmosphere in 1868, it is the second most abundant and second-lightest element in the uni¬ verse (after hydrogen). Helium makes up a tiny proportion of the atmo¬ sphere but as much as 7% of natural gas. It is the product of radioactive decay (see radioactivity) and is used in helium dating. It is used as an inert gas in welding, rocket propulsion, balloon flight, hyperbaric chambers, deep-sea diving (see nitrogen narcosis), gas chromatography, luminous signs, and cryogenics. Liquid helium, which exists only below -452 °F (-268.9 °C, about 4° C above absolute zero), is a “quantum fluid” (see fluid mechanics; quantum mechanics), with unique properties, including superfluidity, super¬ conductivity, and near-zero viscosity.

helium dating Method of dating that depends on the production of helium during the decay of radioactive isotopes of uranium and thorium.

Because of this decay, the helium content of any mineral or rock capable of retaining helium will increase during the lifetime of that mineral or rock, and the ratio of helium to its radioactive progenitors then becomes a measure of geologic time. Fossils may also be dated by helium dating. The relatively large amount of helium produced in rocks may make it possible to extend helium dating to rocks and minerals as young as a few tens of thousands of years old.

hell Abode of evildoers after death, or the state of existence of souls damned to punishment after death. Most ancient religions included the concept of a place that divided the good from the evil or the living from the dead (e.g., the gloomy subterranean realm of Hades in Greek religion, or the cold and dark underworld of Nilfheim or Hel in Norse mythology). The view that hell is the final dwelling place of the damned after a last judgment is held by Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The Jewish concept of Gehenna as an infernal region of punishment for the wicked was the basis for the Christian vision of hell as the fiery domain of Satan and his evil angels and a place of punishment for those who die without repenting of their sins. In Hinduism hell is only one stage in the career of the soul as it passes through the phases of reincarnation. The schools of Buddhism have varying conceptions of hell, usually entailing some kind of punishment or purgatory. In Jainism, hell is a purgatory in which sinners are tormented by demons until the evil of their lives has been exhausted.

hellbender Salamander ( Cryptobranchus alleganiensis, family Crypto- branchidae) found in swift-flowing rivers in the eastern and central U.S. It grows to about 25 in. (63 cm) long, has a stout body, flat head, broad tail fin, and wrinkled sides, and is typically brownish gray with black spots. Adults have lungs, but a gill slit persists from the larval stage on each side behind the head. Wrinkled fleshy folds on the body and legs increase surface area for respiration through the skin, the principal mode of oxygen intake. Hellbenders lie under stones during the day, emerging at night to feed on crayfish, small fishes, and worms.

hellebore \ , he-b-,bor\ Member of either of two genera of poisonous herbaceous plants, Helleborus (but¬ tercup family) and Veratrum (uly fam¬ ily). Some are grown as garden ornamentals. Helleborus, consists of about 20 species of perennial plants native to Eurasia; most are nearly stemless, with thick roots and long- stalked, divided leaves and showy flowers. Veratrum contains about 45 species, better called false helle¬ bores, native widely to damp areas of the Northern Hemisphere. They have simple leaves and clusters of small flowers.

Hellenistic Age In the eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East, the period between the death of Alexander the Great (323 bc) and the con¬ quest of Egypt by Rome (30 bc). Alexander and his successors established Greek monarchies that controlled the area from Greece to Afghanistan. The Macedonian Antigonid kingdom, the Middle Eastern Seleucid kingdom, and the Egyptian Ptolemaic kingdom spread Greek culture, mixed Greek and non-Greek populations, and fused Greek and Oriental elements. They pro¬ duced effective bureaucracies and a common, creative culture based at Alexandria. A great flowering of the arts, literature, and science occurred particularly in the period 280-160. The decline of the Hellenic states occurred as Rome gained strength and won wars against Macedonia and against Mithradates VI Eupator, turning the kingdoms and their allies into Roman provinces. Egypt was the last to fall, after having been drawn into the civil war between Mark Antony and Octavian (Augustus).

Heller, Joseph (b. May 1, 1923, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.—d. Dec. 12, 1999, East Hampton, N.Y.) U.S. writer. Heller flew 60 combat missions as a bombardier in World War II before finishing his studies at Columbia and Oxford and working as an advertising copywriter. His satirical novel Catch-22 (1961), based on his wartime experiences, was one of the most significant works of postwar protest literature and a huge critical and popular success. His later novels include Something Happened (1974), Good as Gold (1979), God Knows (1984), and Closing Time (1994).

Garden heliotrope (Heliotropium arborescens)

WALTER DAWN

Green hellebore (Helleborus viridis)

G.E. HYDE-THE NATURAL HISTORY PHOTOGRAPHIC AGENCY/EB INC.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Heller ► Hemacandra I 859

Heller, Yom Tov (Lipmann ben Nathan Ha-Levi) (b. 1579, Wallerstein, Bavaria—d. Sept. 7, 1654, Krakow, Pol.) Bohemian Jewish religious scholar. After serving as rabbi in Moravia and Vienna, he became chief rabbi in Prague in 1627. He was forced to collect a heavy tax imposed on Jews by Ferdinand II during the Thirty Years’ War, damaging his reputation in the Jewish community. Later, as rabbi in Volhynia, he earned the enmity of wealthy Jews for denouncing simony. From 1643 he was chief rabbi in Krakow. He is best known for his commentary on the Mishna, The Additions of Yom Tov (1614-17).

Hellespont See Dardanelles

Heilman, Lillian (Florence) (b. June 20, 1905, New Orleans, La., U.S.—d. June 30, 1984, Vineyard Haven, Martha’s Vineyard, Mass.) U.S. playwright. After working as a book reviewer, press agent, and play reader, she began writing plays in the 1930s. Her first major success. The Chil¬ dren’s Hour (1934), concerned two schoolteachers falsely accused of les¬ bianism. She examined family infighting in her hit The Little Foxes { 1939) and political injustice in Watch on the Rhine (1941). All were made into successful films. Called before the House Un-American Activities Com¬ mittee in 1952, she refused to testify. She wrote several memoirs and edited the works of her longtime companion, the novelist Dashiell Hammett.

Hells Canyon Gorge of the Snake River in the U.S. Forming part of the Idaho-Oregon boundary, it is 125 mi (200 km) long and for 40 mi (64 km) is more than a mile deep. A maximum depth of 7,900 ft (2,400 m) makes it the deepest gorge in North America. With its surrounding area of 662,000 acres (268,000 hectares), Hells Canyon was designated a national recreation area in 1975.

Helmand River or Helmund Vhel-mondX River ancient Etyman- der River, southwestern Afghanistan and eastern Iran. Rising in east- central Afghanistan, it flows southwest across more than half the country before flowing north for a short distance through Iran and emptying into the Helmand (Sistan) swamps on the border of Afghanistan and Iran. At 870 mi (1,400 km) long, it is one of Afghanistan’s most important rivers and has been extensively developed for irrigation. A long-standing dis¬ pute between Afghanistan and Iran has centred on Iran’s claim to a por¬ tion of the Helmand’s waters.

Helmholtz Vhelm- I holts\ / Hermann (Ludwig Ferdinand) von

(b. Aug. 31, 1821, Potsdam, Prussia—d. Sept. 8, 1894, Charlottenburg, Berlin, Ger.) German scientist, one of the greatest of the 19th century. After training in medicine, he taught physiology and later physics at sev¬ eral German universities. His interests continually shifted to new disci¬ plines, in which he applied his earlier insights to every problem he examined. He made fundamental contributions to physiology, optics, elec¬ trodynamics, mathematics, acoustics, and meteorology, but is best known for his statement (1847) of the law of conservation of energy. His approach was strongly empirical at a time when many scientists embraced deduc¬ tions from mental concepts. He invented several measurement instru¬ ments, including the myograph, ophthalmoscope, and ophthalmometer. He described body heat and energy, nerve conduction, and the physiol¬ ogy of the eye. His mathematical analysis of vortices in fluids (1858) was a tour de force. His work in electrodynamics built on that of Michael Fara¬ day and James Clerk Maxwell but was eventually superseded by that of Albert Einstein.

Helmont, Jan Baptista van (b. Jan. 12, 1580, Brussels, Belg.—d. Dec. 30, 1644, Vilvoorde, Spanish Netherlands) Belgian chemist, physi¬ ologist, and physician. Though he tended to mysticism, he was a careful observer and exact experimenter. The first to recognize gases other than air, he coined the word gas and discovered that the “wild spirits” (carbon dioxide) produced by burning charcoal and by fermenting grape juice were the same. For applying chemical principles to digestion and nutri¬ tion, he has been called the “father of biochemistry.” His collected works were published in 1648.

helot \'he-bt\ Any of the native peoples of Laconia and Messenia con¬ quered and controlled by Sparta. They were state-owned serfs or slaves who worked the land to feed and clothe the Spartan population, whom they vastly outnumbered. Their masters could not free them or sell them. The Spartans lived in constant fear of a helot revolt and annually declared war on them to legally keep them in place by force. During wartime, helots attended their masters on campaigns, serving as troops and as rowers in the fleet. The Messenian helots were liberated c. 370 bc, those in Laconia not until the 2nd century bc.

Helper, Hinton Rowan (b. Dec. 27, 1829, Davie county, N.C., U.S.—d. March 9, 1909, Washington, D.C.) U.S. antislavery writer. His 1857 work The Impending Crisis of the South argued that slavery harmed nonslaveholding whites and inhibited economic progress in the South. It became influential in the antislavery movement in the North; in the South it caused a furor and was banned in several states. For his safety Helper moved to New York City. After the American Civil War, Helper wrote three bitter racist tracts advocating the deportation of blacks to Africa or Latin America.

Helpmann, Sir Robert (Murray) (b. April 9, 1909, Mount Gam- bier, Austl.—d. Sept. 28, 1986, Sydney) Australian ballet dancer, chore¬ ographer, actor, and director. After dancing and acting in Australia, in 1933 he went to London to study, joining the Vic-Wells Ballet (later Royal Ballet), where he became a regular partner of Margot Fonteyn. His own ballets included Hamlet (1942), Miracle in the Gorbals (1944), and Adam Zero (1946). He danced in the films The Red Shoes and Tales of Hoff¬ mann, acted in many Shakespeare plays, and also directed several plays. He was artistic codirector of the Australian Ballet (1965-76).

Helsinki Swedish Helsingfors City (pop., 2002 est.: city, 559,718; metro, area, 964,953), capital of Finland. Located in southern Finland on a peninsula with natural harbours, it is the country’s leading seaport. Often called the “white city of the north” because many of its buildings are made of a local light-coloured granite, it was founded by Sweden in 1550 and moved to its present site in 1640. With Finland it came under Russian rule in 1808. Under Russian Tsar Alexander I, Helsinki became the capital of the grand duchy of Finland in 1812, and it remained as the capital of the coun¬ try. In 1917 Finland declared independence from Russia, and a brief but bloody civil war ensued in the capital. In subsequent decades it developed into an important trade centre. It was damaged by Russian bombing during World War II (see Russo- Finnish War) but was rebuilt. It was the site of a 1975 international diplomatic conference (see Helsinki Accords). Helsinki has theatres, an opera and ballet company, and several symphony orches¬ tras, and it hosted the 1952 Olympic Summer Games.

Helsinki Accords International agreement signed in 1975, designed to reduce tension between the Soviet and Western blocs. It was an attempt to secure common acceptance of the post-World War II status quo in Europe, including the division of Germany. The accords, signed by all the countries of Europe (except Albania) as well as the U.S. and Canada, were nonbinding and lacked treaty status. They were sought by the Soviet Union to gain implicit recognition of its postwar hegemony in eastern Europe. In return, the U.S. and its western European allies pressed for respect for human rights and cooperation in economic, scientific, and other humanitarian areas. Follow-up meetings in Belgrade (1977-78), Madrid (1980-83), and Ottawa (1985) were marked by strong criticism of Soviet human-rights abuses and by Soviet counteraccusations. A 1990 conference in Paris formally ended the Cold War and recognized German reunification.

Helvetic Republic Republic founded in March 1798, constituting the greater part of Switzerland, after it had been conquered by France in the French Revolutionary Wars. The government was patterned after that of the Directory in France. Delegates called on Napoleon to mediate in fac¬ tional disputes, and in 1803 he substituted a new Swiss Confederation for the republic, forcing it into close association with France.

Helvetius \el-vas-'yiEs\, Claude-Adrien (b. Jan. 26, 1715, Paris, France—d. Dec. 26, 1771, Vore, Collines des Perches) French philoso¬ pher, controversialist, and patron of the philosophes. He is remembered for his hedonism, his criticism of the religious foundations of ethics, and his educational theory. His On the Mind (1758) immediately became notori¬ ous for its attack on all forms of morality based on religion. He held that all men are equally capable of learning—a belief that led him to argue against the position taken by Jean-Jacques Rousseau in his work Emile — and that through education all human problems could be solved.

Hemacandra N.ha-mo-'chon-droV orig. Candradeva (b. 1088, Dhandhuka, Gujarat, India—d. 1172, Gujarat) Sage of Jainism. His birth is said to have been attended by auspicious omens, and he was educated by Jain priests. Ordained in 1110, he became an adviser to King Kumarapala in 1125, and by converting the king he firmly entrenched Jainism in Gujarat. His many writings include works on almost every branch of Indian philosophy and the sciences as well as literary writings such as his Sanskrit epic, Lives of the Jain Elders. In accordance with Jain tradition, he fasted to death.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

860 I hemangioma ► hemp

hemangioma V.he-.man-je-'o-msN Congenital benign tumour made of blood vessels in the skin. Capillary hemangioma (nevus flammeus, port- wine stain), an abnormal mass of capillaries on the head, neck, or face, is pink to dark bluish-red and even with the skin. Size and shape vary. It becomes less noticeable or disappears with age. Immature hemangioma (hemangioma simplex, strawberry mark), a reddish nub of dilated small blood vessels, enlarges in the first six months and may become ulcerated but usually recedes after the first year. Cavernous hemangioma, a rare, red- blue, raised mass of larger blood vessels, can occur in skin or in mucous membranes, the brain, or the viscera. Fully developed at birth, it is rarely malignant. Hemangiomas can often be removed by cosmetic surgery.

hematite Vhe-mo-.tltV or haematite Heavy and relatively hard oxide mineral, ferric oxide (Fe 2 0 3 ), that constitutes the most important iron ore because of its high iron content and its abundance. Much hematite (from the Greek word meaning “blood,” for its red colour) occurs in a soft, fine¬ grained, earthy form called red ocher or ruddle. Red ocher is used as a paint pigment; a purified form, rouge, is used to polish plate glass. The world’s largest production comes from the Hamersley Range in western Australia.

hematology \ l he-m3-'ta-l3-je\ Branch of medicine concerned with the nature, function, and diseases of the blood. It covers the cellular and serum composition of blood, the coagulation process, blood-cell formation, hemoglobin synthesis, and disorders of all these. Marcello Malpighi, in the 17th century, was the first to examine red blood cells (erythrocytes). In the 18th century, the British physiologist William Hewson (1739-74) exam¬ ined the lymphatic system and blood clotting. In the 19th century, the bone marrow was recognized as the site of blood-cell formation, and diseases of the blood such as anemia and leukemia were identified. In the early 20th century, the ABO blood-group system was discovered and the role of nutri¬ tion in blood formation was studied. Post-World War II studies have delved further into the nature of blood diseases and improved treatments and have examined hemoglobin synthesis and the role of platelets in blood coagulation.

hematuria \,he-m3- , tur-e-9\ Blood in the urine. It usually indicates injury or disease of the kidney or another structure of the urinary system or possibly, in males, the reproductive system. It may result from infec¬ tion, inflammation, tumours, kidney stones, or other disorders. How the blood looks and when it appears in the urine stream reflect whether it originates in the urethra, the bladder, or the kidney.

Hemingway, Ernest (Miller) (b. July 21, 1899, Cicero [now in Oak Park], Ill., U.S.—d. July 2, 1961,

Ketchum, Idaho) U.S. writer. He began work as a journalist after high school. He was wounded while serv¬ ing as an ambulance driver in World War I. One of a well-known group of expatriate writers in Paris, he soon embarked on a life of travel, skiing, fishing, and hunting that would be reflected in his work. His story col¬ lection In Our Time (1925) was fol¬ lowed by the novel The Sun Also Rises (1926). Later novels include A Farewell to Arms (1929) and To Have and Have Not (1937). His life¬ long love for Spain (including a fas¬ cination with bullfighting) led to his working as a correspondent during the Spanish Civil War, which resulted in the novel For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940). Other short-story collections include Men Without Women (1927), Winner Take Nothing (1933), and The Fifth Column (1938). He lived primarily in Cuba from c. 1940, the locale of his novella The Old Man and the Sea (1952, Pulitzer Prize). He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1954. He left Cuba shortly after its 1959 revolution; a year later, depressed and ill, he shot himself. The succinct and concentrated prose style of his early works strongly influenced many British and American writers for decades.

hemispheric asymmetry See laterality

hemlock Any of 10 species of coniferous evergreen trees that make up the genus Tsuga, in the pine family, native to North America and central and eastern Asia. Some are important timber trees, and many are popular ornamentals. Other plants commonly called hemlock include ground hem¬ lock (see yew) and poison hemlock and water hemlock (parsley family). A true hemlock is a tall, pyramidal tree with purplish or reddish-brown bark, slender horizontal or drooping branches, and short, blunt leaves that grow from woody cushionlike structures on the twigs.

hemodialysis See dialysis

hemoglobin Vhe-mo-.glo-bonV Protein in the blood of many animals (in vertebrates it is in red blood cells) that transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. It is bright red when combined with oxygen and purple- blue in the deoxygenated state. Each molecule is made up of a globin (a type of protein) and four heme groups. Heme, a complex heterocyclic compound, is an organic molecule derived from porphyrin with an iron atom at the centre. Variant hemoglobins (see sickle-cell anemia; hemoglobinopa¬ thy) can be used to trace past human migrations and to study genetic rela¬ tionships among populations.

hemoglobinopathy \ l he-m3- l glo-b9- , na-p3-the\ Any of a group of disorders caused by genetic abnormality of the hemoglobin molecule. The most prominent types are sickle-cell anemia and thalassemia, a set of dis¬ orders whose symptoms range from none to fatal anemia.

hemolytic disease of the newborn See erythroblastosis fetalis

hemophilia V.he-mo-'fi-le-oV Hereditary bleeding disorder caused by deficiency of a coagulation factor. Lack of factor VIII causes classic hemophilia; other types are caused by deficiency of factor IX or XI. The first two are transmitted by sex-linked heredity; the third has dominant inheritance and occurs in females as well as males. Spontaneous bleed¬ ing may occur. Even trivial injury can cause life-threatening blood loss. Drugs can be given to stop bleeding. Heavy blood loss requires blood transfusions.

hemorrhage Vhe-mo-rijV Escape of blood from blood vessels into sur¬ rounding tissue. When a vessel is injured, hemorrhage continues as long as the vessel remains open and the pressure in it exceeds the pressure outside of it. Normally, coagulation closes the vessel and stops the bleed¬ ing. Uncontrolled hemorrhage can result from anticoagulant therapy, hemophilia, or severe blood-vessel damage, leading to excessive blood loss and shock.

hemorrhagic X.he-ms-Ta-jikV fever Disease with high fever and hem¬ orrhage of internal organs and into the skin. It is caused by several kinds of virus (of which Ebola, dengue, and yellow fever are the best known), some carried by ticks, mosquitoes, or animals. Initial symptoms may include head, muscle, joint, and abdominal pain; nausea and vomiting; sweating and thirst; and coldlike symptoms. It comes on suddenly and can cause severe kidney damage. Patients who are severely ill may also experience shock and neurologic effects.

Ernest Hemingway, photograph by Yousuf Karsh, 1959.

COURTESY OF MARY HEMINGWAY; PHOTOGRAPH, © KARSH FROM RAPHO/PHOTO RESEARCHERS

hemorrhoid Vhe-mo-.roidV or pile Mass formed by distension of the network of veins supplying the anal canal. It may develop from infection or increased abdominal pressure (as in pregnancy or heavy lifting). Mild hemorrhoids may require only oint¬ ments, laxatives, and baths. If clot¬ ting, bleeding, or pain occurs, surgical removal may be needed.

Internal hemorrhoids, with little nerve supply, can be destroyed in several ways without anesthesia.

External hemorrhoids, under the skin, are cut out under local anesthe¬ sia.

hemp Stout, aromatic, erect annual herbaceous plant ( Cannabis sativa, family Cannabaceae), the sole spe¬ cies of cannabis; also, its fibre. Hemp originated in Central Asia and is now cultivated widely in the northern temperate zone. A tall, canelike vari¬ ety is raised for the fibre; a short,

Hemp (Cannabis sativa).

JOHN KOHOUT FROM ROOT RESOURCES

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Henan ► Henri i 861

more branched variety is prized as the more abundant source of marijuana. Hemp fibre is strong and durable and is used for cordage and for artifi¬ cial sponges and such coarse fabrics as sacking (burlap) and canvas. Hemp is grown primarily for fibre in most countries.

Henan \'h3-'nan\ or Ho-nan conventional Honan Province (pop., 2002 est.: 96,130,000), north-central China. It is bounded by Shanxi, Hebei, Shandong, Anhui, Hubei, and Shaanxi. It has an area of 64,500 sq mi (167,000 sq km), and its capital is Zhengzhou. An early civilization there gave rise to the Shang dynasty (18th—12th centuries bc). Kaifeng was the capital of several dynasties in the 10th century ad before becoming the capital of the Bei (Northern) Song dynasty (960-1127); Zhengzhou then became the provincial capital. Henan’s principal crop is wheat. Henan has large deposits of coal, petroleum, and natural gas, which fuel the econo¬ mies of its major cities. It is also a railroad transportation hub.

henbane Plant ( Hyoscyamus niger ) of the nightshade family, native to Britain and found growing wild in poor soil and on rubbish heaps. It also occurs in central and southern Europe and from western Asia to India and Siberia and has long been naturalized in the U.S. The whole plant has a powerful nauseating odour. Commercial henbane, which consists of the dried leaves of H. niger and sometimes of H. muticus, of Egypt, yields three drugs: atropine, hyoscyamine, and scopolamine. Isolated and puri¬ fied, these drugs are remedies for spasmodic muscular contractions, ner¬ vous irritation, and hysteria.

Henderson, (James) Fletcher (b. Dec. 18, 1898, Cuthbert, Ga., U.S.—d. Dec. 29, 1952, New York, N.Y.) U.S. pianist, arranger, and leader of one of the most influential big bands in jazz. Henderson formed a dance band in New York in 1923. The band soon distinguished itself in two ways: the engagement of Louis Armstrong as principal soloist placed greater emphasis on swinging improvisation and the arrangements by Henderson and Don Redman (1900-64) codified the roles of the sections within the ensemble to replace the collective improvisation of early jazz groups. Nearly all big bands subsequently followed their example. A poor businessman, he was forced to dissolve his band several times, but his arrangements played a key role in the success of Benny Goodman in the late 1930s and provided a template for much of the music of the swing era.

Henderson, Rickey in full Rickey Henley Henderson (b. Dec. 25, 1958, Chicago, Ill., U.S.) U.S. baseball player. Henderson made his major league debut in 1979 with the Oakland Athletics. The following year he became one of only three players to steal 100 bases. It was the first of seven consecutive seasons in which Henderson led the American League in stolen bases, and his 130 in 1982 set a major league record. Considered one of the game’s greatest leadoff hitters, he was named the American League’s Most Valuable Player in 1990. The following year he stole the 939th base of his career to top Lou Brock’s mark. With the San Diego Padres in 2001, he broke Babe Ruth’s lifetime record for walks (2,062) and Ty Cobb’s career record for runs (2,245). Henderson helped the Athletics and the Toronto Blue Jays win World Series in 1989 and 1993, respectively.

Hendricks, Thomas A(ndrews) (b. Sept. 7, 1819, near Zanesville, Ohio, U.S.—d. Nov. 25, 1885, Indianapolis, Ind.) U.S. politician. He practiced law in Indiana before serving in the U.S. House of Represen¬ tatives (1851-55) and Senate (1863-69); he was later governor (1873— 77). Though loyal to the Union, he opposed many aspects of the Union’s military effort during the American Civil War; he also opposed the Recon¬ struction program imposed on the South after the war. He favoured leniency toward white supremacists in the South and opposed all legis¬ lation aimed at assisting freedmen. He was the Democratic Party nomi¬ nee for vice president in 1876 (as the running mate of Samuel Tilden) and again in 1884, when he was elected with Grover Cleveland. He died shortly after taking office.

Hendrix, Jimi byname of James Marshall Hendrix (b. Nov. 27, 1942, Seattle, Wash., U.S.—d. Sept. 18, 1970, London, Eng.) U.S. blues and rock guitarist (see rock music). Of mixed black-Cherokee ancestry, the left-handed Hendrix taught himself to play the guitar, which he held upside down. He served as an army paratrooper and later toured as gui¬ tarist for Little Richard and others. In 1966 he moved to London and formed a trio, The Jimi Hendrix Experience, which rapidly became popular in Europe. His sensational appearance at the Monterey Pop Festival in 1967 and the success that year of the album Are You Experienced? lifted him

to instant stardom, and his subsequent albums were among the most influ¬ ential of the 1960s. He died at age 27 of an apparently accidental over¬ dose of barbiturates.

Henie \'he-ne\, Sonja (b. April Nor.—d. Oct. 12, 1969, in an air¬ plane en route to Oslo) Norwegian- born U.S. figure skater. She was trained in ballet. She won the world amateur championship for women 10 consecutive years (1927-36) and won three gold medals in the Winter Olympics (1928, 1932, 1936). With her dancer’s training, she was largely responsible for converting a predict¬ able series of colourless exercises into a spectacular and popular exhi¬ bition. She achieved further renown as a professional ice skater and movie actress. In 1941 she became an American citizen.

Henie \'hen-l3\, Friedrich Gustav Jacob (b. July 15?, 1809,

Flirth, Bavaria—d. May 13, 1885,

Gottingen, Ger.) German pathologist and anatomist. He published the first descriptions of the composition and distribution of the surface tissue of anatomical structures (epithelium) and of fine eye and brain structures. Henie embraced Girolamo Fracastoro’s unpopular microorganism theory. His General Anatomy (1841) was the first systematic histology treatise. His Handbook of Rational Pathology (2 vol., 1846-53) described diseased organs in relation to their normal functions, opening the era of modern pathology.

Henlein Vhen-lln\, Konrad (b. May 6, 1898, Maffersdorf bei Reichen- berg, Bohemia, Austria-Hungary—d. May 10, 1945, Plzen, Czech.) Sude¬ ten German politician. In 1933 he became leader of the Sudeten German Home Front, the second strongest party in the Czech parliament. After a revolt broke out in the Sudetenland in 1938, the government suspended his party for treasonable activities, and Henlein fled to Germany. After the Munich agreement ceded the Sudetenland to Germany, he was appointed commissioner for the territory. While in Allied custody at the end of World War II, he committed suicide.

Henley, William Ernest (b. Aug. 23, 1849, Gloucester, Gloucester¬ shire, Eng.—d. July 11, 1903, Woking, near London) British poet, critic, and editor. After a tubercular disease forced the amputation of one foot and radical surgery on the other leg, Henley began writing free-verse impressionistic poems about hospital life that established his poetic repu¬ tation. They appeared in A Book of Verses (1888). His most popular poem, “Invictus” (1875), dates from the same period. He later edited several journals, the most brilliant of which, the Scots Observer (later the National Observer ), published the early work of Thomas Hardy, George Bernard Shaw, H.G. Wells, James M. Barrie, and Rudyard Kipling.

henna Tropical shrub or small tree ( Lawsonia inermis) of the loosestrife family, native to northern Africa, Asia, and Australia, and the reddish- brown dye obtained from its leaves. The plant bears small opposite leaves and small, fragrant, white to red flowers. In addition to being grown for its dye, it is used as an ornamental.

Hennepin \,e-n3-'pa n ,\ English Vhe-ns-ponV, Louis (b. May 12, 1626, Ath, Belg.—d. after 1701, Rome?, Italy) French missionary and explorer. A Franciscan, he traveled to Canada in 1675 with La Salle. They explored the Great Lakes region, founding Fort Crevecoeur (near modern Peoria, Ill.) in 1680. When La Salle returned for supplies, Hennepin and others explored the upper Mississippi River. They were captured by Sioux Indi¬ ans and taken to a site Hennepin named the Falls of St. Anthony (later Minneapolis); after four months they were rescued by Daniel DuLhut. Hen¬ nepin returned to France in 1682 and wrote an account of his journeys.

Henri I de Lorraine See 3rd due de Guise Henri II de Lorraine See 5th due de Guise

Henri \'hen-re\, Robert orig. Robert Henry Cozad (b. June 25, 1865, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.—d. July 12, 1929, New York, N.Y.) U.S.

8, 1912, Kristiama [now Oslo],

I Vj .

pt- • -a

Sonja Henie performing in her Holly¬ wood Ice Revue of 1950.

PICTORIAL PARADE

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

862 I Henrietta Maria ► Henry IV

painter. He studied in Philadelphia and Paris, taught art in Philadelphia, and, after settling in New York City in 1900, became the leader of the young realist artists known as The Eight. He exhibited with The Eight in 1908 and later at the Armory Show (1913). As a portrait painter he dem¬ onstrated facile brushwork, lively colours, and an ability to catch fleeting gestures and expressions. He is best remembered as a teacher, principally at New York’s Art Students League (1915-28), where he became one of the most influential art teachers in the U.S. and a powerful force in turn¬ ing young artists away from academicism and toward the rich subject matter of modern city life. His belief in the artist as a social force led to the formation of the Ash Can school.

Henrietta Maria French Henriette-Marie (b. Nov. 25,1609, Paris, France—d. Sept. 10, 1669, Chateau de Colombes, near Paris) French-bom English queen, wife of Charles I and mother of Charles II and James II. The daughter of Henry IV of France and Marie de Medicis, she was no stranger to political intrigue. By openly practicing Roman Catholicism at court, she alienated many of Charles’s subjects. As the English Civil Wars approached, she sought without success to instigate a military coup to overthrow the Parliamentarians. Her further efforts to enlist support for Charles from the pope, the French, and the Dutch infuriated many Englishmen. Deterioration of the Royalist position caused her to flee to France in 1644, and she never again saw her husband, who was executed in 1649.

Henry I known as Henry Beauclerc \'bo-kler\ (French: "Good Scholar") (b. 1069—d. Dec. 1, 1135, Lyons-la-Foret, Normandy) King of England (1100-35) and ruler of Normandy (1106-35). The youngest son of William I, he became king on the death of William II. His eldest brother, Robert Curthose (Robert II), returned from the First Crusade to claim the English throne in 1101; Henry placated him by giving him Nor¬ mandy, but Robert ruled it badly, and in 1106 Henry seized Normandy and imprisoned his brother. Henry quarreled with Anselm of Canterbury over the issue of investiture (see Investiture Controversy), but they were reconciled in 1107. He maintained control of Normandy, despite attacks by Robert’s son, and named his daughter Matilda his heir.

Henry II known as Henry of Anjou Van-jii\ or Henry Plan- tagenet \plan-'ta-j3-n3t\ (b. 1133, Le Mans, Maine—d. July 6, 1189, near Tours) Duke of Normandy (from 1150), count of Anjou (from 1151), duke of Aquitaine (from 1152), and king of England (from 1154). The son of Matilda and grandson of Henry I, he gained vast territories in France by marrying Eleanor of Aquitaine (1152). He invaded England, and, in settlement of the war, King Stephen named Henry as heir (1153). As king, Henry extended his holdings in northern England and western France, strengthened royal administration, and reformed the court system. His attempt to assert royal authority at the expense of the church (see Con¬ stitutions of Clarendon) led to a quarrel with the archbishop of Canter¬ bury, his former close friend St. Thomas Becket, which ended with Becket’s murder and Henry’s subsequent penance at Canterbury (1174). His reign was plagued by disputes among family members, especially struggles for precedence among his sons, including Richard I (the Lion- heart) and John (Lackland). Richard allied with Philip II of France to drive Henry from the throne in 1189.

Henry II French Henri \a n -'re\ orig. due (duke) d'Orleans (b.

March 31, 1519, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, near Paris, Fr.—d. July 10, 1559, Paris) King of France (1547-59). The second son of Francis I, he had strong differences with his father, accentuated by the rivalry between their mistresses and by Henry’s support of the constable Anne, due de Montmorency (1493-1567). Though he continued many of his father’s policies, Henry raised the Catholic House of Guise to favour, and he vig¬ orously suppressed Protestantism within his kingdom. He made a num¬ ber of administrative reforms. In foreign affairs Henry continued his father’s warfare against Emperor Charles V until 1559, when he signed the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis. The treaty was to be cemented by the mar¬ riage of Henry’s daughter to Philip II of Spain; during the festivities he was hit in the head by a lance, and he died from the wound.

Henry II or St. Henry German Heinrich (b. May 6, 973, Albach?, Bavaria—d. July 13, 1024, near Gottingen, Saxony; canonized 1146; feast day July 13) Duke of Bavaria (as Henry IV, 995-1005), German king (1002-24), and emperor (1014-24), the last of the Saxon dynasty. He led a series of military campaigns against Poland before making peace in 1018. He asserted German authority in northern Italy and was crowned emperor by Pope Benedict VIII on Feb. 14, 1014. To protect the papacy

he fought Greeks and Lombards in Italy (1021). He fostered cooperation between church and state and established the German bishops as secular rulers as well as ecclesiastical princes and established a reputation for religious piety.

Henry III (b. Oct. 1, 1207, Winchester, Hampshire, Eng.—d. Nov. 16, 1272, London) King of England (1216-72). He inherited the throne at age nine but did not begin to rule until French-backed rebels were expelled (1234). He alienated the barons by his indifference to tradition and his agreement to supply Innocent IV with funds in exchange for the Sicilian crown. The barons forced him to accept the Provisions of Oxford, but Henry renounced the agreement in 1261. His former favourite, Simon de Montfort, led a rebellion in 1264, defeating and capturing the king. Hen¬ ry’s son Edward (later Edward I) turned the tables a year later, and Henry, weak and senile, allowed Edward to take charge of the government.

Henry III French Henri orig. duke d'Anjou (b. Sept. 19, 1551, Fontainebleau, France—d. Aug. 2, 1589, Saint-Cloud) King of France (1574-89). The third son of Henry II and Catherine de Medicis, he com¬ manded the royal army against the Huguenots in the Wars of Religion. He was crowned king after the death of his brother Charles IX. During the continuing civil wars he made concessions to the Huguenots, causing the Roman Catholics to form the Holy League. The Catholics were further alarmed in 1584 when the Protestant Henry of Navarra (later Henry IV) became heir to the throne. Henry III tried to placate the Holy League, but he was forced by a mob to flee Paris. In 1588 he had the Catholic leaders Henry, 3rd duke de Guise, and Cardinal Louis II de Lorraine assassinated. In 1589 Henry was himself assassinated by a fanatical Jacobin friar.

Henry III German Heinrich (b. Oct. 28, 1017—d. Oct. 5, 1056, Pfalz Bodfeld, near Goslar, Saxony) Duke of Bavaria (as Henry VI, 1027—41), duke of Swabia (as Henry I, 1038—45), German king (1039-56), and emperor (1046-56). He gained sovereignty over Bohemia and Moravia and arranged the election of Pope Clement II, who crowned him emperor. The last emperor to dominate the papacy, Henry appointed three more popes in succeeding years. He championed the church reform advocated by the monasteries of Cluny and Gorze. He was nearly deposed in a revolt (1054-55), and in his later years his influence faltered in northeastern Germany, Hungary, southern Italy, and Lorraine.

Henry IV orig. Henry Bolingbroke (b. April? 1366, Bolingbroke Castle, Lincolnshire, Eng.—d. March 20, 1413, London) King of England (1399-1413), first of three 15th-century monarchs of the house of Lan¬ caster. Son of John of Gaunt, he initially supported Richard II against the duke of Gloucester but turned against him after being banished in 1398. He invaded England in 1399, forcing Richard’s surrender and abdication. Having gained the crown by usurpation, he successfully consolidated his power in the face of repeated uprisings of powerful nobles. However, he failed to subdue the Welsh under Owen Glendower, was defeated by the Scots, and was unable to overcome the fiscal and administrative weak¬ nesses that contributed to the eventual downfall of the Lancastrian dynasty. He was succeeded by his son, Henry V.

Henry IV or Henry of Navarra French Henri de Navarre (b.

Dec. 13, 1553, Pau, Bearn, Navarra—d. May 14, 1610, Paris) First Bour¬ bon king of France (1589-1610) and king of Navarra (as Henry III, 1572— 89), one of the most popular figures in French history. Henry was brought up as a Protestant and received his military training from the Huguenot leader Gaspard II de Coligny in the Wars of Religion. He married Margaret of Valois in 1572; the marriage provided the opportunity for the Massa¬ cre of Saint Bartholomew's Day six days later. Henry was held at the French court from 1572 to 1576, when he escaped to join the forces against Henry III. He fought the War of the Three Henrys and prevailed as unrivaled leader. He became king after Henry III was assassinated in 1589, but was forced to fight the Holy League for nine years to secure his kingdom. In 1593 he converted to Roman Catholicism to remove all pretext for resistance to his rule. He entered Paris amid cheers in 1594, but he had to wage war (1595-98) against Spain, which supported the remaining resistance to him in France. Henry signed the Edict of Nantes in 1598, ending 40 years of civil war. With the aid of his ministers, including the duke de Sully, Henry brought order and new prosperity to France. His earlier marriage was annulled, and in 1600 he married Marie de Medicis. In 1610 he was assas¬ sinated by a fanatical Roman Catholic.

Henry IV German Heinrich (b. Nov. 11, 1050, Goslar?, Saxony—d. Aug. 7, 1106, Liege, Lorraine) Duke of Bavaria (1055-61), German king (1054-1106), and emperor (1084-1105/6). He succeeded to the German

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Henry V > Henry I 863

throne at age six; his pious and unworldly mother was regent until 1062, and Henry gained control of the government upon reaching his majority in 1065. His reassertion of royal rights provoked rebellion in Saxony (1073-75). He engaged in a long struggle with Pope Gregory VII over the issues of obedience to papal commands and lay investiture (see Investiture Controversy). Gregory excommunicated him and absolved his subjects of their oaths of loyalty. Seeking absolution, Henry was forced to cross the Alps in winter and, according to tradition, stand barefoot in the snow three days before the castle at Canossa, where the pope was staying, before the latter would rescind his order. The German princes deserted Henry (1077) and elected Rudolf I as king. In 1080 Gregory excommunicated Henry again and recognized Rudolf. Henry responded by conquering Rome (1084) and installing the antipope Clement III. In his last years his sons Conrad and Henry led rebellions against his rule.

Henry V (b. Sept. 16?, 1387, Monmouth, Monmouthshire, Wales—d. Aug. 31, 1422, Bois de Vincennes, Fr.) King of England (1413—22) of the House of Lancaster. The eldest son of Henry IV, he fought Welsh rebels (1403-08). As king he harshly suppressed a Lollard uprising (1414) and a Yorkist conspiracy (1415). He claimed extensive lands in France and launched an invasion (1415), and his stunning victory at the Battle of Agincourt made England one of the greatest powers in Europe. His con¬ tinuing victories forced the French to sign the Treaty of Troyes (1420), in which Henry was named heir to the French throne and regent of France. He married Catherine, daughter of the French king, but died of camp fever before he could return home.

Henry VI (b. Dec. 6, 1421, Windsor, Berkshire, Eng.—d. May 21/22, 1471, London) King of England (1422-61, 1470-71). Son of Henry V, he became king as an infant, and grew up a pious and studious recluse, who suffered episodes of mental instability. England’s political affairs were dominated by the rivalries of a series of overpowerful ministers of the houses of Lancaster and York, and Henry’s incapacity for government became one of the causes of the Wars of the Roses. In 1461 a Yorkist was proclaimed Edward IV. Henry fled, but he returned in 1464 in an unsuc¬ cessful Lancastrian rising and was eventually captured and imprisoned. After a quarrel in the York faction, he was restored to the throne in 1470. Edward fled but soon returned to defeat and kill the earl of Warwick and regain the throne. The death in battle of Prince Edward, Henry’s heir, sealed Henry’s fate, and he was murdered in the Tower of London soon afterward.

Henry VI German Heinrich (b. autumn 1165, Nijmegen, Neth.—d. Sept. 28, 1197, Messina, Italy) German king (1169-97) and Holy Roman emperor (1191-97) of the Hohenstaufen dynasty who acquired the king¬ dom of Sicily by marriage. Crowned king in 1169, Henry took over gov¬ ernment of the Holy Roman Empire when his father, Frederick I Barbarossa, embarked on a Crusade to the Holy Land in 1189. Soon after his coronation he faced revolts by Henry the Lion in Germany and Tan- cred in Sicily, but he succeeded in making peace in 1194. His efforts to make the imperial crown hereditary were unsuccessful, but his son Fre¬ derick II would become emperor after the death of Henry’s eventual suc¬ cessor, the Welf ruler, Otto IV.

Henry VII orig. Henry Tudor, earl of Richmond (b. Jan. 28, 1457, Pembroke Castle, Pembrokeshire, Wales—d. April 21, 1509, Rich¬ mond, Surrey, Eng.) King of England (1485-1509) and founder of the Tudor dynasty. As earl of Richmond and a kinsman in the House of Lan¬ caster, he fled to Brittany after the triumph of the Yorkist forces in 1471. He later returned to England, rallied the opponents of Richard III, and defeated him at the Battle of Bosworth Field (1485). He married Elizabeth of York and ended the Wars of the Roses, though Yorkist plots continued. He made peace with France (1492), the Netherlands (1496), and Scotland (1499) and used his children’s marriages to build European alliances. His commercial treaties and promotion of trade made England wealthy and powerful. He was succeeded by his son Henry VIII.

Henry VII German Heinrich (b. c. 1269/74, Valenciennes, Hainaut—d. Aug. 24, 1313, Buonconvento, near Siena, Italy) Count of Luxembourg (as Henry IV), German king (1308-13), and Holy Roman Emperor (1312-13). The first German king of the House of Luxembourg, he strengthened the position of his family by obtaining the throne of Bohemia for his son. He became ruler of Lombardy (1311) but faced con¬ flicts between Guelphs and Ghibellines. Though crowned emperor at Rome, he was unable to subdue Florence or Naples, and he failed in his attempt to bind Italy firmly to the empire.

Henry VIII (b. June 28,1491, Greenwich, near London, Eng.—d. Jan. 28, 1547, London) King of England (1509-47). Son of Henry VII, Henry married his brother’s widow, Cathe¬ rine of Aragon (the mother of Mary I), soon after his accession in 1509. His first chief minister, Thomas Cardinal Wolsey, exercised nearly complete control over policy in 1515-27. In 1527 Henry pursued a divorce from Catherine to marry Anne Boleyn, but Pope Clement VII denied him an annulment. Wolsey, unable to help Henry, was ousted. The new minister,

Thomas Cromwell, in 1532 initiated a revolution when he decided that the English church should separate from Rome, allowing Henry to marry Anne in 1533. A new archbishop,

Thomas Cranmer, declared the first marriage annulled. A daughter, Eliza¬ beth I, was bom to Anne soon after.

Becoming head of the Church of England represented Henry’s major achievement, but it had wide-ranging consequences. Henry, once pro¬ foundly devoted to the papacy and rewarded with the title Defender of the Faith, was excommunicated, and he was obliged to settle the nature of the newly independent church. In the 1530s his power was greatly enlarged, especially by transferring to the crown the wealth of the monasteries and by new clerical taxes, but his earlier reputation as a man of learning became buried under his enduring fame as a man of blood. Many, including St. Thomas More, were killed because they refused to accept the new order. The king grew tired of Anne, and in 1536 she was executed for adultery. He immediately married Jane Seymour, who bore him a son, Edward VI, but died in childbirth. Three years later, at Cromwell’s instigation, he married Anne of Cleves, but he hated her and demanded a quick divorce; he had Cromwell beheaded in 1540. By now Henry was becoming paranoid, as well as enormously fat and unhealthy. In 1540 he married Catherine Howard, but he had her beheaded for adultery in 1542. In 1542 he waged a financially ruinous war against Scotland. In 1543 he married Catherine Parr, who survived him. He was succeeded on his death by his son, Edward.

Henry, Cape Promontory, at the southern entrance to Chesapeake Bay, southeastern Virginia, U.S. Located in Virginia Beach city, it is opposite Cape Charles, to which it is connected by the Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel. It is the site of Cape Henry Memorial, which marks the 1607 landing of the first permanent English settlers in America. The memorial, part of Colonial National Historical Park, includes the Old Lighthouse, the first in the U.S. (1792). The nearby New Lighthouse (1881) has one of the world’s most powerful lights, visible offshore for 20 mi (32 km).

Henry, Joseph (b. Dec. 17, 1797, Albany, N.Y., U.S.—d. May 13, 1878, Washington, D.C.) U.S. physicist. He aided Samuel F.B. Morse in developing the telegraph. He discovered several important principles of electricity, including self-induction. He observed electromagnetic induc¬ tion a year before Michael Faraday announced its discovery. He made improvements to electromagnets, discovered the laws on which the trans¬ former is based, investigated electric discharge, and demonstrated that sunspots radiate less heat than the general solar surface. In 1846 he became the first secretary and director of the Smithsonian Institution, where he organized a corps of volunteer weather observers that led to cre¬ ation of the U.S. Weather Bureau. He was a chief technical adviser to Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War and a primary organizer of the National Academy of Science. In 1893 the standard unit of electrical inductance, the henry, was named in his honour.

Henry, O. orig. William Sydney Porter (b. Sept. 11,1862, Greens¬ boro, N.C., U.S.—d. June 5,1910, New York, N.Y.) U.S. short-story writer. He wrote for newspapers and later worked as a bank teller in Texas, where he was convicted of embezzlement; he began writing stories in prison as O.

Henry VIII, oil on panel by the studio of Hans Holbein the Younger, after 1537; in the Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool, England.

THE BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY/NATIONAL MUSEUMS AND GALLERIES ON MERSEYSIDE (WALKER ART GALLERY, LIVERPOOL)

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

864 I Henry ► Hephaestus

Henry. He moved to New York, where his tales romanticizing the common¬ place, particularly the life of ordinary New Yorkers, and often using coin¬ cidence and surprise endings, became highly popular. His collections include Cabbages and Kings (1904); The Four Million (1906), including “The Gift of the Magi”; The Trimmed Lamp (1907), including “The Last Leaf’; and Whirligigs (1910), including “The Ransom of Red Chief.”

Henry, Patrick (b. May 29, 1736, Studley, Va.—d. June 6, 1799, Red Hill, near Brookneal, Va., U.S.) American Revolutionary leader. Admit¬ ted to the bar in 1760, he soon built a large and profitable practice. His skill as an orator was displayed in the Parson's Cause trial (1763). Elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses in 1765, he opposed the Stamp Act; during the next decade he became a leader of the radical opposition to British rule. He was a founding member of the Committees of Correspon¬ dence and a delegate to the Continental Congress. At a Virginia assembly in 1775 he delivered his famous speech in defense of liberty, which con¬ cluded with the words “Give me liberty or give me death.” He helped draft the state’s first constitution in 1776 and was elected governor the same year (1776-79, 1784-86). As wartime governor, he ably supported Gen. George Washington; during his second term, he authorized the expe¬ dition of George Rogers Clark to invade the Illinois country. In 1788 he opposed ratification of the U.S. Constitution, which he felt did not suf¬ ficiently secure the rights of states and individuals. He was later instru¬ mental in the adoption of the Bill of Rights.

Henry, Saint See Henry II (Germany)

Henry Beauclerc See Henry I (England)

Henry of Anjou See Henry II (England)

Henry Plantagenet See Henry II (England)

Henry the Navigator Portuguese Henrique o Navegador orig. Henrique, infante (prince) de Portugal, duque (duke) de Viseu, senhor (lord) da Covilha (b. March 4, 1394, Porto, Port.—d. Nov. 13, 1460, Vila do Infante, near Sagres) Portuguese prince and patron of explorers. He helped his father, John I, capture the Moroc¬ can city of Ceuta in 1415 and served as governor of Ceuta and later of the Portuguese province of Algarve. He established his own court at Sagres and sponsored voyages of discovery in the Madeira Islands and along the western coast of Africa. As grand master of the Order of Christ, he gained funds for backing voyages aimed at the conversion of pagans. His patronage led to the development of the Portuguese caravel and improved navigational instruments and the advancement of cartography.

Henry Tudor See Henry VII (England)

Henslowe, Philip (b. c. 1550, Lindfield, Sussex, Eng.—d. Jan. 6, 1616, London) English theatre owner and manager. He settled in London before 1577, married a wealthy widow, and became the owner of several theatres, among them the Rose Theatre, which he built (with a partner) in 1587. The most lavish was the Fortune Theatre, built in 1600 for the Admiral’s Men, the chief rivals of William Shakespeare’s company. Hen¬ slowe’s theatres gave the first productions of many Elizabethan dramas. His diary (edited 1904-08 by Sir Walter Gregg) is an important source for theatrical history.

Henson, Jim in full James Maury Henson (b. Sept. 24, 1936, Greenville, Miss., U.S.—d. May 16, 1990, New York, N.Y.) U.S. puppe¬ teer and producer. He created a puppet show for a television station while in college and developed the first Muppets (melding marionettes and puppets ). In the 1960s he made TV commercials. When PBS featured the Muppets on Sesame Street (from 1969), Henson achieved nationwide notice. He premiered The Muppet Show on television in 1976 and gained audiences in over 100 countries. He also produced and directed The Mup¬ pet Movie (1979) and its sequels.

Henze Vhent-S9\, Hans Werner (b. July 1, 1926, Giitersloh, Ger.) German-Italian composer. He studied with Wolfgang Fortner (1907-87) and later with Rene Leibowitz (1913-72). After an early association with the avant-garde at Darmstadt under Leibowitz’s influence, the more tradi¬ tional grounding received from Fortner reasserted itself. He moved perma¬ nently to Italy in 1953. He is best known for his operas, which include Der Konig Hirsch (1955), Elegy for Young Lovers (1961), Der junge Lord (1964), and The Bassarids (1965). He also wrote numerous major sympho¬ nies and concertos. His longtime commitment to Marxism expressed itself in many of his works. Though never known widely in the U.S., in Europe Henze is considered one of the major composers of the later 20th century.

heparin Vhe-po-ronX Naturally occurring mixture of organic compounds used as a short-term anticoagulant to prevent thrombosis during and after surgery and for initial treatment of various heart, lung, and circulatory disorders in which there is increased risk of blood clotting. Comprising complex carbohydrate molecules called mucopolysaccharides, it normally is present in the human body in liver and lung tissues. It was discovered in 1922 and originally used to prevent clotting in blood taken for labo¬ ratory tests.

hepatitis Inflammation of the liver. There are seven known types of viral hepatitis (A-G). Types A, spread mainly through food contaminated with feces, and B, transmitted sexually or by injection, cause jaundice and flu¬ like symptoms. The hepatitis C virus spreads mostly by shared needles in intravenous drug use and can cause liver cirrhosis and cancer after a long latent period. Until recently there was no test to detect it in blood, and many people were exposed through blood transfusions. Hepatitis D becomes active only in the presence of type B; it causes severe chronic liver disease. Type E, like Type A, is transmitted by contaminated food or water; its symptoms are more severe than Type A’s and can result in death. The hepatitis F virus (HFV), which was first reported in 1994, is spread like Type A and E. The hepatitis G virus (HGV), isolated in 1996, is believed to be responsible for many sexually transmitted and blood- borne cases of hepatitis. Vaccines exist for types A and B (the second also prevents type D). Drug treatment for B and C is not always effective. The other types may not need drug treatment. Chronic active hepatitis causes spidery and striated skin markings, acne, and abnormal hair growth. It results in liver tissue death (necrosis) progressing to cirrhosis. Alcoholic hepatitis, from long-term overconsumption of alcohol, can be reversed and cirrhosis prevented by early treatment including quitting or sharply reducing drinking. Other drugs can also cause noninfectious hepatitis. An autoimmune hepatitis affects mainly young women and is treated with corticosteroids to relieve symptoms.

Hepburn, Audrey orig. Edda van Heemstra Hepburn- Ruston (b. May 4, 1929, Brussels, Belg.—d. Jan. 20, 1993, Tolochenaz, Switz.) Belgian-born film actress. After spending World War II in the Nazi-occupied Netherlands, she studied ballet and acting in London. She was discovered by Colette, who insisted she play the lead in Gigi on Broadway (1951). She made her U.S. film debut in Roman Holiday (1953, Academy Award), then returned to Broadway in Ondine (1954, Tony Award). She projected a radiant, elfin innocence combined with elegance in films such as Sabrina (1954), War and Peace (1956), Funny Face (1957), Breakfast at Tiffany’s ( 1961), My Fair Lady { 1964), and Wait Until Dark (1967). She later devoted herself to charity work and was a good¬ will ambassador for UNICEF.

Hepburn, Katharine (Houghton) (b. May 12, 1907, Hartford, Conn., U.S.—d. June 29, 2003, Old Saybrook, Conn.) U.S. actress. She made her Broadway debut in 1928 and became a star with her first film,

A Bill of Divorcement (1932). Her following grew with Morning Glory (1933, Academy Award), Little Women (1933), and Bringing Up Baby (1938), to which she brought a spirited individuality and strength of character. She starred in the Broad¬ way hit The Philadelphia Story (1939; film, 1940). Among her other notable films were The African Queen (1951), Summertime (1955), and Suddenly Last Summer (1959).

She made eight films with her long¬ time lover Spencer Tracy, including Woman of the Year (1942), Pat and Mike (1952), and Guess Who’s Com¬ ing to Dinner (1967, Academy Award), and won two more Oscars for The Lion in Winter (1968) and On Golden Pond (1981).

Hephaestus or Hephaistos \hi-'fes-tos\ Greek god of fire. He was originally a deity of Asia Minor and nearby islands (especially Lemnos); his Roman counterpart was Vulcan. Born lame, or crippled at an early age, he was cast out of heaven by his parents, Zeus and Hera. His wife

Katharine Hepburn.

BROWN BROTHERS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Hepplewhite ► Herbert I 865

was Aphrodite, goddess of love. He was the patron of smiths and crafts¬ man and was often depicted working at his forge. Volcanoes were believed to be the fires of his workshops.

Hepplewhite, George (d. 1786, London, Eng.) British cabinet¬ maker. He was apprenticed to a furniture maker in Lancaster and later opened a shop in London. His reputation is based on his Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer’s Guide (1788), containing some 300 designs. Pieces based on his designs are rare and none can be definitely attributed to his firm, nor can his personal responsibility for the designs be established; the plates in the book are unsigned. The designs have the simplicity, elegance, and utility associated with the graceful Neoclassical style (e.g., chairs with straight, tapered legs and oval backs). His designs were bor¬ rowed by Thomas Sheraton and Duncan Phyfe.

heptathlon Women’s athletics competition. Contestants take part in seven different track-and-field events: 100-m hurdles, shot put, high jump, long jump, javelin throw, and 200- and 800-m runs. The two-day event replaced the women’s pentathlon in the Olympic Games after 1981.

Hepworth, Dame (Jocelyn) Barbara (b. Jan. 10, 1903, Wake¬ field, Eng.—d. May 20, 1975, St. Ives) British sculptor. Her work, natu¬ ralistic at first, became abstract by the 1930s, when she produced severe geometrical pieces with straight edges. As Hepworth’s sculpture matured during the late 1930s and ’40s, she concentrated on the problem of the counterplay between mass and space. By the 1950s she was internation¬ ally famous, and she received many prestigious commissions, including Single Form (1963), a memorial to Dag Hammarskjold at the UN Build¬ ing, New York City. She became, with Henry Moore, a leader of the mod¬ ern movement in England and one of the most influential sculptors of the mid 20th century.

Hera Greek queen of the gods and sister-wife of Zeus. Her Roman coun¬ terpart was Juno. She was worshiped as queen of heaven and patron of marriage and women. She also held the title Eileithyia, the goddess of birth. She was the patron deity of Samos and Argos, which held celebra¬ tions and processions in her honor. Her sacred animal was the cow. In literature she was depicted as a jealous wife who vindictively pursued the women Zeus seduced.

Heracleitus V.her-o-'kll-tosN or Heraclitus (b. c. 540, Ephesus, in Anatolia—d. c. 480 bc) Greek philosopher. Little is known of his life; the one book he apparently wrote is lost, and his views survive only in short fragments attributed to him. In his cosmology, fire forms the basic material principle of an orderly universe: he called the world order an “ever-living fire kindling in measures and being extinguished in measures,” and he extended fire’s manifestations to include the ether in the upper atmosphere. The persistence of unity despite change is illustrated by his famous analogy of the river: “Upon those who step into the same rivers, different and ever different waters flow down.” Plato later took Heracleitus to mean that all things are in constant flux, regardless of how they appeal - to the senses.

Heracles \ , her-9-,klez\ Latin Hercules Legendary hero of ancient Greece and Rome. Known for his great strength, he was the son of Zeus and Alcmeme, the granddaughter of Perseus. Zeus’s jealous wife Hera sent two serpents to kill Heracles in his cradle, but the infant strangled them. He grew up to marry a princess, then killed her in a fit of rage sent by Hera and was forced to become the servant of Eurystheus, ruler of Greece. Eurystheus obliged Heracles to perform the famous 12 labors, including cleansing the Augean stables, fetching the golden apples of the Hes- perides, and descending into Hades to bring back the three-headed dog Cerberus. He married Deianeira, who later sent him a shirt smeared with poison, which she mistakenly believed was a love potion. In agony, Her¬ acles burned himself to death on a pyre, and his spirit ascended to heaven. He became an immortal and married Hebe. See photograph above.

heraldry Art and science of devising, displaying, and granting armo¬ rial insignia and of tracing and recording genealogies. The use of heral¬ dic symbols as a means of identification spread throughout the European nobility in the 13th century. The principal vehicle for displaying the heral¬ dic devices is the shield; in the full armorial achievement, the shield is augmented by the helmet, crest, mantling, crown, wreath, motto, com¬ partment (base), and supporters. Arms are hereditary; all male descendants of the first person to whom they were granted bear the arms. As insignia of honour, they are protected by law in the European monarchies, Ireland, Switzerland, South Africa, and Zimbabwe. See also coat of arms; eccle¬ siastical heraldry.

Heracles breaking the horns of the hind of Arcadia, flanked by Athena and Arte¬ mis, detail of a Greek vase painting, c. 540 bc; in the British Museum

COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM; PHOTOGRAPH, THE HAMLYN GROUP PICTURE LIBRARY

herb See SPICE AND HERB

herbal Ancient manual of plants used for medicinal purposes. Hundreds or thousands of medicinal plants were known in ancient India, China, and Greece and medieval Europe. In the late 16th century, European herb- als began to include plants from the Western Hemisphere. Their accuracy varies widely, but many of the plants in herbals later became sources for drugs (e.g., digitalis).

herbarium Collection of dried plant specimens mounted on sheets of paper, identified by experts and labeled by their proper scientific names, together with other informa¬ tion (where they were collected, how they grew, etc.). These specimens are filed in cases according to families and genera, available for ready ref¬ erence. Like botanical gardens and arboretums, herbaria are the “dictio¬ naries” of the plant kingdom, the ref¬ erence specimens essential to the proper naming of unknown plants.

Herbert, George (b. April 3,

1593, Montgomery Castle,

Wales—d. March 1, 1633, Bemerton, Wiltshire, Eng.) British Metaphysi¬ cal poet. He was elected orator of Cambridge University in 1620, a posi¬ tion that involved him with the royal court. He was later ordained and became a rector at a rural parish, to which he devoted himself unstint- ingly until his death. His poems, published only after his death in The Temple (1633), concern personal, doctrinal, and ritual matters, and they are noted for their mastery of metrical form, use of allegory and analogy, and religious devotion. Some are pattern poems, the lines forming a shape suggestive of the subject. (See also Metaphysical poetry.)

Herbert, Victor (August) (b. Feb. 1, 1859, Dublin, Ire.—d. May 26, 1924, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Irish-born U.S. composer. After his widowed mother married a German doctor, he was raised in Stuttgart, and he stud¬ ied at its conservatory. He married the soprano Therese Forrester in 1886, and they moved to the U.S., she to sing and he to play in the orchestra at the new Metropolitan Opera. He was soon active as a conductor, cellist, composer, and teacher. His solid training, orchestrating skill, and melodic gift found natural expression in more than 40 operettas, including Babes in Toyland (1903), Mile Modiste (1905), The Red Mill (1906), and Naughty Marietta (1910).

Watercolour illustration from the Badi- anus Manuscript, an Aztec herbal in Latin by Juan Badianus and Martinus de la Cruz, 1552; in the Vatican Library

COURTESY OF THE VATICAN LIBRARY, VATICAN CITY

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

866 I Herbert ► hermeneutics

Herbert, Zbigniew (b. Oct. 29, 1924, Lwow, Pol.—d. July 28, 1998, Warsaw) Polish poet and essayist. Herbert started writing at age 17 but published little before 1956. His poetry expresses an ironic morahsm in free verse laden with classical and other historical allusions. His most dis¬ tinguished collection of poetry, Elegy for an Exit, was published in 1990. His essays, published in volumes such as Barbarian in the Garden (1962) and The King of the Ants (1999), are also memorable.

herbicide Agent, usually chemical, for killing or inhibiting the growth of unwanted plants (weeds). Modern weed killers are put in two catego¬ ries, selective (affecting specific plant species) and nonselective (affect¬ ing plants generally). These in turn are classified as foliage-applied and soil herbicides. Contact herbicides (e.g., sulfuric acid, diquat, paraquat) kill only the plant organs with which they are in contact. Translocated her¬ bicides (e.g., amitrole, picloram, 2,4-D) are effective against roots or other organs, to which they are transported from aboveground treated surfaces (soil). See also defoliant.

herbivore Var-bo-.vorV Animal adapted to subsist solely on plant tissues. Herbivores range from insects (e.g., aphids) to large mammals (e.g., elephants), but the term is most often applied to ungulates. Adaptations for a herbivorous diet include the four-chambered stomach of ruminants, the ever-growing incisor teeth of rodents, and the specialized grinding molars of cattle, sheep, and goats. Certain herbivores eat only one type of food (e.g., the koala), but most have at least moderate variety in their diet.

Herblock orig. Herbert Lawrence Block (b. Oct. 13, 1909, Chi¬ cago, Ill., U.S.—d. Oct. 7, 2001, Washington, D.C.) U.S. editorial car¬ toonist. He first published his cartoons in the Chicago Daily News (1929). Later he worked for the Newspaper Enterprise Association (1933—43) and the Washington Post (from 1946). A leading spokesman for liberalism, he attacked injustices in politics, big business, industry, labour, and econom¬ ics throughout his 70-year career. He is best known for his 1950s car¬ toons attacking Senator Joseph McCarthy. The winner of three Pulitzer Prizes (1942, 1954, 1979), Herblock received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1994.

Herculaneum \,h9r-kyu- , la-ne-9m\ Ancient city, Campania, Italy. Located at the northwestern foot of Vesuvius, it was destroyed, together with Pompeii and Stabiae, by the eruption of ad 79. It was buried under a mass of tufa about 50 to 60 ft (15 to 18 m) deep, which made excavation difficult but preserved many fragile items. Excavation began in the 18th century and uncovered numerous artifacts, including paintings and furni¬ ture. Later work uncovered the palaestra (sports ground) and a vast cen¬ tral swimming pool.

Hercules See Heracles

Herder, Johann Gottfried von (b. Aug. 25, 1744, Mohrungen, East Prussia—d. Dec. 18, 1803, Weimar, Saxe-Weimar) German critic and philosopher. Trained in theology and literature, he initially worked as a teacher and preacher at Riga. As court preacher at Biickeburg, he pro¬ duced works, including Plastik (1778) and Essay on the Origin of Lan¬ guage (1772), that made him the leading figure of the Sturm und Drang literary movement. In 1770 he met Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, who would be his associate for many years and with whom he would help lay the groundwork for German Romanticism. With Goethe’s help, he received an appointment at Weimar in 1776; his Sporadic Papers (1785-97) and the unfinished Outlines of a Philosophy of the History of Man (1784-91), attempting to show that nature and history obey one system of laws, mark him as an innovator in the philosophy of history and an early proponent of the idea that a common culture, rather than political boundaries, defines a people. His later estrangement from Goethe resulted in a bitter enmity toward the whole Classical movement in German poetry and philosophy.

heredity Transmission of physical and mental traits from parents to offspring through genes. From his studies in the late 19th century, Gre¬ gor Mendel derived certain basic concepts of heredity, which eventually became the foundation for the modem science of genetics. Each member of the parental generation transmits only half its genes to the offspring, and different offspring of the same parents receive different combinations of genes. Many characteristics are polygenic (i.e., influenced by more than one gene). Many genes exist in numerous variations (alleles) throughout a population. The polygenic and multiple allelic nature of many traits gives a vast potential for variability among hereditary characteristics. While the genotype (an individual’s total hereditary makeup) determines the broad limits of features an individual may develop, the actual features

that do develop (the phenotype) are dependent on complex interactions between genes and their environment. See also variation.

Hereford Vhsr-fordV Popular breed of beef cattle, the product of gen¬ erations of breeding in the English county of Herefordshire. The charac¬ teristic colour, red with a white face and white markings, has been fixed for only a comparatively short time. The outstanding characteristics are uniformity of colour, early maturity, and ability to thrive under adverse conditions. Introduced into the U.S. in 1817, it has become the predomi¬ nant breed in the range areas of North America from Canada to Mexico.

Herero \ho-'rer-o\ Group of closely related Bantu-speaking peoples of southern Africa (central Namibia, eastern Botswana, southern Angola). The Herero formerly subsisted mainly on the milk and meat of their cattle, but after European contact in the mid 19th century many came to depend on horticulture as well. A series of uprisings against German colonial encroachment (1904-07) led to the extermination of some four-fifths of their population and the resettlement of survivors in the mostly inhospi¬ table sand veld of the western Kalahari. Contemporary estimates number the Herero at more than 200,000.

heresy \'her-o-se\ Doctrine rejected as false by religious authorities. In Christianity, the orthodox theology of the church is thought to be based on divine revelation, and heretics are viewed as perversely rejecting the guid¬ ance of the church. Numerous Christian heresies appeared from the 2nd century onwards. Early heresies included Arianism, the Monophysite heresy, Pelagianism, and Donatism. Some heresies, such as Montanism, expressed faith in a new prophet who added to the body of Christian revelation. Some types of Gnosticism were heretical branches of Christianity. The major means of combating heretics in the early church was excommunication. In the 12th—13th century, the Inquisition was established to combat heresy, and heretics who refused to recant were often executed. In the 16th century the Protestant Reformation brought an end to the doctrinal unity of Western Christendom, and the concept of heresy became less important in the vari¬ ous Christian churches, though it continues to exist. The concept of heresy also exists in Judaism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam.

herm In Greek religion, a sacred stone object connected with the worship of Hermes. Herms were used as cult objects, for milestones, and for bound¬ ary markers. In time, these stones were replaced by pillars topped with a likeness of the head of Hermes or by statues of the god. In Roman sculp¬ ture the heads of Jupiter or the forest god Silvanus were often substituted.

Herman, Jerry orig. Gerald Herman (b. July 10, 1933, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. songwriter. Herman studied drama in Miami, Fla., and wrote for TV but soon switched to theatre. After some off-Broadway suc¬ cesses, his Milk and Honey (1961, Tony Award) opened on Broadway. The wildly successful Hello, Dolly! (1964; film, 1969) won 10 Tony Awards. Later Herman musicals include Mame (1966) and La Cage Aux Folles (1983).

Herman, Woody orig. Woodrow Charles Herman (b. May 16,

1913, Milwaukee, Wis., U.S.—d. Oct. 29, 1987, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. clarinetist, saxophonist, singer, and leader of one of the most popular big bands in jazz. Herman formed his first band in 1936. Known as “The Band That Plays the Blues,” the group had a hit in 1939 with the riff tune “Woodchopper’s Ball.” His 1940s bands, the Thundering Herds, evolved into powerful and colourful ensembles that combined a light rhythm- section sound with explosive, forward-looking arrangements. He led his bands almost continuously for more than 50 years, and in them many notable jazz musicians gained early professional exposure.

hermaphroditism Mior-'ma-frs-.dl-.ti-zomV Condition of having both male and female reproductive organs (see reproductive system). It is nor¬ mal in most flowering plants and in some invertebrate animals. True human hermaphrodites are extremely rare. Tissue of the ovary and testes may occur separately or be combined, external genitals may show traits of both sexes, and XY and XX sex chromosome pairs are present. If the condition is detected at birth, the child’s sex can be chosen, usually on the basis of which sex organs dominate; those of the other sex are removed surgically. Individuals raised as members of one sex who develop char¬ acteristics of the other at puberty may be treated with surgery, and sex hormones may help them continue to live according to the sexual iden¬ tity to which they are accustomed.

hermeneutics \ 1 hor-m3- , nu-tiks\ Study of the general principles of bib¬ lical interpretation. Its primary purpose is to discover the truths and val¬ ues of the Bible, which is seen as a receptacle of divine revelation. Four

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Hermes ► Hero and Leander I 867

major types of hermeneutics have emerged: literal (asserting that the text is to be interpreted according to the “plain meaning”), moral (seeking to establish the principles from which ethical lessons may be drawn), alle¬ gorical (interpreting narratives as having a level of reference beyond the explicit), and anagogical or mystical (seeking to explain biblical events as they relate to the life to come). More recently the word has come to refer to all “deep” reading of literary and philosophical texts.

Hermes Vhor-.mezX Greek god, son of Zeus and Maia. The earliest cen¬ ter of his cult was probably Arcadia, where he was worshiped as a god of fertility. He was also associated with the protection of cattle and sheep. In Homer’s Odyssey he appears as the messenger of the gods and the con¬ ductor of the dead to Hades. As a messenger he also became the god of roads and doorways and the protec¬ tor of travelers. He was also the god of dreams. His Roman counterpart was Mercury.

Hermetic writings Occult texts on philosophical or theological sub¬ jects ascribed to Hermes Trismegis- tos (“Hermes the Thrice-Greatest”), identical to the Egyptian god Thoth, who was credited with inventing writing. The collection, written in Greek and Latin, was probably put together in the lst-3rd century ad.

Written in the form of dialogues, it synthesizes Near Eastern religion, Platonism, Stoicism, and other philoso¬ phies. It also reflects ideas and beliefs widely held in the early Roman empire on astrology, alchemy, and magic. The goal of the writings was the deification of humanity through knowledge of the transcendent God.

Hermeticism Mior-'me-ti-.si-zonA or Hermetism Italian Erme- tismo Modernist poetic movement originating in Italy in the early 20th century. Works produced within the movement are characterized by unor¬ thodox structure, illogical sequences, and highly subjective language. Its formalistic devices were partly derived from Futurism, but the cryptic brev¬ ity, obscurity, and involution of the Hermetics was forced on them by fas¬ cist censors. Giuseppe Ungaretti, Salvatore Quasimodo, and Eugenio Montale were the principal exponents of the movement, which was named for Hermes Trismegistos, a reputed author of occult symbolic works (see Hermetic writings).

hermit or eremite Individual who shuns society to live in solitude, often for religious reasons. The first Christian hermits appeared in Egypt in the 3rd century ad, escaping persecution by withdrawing to the desert and leading a life of prayer and penance. The first hermit was probably Paul of Thebes c. ad 250. Other famous hermits included St. Anthony of Egypt, who established an early form of Christian monasticism in the 4th century, and the pillar hermit Simeon Stylites. The communal life of monasteries even¬ tually tempered the austerities of the hermit’s life. In Western Christianity the eremitic life died out, but it has persisted in Eastern Christianity.

hermit crab Any crab (families Paguridae and Coenobitidae) that uses empty shells or other hollow objects as a shelter for partial containment and protection of the body. They are found worldwide in sandy- or muddy-bottomed waters and occa¬ sionally on land and in trees. They have two pairs of antennae and four pairs of legs; the first pair of legs is modified to form pincers, shaped to cover the shell entrance when the animal is inside. As the crab grows, it periodically leaves its shell and finds a larger one to occupy. The red¬ dish brown large hermit crab ( Pagu- rus pollicaris ; 4-5 in., or 10-12 cm, long) and the small hermit crab ( P. ! longicarpus) are found in North Ameri¬ can Atlantic coastal waters.

Hermitage (museum) \er-mi-'tazh,\ English Vhor-ms-tijN Largest museum in Russia and one of the most important in the world. Located in St. Petersburg, it derives its name from the “Hermitage” pavilion adjoining the Winter Palace, built in 1764-67 for Catherine II (the Great) as a private gallery for her treasured collections. On her death in 1796, the imperial collections were estimated to total 4,000 pictures. After the Winter Palace was destroyed by fire in 1837, the Hermitage was recon¬ structed and opened to the public by Nicholas I in 1852. After the Bol¬ shevik Revolution, the collections were transferred to public ownership. The museum is now housed in five interconnected buildings, including the Winter Palace and the Small, Old, and New Hermitages. Along with thousands of art objects from Central Asia, India, China, Egypt, the pre- Columbian Americas, Greece, and Rome, the Hermitage houses outstand¬ ing collections of Western painting. Russian history is represented by archaeological material from prehistoric times onward.

Hermon, Mount Arabic Jabal al-Shaykh \'ja-bal-ash-'shlk\ Snowcapped mountain on the Lebanese-Syrian border. Located west of Damascus and rising to 9,232 ft (2,814 m), it is the highest point on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea and is sometimes considered the southernmost extension of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains. A sacred land¬ mark in Hittite, Palestinian, and Roman times, it represented the north¬ western limit of Israelite conquest under Moses and Joshua. Since the Six- Day War (1967), about 40 sq mi (100 sq km) of its southern and western slopes have been part of the Israeli-administered Golan Heights.

Hermonthis Mior-'man-thosV Ancient town. Upper Egypt. Located near Thebes on the western bank of the Nile River and now an archaeological site, it was the seat of a sun cult and was a royal coronation site. It was the original home of the rulers of Thebes, who reunited Egypt after c. 2130-1939 bc. Excavations (1929-38) uncovered the Bucheum (the necropolis of the mummified Buchis bulls), cemeteries of various peri¬ ods, and part of the town area, including the temple of the war god Mentu.

Hermosillo \,er-mo-'se-yo\ City (pop., 2000: 545,928), capital of Sonora state, northwestern Mexico. On the coastal plain near the conflu¬ ence of the Sonora and San Miguel rivers, it is south of Nogales. In addi¬ tion to its administrative functions, it is a commercial and manufacturing centre for the surrounding irrigated farmlands. The city is a popular win¬ ter resort and is home to the University of Sonora (1938).

Herne, James A. orig. James Ahearn (b. Feb. 1, 1839, Troy, N.Y., U.S.—d. June 2, 1901, New York, N.Y.) U.S. playwright. He worked as a traveling actor before achieving success with his first play, Hearts of Oak (1879; written with David Belasco). Margaret Fleming (1890) is con¬ sidered his major achievement, though Shore Acres (1892) was his most popular play. He helped bridge the gap between 19th-century melodrama and the 20th-century drama of ideas.

hernia Protrusion of any organ or tissue from its normal cavity. The term usually refers to an abdominal hernia, which may be a congenital disorder or acquired after birth. Tissue may protrude through the abdomi¬ nal muscle at the groin (inguinal), upper thigh (femoral), or navel (umbili¬ cal); its circulation can become cut off, leading to inflammation, infection, and gangrene. If the tissue cannot be pushed back into place and kept there by a truss, surgery may be necessary. Other common hernias are hiatal hernia (protrusion of part or all of the stomach above the diaphragm) and herniated disk (protrusion of tissue from a disk in the vertebral col¬ umn through its outer layer).

hero Mythological or legendary figure, often of divine descent, who is endowed with great strength or ability, like the heroes celebrated in early epics such as Cilgamesh, The Iliad, Beowulf, or the Chanson de Roland. Usually illustrious warriors or adventurers, heroes are often represented as fulfilling a quest (e.g., Aeneas, in Virgil’s Aeneid, founding the Roman state, or Beowulf ridding his people of the monstrous Grendel and his mother). Heroes often possess special qualities such as unusual beauty, precocity, and skills in many crafts. Often inclined to boasting and fool¬ hardiness, they defy pain and death to live fully, creating a moment’s glory that survives in the memory of their descendants.

Hero and Leander \le-'an-dar\ Lovers celebrated in Greek legend. Hero, a virgin priestess of Aphrodite, was seen by Leander of Abydos dur¬ ing a festival, and the two fell in love. He swam the Hellespont nightly to be with her, guided by a light from her tower. One stormy night the lamp was extinguished, and Leander drowned. When Hero saw his body on the shore, she threw herself from the tower into the sea. The story was

Hermes leading a satyr chorus, vase by Douris, 5th century bc; in the British Museum

COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM

Hermit crab (Pagurus samuelis).

RUSS KINNE-PHOTO RESEARCHERS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

868 I Herod ► Herrick

told by Ovid and was treated by Christopher Marlowe in his play Hero and Leander and by Lord Byron in The Bride of Abydos.

Herod known as Herod the Great (b. 73 bc —d. March/April, 4 bc, Jericho, Judaea) Roman-appointed king of Judaea (37-4 bc). A practicing Jew, he was of Arab origin. He was critical to imperial control of Judaea, despite his earlier support of Mark Antony, and the Roman emperor increased his territory. Judaea prospered under his early reign, during which he increased trade and built fortresses, aqueducts, and theatres, but he could not give full rein to his desire to build and thrive because he feared the Pharisees, Judaism’s controlling faction, who viewed him as a foreigner. He lost favour through increasing cruelty, manifest in the mur¬ der of his wife, her sons, and other relatives. His grip on his kingdom weakened as he became increasingly mentally unstable and physically debilitated. He killed his eldest son, and he slew the infants of Bethlehem (see Jesus). He died shortly after a bungled suicide attempt.

Herod Agrippa I \9-'grip-3\ orig. Marcus Julius Agrippa (b. c.

10 bc— d. ad 44) King of Judaea (ad 41-44). Grandson of Herod the Great and nephew of Herod Antipas, he became friends in Rome with the emperor Tiberius and Caligula. Caligula made him king of his uncle’s realm in northeastern Palestine and of Galilee, and after Caligula’s death Herod’s support of Claudius earned him the kingdom of Judaea, where he won the support of the Jews and repressed Jewish Christians. He built public buildings in Beirut and hosted games at Caesarea to honour Clau¬ dius. He died suddenly during the games.

Herod Antipas \'an-ti-pos\ (b. 21 bc — d. ad 39) Son of Herod the Great and tetrarch of Galilee (4 bc-ad 39) throughout Jesus’ ministry. He was responsible for the death of John the Baptist (demanded by his wife, Herodias, and stepdaughter, Salome) but later refused to cooperate when Pontius Pilate pressed him to conduct the trial of Jesus. He was caught up in the intrigue between the Syrians and Nabataeans. After denouncing Herod Agrippa I, he was banished by Caligula to Gaul. He built the city of Tiberias.

Herodotus Mio-'ra-do-tosX (b. 484?, Helicamassus, Asia Minor—d. 430/ 420 bc) Greek historian. He resided in Athens and then in Thurii in south¬ ern Italy. His travels covered a large part of the Persian empire. He is the author of the first great narrative history produced in the ancient world, the History of the Persian Wars. It is a unified artistic masterpiece, with many illuminating digressions and anecdotes skillfully worked into the narrative. Despite many inaccuracies, it remains the leading source of original information about Greece between 550 and 479 bc, as well as that of much of western Asia and Egypt.

heroin Heterocyclic compound, a highly addictive alkaloid derivative of morphine (chemically, it is diacetylmorphine) that makes up a large por¬ tion of illicit narcotics traffic. Easily made from morphine, it was devel¬ oped and first used as an analgesic, but its undesirable effects outweighed its value, and it is illegal in most countries. Injection brings an ecstatic, warm, glowing sensation, followed by relaxation and contentment. Within half a day withdrawal symptoms set in, with a craving for more. Devel¬ opment of tolerance, requiring ever greater amounts for the same effects, leads to drug addiction. Illegal street heroin is usually only 2-5% pure; unwitting injection of relatively pure heroin is a major cause of overdose, resulting in depressed respiration, coma, and death.

heron Any of about 60 species of long-legged wading birds in the same family (Ardeidae) as egrets and bitterns. They are found worldwide but are most common in the tropics. They wade in the shallow waters of pools, marshes, and swamps, catching frogs, fishes, and other aquatic animals. They nest on rough stick platforms in bushes or trees near water. Herons commonly stand with their neck bent in an southern shape and fly with their legs trailing and their head held back. They have broad wings and a long, straight, shaip-pointed bill. They are subdivided into typical herons (including the 50-in., or 130-cm, great blue heron of North America), night herons, and tiger herons.

Heron of Alexandria or Hero of Alexandria (fl. c. ad 62, Alex¬ andria, Egypt) Greek mathematician and inventor. He is remembered for his formula for the area of a triangle and for inventing the aeolipile, the first steam engine, which, in his design, was a forerunner of the jet engine. Of his many treatises, one contains a method for approximating the square root of a number. His writings on mechanics include discussions of the five simple machines, mechanical problems of daily life, and the construc¬ tion of many kinds of engines.

Heron's Vhir-,anz\ formula Formula for finding the area of a triangle in terms of the lengths of its sides. In symbols, if a, b, and c are the lengths of the sides: Area = Vs(j - a)(s - b)(s - c ) where s is half the perimeter, or (a + b + c)/2.

Herophilus Mio-'raf-o-losV (b. c. 335 bc, Chalcedon, Bithynia—d. c. 280) Alexandrian physician, often called the father of anatomy. He per¬ formed public dissections on human corpses; studied the cavities of the brain, which he regarded as the centre of the nervous system; traced the sinuses of the dura mater to their junction (the torcular Herophili); and classified nerve trunks as motor and sensory, distinguishing them from tendons and blood vessels. He described the eye, liver, salivary glands, pancreas, genitals, duodenum, and prostate gland (naming the last two) and was the first to measure the pulse. A student of Hippocrates’ doctrine, he emphasized the curative powers of drugs, diet, and gymnastics. He wrote at least nine works, including a commentary on Hippocrates and a book for midwives, all lost in the destruction of the library of Alexandria.

herpes Vhor-.pezV simplex Infection caused by herpes simplex virus. Type I typically produces a cluster of small blisters (cold sores, or fever blisters), usually on the lips or face; it can also infect the eyes. Type II, transmitted mostly through sexual contact, causes genital blisters, which rupture, becoming very painful. Oral sex can give either type the chance to infect the usual site of the other. In both types, the virus remains after symptoms end and can reactivate, causing blisters to reappear. Babies born to mothers with active herpes can become infected during birth; this can be prevented by cesarean section. There is no cure, but drugs can reduce severity and risk of transmission.

herpes zoster See shingles

Herrera (h)o-'rer-3\, Francisco, the Elder (b. c. 1576, Sevilla, Spain—d. 1656, Madrid) Spanish painter. His early works are in the Man¬ nerist style. Under the influence of Francisco Zurbaran, he developed the naturalistic style seen in his four scenes from the life of St. Bonaventure (1627). Around 1650 he moved to Madrid. His last documented work, a painting of St. Joseph (1648) influenced by Anthony Van Dyck, features elongated forms and elaborate draperies. He achieved considerable fame in Sevilla, where Diego VelAzquez was briefly his pupil. His work marked the transition from Mannerism to the Baroque. His son, Francisco Herrera the Younger, worked as a painter and architect.

Herrera, Francisco, the Younger (b. 1622, Sevilla, Spain—d. Aug. 25, 1685, Madrid) Spanish painter and architect. The son of Francisco Herrerra the Elder, a successful painter, his religious works are in the the¬ atrical style of Roman Baroque art, which he introduced into Sevilla. In 1660 he was appointed copresident (with Bartolome Esteban Murillo) of Sevilla’s new Academy of Painting, but he soon left for Madrid and was active there as a painter of frescoes and altarpieces. In 1672 he was appointed painter to Charles II and in 1677 master of the Royal Works. His greatest architectural achievement was the church of El Pilar at Sara¬ gossa (begun 1681).

Herrick, James Bryan (b. Aug.

11, 1861, Oak Park, Ill., U.S.—d.

March 7, 1954, Chicago) U.S. phy¬ sician and clinical cardiologist. He received his M.D. from Rush Medi¬ cal College. His case report on a black patient with anemia included the first description of the crescent¬ shaped erythrocytes characteristic of sickle-cell anemia, later shown to be the precipitating factor of the dis¬ ease. Herrick was also the first to identify and describe coronary thrombosis.

Herrick, Robert (baptized Aug.

24, 1591, London, Eng.—-d. October 1674, Dean Prior, Devonshire)

English poet. Educated at Cam¬ bridge and later ordained, he became known as a poet in the 1620s and by the end of that decade had become a country vicar in Devonshire. A dis¬ ciple of Ben Jonson, he wrote classi-

Robert Herrick, detail of an engraving by W. Marshall, from the frontispiece to Hesperides, 1648

COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM; PHOTOGRAPH, J.R. FREEMAN & CO. LTD.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Herriman ► Hertz I 869

cally influenced lyrics whose appeal is in their freshness and their perfection of form and style. The only book he published was Hesperides (1648), containing 1,400 poems, mostly short, many of them epigrams. He is best remembered for the line “Gather ye rosebuds while ye may.”

Herriman, George (Joseph) (b. 1881, New Orleans, La., U.S.—d. May 1944, Hollywood, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. cartoonist. He grew up in California and “passed” as white, along with his Creole parents. He started cartooning after a fall from a scaffold prevented him from work¬ ing as a house painter. His first comic strip. Lariat Pete , appeared in 1903 in the San Francisco Chronicle ; it was followed by several others. His best-known strip, Krazy Kat, appeared in 1910 and settled in for a run of more than 30 years in the William Randolph Hearst newspapers. Krazy Kat’s fantasy, drawing, and dialogue were of such high quality that some people consider it the finest comic strip ever published.

herring Either the Atlantic or the Pacific subspecies of Clupea haren- gus (once considered two separate species), slab-sided, northern fishes that are small-headed and streamlined, with silvery iridescent sides and a deep-blue, metallic-hued back. The name also refers to some other mem¬ bers of the family Clupeidae. Adults range in length from 8 to 15 in. (20-38 cm). One of the most abundant species of fish, herring travel in enormous schools. They eat planktonic crustaceans and fish larvae. In Europe they are processed and sold as kippered herring; in eastern Canada and the northeastern U.S., most of the herring used are young fishes canned as sardines. Herring taken in the Pacific are used mainly to make fish oil and meal.

herring gull Most common of the Atlantic gulls in the Northern Hemi¬ sphere. The herring gull (Larus argentatus) has a gray mantle, flesh- coloured legs and feet, and black-and-white-spotted wing tips. Herring gulls are primarily scavengers; their populations are generally increasing because of expanding food supplies, chiefly garbage and sewage in or near coastal waters.

Herriot V.er-e-'oX, Edouard (b. July 5,1872, Troyes, France—d. March 26, 1957, Lyon) French politician and writer. He became mayor of Lyon in 1905 and kept the post for most of his life. Elected as a member of the Radical Party to the Chamber of Deputies (1919), he led the opposition to the Bloc National as head of the Cartel des Gauches (1924). As prime minister (1924-25) he forced the resignation of the president, Alexandre Millerand and led France to accept the Dawes Plan and to recognize the Soviet Union. In 1926 he was prime minister for three days and held the position again in 1932. He abstained from voting when the National Assembly gave full powers to Philippe Petain at Vichy in 1940 and then was arrested and deported to Germany (1942-45). He returned to France and served as president of the National Assembly from 1947 to 1954. In his long career he served in nine different cabinets.

Herriot \'her-e-ot\, James orig. James Alfred Wight (b. Oct. 3, 1916, Glasgow, Scot.—d. Feb. 23, 1995, Thirlby, nearThirsk, Yorkshire, Eng.) British veterinarian and writer. Wight joined the practice of two veterinarian brothers working in the Yorkshire Dales and at age 50 was persuaded by his wife to write down his collection of anecdotes. His humorous, fictionalized reminiscences were published under the name James Herriot in If Only They Could Talk (1970) and It Shouldn’t Hap¬ pen to a Vet (1972), which were issued in the U.S. as All Creatures Great and Small (1972). The instant best-seller inaugurated a series of highly popular books, which was adapted for two films and a long-running tele¬ vision series.

Herrmann, Bernard (b. June 29, 1911, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Dec. 24, 1975, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. composer. He studied at New York University and Juilliard and was one of a group of young compos¬ ers associated with Charles Ives in the 1930s. Active in radio from 1930, he worked with Orson Welles, which led to a career in film. He wrote scores for Welles’s Citizen Kane (1941) and The Magnificent Ambersons (1942); other films include All That Money Can Buy (1941, Academy Award). He wrote the scores for eight of Alfred Hitchcock’s films, includ¬ ing Vertigo (1958), North by Northwest (1959), and Psycho (1960).

Herschel Vhsr-shalX family Family of British astronomers. The German-bom William Herschel (1738-1822) immigrated to England in 1757 and initially supported himself through music. In order to study dis¬ tant celestial objects, he ground his own mirrors, producing the best tele¬ scopes of the day. His discovery of Uranus catapulted him to fame at age 43. He hypothesized that nebulae (those objects now known to be galax¬

ies) are composed of stars and developed a theory of stellar evolution. He also discovered infrared radiation. He was knighted in 1816. His sister, Caroline Lucretia Herschel (1750-1848), contributed to her brother’s researches, carrying out many of the necessary calculations. She also detected by telescope three nebulae and eight comets. In 1787 the king gave her an annual pension in recognition of her work. She continued to work for decades after William’s death. William’s son John (1792-1871) studied mathematics at the University of Cambridge and from 1816 assisted his father. He later undertook a journey to the Southern Hemi¬ sphere to survey its skies; he returned in 1838, having recorded the loca¬ tions of 68,948 stars. Also an accomplished chemist, he invented (independently of William Henry Fox Talbot) the process of photography on sensitized paper. He was knighted in 1831. His sons Alexander Stewart (1836-1907) and John (1837-1921) also became astronomers.

Hersey, John (Richard) (b. June 17, 1914, Tianjin, China—d. March 24, 1993, Key West, Fla., U.S.) Chinese-born U.S. novelist and journal¬ ist. Born to missionaries, he worked as a correspondent in East Asia, Italy, and the Soviet Union in the years 1937-46. His novel A Bell for Adano (1944, Pulitzer Prize) depicts the Allied occupation of a Sicilian town. Hiroshima (1946), about the experiences of atomic-blast survivors, and The Wall (1950), about the Warsaw ghetto uprisings, combine fact and fiction. His later novels encompassed a wide variety of subjects from con¬ temporary issues to moral parables set in the future.

Hersh, Seymour (Myron) (b. April 8, 1937, Chicago, Ill., U.S.) U.S. journalist. He graduated from the University of Chicago in 1954. He began his journalistic career in 1959 as a police reporter, and he later worked for UPI and The New York Times and as a national correspondent for The Atlantic Monthly. His report on the My Lai incident won him a 1970 Pulitzer Prize; he also wrote about domestic spying by the CIA and pro¬ duced many other investigative reports. His The Dark Side of Camelot (1997) was a controversial, negative look at John F. Kennedy; Against All Enemies (1998) discussed the ailments suffered by Persian Gulf War vet¬ erans.

Hershey, A(lfred) D(ay) (b. Dec. 4, 1908, Owosso, Mich., U.S.—d. May 22, 1997, Syosset, N.Y.) U.S. biologist. He worked principally at the Carnegie Institution in Washington, D.C. He and Salvador Luria indepen¬ dently demonstrated the occurrence of spontaneous mutation in both bac¬ teriophages and hosts. Later, Hershey and Max DelbrOck independently discovered the occurrence of genetic recombination in phages. Delbriick incorrectly interpreted his results, but Hershey proved that the results he had obtained were recombinations by showing that the genetic processes in question correspond with the crossing-over of parts of similar chro¬ mosomes observed in cells of higher organisms. He showed that phage DNA is the main component entering the host cell during infection and that DNA, rather than protein, is the phage’s genetic material. In 1969 he shared a Nobel Prize with Luria and Delbriick.

Hertford \'har-ford\ Town (pop., 1995 est.: 23,000), East Hertfordshire district, administrative and historic county of Hertfordshire, southeastern England. Located on the northern periphery of London, Hertford was first recorded as the scene of a general synod led by Theodore of Tarsus in ad 672. The oldest buildings extant are 15th-century timber-framed houses. The town has light engineering industries and many agricultural connec¬ tions. It is the county’s administrative centre.

Hertfordshire Vhar-ford-.shirX Administrative (pop. 2001: 1,033,977) and historic county, southern England. It adjoins London on that city’s northern side; its county seat is Hertford. It includes the two early “gar¬ den cities”—Letchworth (1903) and Welwyn Garden City (1920)—and four of the eight new towns planned around London since World War II (1939-45). With an array of direct road and rail links to London, it houses light industries, offices, film studios, and thousands of exurbanites.

Hertz \'herts,\ English VhortsV Heinrich (Rudolf) (b. Feb. 22, 1857, Hamburg, Ger.—d. Jan. 1, 1894, Bonn) German physicist. While a pro¬ fessor at Karlsruhe Polytechnic (1885-89), he produced electromagnetic waves in the laboratory and measured their length and velocity. He showed that the nature of their vibration and their susceptibility to reflec¬ tion and refraction were the same as those of light waves, and he proved that light and heat are electromagnetic radiations. He was the first to broadcast and receive radio waves. In 1889 he was appointed professor at the University of Bonn, where he continued his research on the dis¬ charge of electricity in rarefied gases. The hertz (Hz), a unit of frequency in cycles per second, is named for him.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

870 I Hertzog ► Hesse

Hertzog Vhert-.sokV, J(ames) B(arry) M(unnik) (b. April 3, 1866, near Wellington, Cape Colony—d. Nov. 21, 1942, Pretoria, S.Af.) Prime minister of the Union of South Africa (1924-39). His political principles were “South Africa First” (i.e., ahead of the British Empire) and the “Two Streams Policy,” under which British and Afrikaner would be free from domination by each other. He served in the cabinet of Louis Botha (1910— 12), but he broke with Botha because of his nationalist sympathies and formed the National Party. As prime minister, Hertzog gave South Africa its flag, made Afrikaans an official language, promoted apartheid, and affirmed the equality of British and Afrikaner rights. In 1933 he was forced to accept a coalition with Jan Smuts, and in 1939 he resigned over the issue of neutrality in World War II.

Hertzsprung-Russell Vhert-spriirj-'ro-soH diagram or H-R dia¬ gram Graph in which the absolute magnitudes of stars are plotted against their colours (a measure of their temperatures). Of great importance to theories of stellar evolution, it evolved from charts begun independently in 1911 by the Danish astronomer Ejnar Hertzsprung (1873-1967) and the U.S. astronomer Henry Norris Russell (1877-1957). On the diagram, stars are ranked from bottom to top in order of increasing brightness and from right to left by increasing temperature. Stars tend to cluster in cer¬ tain parts of the diagram, especially along a diagonal line, called the main sequence, which is the locus of hydrogen-burning stars of different masses.

Hervey Bay Inlet and city (pop., 2001: 41,890), southeastern Queens¬ land, Australia. Named in 1770 by Capt. James Cook and surveyed in 1804, the bay measures 55 by 40 mi (89 by 64 km). Hervey Bay city comprises a complex of bayside resorts, which also serve a district of sugarcane and pineapple plantations.

Herzegovina See Bosnia and Herzegovina

Herzen \'hert-son\, Aleksandr (Ivanovich) (b. April 6, 1812, Mos¬ cow, Russia—d. Jan. 21, 1870, Paris, France) Russian writer and politi¬ cal activist. As a student at the University of Moscow, he joined a socialist group, for which he was exiled to work in the provincial bureaucracy (1834—42). Returning to Moscow, he joined the Westemizers but then turned to anarchist socialism. After inheriting a considerable fortune, he left Russia. In Paris he proclaimed Western institutions “dead” and devel¬ oped the theory of a unique Russian path to socialism known as peasant populism. He moved to London in 1852 and founded the Free Russian Press, as well as the influential newspaper Kolokol (“The Bell”) in 1857; smuggled into Russia, the paper was read by both reformers and revolu¬ tionaries. When the Emancipation Act was enacted in 1861, he denounced it as a betrayal of the peasants. He then turned his energies to writing My Past and Thoughts (1861-67), considered one of the greatest works of Russian prose.

Herzl Vhert-s 3 l\, Theodor (b. May 2, 1860, Budapest, Hungary—d. July 3, 1904, Edlach, Austria) Hungarian Zionist leader. Growing up Jew¬ ish in Hungary, he believed that assimilation was the best strategy to deal with the anti-Semitism he encountered. He became a Zionist while cov¬ ering the Alfred Dreyfus affair as a journalist in Paris. In 1897 he orga¬ nized a world congress of Zionism, which was attended by about 200 delegates, and he became the first president of the World Zionist Orga¬ nization, established by the congress. Herzl’s indefatigable organizing, propagandizing, and diplomacy had much to do with making Zionism a political movement of worldwide significance. Though he died more than 40 years before the establishment of the state of Israel, his remains were moved to Jerusalem in 1949 and entombed on a hill now known as Mount Herzl.

Herzog Vhert-sok\, Werner orig. Werner H. Stipetic (b. Sept. 5, 1942, Munich, Ger.) German filmmaker. He won two awards for his first feature film, Signs of Life (1967), which introduced the theme of a descent into madness that was to reappear in his later films, most powerfully in Aguirre, the Wrath of God (1972), Nosferatu (1979), and Fitzcarraldo (1982). He documented his tumultuous friendship with actor Klaus Kin¬ ski in the film My Best Fiend (1999). His surreal and exotic films were among the best of the highly praised postwar West German cinema.

Heschel Vhe-shoL, Abraham Joshua (b. 1907, Warsaw, Pol., Rus¬ sian Empire—d. Dec. 23, 1972, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Polish-born U.S. Jewish philosopher and theologian. He studied at the University of Ber¬ lin and taught Jewish studies in Germany until he was deported by the Nazis in 1938. After coming to the U.S., he taught at Hebrew Union Col¬

lege and later at Jewish Theological Seminary. His goal was to devise a modern philosophy of religion based on ancient and medieval Judaic tra¬ ditions, and he emphasized Judaism’s prophetic and mystical aspects. Emphasizing social action as an expression of pious ethical concerns, he worked for black civil rights and against the Vietnam War. His writings include Man Is Not Alone (1951) and God in Search of Man (1956).

Heshen or Ho-shen (b. 1750, China—d. Feb. 22, 1799, Beijing) Infa¬ mous Chinese courtier who abused his influence with the Qianlong emperor to assume high ministerial positions and control revenue disburse¬ ments and personnel recruiting. His embezzlement of funds intended for suppressing the White Lotus rebellion prolonged the fighting and drove the imperial troops to looting, consequently undermining the authority of the Qing dynasty. He was arrested by the Qianlong emperor’s successor and forced to commit suicide.

Hesiod Vhe-se-od, 'he-se-od\ (fl. c. 700 bc) Greek poet. One of the ear¬ liest Greek poets, he is often called the father of Greek didactic poetry. A native of Boeotia, in central Greece, he may have been a professional reciter of poetry. Two complete epics have survived: the Theogony, relat¬ ing stories of the gods, and the Works and Days, describing peasant life and expressing his views on the proper conduct of men. His works reveal his essentially serious outlook on life and portray a less glamorous world than Homer’s. His poems won renown during his lifetime, and the power of his name was such that epics by others were later attributed to him.

Hess, (Walter Richard) Rudolf (b. April 26, 1894, Alexandria, Egypt—d. Aug. 17, 1987, West Berlin, W.Ger.) German Nazi leader. He joined the fledgling Nazi Party in 1920 and soon became Adolf Hitler’s friend. After participating in the Beer Hall Putsch (1923), he escaped but returned voluntarily to prison, where he took down dictation for Hitler’s Mein Kampf He became Hitler’s private secretary and, in 1933, deputy party leader. In the early days of World War II his power waned. In 1941 he created an international sensation when he secretly landed by para¬ chute in Scotland on an abortive mission to negotiate peace between Brit¬ ain and Germany. The British government held him as a prisoner of war, and his peace initiative was rejected by Hitler. He was given a life sen¬ tence at the NOrnberg trials, and from 1966 he was the sole inmate at Spandau prison.

Hess, Victor Francis (b. June 24, 1883, Waldstein, Styria, Austria—d. Dec. 17, 1964, Mount Vernon, N.Y., U.S.) Austrian-born U.S. physicist. He received his doctorate from the University of Vienna in 1906. His research dealt chiefly with radioactivity and atmospheric electricity. His experiments proved what had long been suspected: an extremely pen¬ etrating radiation of extraterrestrial origin permeates the atmosphere (see cosmic ray). Further investigation of this radiation, named cosmic rays in 1925, led Carl D. Anderson (1905-91) to discover the positron and opened up new fields of research in modern physics. For this work, Hess and Anderson shared a Nobel Prize in 1936.

Hess, Walter Rudolf (b. March 17,1881, Frauenfeld, Switz.—d. Aug. 12, 1973, Locarno) Swiss physiologist. He worked at the University of Zurich (1917-51). His interests centred on the nerves that control auto¬ matic functions such as digestion and excretion and that also trigger the activities of a group of organs that respond to complex stimuli, such as stress. Using fine electrodes to stimulate or destroy specific areas of the brain in cats and dogs, Hess mapped the control centres for each func¬ tion to such a degree that he could bring about the physical behaviour pattern of a cat confronted by a dog simply by stimulating the proper points on the cat’s hypothalamus. He shared a 1949 Nobel Prize with Antonio Egas Moniz.

Hesse \'hes\ German Hessen State (pop., 2002 est.: 6,077,826), west- central Germany. It occupies an area of 8,152 sq mi (21,114 sq km). Its capital is Wiesbaden. It was formed in 1945 through the amalgamation of former Prussian provincial units. The Hessians are thought to be descended from the Frankish tribe of the Chatti, who were Christianized by St. Boniface in the early 8th century ad. Hesse was twice partitioned in the 15th century, but Philip of Hesse reunited the territory. The area has small farms, and the state’s industries are centred in the Rhine-Main area. The ruins of many castles and old churches and palaces are on the banks of the Weser River.

Hesse Vhes-oX, Eva (b. Jan. 11, 1936, Hamburg, Ger.—d. May 29, 1970, New York, N.Y., U.S.) German-born U.S. sculptor. She arrived in New York City with her family in 1939, fleeing the Nazi regime. She attended

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Hesse ► Heydrich I 871

the Pratt Institute, Cooper Union, and Yale University. In 1964 she mar¬ ried and moved briefly to Germany and began making sculpture, devel¬ oping a style featuring sensuous shapes and unconventional materials (including rubber tubing, synthetic resins, cord, cloth, and wire). In the 1960s she exhibited throughout the U.S. and achieved critical acclaim; her work was sometimes asssociated with Minimalism. In 1969 she under¬ went the first of three unsuccessful operations for a brain tumour. Her influence since her death has been widespread.

Hesse Vhes-oX, Hermann (b. July 2, 1877, Calw, Ger.—d. Aug. 9, 1962, Montagnola, Switz.) German novelist and poet. He left the semi¬ nary because of his inability to adapt to the life there. His first novel was Peter Camenzind (1904); it was fol¬ lowed by Beneath the Wheel (1906),

Gertrud (1910), and Rosshalde (1914). An opponent of militarism, he settled permanently in Switzer¬ land at the outbreak of World War I (1914-18). His later works deal with the individual’s search for spiritual fulfillment, often through mysticism.

Demian (1919), influenced by his experience with psychoanalysis, made him famous. Siddhartha (1922), about the early life of Bud¬ dha, reflects his interest in Eastern spiritualism. Steppenwolf (1927), which examines the conflict between bourgeois acceptance and spiritual self-realization, was highly influen¬ tial in its time and brought him cult status among the young of more than one generation. Narcissus and Goldmund (1930) and The Glass Bead Game (1943; also published as Magister Ludi) concern duality and the conflict between the contemplative and the active life. He won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1946. His mysticism and his interest in self- realization kept him popular long after his death.

Hestia Greek goddess of the hearth and 1 of the 12 chief deities of Mount Olympus. She was the daughter of Rhea and Cronus. When Apollo and Poseidon became suitors for her hand, she swore to remain a maiden for¬ ever, whereupon Zeus gave her the honour of presiding over all sacrifices. Though mainly a goddess of the family hearth and domestic life, she was sometimes also worshiped at the civic hearth in public buildings.

Heston, Charlton orig. John Charlton Carter (b. Oct. 4, 1924, Evanston, Ill., U.S.) U.S. actor. He made his Broadway debut in Antony and Cleopatra (1947) and his film debut in Dark City (1950). He became a star in The Greatest Show on Earth (1952) and was a muscular and dignified stalwart in epic films such as The Ten Commandments (1956), Ben-Hur (1959, Academy Award), and The Agony and the Ecstasy { 1965). He also starred in Touch of Evil (1958), Planet of the Apes (1968), and The Three Musketeers (1973) and directed and acted in Antony and Cleo¬ patra (1972) and Mother Lode (1982). He was president of the Screen Actors Guild (1966-71) and the National Rifle Association (1998-2003).

Hesychius \h3-'si-ke-os\ of Alexandria (fl. 5th century ad) Greek scholar and linguist. He compiled the Alphabetical Collection of All Words, the most complete Greek lexicon known from antiquity. Though preserved only in a 15th-century abridgment by a Venetian editor, it is valued as a basic authority for the dialects and vocabularies of ancient inscriptions and poetry as well as the sacred writings of the Greek Church Fathers (see patristic literature).

heterocyclic \ l he-t3-ro-'sI-klik\ compound Any of a class of organic compounds whose molecules contain one or more rings of atoms with at least one atom (the heteroatom) being an element other than carbon, most frequently oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur. As in regular cyclic hydrocarbons, such heterocyclic rings may include single, double, or triple bonds or be aromatic (see covalent bond; aromatic compound), and the compound may contain one or more single rings or have fused rings (in which adjoining rings share two carbon atoms). Compounds having five-membered het¬ erocyclic rings include chlorophyll, hemoglobin, indigo, tryptophan, and certain polymers. Those with six-membered heterocyclic rings include pyridine, pyridoxine (vitamin B 6 ; see vitamin B complex), vitamin E, quinine,

and the pyran nucleus, which is found in sugars and the anthocyanin pig¬ ments. Nicotine and morphine have both five- and six-membered hetero¬ cyclic rings; some antibiotics (e.g., penicillin) have two different heteroatoms in their rings. Other important heterocyclic compounds are pyrimidines, which occur in barbiturates, and purines, which occur in caffeine and related compounds; pyrimidine and purine are the parent compounds of the NUCLEIC ACIDS.

heterosis \,he-t9-'ro-s3s\ or hybrid vigor Increase in such charac¬ teristics as size, growth rate, fertility, and yield of a hybrid organism over those of its parents. Plant and animal breeders exploit heterosis by mat¬ ing two different purebred lines that have desirable traits. The first- generation offspring generally show, in greater measure, the desired characteristics of both parents. Since this vigour may decrease if the hybrids are actually mated together, the parental lines must be maintained and crossed for each new crop or group desired.

heterozygote See homozygote and heterozygote

Heuss Vh6is\, Theodor (b. Jan. 31, 1884, Brackenheim, German Empire—d. Dec. 12, 1963, Stuttgart, W.Ger.) German politician and author. A member of the German Democratic Party during the Weimar Republic, he served in the Reichstag (1924-28, 1930-33). After Adolf Hit¬ ler came to power, Heuss’s books on political science were burned as “un-German.” After World War II (1939—45), he helped found the Free Democratic Party and served (1948-49) on the parliamentary council that wrote the West German constitution. He served as president of the new state from 1949 until his retirement in 1959.

Hewish, Antony (b. May 11, 1924, Fowey, Cornwall, Eng.) British astrophysicist. In 1967 Hewish determined that the regularly patterned radio signals (pulses) that Jocelyn Bell Burnell had detected were not caused by earthly interference or, as some speculated, by intelligent life- forms trying to communicate with distant planets but were energy emis¬ sions from certain stars. For this work in identifying pulsars as a new class of stars, he shared a 1974 Nobel Prize with Martin Ryle.

Hewitt, Abram S(tevens) (b. July 31, 1822, Haverstraw, N.Y., U.S.—d. Jan. 18, 1903, Ringwood, N.J.) U.S. industrialist and politician. A graduate of Columbia College (now part of Columbia University) in 1842, he formed an iron-making business with Edward and Peter Cooper in New York City in 1845; he later helped establish the Cooper Union school (1859). During the American Civil War, he produced gun-barrel iron for the government without taking a profit. In 1870 he produced the first commercial-grade steel in the U.S. In 1871 he helped Samuel Tilden oust the “Tweed Ring” (see William Marcy Tweed) from control of the Tammany Hall Democratic organization and the municipal government of New York City. He later served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1875-79, 1881-86). As mayor of New York (1887-88), he initiated major reforms that broke Tammany Hall’s influence.

Hewlett-Packard Co. U.S. manufacturer of computers, computer printers, and measuring instruments. Founded in 1938 in Palo Alto, Calif., by William Hewlett (1913-2001) and David Packard (1912-96), the com¬ pany grew along with the electronics sector of the U.S. defense industry after World War II (1939-45). In 1966 it developed its first computer, and in 1968 one of the earliest desktop electronic calculators. Hewlett-Packard entered the personal-computer market in 1980, and its HP Laser Jet printer dominated the market for computer printers in the 1980s. By the 1990s the company was a leading maker of minicomputers used by businesses and institutions and a leader in the field of laser and inkjet printers. In 2002 the company bought rival Compaq Computer for $25 billion.

hexachord Greek "six strings" In music, a group of six tones in a specified pattern, specifically the interval pattern tone-tone-semitone-tone- tone (as in G-A-B-C-D-E). The hexachord was apparently conceived in the 11th century when theorist Guido d’Arezzo noticed that the scales of the church modes could be seen to overlap in their interval patterns. His system of solmization gave each hexachord the same syllables (ut-re-mi- fa-sol-la), and by means of overlapping hexachords the theorist could represent the complete “gamut” of pitches. Though counterintuitive to modern musicians, who think in terms of octaves, the concept of hexa¬ chords was fundamental to music theory throughout the Middle Ages and Renaissance.

Heydrich \'hl-drik\, Reinhard (Tristan Eugen) (b. March 7, 1904, Halle, Ger.—d. June 4, 1942, Prague, Protectorate of Bohemia and Mora¬ via) German Nazi official. He resigned from the navy in 1931 to join the

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

872 I Heyerdahl ► hiccup

SS, becoming SS chief for Berlin (1934), head of the Reich Security Cen¬ tral Office (1939), and Heinrich Himmler’s chief deputy. Noted for his ruth¬ lessness against “enemies of the state,” in the early years of World War II he organized mass executions in the German-occupied territories and became known as “the Hangman.” In 1942 he chaired the Wannsee Con¬ ference. Appointed deputy administrator of Bohemia and Moravia, he was assassinated by Czech patriots; in retaliation the Gestapo demolished the village of Lidice and executed its male population of about 200.

Heyerdahl Vha-or-.daL, Thor (b. Oct. 6, 1914, Larvik, Nor.—d. April 18, 2002, Colla Michari, Italy) Nor¬ wegian ethnologist and adventurer.

After a trip to Polynesia convinced him that Polynesian culture bore traces of South American cultures, he built a raft, the Kon-Tiki, and sailed it from South America to Polynesia in 1947 to demonstrate the possibility of such contact, a trip recounted in his best-selling Kon- Tiki (1950). In 1969 he sailed a reconstruction of an ancient Egyp¬ tian reed boat (the Ra ) from Morocco to the Caribbean to show that the Egyptians could have had contact with the early peoples of Central and South America. In 1977 he took the reed craft Tigris from the Tigris River in Iraq across the Arabian Sea to Pakistan and back to the Red Sea to demonstrate the possibility of two-way trading journeys that could have spread ancient Sumerian cul¬ ture eastward. Although he inspired many with his daring expeditions, his theories have not been generally accepted by anthropologists and his methods have been questioned.

Heyse Vhl-z3\, Paul (Johann Ludwig von) (b. March 15, 1830, Berlin, Prussia—d. April 2, 1914, Munich, Ger.) German writer. An inde¬ pendent scholar, he led a circle of writers in Munich who sought to pre¬ serve traditional artistic values from the encroachment of political radicalism, materialism, and realism. His admired short stories and novel¬ las were collected in numerous volumes; he also published novels, includ¬ ing Children of the World (1873) and Merlin (1892), and many unsuccessful plays. Among his best works are his translations of Giacomo Leopardi and other Italian and Spanish poets; many were set to music by Hugo Wolf. His popularity was already declining when he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1910.

Heywood, John (b. 1497?, London, Eng.?—d. after 1575, Mechelen, Belg.) British playwright. His witty, satirical verse interludes (dialogues on a set subject) helped put English drama on the road to the fully devel¬ oped comedy of the Elizabethans. His interludes, which replace biblical allegory with representations of everyday life and manners, include The Play of the Wether, A Play of Love, and Wytty and Wytless (all printed 1533), and The Playe Called the Foure PP: A Palmer, a Pardoner, a Potycary, a Pedler (printed c. 1544). He also wrote epigrams, ballads, and a verse allegory. The Spider and the Flie (1556).

Hezbollah V.hiz-bul-'laV or Hizbullah or Hizb Allah Arabic "Party of God" Lebanese Shl'ite Islamist organization. Founded in southern Lebanon in 1982 as a response to Israel’s invasion there, its original goals were to drive Israeli troops out of Lebanon and form a Shl'ite Islamic republic similar to that created by the Iranian revolution of 1979. Its political stance, in the main, has been anti-Western, and its members have been implicated in many of the terrorist activities that were perpetrated in Lebanon during the 1980s, including kidnappings, car bombings, and airline hijackings, a number of which were directed at U.S. citizens. It has purportedly received strong material support from Syria and Iran and throughout the 1990s engaged in an intensive guerrilla cam¬ paign against Israeli forces in southern Lebanon. At the same time, Hezbollah actively aided the long disfranchised Shl'ite community in Lebanon, providing social services not offered by the government. In the 1990s the party’s candidates won seats in Lebanon’s parliamentary elec¬ tions, and the group’s leaders have since sought to soften its earlier image. Despite a unilateral withdrawal of Israeli troops from Lebanon in 2000,

the party continued sporadic attacks across the Lebanese-Israeli border. See also Muhammad Husayn Fadlallah.

Hezekiah \,he-z3-'kI-9\ (fl. late 8th and early 7th centuries bc) King of Judah at Jerusalem. The dates of his reign are uncertain but are often given as 715-686 bc. He was a reformer who tried to discourage foreign cults and assert the religious traditions of Israel during a time of AssYRiAn supremacy. The rebellion that broke out in Palestine c. 703 bc was prob¬ ably led by Hezekiah. Though he fortified Jerusalem, other cities of Judah fell, and the revolt was put down in 701 bc. The Assyrians demanded a heavy tribute of gold, but tradition holds that a plague devastated the Assyrian army and Jerusalem was spared.

Hialeah \,hI-3-'le-9\ City (pop., 2000: 226,419), southeastern Florida, U.S. Settled in 1921 by aviation pioneer Glenn Curtiss and cattleman James H. Bright, the town took its name from a Seminole Indian word meaning “pretty prairie.” The city serves mainly as a residential suburb of Miami. It is the site of the horse-racing track Hialeah Park (1925).

Hiawatha V.hi-o-'wo-thoX Ojibxva "He Makes Rivers" Legendary chief (c. 1450) of the Onondaga people of the northwestern U.S. He is regarded by tradition as the founder of the Iroquois Confederacy. His story is told in Henry W. Longfellow’s popular poem Song of Hiawatha (1855), though Longfellow perpetuated an error of Henry Rowe Schoolcraft’s that placed Hiawatha in a Midwestern tribe.

hibernation State of greatly slowed metabolism and low body tempera¬ ture in winter in certain animals. True hibernators include many cold¬ blooded animals and a few mammals (e.g., bats, hedgehogs) that go into a near-dead state with a near-freezing body temperature and very slow breathing and heart rate. Mammals such as bears that sleep in dens with only slightly lowered body temperature wake easily and are not consid¬ ered true hibernators. Most hibernators build up a reserve of body fat or store food ahead of time. They may wake and eat several times during the winter. Cold-blooded animals must hibernate where the weather drops below freezing. Hibernation’s warm-weather equivalent is estivation.

Hiberno-Saxon style Decorative style that resulted when Irish (Hibernian) monks went to England in 635. It mingled the Celtic deco¬ rative tradition—curvilinear and “trumpet” forms, scrolls, spirals, and a double-curve motif—with the interlaced zoomorphic patterns and bright coloration of the pagan Anglo-Saxons. Mediterranean art entered as an element when St. Augustine of Canterbury’s mission arrived from Rome, introducing the human figure in art objects, but the style’s basic charac¬ teristics remained geometric, with interlaced designs and areas of bright colour, as seen in the Lindisfarne Gospels and the Book of Kells. It was taken to Europe by Irish and Saxon Christian missionaries and there exerted strong influence on Carolingian art. See also Anglo-Saxon art.

hibiscus \hl-'bis-k3s\ Any of about 250 species of shrubs, trees, and herbaceous plants that make up the genus Hibiscus, in the mallow family, native to warm temperate and tropi¬ cal regions. Several are cultivated as ornamentals for their showy flowers.

The tropical Chinese hibiscus, or China rose ( H. rosa-sinensis), has large, somewhat bell-shaped reddish blossoms. The East African hibiscus (H. schizopetalus), a drooping shrub, is often grown in hanging baskets indoors. Other members of the genus include okra, rose of Sharon, and many flowering plants known by the common name mallow.

hiccup Spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm that causes a sudden breath in, cut off when the vocal cords snap together, creating the char¬ acteristic sound. Causes include overdistended stomach, gastric irritation, and nerve spasms. The many folk remedies for hiccups interrupt the rhythm of the spasms. The most common and effective treatment is to hold the breath as long as possible. Hiccups usually stop within minutes, though they may last days, weeks, or longer. Prolonged severe hiccups are treated with nerve blocks or by surgically cutting the nerve that sup¬ plies the diaphragm.

China rose (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis)

SVEN SAMEUUS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Hickok ► hieroglyph I 873

Hickok, Wild Bill orig. James Butler Hickok (b. May 27, 1837, Troy Grove, Ill., U.S.—d. Aug. 2,

1876, Deadwood, Dakota Territory)

U.S. frontiersman. He left home in 1865 to farm in Kansas, where he became involved in the Free State (antislavery) movement. He later served as a constable in Monticello,

Kan. While working as a stage driver in 1861, he shot and killed the out¬ law Dave McCanles; legends of his marksmanship probably began in the exaggerated accounts of his role in this incident. He was a Union scout and a spy in the American Civil War (1861—65); after the war, he was appointed deputy U.S. marshal (1866-67). His ironhanded rule as sheriff of Hays City (1869-71) and as marshal of Abilene (1871) helped tame these Kansas towns. While seated at a poker table in a saloon, he was shot dead by a drunken stranger. Jack McCall.

hickory Any of about 18 species of deciduous timber and nut-producing trees that make up the genus Carya , in the walnut family. About 15 spe¬ cies are native to eastern North America and 3 to eastern Asia. The fruit is an egg-shaped nut enclosed in a fleshy husk. Some species—principally shagbark hickory (C. ovata ), shellbark hickory (C. laciniosa), mockemut hickory (C. tomentosa ), and pecan —produce large, sweet-tasting, edible nuts. The pecan, the most valuable species economically, is cultivated for its flavourful nuts and its light-coloured wood. The wood of other hicko¬ ries is used as fuel and for tool handles, sports equipment, furniture, and flooring.

Hicks, Edward (b. April 4, 1780, Attleboro, Pa., U.S.—d. Aug. 23, 1849, Newtown, Pa.) U.S. painter. He was a coach and sign painter from an early age. In middle age he began to produce paintings of farm scenes and landscapes in a naive, or folk, style. Fearing that art was contrary to his Quaker religion but believing that it might bring meaning to life, he often framed his pictures with edifying verse. He painted his best-known subject. The Peaceable Kingdom , about 100 times; some 25 versions sur¬ vive. In this charming Quaker pageant, William Penn appears on the left making his treaty with the Native Americans, while beasts are gathered on the right with little children playing among them.

The Cornell Farm, oil on canvas by Edward Hicks, 1848; in the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART, WASHINGTON, D.C., GIFT OF EDGAR WILLIAM AND BERNICE CHRYSLER GARBISCH

Hicks, Sir John R(ichard) (b. April 8, 1904, Leamington Spa, War¬ wickshire, Eng.—d. May 20, 1989, Blockley, Gloucestershire) British economist. He taught at several institutions, notably the University of

Oxford, and he was knighted in 1964. His classic work Value and Capi¬ tal (1939) helped resolve basic conflicts between business-cycle theory and the equilibrium theory, which holds that economic forces tend to bal¬ ance one another rather than simply reflect cyclical trends. He shared the 1972 Nobel Prize with Kenneth Arrow.

Hidalgo \hi-'dal-go\ State (pop., 2000: 2,235,591), east-central Mexico. It covers 8,036 sq mi (20,813 sq km), and its capital is Pachuca. It was part of the state of Mexico until 1869, when it was established as a sepa¬ rate state in honour of the revolutionary patriot Miguel Hidalgo. Contain¬ ing some of the most mountainous areas in Mexico, it has extensive mineral deposits, including silver and gold. In pre-Columbian times it was the centre of the Toltec civilization; an archaeological site near Tula, west of Pachuca, is the remains of the Toltec capital. The state has major met¬ alworking factories as well as agricultural production.

Hidalgo \e-'dal-go\ (y Costilla), Miguel (b. May 8, 1753, near Pen- jamo, Guanajuato, Mex.—d. July 30, 1811, Chihuahua) Mexican priest, called the father of Mexican independence. Ordained in 1789, he had an uneventful early career. In the town of Dolores (now Dolores Hidalgo), he joined a group plotting independence from Spain in the light of Napo¬ leon’s invasion of that country. On Sept. 16, 1810, when his group was betrayed, he rang the church bell and addressed his parishioners with his Grito de Dolores (“Cry of Dolores”), calling them to revolution. Thou¬ sands of Indians and mestizos joined him, and he succeeded in capturing Guanajuato and other cities in the region before reaching Mexico City, where his hesitation led to their defeat and his execution. The martyred Hidalgo became a potent symbol of the independence movement that eventually succeeded, and each September 16—now celebrated as Mexi¬ co’s Independence Day—the president shouts a version of the Grito de Dolores from the National Palace balcony.

Hidatsa \hi-'dat-so\ North American Plains Indian people of Siouan stock living mainly on Fort Berthold Reservation in North Dakota, U.S. They speak a Siouan language. They were mistakenly identified as a group known to French trappers as Gros Ventres, and sometimes they are called Gros Ventres of the Missouri. Originally the Hidatsa (whose name means “People of the Willow”) lived on the upper Missouri River in semiper¬ manent villages. They raised corn, beans, and squash and hunted bison. Hidatsa social organization included age-graded military societies; there were also various clans based on maternal descent. The sun dance was the major religious ceremony. Together with the Mandan, with whom they had peaceful relations for more than 200 years, they exchanged traditional goods with European traders for guns, knives, and other items. In the mid-1800s disease and war with the Dakota (Sioux) sharply reduced their number. Only some 625 people claimed sole Hidatsa descent in the 2000 U.S. census. Together the Mandan, the Arikara, and the Hidatsa form the Three Affiliated Tribes.

Hideyoshi See Toyotomi Hideyoshi

Hierakonpolis X.hl-o-ro-'kan-pa-bsN Ancient city, Upper Egypt. Located south of Thebes, it was the prehistoric residence of the kings of Upper Egypt. Now an archaeological site, it reveals the beginning of Egypt’s historical period. It was at its height from 3400 bc to the Old Kingdom (c. 2575 bc). Thutmose III later completely rebuilt the Archaic temple. During the New Kingdom, el-Kab, across the river, became eco¬ nomically more important, but Hierakonpolis retained its place as a reli¬ gious and historical centre.

Hierapolis \ l hI-9-'ra-p9-bs\ Ancient city, now in Syria. Its remains lie northeast of Aleppo. As a centre of the worship of the Syrian goddess Atargatis, it became known to the Greeks as the Holy City (Hierapolis). One of the great cities of Syria in the 3rd century ad, it thereafter declined. The 'Abbasid caliph HarGn al-Rashid restored it at the end of the 8th cen¬ tury. Captured by Crusaders in the 12th century but reclaimed by Saladin in 1175, it later became the headquarters of the Mongols, who completed its ruin.

hieroglyph Vhi-ro-.glifA Character in any of several systems of writing that is pictorial in nature, though not necessarily in the way it is read. The term was originally used for the oldest system of writing Ancient Egyp¬ tian (see Egyptian language). Egyptian hieroglyphs could be read iconi- cally (the representation of a house enclosure stood for the word pr, “house”), phonetically (the “house” sign could have the phonetic value pr), or associatively (a sign representing one thing could stand for a homophone meaning something else). Unlike contemporary cuneiform

Wild Bill Hickok.

CULVER PICTURES

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

874 I hierophant ► Highland Games

writing, phonetic hieroglyphs denoted consonants, not syllables, so there was no regular way to write vowels; by convention, Egyptologists insert the vowel e between consonants in order to pronounce Egyptian words. The standardized orthography of the Middle Kingdom (2050-1750 bc) employed about 750 hieroglyphs. In the early centuries ad, use of hiero¬ glyphs declined—the last dated text is from ad 394 —and the meaning of the signs was lost until their decipherment in the early 19th century (see J.-F. Champollion; Rosetta Stone). The term hieroglyph has been applied to similar systems of writing, notably a script used to write the ancient Anatolian language Luvian and a script used by the Maya (see Mayan HIEROGLYPHIC WRITING).

hierophant Vhl-o-ro-.fant, hl-'er-o-fontV Chief priest of the Eleusinian Mysteries in ancient Greece. His main task was to display the sacred objects during the celebration of the mysteries and explain their secret meaning to initiates. The priest was usually an old, celibate man with a forceful voice, chosen from the Eumolpids, one of the original clans of Eleusis. Upon election, he cast aside his former name and was called only hierophantes.

hieros gamos \ , he-3- l r6s- , ga- l mos\ (Greek: “sacred marriage”) Sexual relations of fertility deities enacted in myths and rituals, characteristic of societies based on cereal agriculture (e.g., Mesopotamia, Phoenicia, and Canaan). At least once a year, people dressed as gods engaged in sexual intercourse to guarantee the fertility of the land. The festival began with a procession to the marriage celebration, which was followed by an exchange of gifts, a purification rite, the wedding feast, preparation of the wedding chamber, and a secret nocturnal act of intercourse.

Higgs particle or Higgs boson Carrier of an all-pervading funda¬ mental field (Higgs field) that is hypothesized as a means of endowing mass on some elementary particles through its interactions with them. It was named for Peter W. Higgs (born 1929) of the University of Edinburgh, one of those who first postulated the idea. The Higgs mechanism explains why the carriers of the weak force are heavy, while the carrier of the electromag¬ netic force has a mass of zero. There is no direct experimental evidence for the existence of either the Higgs particle or the Higgs field.

high blood pressure See hypertension

High Commission, Court of English ecclesiastical court instituted by Henry VIII to enforce the Act of Supremacy (1534). It became a contro¬ versial instrument of repression, used against those who refused to acknowledge the authority of the Church of England. Its main function, and the most controversial, was administration of the oath ex officio, committing one to answer even self-incriminating questions; those who refused to take the oath were turned over to the feared Court of Star Chamber. Opposition, mainly from the Puritans and the common lawyers, resulted in the court’s abolishment by Parliament in 1641. See also pre¬ rogative court.

High Court of Admiralty In England, formerly the court presided over by the deputy of the admiral of the fleet. It was established c. 1360 to deal with matters of discipline and cases of piracy and prizes (ships and goods captured at sea), but it eventually had jurisdiction over mercantile and shipping matters. In 1875 it was merged with the other great courts of England into the High Court of Justice.

high-definition television (HDTV) Any system producing signifi¬ cantly greater picture resolution than that of the ordinary 525-line (625- line in Europe) television screen. Conventional television transmits signals in analog form. Digital HDTV systems, by contrast, transmit pictures and sounds in the form of digital data. These numerical data are broadcast using the same high radio frequencies that carry analog waves, and com¬ puter processors in the digital television set then decode the data. Digital HDTV can provide sharper, clearer pictures and sound with very little interference or other imperfections. Of perhaps greater importance, digi¬ tal television sets will potentially be able to send, store, and manipulate images as well as receive them, thereby merging the functions of the tele¬ vision set and the computer.

high-energy physics See particle physics

high jump Track-and-field event of jumping for height. The equipment includes a semicircular runway allowing an approach run of at least 49 ft (15 m), the raised bar and its vertical supports, and a cushioned landing area. Jumpers must leave the ground from one foot. Three failed jumps at a height result in disqualification. Early jumping styles, including the

near-erect scissors jump and the facedown Western roll-and-straddle, were largely superseded from 1968 by the faceup “Fosbury flop,” named for its leading proponent, the U.S. jumper Dick Fosbury.

high place Hebrew bama. In ancient Israel or Canaan, a shrine built on an elevated site. For Canaanites the shrines were devoted to fertility deities, to the Baals, or to the Semitic goddesses called the Asherot. The shrines often included an altar and a sacred object such as a stone pillar or wooden pole. One of the oldest known high places, dating from c. 2500 bc, is at Megiddo. The Israelites also associated elevated places with the divine presence, and after conquering Canaan they used Canaanite high places to worship Yahweh (God). Later the Temple of Jerusalem on Mount Zion became the only accepted high place.

high-rise building Multistory building taller than the maximum height people are willing to walk up, thus requiring vertical mechanical transportation. The introduction of safe passenger elevators made practi¬ cal the erection of buildings more than four or five stories tall. The first high-rise buildings were constructed in the U.S. in the 1880s. Further developments were made possible by the use of steel structural frames and glass curtain-wall systems. High-rises are used for residential apart¬ ments, hotels, offices, and sometimes retail, light manufacturing, and edu¬ cational facilities. See also skyscraper.

high school In the U.S., any three- to six-year secondary school serv¬ ing students about 14-18 years of age. Four-year schools are by far the most common; their grade levels are designated freshman (9th grade), sophomore (10th), junior (11th), and senior (12th). Comprehensive high schools offer both general academic courses and specialized commercial, trade, and technical subjects. Most U.S. high schools are tuition-free, sup¬ ported by state funds. Private high schools are usually classed as either PAROCHIAL or PREPARATORY schools.

high seas In maritime law, the waters lying outside the territorial waters of any and all states. In the Middle Ages, a number of maritime states asserted sovereignty over large portions of the high seas. The doctrine that the high seas in time of peace are open to all nations was first pro¬ posed by Hugo Grotius (1609), but it did not become an accepted prin¬ ciple of international law until the 19th century. Activities permitted on the high seas include navigation, fishing, the laying of submarine cables and pipelines, and overflight of aircraft.

high-speed steel Alloy of steel introduced in 1900. It doubled or trebled the capacities of machine shops by permitting the operation of machine tools at twice or three times the speeds possible with carbon steel (which loses its cutting edge when the temperature produced by the fric¬ tion of the cutting action is above about 400°F, or 210°C). A common type of high-speed steel contains 18% tungsten, 4% chromium, 1% vana¬ dium, and only 0.5-0.8% carbon. See also heat treating, stainless steel.

higher education Study beyond the level of secondary education. Institutions of higher education include not only colleges and universities but also professional schools in such fields as law, theology, medicine, business, music, and art. They also include teacher-training schools, community colleges, and institutes of technology. At the end of a pre¬ scribed course of study, a degree, diploma, or certificate is awarded.

See also continuing education.

Highland Games Athletic games originating in the Scottish Highlands and now held there and in various parts of the world, usually under the auspices of a local Cale¬ donian society. Events include flat and hurdle races, long and high jumps, hammer and weight throws, and the caber toss, the hurling end- over-end of a tapered fir pole about 17 ft (5 m) long and 90 lbs (40 kg) in weight. Competitions in bagpipe playing and Highland dancing also form an important part of the meet¬ ings.

1

Tossing the caber at a Braemar gather¬ ing

ABERDEEN JOURNALS LTD.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

hijacking ► Hillel I 875

hijacking Crime of seizing possession or control of a vehicle from another by force or threat of force. Although by the late 20th century hijacking most frequently involved the seizure of an airplane and its forc¬ ible diversion to destinations chosen by the air pirates, when the term was coined in the 1920s hijacking generally referred to in-transit thefts of truckloads of illegally manufactured liquor or to the similar seizure of rumrunners at sea. Airplane hijacking also is known as skyjacking. The first reported case of such hijacking occurred in Peru in 1931. Between 1968 and 1970 alone there were nearly 200 hijackings. The participants often were politically motivated Palestinians or other Arabs who com¬ mandeered airplanes while in flight and threatened harm to the passen¬ gers and crew unless certain of their comrades were released from jail in Israel or some other location. Air hijackings continued in the 1980s and ’90s, though new airport security measures and international agreements on terrorism probably deterred many more. The deadliest act of air piracy to date occurred on Sept. 11, 2001 (see September 11 attacks), when sui¬ cide terrorists simultaneously hijacked four airliners in the U.S. and flew two of them into the World Trade Center complex in New York City and one into the Pentagon near Washington, D.C.; the fourth crashed outside Pittsburgh, Pa. The crashes killed all 245 passengers (and 19 hijackers) aboard the airplanes and some 3,000 people in the buildings and on the ground. See also piracy; terrorism.

Hijaz, Al- See Hejaz

Hijrah Vhi-'jl-ro, 'he-jo-roV English Hegira Arabic "Migration" Journey of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina in 622 to escape persecu¬ tion and found a community of believers. The date represents the begin¬ ning of Islam. The second caliph, 'Umar ibn al-Khattab, began the practice of using the event as the starting point for the Muslim calendar; years are now denoted by the initials ah (Latin Anno Hegirae, “in the year of the Hegira”). The disciples who traveled with Muhammad to Medina were called the Companions of the Prophet.

hiking Walking, often among hills or mountains, as recreational sport. It represents an activity in its own right and also figures in backpacking, camping, hunting, mountaineering, and orienteering. Hiking programs are offered by youth groups and other organizations, such as the U.S. Wil¬ derness Society. Trails are preserved in most U.S. federal and state park- lands. Most European cities have hiking trails outside them. One of the longest U.S. hiking trails is the Appalachian National Scenic Trail.

Hilbert, David (b. Jan. 23, 1862, Konigsberg, Prussia—d. Feb. 14, 1943, Gottingen, Ger.) German mathematician whose work aimed at establishing the formalistic foundations of mathematics. He finished his Ph.D. at the University of Konigsberg (1884) and moved to the Univer¬ sity of Gottingen in 1895. In 1900 at the International Mathematical Con¬ gress in Paris, he laid out 23 research problems as a challenge to the 20th century. Many have since been solved, in each case to great fanfare. Hil¬ bert’s name is prominently attached to an infinite-dimensional space called a Hilbert space (see inner product space), a concept useful in math¬ ematical analysis and quantum mechanics.

Hildebrand, Joel Henry (b. Nov. 16, 1881, Camden, N.J., U.S.—d. April 30, 1983, Kensington, Calif.) U.S. educator and chemist. He taught principally at the University of Pennsylvania and University of Califor¬ nia at Berkeley. His 1924 monograph on the solubility of nonelectrolytes, Solubility, was the classic reference for almost half a century. His many scientific papers and chemistry texts include An Introduction to Molecu¬ lar Kinetic Theory (1963) and Viscosity and Diffusivity (1977). He received the Distinguished Service Medal in 1918 and the King’s Medal (British) in 1948.

Hildegard von Bingen \ , hil-d3- I gart-fon- , biq-9n\ (b. 1098, Bockel- heim, West Franconia—d. Sept. 17, 1179, Rupertsberg, near Bingen) Ger¬ man abbess and visionary mystic. She became prioress at the Benedictine cloister of Disibodenberg in 1136. Having experienced visions since child¬ hood, she was eventually permitted to write Scivias (1141-52), in which she recorded 26 prophetic, symbolic, and apocalyptic visions; it was fol¬ lowed by two more such collections. She founded a convent at Rupertsberg c. 1147, where she continued to prophesy; she became known as the “Sibyl of the Rhine,” and her advice was sought by the most powerful and eminent figures of Europe. Her other works include a morality play, a book of saints’ lives, treatises on medicine and natural history, and extensive correspon¬ dence. Her Symphonia armonie celestium revelationum consists of 77 lyri¬ cal poems, all with monophonic melodies; she is apparently the first

woman composer in the Western tradition whose music is known. Though long regarded as a saint, she has never been formally canonized.

Hill, David Octavius, and Robert Adamson (respectively b. 1802, Perth, Scot.—d. May 17, 1870, Newington; b. 1821, Berunside, Scot.—d. Jan. 1848, St. Andrews) Scottish photographers. Hill, originally a painter, was a founding member of the Royal Scottish Academy and its secretary for 40 years. In 1843 he enlisted the help of Adamson, a chemist experienced in photography, in photographing the delegates to the found¬ ing convention of the Free Church of Scotland. They used the calotype pro¬ cess, by which an image was developed from a paper negative. In these and other portraits they demonstrated a masterly sense of form and composition and a dramatic use of light and shade. Their five-year partnership resulted in some 3,000 photographs, including many views of Edinburgh and small fishing villages. Before Adamson died at age 27, they produced some of the greatest photographic portraits of the 19th century.

Hill, James J(erome) (b. Sept. 16, 1838, near Guelph, Ont., Can.—d. May 29, 1916, St. Paul, Minn., U.S.) Canadian-U.S. financier and rail¬ road builder. He began his career in St. Paul overseeing steamboat trans¬ portation. In 1873 he reorganized a bankrupt railroad as the St. Paul, Minneapolis, and Manitoba Railway Co. and was named its president in 1882. The Great Northern Railway Co. absorbed the St. Paul line in 1890, and Hill became its president (1893-1907) and chairman of the board (1907-12). The Northern Pacific and the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy railroads also came under Hill’s control; Edward Harriman’s attempt to seize control of Northern Pacific from him (1901) triggered a Wall Street panic. Hill’s banking activity as president of Northern Securities Co. was declared in violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1904.

Hill, Joe orig. Joel Emmanuel Hagglund (b. Oct. 7, 1879, Gavle, Swed.—d. Nov. 19, 1915, Salt Lake City, Utah, U.S.) Swedish-U.S. song¬ writer and organizer for the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW). Hill immigrated to the U.S. c. 1902 and joined the IWW in 1910. His songs of protest and solidarity—including “The Preacher and the Slave,” in which he coined the phrase pie in the sky to mock the “reward” awaiting the meek in the next world—became widely popular. In 1914 he was arrested in Salt Lake City and charged with the murder of a grocer and his son during a robbery. Convicted on circumstantial evidence despite mass demonstra¬ tions on his behalf, Hill was executed by a firing squad. His death made him a martyr in the eyes of the radical U.S. labour movement.

Hill painting See Pahari painting

Hillary, Sir Edmund (Percival) (b. July 20, 1919, Auckland, N.Z.) New Zealand mountain climber and explorer. Hillary was a professional beekeeper but enjoyed climbing in the New Zealand Alps. In 1951 he joined a New Zealand party to the central Himalayas and then went on to help in a reconnaissance of the southern flank of Everest. In 1953, as a member of the British Everest expedition, he and Tenzing Norgay reached the summit on May 29, becoming the first known climbers to do so. The achievement brought Hil¬ lary worldwide fame and he was knighted that same year. In 1958 he participated in the first crossing of Antarctica by vehicle. From the 1960s he has helped build schools and hospitals for the Sherpa people.