Britannica Concise 2005

new town Form of urban planning designed to relocate populations away from large cities by grouping homes, hospitals, industry and cul¬ tural, recreational, and shopping centers to form entirely new, relatively autonomous communities. The new-town movement was anticipated by the Utopian Ebenezer Howard in the early 20th century (see garden city). The first official new towns were proposed in Britain’s New Towns Act of 1946. The idea found favor in other countries, especially in the U.S., Western Europe, and Soviet Siberia. New towns outside Britain often failed to incorporate enough of the mixed-use atmosphere that gives a town vitality. A dramatic increase in commuting and use of the car obvi¬ ated the need for new towns to be so self-contained.

New Wave French nouvelle vague Group of individualistic French film directors of the late 1950s, including Claude Chabrol, Francois Truffaut, Jean-Luc Godard, Louis Malle, Eric Rohmer, Alain Resnais, and oth¬ ers. Most of the New Wave directors were associated with the important film magazine Cahiers du Cinema, in which they developed the highly influential auteur theory, calling for films to express the director’s per¬ sonal vision. Their films were characterized by a brilliance of technique that sometimes overshadowed the subject matter. Among the most impor¬ tant New Wave films were Godard’s Breathless (1959), Truffaut’s The 400 Blows (1959), and Resnais’s Hiroshima mon amour (1959).

New World monkey Any of some 100 species of monkeys (the platyr- rhine [“flat-nosed”] monkeys) that inhabit tropical Central and South America. Platyrrhines have a broad nose, with a wide septum separating the outwardly directed nostrils, and relatively unopposable thumbs. Most species have a long tail, which in a few species is prehensile. They are divided by zoologists into five families: the marmosets and tamarins; the titis, sakis, and uakaris; the spider monkeys and woolly monkeys; the capu¬ chin monkeys and squirrel monkeys; and the durukulis. See also Old World

MONKEY.

New Year's Day First day of the new year, celebrated with religious, cultural, and social observances around the world. It is usually marked by

rites and ceremonies that symbolize casting off the old year and rejoicing in the new. Most of the world recognizes January 1 as the start of a new year because the Gregorian calendar, from its papal origin in 1582, has become the international reference for treaties, corporate contracts, and other legal documents. Nevertheless, numerous religious and national cal¬ endars have been retained. For example, in the Persian calendar (used in Iran and Afghanistan) New Year’s Day falls on the spring equinox (March 20 or 21 in the Gregorian calendar). The more widely employed Islamic (Hijrl) calendar is based on 12 lunar months of 29 or 30 days; thus, the Islamic New Year’s Day gradually regresses through the longer Grego¬ rian calendar. The Hindu new year starts on the day following the first new moon on or after the spring equinox. The Chinese new year begins at sunset on the new moon in the sign of Aquarius (late January or early February). The Hebrew calendar is based on 12 lunar months (13 in cer¬ tain years) of 29 or 30 days; the Jewish New Year’s Day, or Rosh Ha- shanah, can fall anytime from September 6 to October 5 in the Gregorian calendar.

New York State (pop., 2000: 18,976,457), eastern U.S. It is bordered by Canada and the U.S. states of Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania; Lake Erie and Lake Ontario are to the west and the Atlantic Ocean to the southeast. New York covers 53,013 sq mi (137,304 sq km); its capital is Albany. The Hudson, St. Lawrence, Dela¬ ware, and Niagara rivers all form parts of its boundaries. The Adirondack Mountains are in the northeast; the Catskills are in the east. Before European colonization, Algonquins (see Algonquian languages) and Iro¬ quois inhabited the area. In 1524 Giovanni Verrazzano visited New York Bay. The 1609 explorations of Henry Hudson and Samuel de Champlain led to settlement. In 1664 the Dutch colony, New Netherland, led by Peter Stuyvesant, surrendered to the British and was renamed New York. The French and Indian War resulted in skirmishes in northern and central New York; its conclusion confirmed English dominance in the region. In the American Revolution, it was the scene of many battles, including those of Ticonderoga and Saratoga, and of Benedict Arnold’s treason at West Point. New York adopted the first state constitution (1777). The capital moved from New York City to Albany in 1797. The opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 spurred development of the western part of the state. In the 19th century the growing influence in New York City of Tammany Hall caused tension between the city and the state. The economy was once based largely on manufacturing in cities, including Buffalo, Rochester, and Syra¬ cuse. It is now dominated by service industries, concentrated in New York City.

New York, State University of (SUNY) Largest university sys¬ tem in the U.S. Founded in 1948, it consists of university centres in Albany, Binghamton, Buffalo, and Stony Brook; colleges of arts and sci¬ ences in Brockport, Buffalo, Cortland, Fredonia, Geneseo, New Paltz, Old Westbury, Oneonta, Oswego, Plattsburgh, Potsdam, and Purchase; three medical centres (two in New York City and one in Syracuse); several two-year agricultural and technical colleges; a nonresidential continuing- education program (Empire State College); over 30 community colleges; and various other specialized units.

New York Central Railroad Major U.S. railroad. It was founded in 1853 to consolidate 10 railroads that paralleled the Erie Canal between Albany and Buffalo, the oldest being the Mohawk and Hudson, New York state’s first railway (established 1831). Cornelius Vanderbilt won control of the New York Central in 1867 and combined it with his New York and Hudson railroads running from Manhattan to Albany. The system grew until it had 10,000 mi (16,000 km) of track linking New York with Bos¬ ton, Montreal, Chicago, and St. Louis. The New York Central began to decline after World War II, and in 1968 it merged with its chief competi¬ tor, the Pennsylvania Railroad Co., to form the Penn Central Transporta¬ tion Co. The merger failed, and the railroad was forced into bankruptcy in 1970. Its passenger services were taken over by Amtrak in 1971, and its other railroad assets were transferred to Conrail in 1976.

New York City City (pop., 2000: 8,008,278), southeastern New York, at the mouth of the Hudson River. The largest city in the U.S. and an important seaport, it consists of five boroughs: the Bronx, Brooklyn, Man¬ hattan, Queens, and Staten Island. The site of a Dutch trading post on Manhattan Island, it was colonized as New Amsterdam by Dutch direc¬ tor general Peter Minuit, who bought it from the Indians in 1626. The colony surrendered to the British in 1664 and was renamed New York. It was the capital of the state (1784-97) and of the U.S. (1789-90). The economy grew after the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825, and the city

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expanded rapidly after the American Civil War, developing transportation and communications systems. In 1898 the five boroughs were merged into a single city. Long a magnet for immigrants to the U.S., it is a centre of world trade and finance, media, art, entertainment, and fashion. Because of its prominence and its central role in world commerce, the city was a target for acts of terrorism. In September 2001, hijackers intentionally flew airliners into the twin towers of the World Trade Center, destroying them and destroying or damaging several adjacent buildings; the attacks killed some 2,800 people. See September 11 attacks.

New York City Ballet Preeminent U.S. ballet company. The company is descended from the American Ballet, which was founded by George Balanchine and Lincoln Kirstein in 1935 and revived as the Ballet Society in 1946; it assumed its current name in 1948. Under Balanchine’s artistic direction, the company became the leading U.S. ballet troupe, combining European classical ballet with American characterization and innovation and exerting enormous influence on American dance. It moved to its per¬ manent home, the New York State Theater at Lincoln Center, in 1964. Later artistic directors Jerome Robbins and Peter Martins contributed numer¬ ous works to its repertoire. Its leading dancers have included Maria Tallchief, Edward Villella, Jacques d'Amboise, and Suzanne Farrell.

New York Daily News Morning daily tabloid newspaper published in New York City. It was founded in 1919 by Joseph Medill Patterson and his cousin Robert McCormick as a subsidiary of the Tribune Co. of Chicago. The first successful tabloid-format newspaper in the U.S., it quickly attracted a large readership with sensational coverage of crime, scandal, and violence; it also included lurid photographs, cartoons, and entertainment features. It was an early user of wirephotos and developed a large staff of photographers. In 1993 it was bought by Mortimer B. Zuckerman.

New York Public Library Largest city public library in the U.S. and one of the great libraries of the world. It was established in 1895, and its central building opened in 1911. Its holdings include more than 10 mil¬ lion books and more than 10 million manuscripts, as well as large col¬ lections of pictures, maps, books for the blind, films, and microfilms.

New York school Painters who participated in the development of contemporary art, particularly Abstract Expressionism, in or around New York City in the 1940s and ’50s. During and after World War II, leader¬ ship in avant-garde art shifted from war-tom Europe to New York, and the New York school maintained a dominant position in world art into the 1980s. Abstract Expressionism, Minimalism, Pop art, and the new realist styles of the late 1960s, among others, all had their beginnings in New York. See also action painting.

New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) World’s largest marketplace for securities. The exchange began as an informal meeting of 24 men in 1792 on what is now Wall Street in New York City. It was formally con¬ stituted as the New York Stock and Exchange Board in 1817, and its present name was adopted in 1863. Since 1868 membership has been obtained by purchasing a seat from an existing member; membership has been limited to 1,366 since 1953. The exchange provided capital for the industrialization of the U.S. in the 19th century. After the Panic of 1837 it began to demand that companies disclose information about their finances to the public as a condition of offering stock. The stock-market crash of 1929 led to regulation by the Securities and Exchange Commission. To be listed on the NYSE, a company must earn $2.5 million before taxes, have more than one million shares of stock outstanding, give common stockholders voting rights, and publish periodic financial statements. See also American Stock Exchange; NASDAQ.

New York Times, The Morning daily newspaper, long the U.S. news¬ paper of record. From its establishment in 1851 it has aimed to avoid sen¬ sationalism and to appeal to cultured, intellectual readers. In 1896 it was bought by Adolph Ochs, who built it into an internationally respected daily. Its prestige was notably enhanced by its coverage of the sinking of the Titanic and of the two world wars. In the 1970s it became involved in controversy with its publication of the Pentagon Papers. Later in the decade, under the direction of Ochs’s grandson, Arthur Ochs Sulzberger, its organization and staff underwent sweeping changes, including the introduction of a national edition printed at regional sites. Today it is per¬ haps the most respected and influential newspaper in the world. It is the flagship of The New York Times Co., whose interests include other news¬ papers (including the Boston Globe), magazines, and broadcast and elec¬ tronic media.

New Yorker, The U.S. weekly magazine, famous for its varied liter¬ ary fare and humour. It was founded in 1925 by Harold Ross, who was its editor until 1951. Initially focused on New York City’s amusements and social and cultural life, it gradually acquired a broader scope, encompass¬ ing literature, current affairs, and other topics. Aimed at a sophisticated, liberal audience, it became renowned for its short fiction, cartoons, major (occasionally book-length) nonfiction pieces, and detailed reviews in the arts. It was sold in 1985 to Samuel I. Newhouse, Jr. (see Newhouse fam¬ ily). Since Ross, its editors have been William Shawn (1952-87), Robert Gottlieb (1987-92), Tina Brown (1992-98), and David Remnick (from

1998).

New Zealand Island country, South Pacific Ocean. Area: 104,454 sq mi (270,534 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 4,096,000. Capital: Welling¬ ton. Most of the people are of European origin; about one-tenth are Maori,

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and some are Pacific Islanders and Chinese.

Languages: English, Maori (both official).

Religions: Christianity (Protestant, Roman Catholic); also Buddhism, Hinduism. Cur¬ rency: New Zealand dollar. New Zealand

consists of the North Island and the South Island, which are separated by Cook Strait, and several smaller islands. Both main islands are bisected by mountain ranges. New Zealand has a developing market economy based largely on agriculture (dominated by sheep raising), small-scale industries, and services. It is a constitutional monarchy with one legisla¬ tive house; its chief of state is the British monarch represented by the governor-general, and the head of government is the prime minister. Polynesian occupation dates to c. ad 1000. First sighted by Dutch explorer Abel Janszoon Tasman in 1642, the main islands were charted by Capt. James Cook in 1769. Named a British crown colony in 1840, the area was the scene of warfare between colonists and native Maori through the 1860s. The capital was moved from Auckland to Wellington in 1865, and in 1907 the colony became the Dominion of New Zealand. It administered Western Samoa from 1919 to 1962 and participated in both World Wars. When Britain joined the European Economic Community in the early 1970s, its influence led New Zealand to expand its export markets and diversify its economy. New Zealand also became more independent in its foreign relations and took a strong stand against nuclear proliferation. The literacy rate is nearly 100%. The cultural milieu is predominantly European, although there has been a revival of traditional Maori culture and art, and Maori social and economic activism have been central to political devel¬ opments in New Zealand since the late 20th century.

Newar \'na-'war\ People living in the Kathmandu Valley in Nepal. They make up about half the population of the valley. Most are Hindu, but some practice an Indian form of Buddhism. The Newar have a wide range of

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Newark ► Newman I 1355

occupations; they have traditionally been noted as architects and artisans, the builders of the famous temples and shrines of Kathmandu. Painting and sculpture flourished among them in the 1 Oth— 16th centuries. The Newar population of Nepal is estimated to be about 540,000.

Newark Vnu-orkA City (pop., 2000: 273,546) and port of entry, north¬ eastern New Jersey, U.S., west of New York City. It was founded in 1666 by Puritans and was chartered as a township in 1693. It was the site of the College of New Jersey (1748-56; now Princeton University). In 1776 the city served as a supply base for Gen. George Washington. It was incorporated as a city in 1836. The largest city in the state, it was the scene of major civil disturbances in 1967. It is a highly diversified indus¬ trial, transportation, and insurance centre. It was the birthplace of Aaron Burr and Stephen Crane.

Newbery, John (b. 1713, Waltham St. Lawrence, Berkshire, Eng.—d. Dec. 22, 1767, London) English publisher. In 1744 he set up a bookshop and publishing house in London, and it became one of the first to pub¬ lish children’s books, including A Little Pretty Pocket-Book and Little Goody Two-Shoes. In 1781 his firm published the first collection of nurs¬ ery rhymes associated with Mother Goose. He is commemorated by the Newbery Medal, awarded annually since 1922 by the American Library Association for the most distinguished contribution to children’s litera¬ ture in the U.S. It is presented along with the Caldecott Medal (see Ran¬ dolph Caldecott), awarded for the best children’s picture book.

Newcastle (-under-Lyme), Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st duke of (b. July 21, 1693—d. Nov. 17, 1768, London, Eng.) British politician. He inherited lands from his father and uncle that by 1714 made him one of the wealthiest Whig landowners in England. He helped bring about the succession of George I, for which he received the title of duke (1715). Chosen by Robert Walpole as secretary of state, he served from 1724 to 1754, then succeeded his brother Henry Pelham as prime minister (1754-56, 1757-62). Noted for his skill in distributing patronage to secure parliamentary support for a particular ministry, Newcastle wielded great political influence in the reigns of George I and George II.

Newcastle (-upon-Tyne), William Cavendish, 1 st duke of

(b. c. 1593—d. Dec. 25, 1676, Welbeck, Nottinghamshire, Eng.) British Royalist commander in the English Civil Wars. Through inheritances and royal favour, he became very wealthy. In 1642 he was given command of the four northern English counties and raised the siege of York (1642). After the Royalist defeat at the Battle of Marston Moor, he left England for France and Holland. He returned at the Restoration and regained his estates. A patron of poets and dramatists, he also wrote several comedies.

Newcastle upon Tyne or Newcastle City and metropolitan bor¬ ough (pop., 2001: 259,573), metropolitan county of Tyne and Wear, his¬ toric county of Northumberland, northeastern England, on the River Tyne. It dates from the Roman period and derives its name from the Norman castle built in 1080 by Robert II of Normandy, the oldest son of William I (the Conqueror). At first an important wool trade centre, it became a major mining area and coal-shipping port in the 16th century. It was among the world’s largest ship-repairing facilities; its economy now rests on asso¬ ciated marine and heavy engineering industries. The city is also an edu¬ cational centre and features a 14th-century church.

Newcomen Vnii-ko-monV Thomas (b. Feb. 28, 1663, Dartmouth, Devon, Eng.—d. Aug. 5, 1729, London) British engineer. In 1712 he built his atmospheric steam engine, a precursor of James Watt’s engine. In the Newcomen engine, atmospheric pressure pushed the piston down after the condensation of steam had created a vacuum in the cylinder. New¬ comen engines were used for some years in the draining of mines and in raising water to power waterwheels.

Newell, Allen (b. March 19, 1927, San Francisco, Calif., U.S.—d. July 19, 1992, Pittsburgh, Pa.) U.S. cognitive scientist. He taught at Carnegie Mellon University from 1961 until his death. In the late 1950s and early 1960s he collaborated with Herbert Simon in constructing an influential model of human problem solving (Human Problem Solving, 1972). His later work was concerned with artificial intelligence, and he is known for his development of computer models of human cognition and the devel¬ opment of a unified theory of cognition (Unified Theories of Cognition, 1990). In 1992 he received the National Medal of Science.

Newfoundland Dog breed developed in Newfoundland, possibly from crosses between native dogs and the Great Pyrenees dogs that Basque fishermen introduced into North America in the 17th century.

Noted for sea rescues, the gentle, patient Newfoundland stands 26-28 in. (66-71 cm) and weighs 110-150 lbs (50-68 kg). Powerful hindquarters, a large lung capacity, large webbed feet, and a heavy, oily coat enable it to swim in cold waters. It has also been used as a watchdog and draft animal. The typical Newfoundland is solid black; the Landseer New¬ foundland is usually black and white.

Newfoundland, Memorial University of See Memorial Univer¬ sity of Newfoundland

Newfoundland Vnii-fond-londV and Labrador Province (pop., 2001: 512,930), one of the four Atlantic provinces of Canada. Consisting of the island of Newfoundland and Labrador on the mainland, and bounded by Quebec, it extends into the North Atlantic Ocean and is the eastern¬ most part of North America. Its capital is St. John's. It was originally settled by Indians and Eskimos. Viking ruins from c. ad 1000 have been found in the northern part of the island. John Cabot claimed the island for England in 1497; the first colony was established at St. John’s in 1583. France and England disputed possession of the area, and though England retained control with the 1713 Peace of Utrecht, controversies over fish¬ ing rights continued through the 19th century. A province since 1949, it includes the Grand Banks fishing grounds. Fishing, mainly for cod, was virtually the only industry until the early 20th century, when western Labrador’s vast iron reserves began to be exploited.

Newhouse family Family that built a large publishing empire in the U.S. in the late 20th century. The family’s fortunes began with Samuel Irving Newhouse (1895-1979), who, as a clerk at age 17, made a failing newspaper in Bayonne, N.J., profitable. From the early 1920s he bought and turned around other papers; at his death his company, Advance Pub¬ lications Inc., owned 31 newspapers, 7 magazines, 5 radio stations, 6 tele¬ vision stations, and 15 cable television systems. Led by his sons Samuel I. Newhouse, Jr. (b. 1928), and Donald E. Newhouse (b. 1930), Advance Publications greatly expanded, buying several book publishers, including Random House (sold to Bertelsmann AG in 1998), and becoming one of the largest U.S. magazine publishers with titles such as The New Yorker, Vanity Fair, Vogue, Glamour, Bride's, and Gourmet.

Newman, Arnold (Abner) (b. March 3,1918, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. photographer. He studied art at the University of Miami, then worked in the photography studio of a Miami department store. In 1946 he opened his own studio in New York City, where he specialized in portraits of well- known people posed in settings associated with their work. His “environ¬ mental portraiture” greatly influenced 20th-century portrait photography. His best-known portraits include those of Max Ernst, Alfred Stieglitz, Geor¬ gia O'Keeffe, Igor Stravinsky, Pablo Picasso, and Jean Cocteau.

Newman, Barnett orig. Baruch Newman (b. Jan. 29, 1905, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. July 3, 1970, New York City) U.S. painter. Bom to Polish immigrant parents, he studied at the Art Students League and City College. With Robert Motherwell and Mark Rothko, he cofounded the school called “Subject of the Artist” (1948), which held open sessions and lectures for other artists. He developed a style of mystical abstrac¬ tion and achieved his breakthrough with Onement I (1948), in which a single stripe (or “zip”) of orange vertically bisects a field of dark red. This austerely geometric style became his trademark and had a great influence on artists such as Ad Reinhardt and Frank Stella.

Newman, John Henry known as Cardinal Newman (b. Feb. 21, 1801, London, Eng.—d. Aug. 11, 1890, Birmingham, Warwick) English churchman and man of letters. He attended the University of Oxford, where in 1833 he became the leader of the Oxford Movement, which stressed the Catholic elements in the English religious tradition and sought to reform the Church of England. He was received into the Roman Catholic church in 1845, but he came under suspicion among the more rigorous clergy because of his quasi-liberal spirit. A challenge from Charles Kingsley prompted him to write an eloquent exposition of his spiritual history, the widely admired Apologia pro Vita Sua (1864). The work assured his place in the church, and in 1879 he became a cardinal- deacon. He also wrote theological works, religious poetry, and several hymns, including “Lead, Kindly Light.”

Newman, Paul (b. Jan. 26, 1925, Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.) U.S. film actor. He studied drama at Yale University and the Actors Studio and first appeared on Broadway in Picnic (1953). In 1954 he made his screen debut in the disastrous biblical epic The Silver Chalice. He won favourable notice in Somebody up There Likes Me (1956) and The Long Hot Sum-

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mer (1958). In many of his best-remembered roles, he captured the darker, less heroic aspects of a character’s nature, as in such successful films as The Hustler (1961), Hud (1963), Cool Hand Luke (1967), Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1969), The Color of Money (1986; Academy Award), and Nobody’s Fool (1994). He directed and produced films such as Rachel, Rachel (1968) and The Glass Menagerie (1987), both of which starred his wife, Joanne Woodward. In 1982 he launched the successful “Newman’s Own” line of food products, with its profits going to a num¬ ber of charitable causes.

Newport Town (pop., 1995 est.: 22,000), Isle of Wight, in the historic county of Hampshire, England. It was probably the Roman settlement of Medina; there is no trace of Saxon settlement. The first charter was granted between 1177 and 1184, and the borough was incorporated in 1608. It is the Isle of Wight’s trade and agricultural centre.

Newport City (pop., 2000: 26,475) and port of entry, southeastern Rhode Island, U.S., at the mouth of Narragansett Bay. Founded in 1639 by colonists from Massachusetts, it became a haven for religious refugees. With Providence, it was the joint capital of the state until 1900. Newport has held many of the America's Cup yacht races, and it is a centre for naval edu¬ cation. It also is the site of one of Cornelius Vanderbilt’s mansions (The Breakers) and the Touro synagogue, which is the oldest in the U.S.

Newport Town, port, and county borough (pop., 2001 est.: 137,017), historic county of Monmouthshire, Wales, at the Bristol Channel mouth of the River Usk. By c. 1126 it was a medieval borough with a castle. The city was chartered in 1385. It was industrialized in the 19th century and was the scene of Chartist riots in 1839 (see Chartism). Industries include steel and aluminum.

Newport News City (pop., 2000: 180,150) and port of entry, south¬ eastern Virginia, U.S., at the mouth of the James River. The site was settled in 1621 by 50 colonists from Ireland. It was incorporated as a city in 1896 and was an important embarkation point in both World Wars. With Nor¬ folk and Portsmouth, it constitutes the Port of Hampton Roads. It is the site of one of the largest shipyards in the world, producing luxury liners, air¬ craft carriers, and nuclear-powered submarines.

Newry and Mourne District (pop., 2001: 87,058), southeastern Northern Ireland. Bordered by the Irish Sea and the republic of Ireland, it is divided in two by the Newry Canal, the first major canal in the Brit¬ ish Isles, built 1730-41. Limestone and granite are quarried in the Mourne Mountains. The administrative seat is at Newry.