Britannica Concise 2005

Charles ► Charles III I 375

Charles, Ray orig. Ray Charles Robinson (b. Sept. 23, 1930, Albany, Ga., U.S.—d. June 10, 2004, Beverly Hills, Calif.) U.S. pianist, singer, and songwriter. His family moved to Greenville, Fla., where he began his musical career at age 5 in a neighbourhood cafe. By age 7 he had completely lost his sight. He learned to write scores in Braille. Orphaned at 15, he left school to play professionally. He recorded “Mess Around” and “It Should’ve Been Me” in 1952-53, and his arrangement for Guitar Slim’s “The Things That I Used to Do” became a million-seller. Combining blues and gospel music influences, a distinctive raspy voice, and liquid phrasing, Charles later had hits with “What’d I Say,” “Georgia on My Mind,” and “Hit the Road, Jack.” His Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music (1962), marking unusual territory for a black performer, sold more than a million copies. He received 13 Grammy Awards, includ¬ ing a lifetime achievement award in 1987. Charles was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1986.

Charles I German Karl Franz Josef (b. Aug. 17, 1887, Persenbeug Castle, Austria—d. April 1, 1922, Quinta do Monte, Madeira) Emperor of Austria (1916-18) and king of Hungary (as Charles IV), last ruler of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. He became heir presumptive to the Hab- sburg throne on the assassination of his uncle, Francis Ferdinand. After he succeeded Francis Joseph in 1916, he made several abortive attempts to take Austria-Hungary out of World War I. He renounced participation in affairs of state in 1918 and was deposed in 1919. After two failed attempts to regain his Hungarian throne in 1921, he was sent into exile in Madeira, where he died.

Charles I (b. Nov. 19, 1600, Dunfermline Palace, Fife, Scot.—d. Jan. 30, 1649, London, Eng.) King of Great Britain and Ireland (1625^-9). Son of James I, he acquired from his father a belief in the divine right of kings, and his earliest surviving letters reveal a distrust of the House of Commons. He became king in 1625 and soon after married Henrietta Maria. He came into conflict with his first Parliament because of religious issues, his war against Spain, and the general distrust of his adviser the 1st duke of Buckingham. After dissolving several successive Parliaments, Charles ruled his kingdom for 11 years without calling a Parliament. Among the measures he took to be independent of parliamentary grants was the levying of ship money. In 1639 he went to war against Scotland, and the need to raise money prompted him to summon what came to be known as the Short Parliament and the Long Parliament. Eventually his authoritarian rule and quarrels with Parliament provoked the English Civil Wars. After his forces were defeated in the second of these wars, the army demanded that he stand trial for treason as “the grand author of our troubles.” In 1649 he was convicted and executed, and Oliver Cromwell proclaimed the Commonwealth.

Charles I Hungarian Karoly known as Charles Robert of Anjou

Van-jii\ (b. 1288, Naples, Kingdom of Naples—d. July 16, 1342, Viseg- ard, Hung.) King of Hungary (1301, 1308—42). He claimed the Hungar¬ ian throne with papal approval and was crowned in 1301, but his claim was disputed, and he was not recognized as king until 1308. A courtly and pious ruler, Charles restored Hungary to the status of a great power. An alliance with Poland enabled him to defeat the Holy Roman emperor and the Austrians. He failed to unite Hungary and Naples but negotiated a pact providing that his eldest son would become king of Poland.

Charles I known as Charles of Anjou \'an-ju\ (b. March 1226—d. Jan. 7, 1285, Foggia, Kingdom of Naples [Italy]) King of Naples and Sic¬ ily (1266-85), the first of the Angevin dynasty. The younger brother of Louis IX of France, Charles allied with the papacy and conquered Naples and Sicily in the 1260s, defeating the last representatives of the Hohen- staufen dynasty. He created a great but short-lived Mediterranean empire, expanding into the Balkans and becoming heir to the kingdom of Jerus¬ alem (1277). The Sicilians rebelled against French domination in 1282 (see Sicilian Vespers) and drove out the Angevins in 1284. Charles died while preparing a counteroffensive, and his kingdom was eventually secured by the Spanish.

Charles II (b. May 29, 1630, London, Eng.—d. Feb. 6, 1685, London) King of Great Britain and Ireland (1660-85). Son of Charles I and Hen¬ rietta Maria, he supported his father in the English Civil Wars. After his father’s execution, he invaded England in 1651 but was defeated at Worcester. He then spent years in exile until Oliver Cromwell died and conditions favored a return to the monarchy. His Declaration of Breda paved the way for him to be proclaimed king in May 1660 (see Resto¬ ration). He became known as “the Merry Monarch” for his lifting of Puri¬

tan restrictions on entertainment and his own love of pleasure; his best- known mistress was the actress Nell Gwyn. Important events of his reign included the controversial Treaty of Dover and two wars with the Dutch (see Anglo-Dutch Wars). By the 1670s the miscarriages of his queen, Catherine of Braganza, had reduced hopes that he would have a legitimate heir (though he left at least 14 illegitimate offspring). He almost lost con¬ trol of his government when hysteria arose over the Popish Plot to replace him with his Roman Catholic brother James (the future James II). Charles kept his nerve, reestablished his political control, and eventually enjoyed a resurgence in loyalty. His political adaptability and acumen enabled him to steer his country through the struggle between Anglicans, Catholics, and dissenters that marked his reign.

Charles II known as Charles of Anjou \'an-ju\ or Charles the Lame (b. c. 1254—d. May 5, 1309, Naples) King of Naples and ruler of several other European territories. He guarded Naples while his father, Charles I, launched a campaign to regain Sicily from the Aragonese. He was captured and imprisoned (1284-88); on being freed he promised to give up his claim to Sicily, but the pope released him from the vow, and he fought unsuccessfully for Sicily until 1302. He built alliances through the marriages of his children and extended his control over Piedmont, Provence, Hungary, Athens, and Albania.

Charles II Spanish Carlos (b. Nov. 6, 1661, Madrid, Spain—d. Nov. 1, 1700, Madrid) King of Spain (1665-1700), the last monarch of the Spanish Habsburg dynasty. Son of Philip IV and Maria Anna of Austria, he was slow-witted and became known as Charles the Mad. His reign opened with a 10-year regency under the queen mother. The first phase of his personal government was concerned with resistance to the French impe¬ rialism of Louis XIV, and the second was dominated by the succession problem, for it was clear that he would father no children. His death led to the War of the Spanish Succession.

Charles II known as Charles the Bad (b. 1332—d. Jan. 1, 1387) King of Navarra (1349-87). He acquired Normandy from John II of France by threatening an English alliance. Arrested for his treachery in 1356, he escaped a year later and regained Normandy. He pursued shifting alli¬ ances in Spain in an effort to expand Navarrese power. Charles V voided his claims in France, and the discovery of his plot to poison the French king cost him all of Normandy except Cherbourg.

Charles II known as Charles the Bald (b. June 13, 823—d. Oct. 6, 877, Brides-les-Bain, Fr.) Carolingian king (843-77) and emperor (875- 77). He was the son of the emperor Louis I and his second wife Judith. Louis’s efforts to include Charles in the succession led to revolts against the emperor by his three older sons. After the death of Louis, Charles fought his two surviving half brothers in a bloody civil war (840^43) that was concluded with the Treaty of Verdun, which settled the terms of suc¬ cession. Charles was granted the kingdom of the western Franks, which he ruled with the support of the bishops despite the wavering loyalties of his vassals and the attacks of Norsemen, Bretons, and Germans. In 864 he won control of Aquitaine, and in 870 he gained western Lorraine. He was crowned emperor in 875 but died two years later in the midst of inva¬ sion and internal revolt. Inspired by his grandfather, Charlemagne, Charles was a patron of the arts and oversaw the revival of the splendours of the Carolingian renaissance.

Charles III known as Charles the Simple (b. Sept. 17, 879—d. Oct. 7, 929, Peronne, France) King of France (893-922). In 911 he ceded ter¬ ritory by treaty, in the area later known as Normandy, to the Vikings, to end their raids; their descendants became the Normans. The magnates of Lorraine (Lotharingia) accepted Charles’s authority on the death of their last Carolingian king. His preoccupation with Lotharingian affairs alien¬ ated the French nobles, and in 922 they elected Robert I king in his stead.

Charles III Spanish Carlos (b. Jan. 20, 1716, Madrid, Spain—d. Dec. 14, 1788, Madrid) King of Spain (1759-88). Son of Philip V and Isabella Farnese, he was duke of Parma (1732-34) and king of Naples (as Charles VII, 1734-59) before becoming king of Spain. He was convinced of his mission to reform Spain and make it once more a first-rate power, but his foreign policy was not successful; Spain’s losses in the Seven Years' War revealed naval and military weakness. He was more successful in strengthening his own empire; during his reign Spain undertook commer¬ cial reforms, made territorial adjustments in the interest of defense, and introduced a modern administrative system. One of the enlightened des¬ pots of the 18th century, he helped lead Spain to a brief cultural and eco¬ nomic revival.

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376 I Charles III ► Charles X Gustav

Charles III known as Charles the Fat (b. 839, Bavaria? [Germany]—d. Jan. 13, 888, Neidingen) Frankish king and emperor (881— 87). The great-grandson of Charlemagne, he inherited the kingdoms of Swabia (876) and Italy (879). Charles was crowned emperor by the pope in 881. He gained control of the eastern and western Frankish kingdoms on the deaths of their rulers, and by 885 he had reunited all of Charle¬ magne’s empire except Provence. Chronically ill, he failed to attack the Saracens and used tribute to buy off Viking invaders. His nephew Arnulf led an uprising against him in 887, and his fall marked the final disinte¬ gration of the empire of Charlemagne.

Charles IV known as Charles the Fair (b. 1294—d. Feb. 1, 1328, Vincennes, Fr.) King of France and of Navarre (as Charles I) 1322-28. The last of the direct line of the Capetian dynasty, he took the throne on the death of his brother Philip V. His intrigues aimed at gaining the Ger¬ man throne and annexing Flanders were unsuccessful. He renewed war with England by invading Aquitaine and won a generous settlement in the peace of 1327.

Charles IV orig. Wenceslas known as Charles of Luxembourg

(b. May 14, 1316, Prague—d. Nov. 29, 1378, Prague) King of the Ger¬ mans and of Bohemia (1346-78) and Holy Roman emperor (1355-78). Charles was elected German king in place of Louis IV in 1346. That same year his father died in a war against England, and Charles became king of Bohemia. He invaded Italy and won the crown of Lombardy as well as the imperial crown at Rome. Charles enlarged his dynastic power through skillful diplomacy and made Prague the political and cultural center of the empire. He issued the Golden Bull of 1356 and won the right of succession to the German throne for his son Wenceslas.

Charles IV Spanish Carlos (b. Nov. 11, 1748, Portici, Kingdom of Naples—d. Jan. 20, 1819, Rome) King of Spain (1788-1808) during the turbulent period of the French Revolution. Son of Charles III, he lacked leadership qualities and entrusted the government to Manuel de Godoy. After a French invasion in 1794, Spain was reduced to the status of a French satellite. When Napoleon again occupied northern Spain in 1807, Charles was forced to abdicate (1808) and go into exile.

Charles V known as Charles the Wise (b. Jan. 21, 1338, Vincennes, France—d. Sept. 16, 1380, Nogent-sur-Marne) King of France (1364-80). He raised money to ransom his father, John II, from the English, under the terms of the Treaty of Bretigny. Crowned king on his father’s death in 1364, Charles helped the country recover its losses in the first phase of the Hundred Years' War. When war with England broke out again (1369), he won a series of victories for the French that nullified the damaging treaties of 1360. The plots of his enemy Charles II (of Navarra) prompted him to seize most of the king’s French lands. His support of Pope Clem¬ ent VII helped cause the Western Schism.

Charles V German Karl (b. Feb. 24, 1500, Ghent—d. Sept. 21, 1558, San Jeronimo de Yuste, Spain) Holy Roman emperor (1519-56) and king of Spain (as Charles I, 1516-56). Son of Philip I of Castile and grandson of Ferdinand V and Isabella I and of Emperor Maximilian I, he succeeded to his grandfathers’ kingdoms on their deaths in 1516 and 1519, respectively. Important events of his reign include the Diet of Worms and the begin¬ ning of the Reformation; his defeat of Francis I, which assured Spanish supremacy in Italy (see Italian Wars); wars against Turkey under Suley¬ man I; the formation of the Schmalkaldic League; the Council of Trent; and the Peace of Augsburg. He struggled to hold his vast Spanish and Hab- sburg empire together against the growing forces of Protestantism, Turk¬ ish and French pressure, and even hostility from Pope Adrian VI. In 1555-56 Charles abdicated his claims to the Netherlands and Spain in favour of his son Philip II and the title of emperor to his brother Ferdinand I, and in 1557 he retired to a monastery in Spain.

Charles VI known as Charles the Well-Beloved or Charles the

Mad (b. Dec. 3, 1368, Paris, Fr.—d. Oct. 21, 1422, Paris) King of France (1380-1422). Crowned at age 11, he allowed his uncles and advisers to rule France until 1388. He suffered fits of madness from 1392, and royal power waned as the dukes of Burgundy and Orleans grew stronger. The English invasion and victory at the Battle of Agincourt (1415) obliged Charles to sign the Treaty of Troyes (1420), which provided for the mar¬ riage of his daughter Catherine of Valois to Henry V of England, who was declared regent of France and heir to the French throne.

Charles VI German Karl (b. Oct. 1, 1685, Vienna, Austria—d. Oct. 20, 1740, Vienna) Holy Roman emperor (1711—40) and king of Hungary

(as Charles III). Son of Emperor Leopold I, he tried unsuccessfully to claim the Spanish throne (as the pretender Charles III), which caused the War of the Spanish Succession. He conducted a successful war against the Otto¬ man Empire (1716-18) but lost the War of the Polish Succession (1733— 38), and a new conflict with Turkey (1736-39) resulted in the loss of most of the territories gained in 1718. He promulgated the Pragmatic Sanction in an attempt to ensure that his daughter Maria Theresa would succeed him, which led to the War of the Austrian Succession.

Charles VII (b. Feb. 22, 1403, Paris, France—d. July 22, 1461, Mehun- sur-Yevre) King of France (1422-61). Despite the treaty signed by his father, Charles Vl, which excluded his succession, Charles assumed the title of king on his father’s death. In 1429, with the aid of Joan of Arc, he raised the siege of Orleans. He drove the English from France (1436) and gradually recovered French lands, ending the Hundred Years' War. His financial and military reforms increased the power of the monarchy.

Charles VII German Karl Albrecht (b. Aug. 6, 1697—d. Jan. 20, 1745, Munich) Elector of Bavaria (1726-45) and Holy Roman emperor (1742-45). He renounced any claims to the Austrian succession when he recognized the Pragmatic Sanction. However, on the death of Emperor Charles VI, he joined the alliance against Maria Theresa and was crowned emperor in 1742. Meanwhile, Bavaria was overrun by Austrian troops. He was restored by Prussia and France to his Bavarian lands in 1744 but died soon after.

Charles VIII (b. June 30, 1470, Amboise, France—d. April 7, 1498, Amboise) King of France (1483-98). He abandoned claims to parts of present-day France and Spain, and he consolidated French ownership of Brittany, in preparation for his grand enterprise, an expedition to Italy to assert his inherited right to the kingdom of Naples. This inaugurated wars with Italy that lasted more than 50 years and gained little in return for vast outlays. Charles was crowned in Naples in 1495, but his opponents rallied against him and he lost his conquests. He died while preparing another expedition.

Charles IX (b. June 27, 1550, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, near Paris, France—d. May 30, 1574, Vincennes) King of France (1560-74). Son of Catherine de Medicis, he became king on the death of his brother Francis II. under his mother’s regency. Though he was proclaimed of age in 1563, he remained under his mother’s domination. His reign was marked by conflicts between Catholics and Huguenots, and he was remembered for authorizing the Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572) at his mother’s instigation, an event that apparently haunted him the rest of his life. He died of tuberculosis at age 23.

Charles IX Swedish Karl (b. Oct. 4, 1550, Stockholm, Swed.—d. Oct. 30, 1611, Nykoping) King of Sweden (1604-11). Third son of Gustav I Vasa, he helped lead a rebellion against the rule of his half brother Erik XIV that placed his other brother on the throne as John III. After the accession (1592) of his devoutly Catholic nephew, Sigismund III, Charles called the Convention of Uppsala, which demanded that Lutheranism be retained as the national religion. He opposed Sigismund in a civil war, and after the latter was deposed Charles became the virtual ruler of Swe¬ den (1599-1604). Declared king in 1604, he pursued an aggressive for¬ eign policy that led to war with Poland (1605) and Denmark (the Kalmar War, 1611-13).

Charles X (b. Oct. 9, 1757, Versailles, France—d. Nov. 6, 1836, Gori- zia, Friuli) King of France (1824-30). Fifth son of the dauphin Louis, and grandson of Louis XV, until 1824 he was known as Charles-Philippe, count d’Artois. During the French Revolution he went into exile and became the leader of the emigre nobility. Returning to France in 1814, he led the ultras during the Bourbon Restoration. On the death of his brother Louis XVIII, Charles became king. His popularity waned as his reign became increas¬ ingly reactionary. After the July Revolution he was forced to abdicate in favour of Louis- Philippe. His reign dramatized the failure of the Bourbons to reconcile the tradition of the monarchy by divine right with the demo¬ cratic spirit produced in the wake of the Revolution.

Charles X Gustav Swedish Karl Gustav (b. 1622—d. 1660) King of Sweden (1654-60). Nephew of Gustav II Adolf, he failed in his efforts to marry the Swedish queen Christina, but she named him to succeed her. As king he attempted to restore the public finances but was forced to devote most of his attention to military matters. He conducted the First Northern War (1655-60) against a coalition that eventually included Poland, Russia, Brandenburg, the Netherlands, and Denmark, with the aim

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Charles XI ► Charlotte I 377

of establishing a unified northern state. After conquering Poland (1655— 56), he won back lands in southern Sweden from Denmark by the Treaty of Roskilde (1658).

Charles XI Swedish Karl (b. Nov. 24, 1655, Stockholm, Swed.—d. April 5, 1697, Stockholm) King of Sweden (1660-97). At age five he succeeded his father, Charles X Gustav, and the kingdom was ruled under a regency of aristocrats until Charles came of age in 1672. The regents drew Sweden into the Dutch War (1672-78), but Charles took control of the armies and won favorable results for Sweden by the Treaties of Nijmegen, after which he maintained a foreign policy of neutrality. Within Sweden, Charles expanded royal power at the expense of the higher nobil¬ ity and established an absolutist monarchy.

Charles XII Swedish Karl (b. June 17, 1682, Stockholm, Swed.—d. Nov. 30, 1718, Fredrikshald, Nor.) King of Sweden (1697-1718). Son of Charles XI, he became absolute monarch at age 15. He defended his coun¬ try for 18 years in the Second Northern War, gradually taking increased responsibility for planning and executing armed operations. He launched a disastrous invasion of Russia (1707-09) that resulted in the collapse of the Swedish armies and the loss of Sweden’s status as a great power. Rul¬ ing early in the Enlightenment, he promoted significant domestic reforms. He was killed during an invasion of Norway.

Charles XIII Swedish Karl (b. Nov. 8, 1622, Nykoping Castle, Swed.—d. Feb. 13, 1660, Goteborg) King of Sweden (1809-18) and first king of the union of Sweden and Norway (1814-18). Second son of King Adolf Frederick (1710-71), he served as admiral of the fleet in the Russo- Swedish war. On the death of his brother Gustav III (1792), Charles became regent for his nephew Gustav IV. After the latter’s deposition in 1809, Charles was elected king. He was prematurely aged and childless. In 1810 Jean-Baptiste Bemadotte (later Charles XIV John) was named heir apparent; from then on, Charles was eclipsed by the crown prince.

Charles XIV John Swedish Karl Johan orig. Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte (b. Jan. 26, 1763, Pau, France—d. March 8, 1844, Stock¬ holm, Swed.) King of Sweden and Norway (1818-44). He became an ardent supporter of the French Revolution and rose rapidly in the army ranks to brigadier general (1794). Named marshal of France in 1804, he supported Napoleon in several campaigns (1805-09) but subsequently shifted his allegiance. In 1810 he was invited to become crown prince of Sweden; taking the name of Charles John, he assumed control of the gov¬ ernment. He helped defeat Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig, then defeated France’s ally Denmark, forcing that country to transfer Norway to the Swedish crown. On the death of Charles XIII in 1818, Charles John became king of Sweden and Norway. His foreign policy led to a long and favour¬ able period of peace.

Charles Albert Italian Carlo Alberto (b. Oct. 2, 1798, Turin, Pied¬ mont, French Republic—d. July 28, 1849, Oporto, Port.) King of Sardinia-Piedmont (1831-49). A member of the house of Savoy, he ascended the throne after the death of Charles Felix in 1831. He mitigated the harsh administration of his country and accelerated its economic and social development. The spread of revolutionary ideas forced him to grant a statute for representative government in 1848. After the election of Pius IX as pope and the Austrian occupation of Ferrara, he sought to lead the liberation of Italy. He went to war against Austria in 1848 and again in 1849, but, after his defeat in the Battle of Novara, he abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel II.

Charles Edward, the Young Pretender orig. Charles Edward Louis Philip Casimir Stuart known as Bonnie Prince Charlie (b. Dec. 31, 1720, Rome—d. Jan. 31, 1788, Rome) Claimant to the British throne. He was the son of the royal pretender James Edward and grandson of the exiled James II of England. Seeking to regain the throne, in 1745 the “Young Pretender” landed in Scotland, where he raised an army of 2,400 among the clans. After taking Edinburgh and routing the English at Prestonpans, he crossed the English border and reached Derby, but a lack of strong support from the Jacobites and the French forced his retreat into Scotland. He was decisively defeated at the Battle of Culloden (1746) and, aided by Flora Macdonald (1722-90) and disguised as her maid, escaped to France. He wandered about Europe trying to revive his cause, but his debauched behaviour alienated his friends. He settled in Italy in 1766. He later became romanticized in ballads and legends.

Charles Martel \mar-'tel\ Latin Carolus Martellus ("Charles the Hammer") (b. c. 688—d. Oct. 22, 741, Quierzy-sur-Oise, Fr.)

Carolingian mayor of the palace (715—41). He was a child born out of wedlock to Pippin of Herstal, mayor of the palace and virtual ruler of the Frankish realm in the waning days of the Merovingian dynasty. On his father’s death he overcame family opposition and rivals among the nobil¬ ity to reunite and rule the entire Frankish realm. He subdued Neustria (724), attacked Aquitaine, and fought against the Frisians, Saxons, and Bavarians. His victory at the Battle of Tours/Poitiers (732) stemmed the Muslim invasion, and he controlled Burgundy by 739. He also supported the activities of St. Boniface and other missionaries. In Frankish royal tra¬ dition, he divided the kingdom between his sons Pippin III and Carloman who succeeded him as mayor; his grandson was Charlemagne.

Charles of Anjou See Charles I (Naples)

Charles of Luxembourg See Charles IV (Holy Roman Empire)

Charles River River, eastern Massachusetts, U.S. The longest river wholly in the state, it flows into Boston Bay after a course of about 80 mi (130 km). Navigable for about 7 mi (11 km), its estuary separates the cities of Boston and Cambridge.

Charles Robert of Anjou See Charles I (Hungary)

Charles the Bad See Charles II (Navarre)

Charles the Bald See Charles II (France)

Charles the Bold (b. Nov. 10, 1433, Dijon, Burgundy [France]—d. Jan. 5, 1477, near Nancy, Lorraine) Last of the great dukes of Burgundy (1467-77). An opponent of Louis XI of France, Charles tried to make Bur¬ gundy an independent kingdom. He had great success until 1474, casting off French rule, extending Burgundy’s possessions, and building a cen¬ tralized government. Charles brutally quelled a revolt in Liege (1468) and invaded Normandy (1471). Through negotiation, warfare, and purchases, he sought to extend his territory as far as the Rhine, but a coalition of Swiss, Austrians, and towns on the upper Rhine resisted him. He suffered defeats by the Swiss in 1476 and was killed in battle near Nancy.

Charles the Fair See Charles IV (France)

Charles the Fat See Charles III (Holy Roman Empire)

Charles the Well-Beloved See Charles VI (France)

Charles the Wise See Charles V (France)

Charleston Social jazz dance popular in the 1920s and later, charac¬ terized by its toes-in, heels-out twisting steps. Originally a Southern black folk dance, it had parallels in dances of Trinidad, Nigeria, and Ghana. It was popularized by its appearance in the black musical Runnin ’ Wild in 1923 and took its name from one of the show’s songs, written by James P. Johnson.

Charleston Seaport city (pop., 2000: 96,650), southeastern South Caro¬ lina, U.S. Originally called Charles Towne, it was founded by English colonists in 1670. During the American Revolution it was held by the Brit¬ ish (1780-82). Known as Charleston from 1783, it was the chief U.S. winter port until the War of 1812. In 1861 the Confederate capture of Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor precipitated the American Civil War. Blockaded by Union forces, it was under siege (1863-65), then evacuated by Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman’s forces. It was seriously damaged by an earthquake in 1886 and a hurricane in 1989. It is the site of the College of Charleston (1770), The Citadel (1842), and the Charleston Museum (1773), the oldest museum in the U.S.

Charleston City (pop., 2000: 53,421), capital of West Virginia, U.S. Situated in the Allegheny Mountains at the confluence of the Elk and Kanawha rivers, it was settled around Fort Lee shortly after the American Revolution. It was the home for a time of Daniel Boone. Divided in alle¬ giance during the American Civil War, it was occupied by Union troops in 1862. It was named the state capital in 1870; the capital was briefly trans¬ ferred to Wheeling but returned to Charleston in 1885. It is a distribution centre for coal, oil, and gas, and its manufactures include chemicals. Its capitol building (completed 1932) was designed by Cass Gilbert.

Charlotte City (pop., 2000: 540,828), North Carolina, U.S. The Caro- linas’ biggest metropolis, it lies near the Catawba River, 15 mi (24 km) north of South Carolina. It was settled c. 1748 and named for Charlotte Sophia of Mecklenburg-Streliz (later the wife of George III). In the Ameri¬ can Revolution it was occupied by Lord Cornwallis, who dubbed it “the hornet’s nest.” Until the California gold rush that began in 1848, it was

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378 I Charlotte ► Chartism

the centre of U.S. gold production. In the American Civil War it was the site of a Confederate naval yard. Presidents Andrew Jackson and James Polk were born nearby and received their early schooling there. Its indus¬ try includes textiles, machinery, and chemical production, and it is the site of several institutions of higher education.

Charlotte orig. Charlotte Sophia of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (b.

May 19, 1744—d. Nov. 17,1818) Queen consort of George III of England. In 1761 she was selected unseen after the British king asked for a review of all eligible German Protestant princesses. The marriage was a success, and the couple had 15 children, including George IV. After the king was declared insane (1811), Parliament turned to the future George IV, while Charlotte was given custody of her husband.

Charlotte Amalie Vshar-lot-o-'mal-yoV City (pop., 2000: 11,004), capital of the island of Saint Thomas and of the U.S. Virgin Islands. Lying on St. Thomas Harbor, it was established as a Danish colony in 1672 and named for the Danish queen (its name was St. Thomas during 1921-36). The largest city in the Virgin Islands, it is built on three low volcanic spurs. Two castles, attributed to the pirates Blackbeard and Bluebeard, overlook the harbour. Tourism is economically important.

Charlotte Harbor Inlet of the Gulf of Mexico, western coast of Florida, U.S. It is about 25 mi (40 km) long and 5 mi (8 km) wide. It receives the Peace River in the northeast, and a dredged channel serves the port of Punta Gorda. In 1521 Juan Ponce de Leon tried to establish a colony in the area but was driven away by hostile Indians.

Charlottesville City (pop., 2000: 45,049), central Virginia, U.S. Located in the foothills of the Blue Ridge and settled in the 1730s, it grew as a tobacco-trading centre and later was noted as the home of Presidents Thomas Jefferson and James Monroe. In 1781 the British raided Charlot¬ tesville in hopes of capturing Jefferson and other leaders of the American Revolution. Sites of interest include Jefferson’s home, Monticello; Mon¬ roe’s home, Ash Lawn; and the University of Virginia.

Charlottetown City (pop., 2001: 32,245), capital of Prince Edward Island, Canada. Lying on Hillsborough Bay, it originated in the 1720s as the French settlement Port La Joie. Renamed in honour of the wife of George III after the island passed to Britain in 1763, it became the capital in 1765. Its economy centres on tourism and government business, and, with its excellent harbour, it is the province’s commercial centre. It is the site of Province House, where in 1864 Canada’s unification was first dis¬ cussed, and the Confederation Center of the Arts, a national memorial to the Fathers of Confederation.

Charlottetown Conference First in a series of meetings in 1864 that led to the formation of the Dominion of Canada in 1867. The conference, held at Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, was originally called to dis¬ cuss a union of the three Maritime Provinces. The gathering failed to reach agreement but reconvened in Halifax and later in Quebec, where a con¬ stitution for a federal union was drafted, resulting in the British North America Act.

charm In particle physics, the property or internal quantum number that is conserved in strong and electromagnetic interactions, but not in weak interactions (see strong force, electromagnetic force, weak force). Charmed particles contain at least one charmed quark; the charm number of these quarks is +1. Charmed antiquarks (see antimatter) have a charm number of -1. The first charmed particle was discovered in 1974.

Charolais \,shar-3-'la\ Breed of large, light-coloured cattle, developed in France for draft purposes but now kept for beef production and used for crossbreeding. White cattle had long been characteristic of the Charo¬ lais region, but the breed was first recognized c. 1775. A typical Charo¬ lais is massive, horned, and cream-coloured or slightly darker. The breed was first imported into the U.S. from a Mexican herd in 1936, but, because of problems with disease in the French herds, few were later imported. It is crossbred with beef breeds and dairy cows.

Charon \'kar-3n\ In Greek mythology, the son of Erebus (Darkness) and Nyx (Night), whose duty it was to ferry the souls of the dead across the Rivers Styx and Acheron, his payment being the coin placed in the mouth of the corpse before burial. He continues in modern Greek folklore as Charos, or Charontas, the angel of death.

Charophyceae \,kar-3-'fi-se-e\ Class of algae, certain members of which are commonly known as stoneworts. Stoneworts contain calcium carbonate deposits so extensive that they may form the major part of lake

bottoms. Superficially resembling higher plants, stoneworts have rootlike and stemlike structures, as well as whorls of branches at regular intervals. They grow underwater, attached to the muddy bottoms of fresh or brack¬ ish rivers and lakes. Except for one form that is sometimes destructive in fish hatcheries, they are of little importance to humans.

Charpentier \shar-pa n -'tya\, Marc-Antoine (b. 1634, Paris, France—d. Feb. 24, 1704, Paris) French composer. He was a student of Giacomo Carissimi in Rome in the 1660s. Back in Paris, he succeeded Jean-Baptiste Lully as music director with Moliere’s acting troupe (later the Comedie-Francaise). He became music director at the principal Jesuit church in Paris, and for his last six years he held the prestigious post of maitre de chapelle at the Sainte-Chapelle. Enormously prolific, he was the most important French composer of his generation. He wrote 11 masses, 84 psalm settings, and 207 motets, including some 35 dramatic motets or Latin oratorios, a genre he introduced into France. His works include the oratorio Judicium Salomonis (1702), the mass Assumpta est Maria , and the operas Medee (1693) and David et Jonathas (1688).

Charte Constitutionnelle See Charter of 1814

charter Document granting certain specified rights, powers, privileges, or functions from the sovereign power of a state to a person, corporation, city, or other unit of local organization. In Magna Carta (1215), King John granted certain liberties to the English people. Elsewhere in medieval Europe, monarchs issued charters to towns, guilds, universities, and other institutions, granting the institution certain privileges and sometimes specifying how they should conduct their internal affairs. Later, charters were granted to overseas trading companies (e.g., the British East India Co.), granting them monopolies in certain areas. Britain’s colonies in North America were established by charter. Modern charters may be cor¬ porate or municipal. A corporate charter, issued by a governmental body, grants individuals the power to form a corporation, or limited-liability com¬ pany. A municipal charter is a law that creates a new political subdivision and allows the people within it to organize themselves into a municipal corporation, in effect delegating to the people the powers of local self- government.

Charter Oath or Five Articles Oath Oath issued in 1868 by Japan’s Meiji emperor. One article, important in spurring the creation of a new leg¬ islative body, promised that assemblies would be widely established and that all matters would be “decided by public discussion.” Two articles promised an end to feudal class restrictions and “evil customs of the past,” and another stated that all classes should work together to “carry out the plan of government.” Lastly, it was declared that “knowledge shall be sought throughout the world to promote the welfare of the empire.” The Charter Oath set the progressive tone of the Meiji period. See also Meiji Restoration.

Charter of 1814 or Charte Constitutionnelle \ , shart- l ko n -ste-tiE- syo-'nel\ French constitution issued by Louis XVIII after he became king (see Bourbon Restoration). The charter, which was revised in 1830 and remained in effect until 1848, preserved many liberties won by the French Revolution. It established a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral par¬ liament, guaranteed civil liberties, proclaimed religious toleration, and acknowledged Catholicism as the state religion.

chartered company Type of corporation that evolved in the 16th century in Europe. Under a charter granted by the state’s sovereign author¬ ity, the company had certain rights and obligations which usually gave it a trading monopoly in a specific geographic area or for a specific type of trade item. In the 17th century, chartered companies were encouraged by the English, French, and Dutch governments to assist trade and encour¬ age overseas exploration. Those companies that formed for trade with the Indies (see English East India Company; Dutch East India Company; French East India Company) and the New World (see Hudson's Bay Company) had the most wide-reaching influence. Some chartered companies were also involved in the settlement of colonists (see London Company; Plymouth Company). Eventually the development of the modem limited-liability com¬ pany or corporation led to a decline in the importance of chartered com¬ panies.

Chartism British working-class movement for parliamentary reform. It was named after the People’s Charter, a bill drafted by William Lovett (1800-1877) in 1838 that demanded universal manhood suffrage, equal electoral districts, vote by ballot, annually elected Parliaments, payment of members of Parliament, and abolition of property qualifications for

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Chartres ► Chatham Strait I 379

membership. Born amid an economic depression, the movement rose to national importance under the leadership of Feargus O'Connor. Parlia¬ ment refused to take action on three Chartist petitions presented to it, and the movement declined after 1848.

Chartres Yshart, 'shartrA City (pop., 1999: 40,361), northwestern France. Situated on the Eure River southwest of Paris, it was the capital and centre of Druidic worship for the Carnutes, a Celtic tribe. The Normans attacked and burned the city in 858. In the Middle Ages it was held by the counts of Blois and Champagne. The city was sold to France in 1286 and was occupied by the English from 1417 to 1432. Henry IV was crowned there in 1594. The Germans held it in 1870, and it was severely damaged in World War - II. Landmarks include the Gothic Chartres Cathedral.

Chartres Cathedral VshartrA Cathedral of Notre-Dame at Chartres, one of the most influential examples of High Gothic architecture. The main part of this great cathedral was built between 1194 and 1220. It replaced a 12th-century church of which only the crypt, the base of the towers, and the western facade remain. Abandonment of the tradi¬ tional tribune galleries and the use of a unique type of flying buttress allowed for a larger clerestory.

Remarkable stained-glass windows and a Renaissance choir screen add to its beauty.

Chase, Salmon P(ortland) (b.

Jan. 13, 1808, Cornish Township,

N.H., U.S.—d. May 7, 1873, New York, N.Y.) U.S. antislavery leader and sixth chief justice of the U.S.

(1864-73). He practiced law in Cin¬ cinnati from 1830, defending runaway slaves and white abolitionists. He led the Liberty Party in Ohio from 1841 and helped found the Free Soil Party (1848) and the Republican Party (1854). He served in the U.S. Sen¬ ate (1849-55, 1860-61) and was the first Republican governor of Ohio (1855-59). He served as secretary of the treasury under Pres. Abraham Lincoln (1861-64). Appointed chief justice of the Supreme Court of the United States by Lincoln, he presided over the impeachment trial of Pres. Andrew Johnson and tried to protect the rights of blacks from infringe¬ ment by state action.

Chase, Samuel (b. April 17, 1741, Princess Anne, Md.—d. June 19, 1811, Washington, D.C.) U.S. jurist. He was a member of the Maryland assembly (1764-84). An ardent patriot, he helped lead the Sons of Liberty in violent resistance against the Stamp Act. He served on the state Com¬ mittee of Correspondence (1774), was elected to the Continental Congress, and signed the Declaration of Independence. When Alexander Hamilton exposed his attempt to comer the flour market (1778), Chase retired from Congress, only to return in 1784. He served as chief judge of the Mary¬ land General Court from 1791 to 1796, when Pres. George Washington appointed him to the Supreme Court of the United States. Chase upheld the primacy of U.S. treaties over state statutes in Ware v. Hylton. In Calder v. Bull (1798) he contributed to the definition of due process. At the insti¬ gation of Pres. Thomas Jefferson, Chase was impeached for partisan con¬ duct in 1804. His acquittal established the principle that federal judges can be removed only for indictable criminal acts, thus strengthening the independence of the judiciary. Chase served until 1811.

Chase, William Merritt (b. Nov. 1, 1849, Williamsburg, Ind., U.S.—d. Oct. 25, 1916, New York, N.Y) U.S. painter and teacher. He studied in New York and for six years in Munich. Chase became the most important U.S. art teacher of his generation, first at New York’s Art Stu¬ dents League and later at his own school, founded in 1896. His teachings, particularly his advocacy of fresh colour and bravura technique, greatly influenced the course of early 20th-century U.S. painting; among his stu¬ dents were Georgia O'Keeffe and Charles Demuth. As a painter, he was very prolific; his 2,000 paintings include portraits, interiors (e.g., In the Stu¬ dio, 1880-83), figure studies, still lifes, and landscapes characterized by bold, spontaneous brushwork.

Chase Manhattan Corp. Former U.S. holding company incorporated in 1969 with the Chase Manhattan Bank as its main subsidiary. The bank

The cathedral at Chartres, Fr.

EVERETT C. JOHNSON-DEWYS INC.

itself was created in 1955 by the merger of the Bank of Manhattan Co. (founded 1799) and the Chase National Bank (founded 1877). The cre¬ ation of Chase Manhattan was part of a general movement in U.S. bank¬ ing to establish holding companies that could bring together banks and financial institutions ordinarily excluded by law from the field of bank¬ ing. In 1996 it merged with Chemical Banking Corp. (which then owned the nation’s second largest bank) but kept the Chase Manhattan name. A merger with investment bank J.P. Morgan & Co. in 2000 created J.P. Morgan Chase & Co. See also David Rockefeller.

chat Real-time conversation among computer users in a networked envi¬ ronment such as the Internet. After a user types a text message and presses the Enter key, the text immediately appears on the other users’ comput¬ ers, permitting typed conversations that are often only somewhat slower than normal conversation. A chat can be private (between two users) or public (where other users can see the messages and participate if they wish). Public chatting is conducted in “chat rooms,” Web sites devoted to chat, usually about a specific topic. The thousands of chat rooms now available typically use the IRC (Internet Relay Chat) protocol, developed in 1988 by Jarkko Oikarinen of Finland. See also bulletin-board system.

chat Any of several species of songbird named for their harsh, chattering notes. True chats (chat-thrushes) make up a major division of the thrush family (Turdidae). Australian chats (usually placed in the family Maluridae), which inhabit scrubby open lands, are about 5 in. (13 cm) long. The yellow-breasted chat (Icte- ria virens, family Parulidae) of North America is the largest wood warbler (7.5 in., or 19 cm, long). Greenish gray above and bright yellow below, with white “spectacles,” it hides in

thickets but may perch in the open to Yellow-breasted chat (Icteric virens) utter its mewing, churring, and whis- ron austing-bruce coleman inc. tling sounds. See also redstart.

Chateaubriand \sha-to-bre-'a n \, viscount of (b. Sept. 4, 1768, Saint-Malo, France—d. July 4, 1848, Paris) French author and statesman. A cavalry officer at the start of the French Revolution, he refused to join the Royalists and instead sailed to the U.S., where he traveled with fur traders. On Louis XVI’s fall he returned to join the Royalist army. A tala (1801), part of an unfinished epic, drew on his travels in the U.S. The Genius of Christianity (1802), which asserted the value of Chris¬ tianity on the basis of its poetic and artistic appeal, influenced many Romantic writers and brought him briefly into favour with Napoleon. With the 1814 Restoration he became a major political figure. Other works include the novel Rene (1805) and his memoirs (6 vol., 1849-50), perhaps his most lasting monument. He was the preeminent French writer of his day.

(Francois-Auguste-) Rene,

Viscount de Chateaubriand, detail of an oil painting by Girodet-Trioson; in the National Museum of Versailles and the Trianons, France.

CLICHE MUSEES NATIONAUX

Chateauguay \'sha-t9-ge\, Bat¬ tle of (Oct. 26, 1813) Engagement in the War of 1812, in which the British compelled a U.S. force to abandon an attack on Montreal. An advance unit of 1,500 men from an invading U.S. force of about 4,000 troops under Wade Hampton was stopped at Chateauguay, Que., by Brit¬ ish troops (most of them French Canadians) who occupied the woods along the riverbank. The battle was followed by the withdrawal of the U.S. force from Canada.

Chatham, Earl of See William Pin, the Elder

Chatham Strait Vchat- 3 m\ Narrow passage, North Pacific Ocean. Extending off southeastern Alaska 150 mi (240 km) between the Admi-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

380 I Chattahoochee River ► Chavez

ralty and Kuiu islands on the east and the Chicagof and Baranof islands on the west, it is 3-10 mi (5-16 km) wide. It forms part of the Inside Pas¬ sage between Alaska and Washington state.

Chattahoochee River \ 1 cha-t3- , hii-che\ River, southeastern U.S. Ris¬ ing in northeastern Georgia, it flows southwest to the Alabama border and then south, forming a section of the Alabama-Georgia and Georgia- Florida boundaries, to join the Flint River at Chattahoochee, Fla., after a course of about 436 mi (702 km). Dammed at the Georgia-Florida bor¬ der, it forms Lake Seminole, below which the river is known as the Apalachicola River.

Chattanooga City (pop., 2000: 155,554) and port of entry, southeast¬ ern Tennessee, U.S. Lying on the Tennessee River between Missionary Ridge to the east and Lookout Mountain to the southwest, it was estab¬ lished as a trading post (Ross’s Landing) in 1815. Renamed Chattanooga in 1838, it developed as a river port. A strategic Confederate communi¬ cations point in the American Civil War, it was a major objective of the Union armies, with fighting culminating in the Battles of Chickamauga and Chattanooga (1863).

Chattanooga, Battle of (Nov. 23-25, 1863) Decisive engagement of the American Civil War. The battle was fought at Chattanooga, Tenn., a vital railroad junction. A Confederate army under Braxton Bragg besieged a Union army in September 1863, and to lift the siege, Union troops under Ulysses S. Grant marched on Bragg’s troops. At battles on Lookout Moun¬ tain and Missionary Ridge, the Union troops forced the Confederate army to retreat. With this victory, the North was poised to split the South hori¬ zontally by marching across Georgia to the sea. See also Battle of Chicka¬ mauga.

Chatterjee \'chat-or-je\, Bankim Chandra orig. Bankim Chan¬ dra Cattopadhyay (b. June 26/27, 1838, near Naihati, Bengal, India—d. April 8, 1894, Calcutta) Indian novelist. Chatterjee was edu¬ cated in Calcutta (now Kolkata) and served as a deputy magistrate in civil service for many years. His first notable Bengali work was Daughter of the Lord of the Fort (1865). His epoch-making newspaper, Bangadarsan, serialized some of his later works. Though his novels were considered structurally faulty, his contemporaries saw him as a prophet, and his val¬ iant Hindu heroes aroused great pride and patriotism. He helped create the Indian school of fiction and established Bengali prose as a literary language. Chatterjee is considered the greatest Bengali novelist.

Chatterton, Thomas (b. Nov. 20, 1752, Bristol, Gloucestershire, Eng.—d. Aug. 24, 1770, London) English poet. At age 11 Chatterton wrote a pastoral eclogue on an old parchment and passed it off success¬ fully as a 15th-century work. Thereafter he created more poems in a simi¬ lar vein, attributing them to a fictitious monk he called Thomas Rowley. After a mock suicide threat freed him from an apprenticeship to an attor¬ ney, he set out for London. There he had some success with a comic opera, The Revenge , but when a prospective patron died, he found himself pen¬ niless and without prospects and committed suicide at 17. Considered a precursor of Romanticism, he was praised by such poets as Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, Lord Byron, and William Wordsworth.

Chaucer Vcho-ssrV Geoffrey (b. c. 1342/43, London?, Eng.—d. Oct. 25, 1400, London) English poet. Of middle-class birth, he was a courtier, diplomat, and civil servant, trusted by three kings in his active and varied career, and a poet only by avocation. His first important poem. Book of the Duchesse (1369/70), was a dream vision elegy for the duchess of Lan¬ caster. In the 1380s he produced mature works, including The Parliament of Fowls, a dream vision for St. Valentine’s Day about a conference of birds choosing their mates; the fine tragic verse romance Troilus and Cri- seyde; and the unfinished dream vision Legend of Good Women. His best- known work, the unfinished Canterbury Tales (written 1387-1400), is an intricate dramatic narrative that employs a pilgrimage to the shrine of St. Thomas Becket in Canterbury as a framing device for a highly varied col¬ lection of stories; not only the most famous literary work in Middle English, it is one of the finest works of English literature. In this and other works Chaucer established the southern English dialect as England’s lit¬ erary language, and he is regarded as the first great English poet.

Chaumette \sho-'met\, Pierre-Gaspard (b. May 24, 1763, Nevers, France—d. April 13, 1794, Paris) French Revolutionary leader. In 1791 he signed the petition that demanded the abdication of Louis XVI. As procurator-general of the Paris Commune from 1792, he instituted such social reforms as improved hospital conditions. Strenuously anti-Catholic

and a misogynist, he promoted the anti-Christian cult of the goddess Rea¬ son and banned women’s participation in political demonstrations. He was executed during the Reign of Terror because of his democratic extremism.

Chaumont \shd-'mo n . Treaty of (1814) Treaty signed by Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Britain binding them to defeat Napoleon. The Brit¬ ish foreign secretary Viscount Castlereagh played a leading part in nego¬ tiating the treaty, by which the signatories undertook not to negotiate separately, and promised to continue the struggle until Napoleon was overthrown. The treaty tightened allied unity and made provision for a durable European settlement.

Chauncy, Charles (b. Jan. 1, 1705, Boston, Mass.—d. Feb. 10, 1787, Boston, Mass., U.S.) American clergyman. He served as minister of the First Church of Boston from 1727 until his death. He opposed the estab¬ lishment of an Anglican bishopric in the American colonies. He is best known as a leading critic of the Great Awakening. He also wrote books, pamphlets, and sermons espousing the cause of the American Revolution.

Chausson \sho-'so n \, (Amedee-) Ernest (b. Jan. 21, 1855, Paris, France—d. June 10, 1899, Limay) French composer. He studied with Jules Massenet and Cesar Franck. Having a comfortable income, he kept a notable artistic salon in Paris and had no need for regular employment. His most important works are the orchestral song cycle Poeme de l ’amour et de la mer (1893), the incidental music to La Legende de Sainte Cecile (1891), a symphony (1890), the opera Le Roi Arthus (1895), and Poeme for violin and orchestra (1896). He died in a cycling accident.

Chautauqua \sh3-'t6-kw3\ movement Popular U.S. educational and cultural movement founded in 1874. It began as a training assembly for Sunday-school teachers at Chautauqua Lake, N.Y., but gradually spread to various circuit “chautauquas” and broadened in scope to include gen¬ eral education and popular entertainments, many of which incorporated religious themes. Outstanding speakers were brought in for summer lec¬ tures and classes. The movement declined after reaching a peak in 1924 (though the Chautauqua Institution still holds meetings), but its legacy contributed to the growth of community colleges and continuing education programs. See also Lyceum movement.

Chautemps \sho-'ta n \, Camille (b. Feb. 1, 1885, Paris, France—d. July 1, 1963, Washington, D.C., U.S.) French politician. A Radical Social¬ ist, he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1919. He served in sev¬ eral cabinet posts and as premier of France in 1930, 1933-34, and 1937— 38. As a cabinet member in 1940, he was among the first to suggest the surrender of France to Nazi Germany. He held a ministry in the Vichy government (see Vichy France) but broke with Philippe Petain’s government after arriving in the U.S. on an official mission. He lived in the U.S. for much of the rest of his life. After World War II a French court convicted him in absentia for collaborating with the enemy.

Chavannes, Pierre Puvis de See Pierre Puvis de Chavannes

Chavez \'cha-,vez\ (y Ramirez), Carlos (Antonio de Padua)

(b. June 13, 1899, Mexico City, Mex.—d. Aug. 2, 1978, Mexico City) Mexican composer and conductor. Trained as a pianist, he was largely self-taught as a composer. When Mexico’s first permanent symphony orchestra was formed in 1928, he became its director; he held the post for 20 years, touring widely and conducting many premiere performances. As director of the National Conservatory (1928-34), he reformed the cur¬ riculum and organized several concert series. He was Mexico’s most prominent and honoured musician of the 20th century. His works, notable for their rhythmic vitality and orchestral colour, include seven sympho¬ nies; Sinfonia de Antigona (1933) and Sinfonia India (1936), both one- movement works on Mexican Indian themes; the highly percussive Concerto No. 1 for Piano and Orchestra (1940); and Xochipilli Macuilxo- chitl (1940) for orchestra with Indian instruments.

Chavez Vcha-vas,\ English Vchav-.ezV, Cesar (Estrada) (b. March 31, 1927, Yuma, Ariz., U.S.—d. April 23, 1993, San Luis, Ariz.) U.S. organizer and leader of migrant farmworkers. As the child of Mexican American migrant labourers, he spent his early years in a succession of migrant camps, attending school only sporadically. He spent two years in the Navy and had returned to migrant farmwork when, in 1962, he began organizing the largely Hispanic farmworkers of Arizona and California. A charismatic figure, he used strikes and nationwide boycotts to win union recognition and contracts from California grape and lettuce growers. He brought his union into the AFL-CIO, and in 1971 it became the United Farm Workers of America (UFW). He successfully battled the Teamsters

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Chavin de Huantar ► Chekhov I 381

Union for the right to organize field hands in the 1970s, but in later years his leadership faltered and the UFW declined. In recognition of his non¬ violent activism and support of working people, Chavez was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom posthumously in 1994.

Chavin de Huantar \cha-'ven-tha-'wan-tar\ Site of temple ruins, west-central Peru. The ruins belong to the Chavin pre-Columbian culture, which flourished c. 900-c. 200 bc. The central building is a massive temple complex constructed of rectangular stone blocks; it contains inte¬ rior galleries and incorporates bas-relief carvings on pillars and lintels.

Chayefsky \cha-'yef-ske\, Paddy orig. Sidney Chayefsky (b.

Jan. 29, 1923, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Aug. 1, 1981, New York City) U.S. playwright. He wrote his first full-length television play in 1952, and his work became prominent in the early flowering of television drama. Known for chronicling the lives of ordinary people, he had his greatest tele¬ vision and film success with Marty (1955, Academy Award). The Catered Affair (1956) and The Bachelor Party (1957) were also well received. His stage plays include The Tenth Man (1959), Gideon (1961), and The Latent Heterosexual (1968). He returned to screenwriting with The Hospital (1971, Academy Award) and Network (1976, Academy Award).

chayote \chI-'yo-te\ Tendril-bearing perennial vine ( Sechium edule) of the gourd family, native to the New World tropics, where it is widely cul¬ tivated for its edible fruits. Chayote also is grown as an annual plant in temperate climates. The fast-growing vine bears small, white flowers and green or white pear-shaped fruits with furrows. Each fruit contains one seed. The fruits are eaten cooked or raw, and the young root tubers are prepared like potatoes.

Che-chiang See Zhejiang

Chechnya \chech-'nya, 'chech- nyo\ Republic, southwestern Russia.

Part of the Chechen-Ingush autono¬ mous republic of the former U.S.S.R., it became a republic within Russia in 1992, as did Ingushetia. It is populated mainly by Chechens, a Muslim ethnolinguistic group. Chechnya’s demand for independence from Russia in 1992 led to an invasion by Russian troops in 1994. Fighting led to severe devastation of the area, and a series of cease-fires were negotiated and violated. A pro¬ visional peace treaty was signed in May 1997, and Russian troops with¬ drew but returned in 1999; heavy fighting resumed. In 2003 a new constitution was approved that devolved greater powers to the Chechen government but kept the republic in the federation. The capital, Grozny (pop., 2002 est.: 223,000), a major oil centre with pipelines to the Cas¬ pian and Black seas, received heavy damage in the fighting.

check Bill of exchange drawn on a bank and payable on demand. Checks have become the chief form of money in the domestic commerce of devel¬ oped countries. As a written order to pay money, a check may be trans¬ ferred from one person to another by endorsement. Most checks are not paid in currency but by the debiting and crediting of bank deposits. There are several special forms of checks. A cashier’s check is issued by a bank and has unquestioned acceptability, as does a certified check, which is a depositor’s check that has been guaranteed by a bank. Traveler’s checks are cashier’s checks sold to travelers, which must be signed twice by the payee, once when the check is issued and once when it is cashed; reim¬ bursement is guaranteed if they are lost or stolen.

checkers or draughts Board game for two players, each with 12 pieces positioned on the black squares of a 64-square checkerboard. Play consists of advancing a piece diagonally forward to an adjoining square, the goal being to jump and thus capture each of an opponent’s pieces until all are removed and victory is declared. When a piece reaches the final (king) row, it is crowned with a piece of the same colour and can begin to move in any direction. Similar games have been played in various cul¬ tures and in times extending back to antiquity.

checks and balances Principle of government under which separate branches are empowered to prevent actions by other branches and are induced to share power. Checks and balances are applied primarily in constitutional governments. They are of fundamental importance in tri¬

partite governments, such as that of the U.S., that separate powers among legislative, executive, and judicial departments. Checks and balances, which modify the separation of powers, may operate under parliamentary systems through exercise of a parliament’s prerogative to adopt a no-confidence vote against a government; the government, or cabinet, in turn, ordinarily may dissolve the parliament. In one-party political sys¬ tems, informal checks and balances may operate when organs of an authoritarian or totalitarian regime compete for power. See also Federalist papers; judicial review; separation of powers.

cheese Food consisting of the coagulated, compressed, and usually rip¬ ened curd of milk separated from the whey. When milk sours, it forms both a protein-rich gel, or curd, and a lactose-rich fluid, or whey. Coagu¬ lation is often facilitated by adding rennin, an enzyme that acts on the milk’s chief protein, casein. The resulting curd is then cut or broken to release most of the whey. Ripening and curing are affected by moisture content, acidity, presence of microorganisms, and other factors. Cheese is made from the milk of cows, goats, sheep, water buffalo, llamas, yaks, and other animals; in the West, cow’s milk is most common. Products vary according to fat content of the milk, heating or pasteurization, and addition of enzymes or cultures of bacteria, molds, or yeasts. Cheese vari¬ eties include hard cheeses (e.g., cheddar, Edam, Emmental, Gouda, Pro- volone, Romano, Swiss), semisoft cheeses (Gorgonzola, Limburger, Muenster, Roquefort), and soft cheeses (Brie, Camembert, cottage, Neu- fchatel, and ricotta). Cheese is a source of protein, fat, minerals (calcium, phosphorus, sulfur, iron), and vitamin A.

cheetah Slender, long-legged cat ( Acinonyx jubatus ) that lives on open plains of southern, central, and eastern Africa, and in the Middle East, where it is all but extinct. The fastest land animal in the world over short distances, it can reach a speed as great as 71 mph (114 kph). Its claws differ from those of other cats in being only partly retractable and in lack¬ ing protective sheaths. Like cats in the genus Felis, cheetahs purr rather than roar. The cheetah grows to about 55 in. (140 cm) long, excluding the 29-31-in. (75-80-cm) tail, and weighs 75-119 lbs (34-54 kg). The adult’s coarse fur is sandy yellow above, white below, and covered with small black spots; a black streak runs down the face from the corner of each eye. The cheetah hunts by day, alone or in small groups.

Cheever, John (b. May 27, 1912, Quincy, Mass., U.S.—d. June 18, 1982, Ossining, N.Y.) U.S. short-story writer and novelist. Cheever lived principally in southern Connecticut. His stories appeared notably in The New Yorker , his clear and elegant prose delineating the drama and sad¬ ness of life in comfortable suburban America, often through fantasy and ironic comedy. He has been called the Chekhov of the suburbs. His col¬ lections include The Enormous Radio (1953), The Brigadier and the Golf Widow (1964), and The Stories of John Cheever (1978, Pulitzer Prize). Among his novels are The Wapshot Chronicle (1957), The Wapshot Scan¬ dal (1964), and Falconer (1977). His revealing journals were published in 1991. Two of his children, Susan and Benjamin, also became writers.

Cheke Vchek\, Sir John (b. June 16, 1514—d. Sept. 13, 1557, London, Eng.) English humanist. A supporter of the Reformation, he was named pro¬ fessor of Greek at Cambridge University by Henry VIII and knighted by Edward VI. With his friend, the statesman Thomas Smith (1513-77), he ably defended the historical pronunciation of Attic Greek, introduced by Erasmus, in opposition to the post- Classical pronunciation that was then the norm. Cheke was imprisoned briefly on the accession of Mary I; he fled abroad but was captured in the Netherlands in 1556 and confined to the Tower of London. He recanted Protestantism to avoid execution and died the following year, allegedly depressed by his forced abjuration.

Chekhov Vchek-ofA English \'chek-of\, Anton (Pavlovich)

(b. Jan. 29, 1860, Taganrog,

Russia—d. July 14/15, 1904, Baden- weiler, Ger.) Russian playwright and short-story writer. The son of a former serf, he supported his family by writing popular comic sketches Anton Chekhov, 1902. while studying medicine in Moscow, david magarshack

Chayote (Sechium edule)

EUGENE BELT-SHOSTAL

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

382 I Chekiang ► chemical hydrology

While practicing as a doctor, he had his first full-length play, Ivanov (1887), produced, but it was not well-received. He took up serious themes with stories such as “The Steppe” (1888) and “A Dreary Story” (1889); later stories include “The Black Monk” (1894) and “Peasants” (1897). He converted his second long play, The Wood Demon (1889), into the mas¬ terpiece Uncle Vanya (1897). His play The Seagull (1896) was badly received until its successful revival in 1899 by Konstantin Stanislavsky and the Moscow Art Theatre. He moved to the Crimea to nurse his even¬ tually fatal tuberculosis, and there he wrote his great last plays. Three Sis¬ ters (1901) and The Cherry Orchard (1904), for the Moscow Art Theatre. Chekhov’s plays, which take a tragicomic view of the staleness of pro¬ vincial life and the passing of the Russian gentry, received international acclaim after their translation into English and other languages, and as a short-story writer he is still regarded as virtually unmatched.

Chekiang See Zhejiang

chelate Vke-,lat\ Any of a class of coordination or complex compounds consisting of a central atom of a metal (usually a transition element) attached to a large molecule (ligand). Any ligand that can bind to the metal at two or more points to form a ring structure, more stable than a nonchelated compound of the same general chemical formula, is a chelating agent. The process of binding to the metal is called chelation. Chelating agents such as EDTA salts are used in medicine to remove toxic metals (e.g., lead, cadmium) from the body. Others are used in analysis as indicators and in industry to extract metals. The iron-binding porphyrin group in hemoglo¬ bin, the magnesium-binding porphyrin in chlorophyll, and the cobalt¬ binding porphyrin in vitamin B 12 are natural chelators.

Chelif \sha-'lef\ River River, Algeria. Rising in the Atlas Mountains, it flows north and west into the Mediterranean Sea east of the city of Oran. At 422 mi (679 km) in length, it is Algeria’s longest river, though it is mostly unnavigable and has an irregular flow.

Chelmsford Vchelmz-fordV Town and borough (pop., 2001: 157,053), county seat of Essex, southeastern England. It lies on the northeastern periphery of Greater London. There are remains of the Roman settlement of Caesaromagus. In 1227 Chelms¬ ford became the regular seat of the county judicial gatherings known as assizes. The world’s first wireless telegraph service was transmitted in 1920 from the local premises of Guglielmo Marconi’s company. Light engineering, especially electronics, is important to the economy.

Chelmsford (of Chelmsford),

Frederic John Napier Thesiger, 1 st Viscount (b. Aug.

12, 1868, London, Eng.—d. April 1,

1933, London) English colonial administrator. In 1905 he was appointed governor of Queensland, Austl., and in 1909 of New South Wales. He left Australia in 1913 to serve in India as a captain in the Dor¬ setshire regiment. As viceroy of India in a time of surging Indian nation¬ alism (1916-21), he helped to institute reforms increasing Indian representation in government but provoked opposition by his severe mea¬ sures against nationalists.

Chelsea porcelain Soft-paste porcelain made in the London borough of Chelsea. The factory, established c. 1743, produced its greatest wares— tableware and bird figures, with designs inspired by Meissen porcelain and marked with a raised anchor on an oval medallion—from 1750 to 1752. Later marks used were the red anchor (1752-58) and the gold anchor (1758-70). Production from 1770 to 1784, when the factory was main¬ tained by William Duesbury of Derby, is known as Chelsea-Derbyware. Reproductions and forgeries are numerous. See photograph opposite.

Chelyabinsk \chel-'ya-b9nsk\ City (pop., 2002: 1,078,300), west- central Russia. Located 125 mi (200 km) southeast of Yekaterinburg on the Trans-Siberian Railroad, it is the capital of Chelyabinsk oblast. Founded as a frontier outpost on the site of a Bashkir village in 1736, its growth was greatly stimulated by the eastward evacuation of Russian industry in World War II.

chemical dependency See drug addiction chemical element See element, chemical

chemical energy Energy stored in the bonds of chemical compounds. Chemical energy may be released during a chemical reaction, often in the form of heat; such reactions are called exothermic. Reactions that require an input of heat to proceed may store some of that energy as chemical energy in newly formed bonds. The chemical energy in food is converted by the body into mechanical energy and heat. The chemical energy in coal is converted into electrical energy at a power plant. The chemical energy in a battery can also supply electrical power by means of electrolysis.

chemical engineering Academic discipline and industrial activity concerned with developing processes and designing and operating plants to change materials’ physical or chemical states. With roots in the inorganic and coal-based chemical industries of western Europe and the oil-refining industry in North America, it was spurred by the need to supply chemicals and products during the two World Wars. The field includes research, design, construction, operation, sales, and management activities. Chemi¬ cal engineers must master chemistry (including the nature of chemical reac¬ tions, the effects of temperature and pressure on equilibrium, and the effects of catalysts on reaction rates), physics, and mathematics. The engineering aspect, involving fluid flow (see deformation and flow) and heat and mass transfer, is broken down into “unit operations,” including vaporization, dis¬ tillation, absorption, filtration, extraction, crystallization, agitation and mix¬ ing, drying, and size reduction; each is described mathematically, and its principles apply to any material. Chemical engineers work not only in the chemical and oil industries but also in such processing industries as foods, paper, textiles, plastics, nuclear, and biotechnology.

chemical equation Method of writing the essential features of a chemi¬ cal reaction using chemical symbols (or other agreed-upon abbreviations). By convention, reactants (present at the start) are on the left, products (present at the end) on the right. A single arrow between them denotes an irreversible reaction, a double arrow a reversible reaction. The law of conservation of matter (see conservation law) requires that every atom on the left appear on the right (the equation must balance); only their arrange¬ ments and combinations change. For example, one oxygen molecule com¬ bining with two hydrogen molecules to form two water molecules is written 2H 2 + 0 2 —» 2H 2 0. The dissociation of salt into sodium and chlo¬ ride ions is written NaCl —> Na + + Cl - . See also stoichiometry.

chemical formula Expression of the composition or structure of a chemical compound. Formulas for MOLECULES USe CHEMICAL SYMBOLS with subscript numbers to show the num¬ ber of atoms of each element: 0 2 for molecular oxygen, 0 3 for ozone, CH 4 for methane, C 6 H 6 for benzene. Parentheses may enclose atoms that act as a group. General formulas show the proportions of atoms in members of a class (e.g., C„H 2 „ + 2 for alkanes). If the substance does not exist as molecules (see ionic bond), empirical formulas show the relative proportions of the constitu¬ ents (e.g., NaCl for sodium chlo¬ ride). Structural formulas show bonds (see bonding) between atoms in a molecule as short lines between symbols; they are particularly useful for showing how isomers differ. A projection formula also indicates the three-dimensional arrangement of the atoms (see Fischer projection; ste¬ reochemistry).

chemical hydrology or hydrochemistry Subdivision of hydrology that deals with the chemi¬ cal characteristics of the water on and beneath the surface of the Earth. Water in all forms is affected chemi¬ cally by the materials with which it

Cathedral of Saint Mary, Chelmsford, England.

THE J. ALLAN CASH PHOTOUBRARY

Chelsea soft-paste porcelain vase in the French Rococo style of Sevres ware with "mazarin blue" ground and a "reserve" panel painting by John Donaldson (after Francois Boucher), gold anchor mark, c. 1763; in the Vic¬ toria and Albert Museum, London.

COURTESY OF THE VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, LONDON

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chemical reaction ► Chen Shui-bian I 383

comes into contact, and it can dissolve many elements in significant quan¬ tities. Chemical hydrology is concerned with the processes involved and thus includes study of phenomena such as the transport of salts from land to sea (by erosion of rocks and surface runoff) and from sea to land (by evaporation, cloud formation, and precipitation) and the age and origin of groundwater in desert regions and of ice sheets and glaciers.

chemical reaction Any chemical process in which substances are changed into different ones, with different properties, as distinct from changing position or form (phase). Chemical reactions involve the rupture or rearrangement of the bonds holding atoms together (see bonding), never atomic nuclei. The total mass and number of atoms of all reactants equals those of all products, and energy is almost always consumed or liberated (see heat of reaction). The speed of reactions varies (see reaction rate). Understanding their mechanisms lets chemists alter reaction conditions to optimize the rate or the amount of a given product; the reversibility of the reaction and the presence of competing reactions and intermediate prod¬ ucts complicate these studies. Reactions can be syntheses, decomposi¬ tions, or rearrangements, or they can be additions, eliminations, or substitutions. Examples include oxidation-reduction, polymerization, ion¬ ization (see ion), combustion (burning), hydrolysis, and acid-base reactions.

chemical symbol Notation of one or two letters derived from the sci¬ entific names of the chemical elements (e.g., S for sulfur, Cl for chlorine, Zn for zinc). Some hark back to Latin names: Au (durum) for gold, Pb ( plumbum ) for lead. Others are named for people or places (e.g. einstein¬ ium, Es, for Einstein). The present symbols express the system set out by the atomic theory of matter. John Dalton first used symbols to designate single atoms of elements, not indefinite amounts, and Jons Jacob Berzelius gave many of the current names. Chemical formulas of compounds are written as combinations of the elements’ symbols, with numbers indicat¬ ing their atomic proportions, using various conventions for ordering and grouping. Thus, sodium chloride is written as NaCl and sulfuric acid as H 2 S0 4 .

chemical warfare Use of lethal or incapacitating chemical weapons in war, and the methods of combating such agents. Chemical weapons include choking agents such as the chlorine and phosgene gas employed first by the Germans and later by the Allies in World War I; blood agents such as hydrogen cyanide or cyanogen gas, which block red blood cells from taking up oxygen; blister agents such as sulfur gas and Lewisite, also dispensed as a gas, which burn and blister the skin; and nerve agents such as Tabun, Sarin, Soman, and VX, which block the transmission of nerve impulses to the muscles, heart, and diaphragm. The horrific casu¬ alties suffered in World War I led to the 1925 Geneva Protocol, which made it illegal to employ chemical weapons but did not ban their pro¬ duction. Chemical weapons were used a number of times afterward, most notably by Italy in Ethiopia (1935-36), by Japan in China (1938^-2), by Egypt in Yemen (1966-67), and by Iran and Iraq against each other (1984- 88). During the Cold War the Soviet Union and U.S. built up enormous chemical arsenals; these were dismantled under the terms of the 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention, which prohibits all development, pro¬ duction, acquisition, stockpiling, or transfer of such weapons. Not all countries have signed the convention, and many are suspected of pursu¬ ing clandestine chemical programs. Many military forces have adopted various defensive measures, including chemical sensors, protective gar¬ ments and gas masks, decontaminants, and injectable antidotes, and some have reserved the option of retaliating in kind to any chemical attack. In 1995 a religious cult killed 12 civilians and injured thousands more with Sarin gas in Tokyo; this pointed out the power of chemical agents as weapons of terror as well as the difficulty of protecting civilian popula¬ tions. See also biological warfare.

chemin de fer Vsha-.man-do-'ferV or shimmy Card game in which two or three cards are dealt to up to 12 players, who bet one at a time against each other rather than against the house. The winning hand is the one that comes closer to but does not exceed a count of 9. The game (whose French name means “railroad”) derives from baccarat and has similar rules.

chemistry Science that deals with the properties, composition, and structure of substances (elements and compounds), the reactions and trans¬ formations they undergo, and the energy released or absorbed during those processes. Often called the “central science,” chemistry is concerned with atoms as building blocks (rather than with the subatomic domain; see nuclear physics, quantum mechanics), with everything in the material world,

and with all living things. Branches of chemistry include inorganic (see inorganic compound), organic (see organic compound), physical, and ana¬ lytical (see analysis) chemistry; biochemistry; electrochemistry; and geochem¬ istry. Chemical engineering (applied chemistry) uses the theoretical and experimental information obtained in chemistry to build chemical plants and make useful products.

Chemnitz \'kem-nits\ formerly (1953-90) Karl-Marx-Stadt \ l karl- , marks-,shtat\ City (pop., 2002 est.: 255,800), eastern Germany. It lies along the Chemnitz River southeast of Leipzig. Chemnitz began as a trading place on a salt route to Prague and was chartered in 1143. Ger¬ many’s first spinning mill was operating there in 1800, and the first Ger¬ man locomotive was built there. The city remains an industrial centre.

chemoreception \ l ke-mo-ri- , sep-sh9n\ Sensory process by which organisms respond to external chemical stimuli, by employing special¬ ized cells (chemoreceptors) that convert the stimuli directly or indirectly into nerve impulses. Chemoreceptors that are components of sensory neu¬ rons that directly convert chemical stimuli are called primary receptors. Secondary receptors are not part of neurons but respond to stimulation by inducing activity in an adjacent neuron. Most mammals possess two classes of chemoreceptors: the primary receptors involved in smell and located in the epithelium of the nasal cavity and the secondary receptors involved in taste and located in the tongue’s taste buds. Aquatic animals and terrestrial species with mucus-secreting skins typically possess chemoreceptors all over the body. For many animals, chemoreception is the most important means of receiving information about their surround¬ ing environment. Chemoreception plays roles in finding appropriate food and in reproductive behaviour (see pheromones). It serves additional pur¬ poses in some animals, such as distinguishing members of the same com¬ munity from outsiders.

chemotaxonomy V.ke-mo-tak-'sa-no-meV Method of biological clas¬ sification based on similarities in the structure of certain compounds among the organisms being classified. Advocates argue that, because pro¬ teins are more closely controlled by genes and less subject to natural selection than are anatomical features, they are more reliable indicators of genetic relationships.

chemotherapy V.ke-mo-'ther-o-peV Treatment of diseases, including cancer, with chemicals. Some cancer drugs interfere with cancer-cell divi¬ sion or enzyme processes. However, they have serious side effects, attack¬ ing some healthy cells and reducing resistance to infection. Certain steroids are used to treat breast cancer and prostate cancer, leukemia, and lymphomas. Derivatives of plants such as periwinkle (vincristine, vinblas¬ tine) and yew (taxol) have been found effective against Hodgkin disease, leukemia, and breast cancer.

Chen Duxiu Vchon-'dii-she-'iA or Ch'en Tu-hsiu (b. Oct. 8, 1879, Huaining county, Anhuei province, China—d. May 27, 1942, Jiangjing, near Chongqing) Chinese political and intellectual leader, cofounder of the Chinese Communist Party. As a young man, Chen studied in Japan. In China, he started subversive periodicals that were quickly suppressed by the government. In 1915, after the establishment of the Chinese republic, he created the monthly Qingnian zazhi (“Youth Magazine”), renamed Xin qingnian (“New Youth”), in which he proposed that the youth of China rejuvenate the nation intellectually and culturally; Lu Xun, Hu Shih, and Mao Zedong were all contributors. In 1917 Chen was appointed dean of the School of Letters at Beijing University. In 1919 he was imprisoned briefly for his role in the May Fourth Movement; on his release he became a Marxist. With Li Dazhao he founded the Chinese Communist Party in 1920; he is regarded as “China’s Lenin.” The Communist International had him removed as party leader when the party’s alliance with the Nationalist Party fell apart, and he was expelled from the party in 1929. Arrested in 1932, he spent five years in prison.

Chen Shui-bian (b. Feb. 18, 1951, Tainan county, Taiwan) President of the Republic of China (Taiwan) from 2000. Chen studied law at National Taiwan University and later became one of the island’s leading attorneys. After unsuccessfully defending protesters who opposed the rul¬ ing Nationalist Party, he became linked with the opposition movement, and in the mid-1980s he was jailed on charges of libeling a Nationalist official. He subsequently joined the Democratic Progressive Party and became a prominent member of the movement to establish Taiwan’s inde¬ pendence. He served in Taiwan’s legislature (1989-94) before being elected mayor of Taipei in 1994. Although he did not win reelection in 1998, the loss freed him to run for president in 2000, and he defeated the

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384 I Chenab ► Chernobyl accident

Nationalist Party’s candidate, ending that party’s 55-year rule of Taiwan. In 2004 Chen was narrowly reelected, the vote coming one day after he and his running mate. Vice President Annette Lu (Lu Hsiu-lien), were shot and slightly wounded while campaigning in Tainan.

Chenab \ch3-'nab\ River ancient Acesines River, India and Pakistan. Rising in Himachal Pradesh state in the Indian Himalayas, it flows west through southern Jammu and Kashmir state and central Punjab province, Pakistan, to unite with the Jhelum and then flow into the Sutlej, a major tributary of the Indus River. One of the “five rivers” of the Punjab, it is about 600 mi (965 km) long and the source of an extensive canal and irrigation system.

Cheney, Dick in full Richard Bruce Cheney (b. Jan. 30, 1941, Lincoln, Neb., U.S.) U.S. politician, vice president of the U.S. from 2001. Cheney grew up in Casper, Wyo., and received bachelor’s and master’s degrees from the University of Wyoming. He became a deputy assistant to Pres. Gerald Ford in 1974 and served as his chief of staff from 1975 to 1977. In 1978 Cheney was elected from Wyoming to a Republican seat in the U.S. House of Representatives; he served six terms. As secretary of defense (1989-93) in the administration of Pres. George Bush, he pre¬ sided over reductions in the military following the breakup of the Soviet Union. Following Bush’s electoral defeat in 1992, Cheney became a fel¬ low at the American Enterprise Institute, a conservative think tank, and later chairman and chief executive officer of the Halliburton Company, a supplier of technology and services to the oil and gas industries. He was elected vice president on a ticket with George W. Bush in 2000 and 2004.

Cheng Ch'eng-kung See Zheng Chenggong Cheng-chou See Zhengzhou

Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi or Ch'eng Hao and Ch'eng I

\ , chai]- , hau... , ch3r)- , e\ (respectively b. 1032, Henan, China—d. 1085, Henan; b. 1033, Henan—d. 1107, Henan) Brothers who developed Neo- Confucianism into an organized philosophical school. Cheng Hao studied Buddhism, Daoism, and then Confucianism. He was dismissed from Chinese government service for opposing the reforms of Wang Anshi, and he joined his brother in Henan, where they gathered a circle of disciples. Cheng Yi’s stem morality led him to decline high office and criticize those in power. He was twice censured and pardoned. The brothers built their philosophies on the concept of li (basic truths), but Cheng Hao stressed calm introspection while Cheng Yi stressed investigation of the myriad things of the universe and participation in human affairs. Cheng Hao’s idealism was continued by Lu Xiangshan and Wang Yangming, and Cheng Yi’s realism was developed by Zhu Xi.

Cheng Ho See Zheng He Cheng-hsien See Zhengzhou

Ch'eng-tsung See Dorgon

Cheng-Zhu school or Ch'eng-Chu school Vchoq-'jiA Chinese school of Neo-Confucianism. Its leading philosophers were Cheng Yi (see Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi) and Zhu Xi, for whom the school is named. Cheng Yi taught that to understand li (basic truths), one should investi¬ gate all things in the world through induction, deduction, historical study, or political activity. Zhu Xi maintained that rational investigation was central to moral cultivation. The school dominated Chinese philosophy until the Republican Revolution (1911).

Chengdu Vchoq-'diA or Ch'eng-tu City (pop., 1999 est.: 2,146,126), capital of Sichuan province, China. It lies in the fertile Chengdu plain, the site of one of China’s most ancient and successful irrigation systems, watered by the Min River. First set up in the late 3rd century bc, the sys¬ tem has survived and has enabled the area to support one of the densest agrarian populations in the world. Chengdu was the capital of various dynasties, and in the 10th century ad it was immensely prosperous; its merchants introduced the use of paper money, which spread throughout China under the Song dynasty. Chengdu was famous for its brocades and satins. The capital of Sichuan since 1368, it has remained a major admin¬ istrative centre. Today it is a transportation and industrial hub, as well as an educational centre.

Chengzong See Dorgon

Chennai \,chen-'m\ formerly Madras \m9-'dras\ City (pop., 2001 pre¬ lim.: city, 4,216,268; metro, area, 6,424,624), capital of Tamil Nadu state, India, on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal. Founded in 1639

by the British East India Company as a fort and trading post, it was known as Fort St. George and was used as a base for the company’s expansion in southern India. The city of St. Thome, established by the Portuguese in the 16th century, was ceded to the British in 1749 and incorporated into it. The English made Chennai their administrative and commercial capital c. 1800. It is an industrial centre and the site of numerous educa¬ tional and cultural institutions. It is traditionally considered the burial place of St. Thomas the Apostle.

Chennault Xsho-'nohA, Claire L(ee) (b. Sept. 6, 1890, Commerce, Texas, U.S.—d. July 27, 1958, New Orleans, La.) U.S. brigadier general. He served in the army air corps for 20 years before retiring in 1937 because of increasing deafness. He became an air adviser to Chiang Kai- shek, and he formed the group of U.S. volunteer aviators called the Flying Tigers to combat the Japanese. Recalled to active duty in World War II, he commanded U.S. Army Air Forces in China (1942^-5). He and his Chinese wife, Anna, remained influential supporters of Chiang Kai-shek.

Cher River \'sher\ River, central France. Rising in the northwest of the Massif Central, it flows northwest, passing through Chenonceaux, where it is bridged by a historic chateau, then passes south of Tours to join the Loire River after a course of 217 mi (349 km).

Cherbourg \sher-'bur,\ English \'sher-,burg\ Seaport (pop., 1999: 25,370) and naval station, northwestern France. Located on the English Channel, it is believed to occupy the site of an ancient Roman station. The French and English fought over the site in the Middle Ages. It was taken by the English in 1758, then passed to France and was extensively fortified by Louis XVI. In World War II the Germans held it until the Allies captured it in 1944; it became an important Allied supply port. Industries include transatlantic shipping, shipbuilding, and the manufacture of elec¬ tronics and telephone equipment. Yachting and commercial fishing are also important.

Cherenkov radiation Xchs-'req-koA Light produced by charged par¬ ticles when they pass through an optically transparent medium at speeds greater than the speed of light in that medium. For example, when elec¬ trons from a nuclear reactor travel through shielding water, they do so at a speed greater than that of light through water and they displace some electrons from the atoms in their path. This causes emission of electro¬ magnetic radiation that appeal’s as a weak bluish-white glow. The phenom¬ enon is named for Pavel A. Cherenkov (1904-1990), who discovered it; he shared a 1958 Nobel Prize with Igor Y. Tamm (1895-1971) and Ilya M. Frank (1908-1990), who interpreted the effect.

Chernenko \cher-'n y ei]-ko\, Konstantin (Ustinovich) (b. Sept. 11, 1911, Bolshaya Tes, Yeniseysk, Russian Empire—d. March 10, 1985, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Soviet leader. He joined the Communist Party in 1931 and rose through the ranks to become Leonid Brezhnev’s chief of staff (1964). He was a full member of the Central Committee from 1971 and of the Politburo from 1977. An old-line conservative, he was consid¬ ered by some to be Brezhnev’s heir apparent, but he failed in a bid to succeed Brezhnev as party leader in 1982. When Yuri Andropov died, Chernenko succeeded him in 1984. His physical frailty soon became apparent, suggesting that his election had been intended as an interim measure; he died the next year.

Chernihiv \chir-'ne-he-u\ Russian Chernigov \chir-'ne-g3f\ City (pop., 2001: 304,994), capital of Chernihiv oblast, Ukraine. It lies north¬ east of Kiev on the Desna River. Mentioned as early as ad 907, it became the capital of Chernihiv principality in the 11th century, when its cathe¬ dral was built. Chernihiv lost importance after the Tatar invasion (1239— 40) and remained a minor provincial centre until modern times, when it developed as a railway junction.

Chernobyl accident Vchor-'no-boA Accident at the Chernobyl (Ukraine) nuclear power station in the Soviet Union, the worst in the his¬ tory of nuclear power generation. On April 25-26, 1986, technicians attempted a poorly designed experiment, causing the chain reaction in the core to go out of control. The reactor’s lid was blown off, and large amounts of radioactive material were released into the atmosphere. A par¬ tial meltdown of the core also occurred. A cover-up was attempted, but after Swedish monitoring stations reported abnormally high levels of wind-transported radioactivity, the Soviet government admitted the truth. Beyond 32 immediate deaths, several thousand radiation-induced illnesses and cancer deaths were expected in the long term. The incident set off an international outcry over the dangers posed by radioactive emissions.

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Chernov ► Cheselden I 385

Chernov \ch9r-'nof\, Viktor (Mikhaylovich) (b. Nov. 19, 1873, Kamyshin, Russia—d. April 15, 1952, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Russian revolutionary, cofounder of the Russian Socialist Revolutionary Party. A revolutionist from 1893, he became a member of his party’s central com¬ mittee in 1902 and wrote the party’s platform. In 1917 he served briefly as minister of agriculture. He was elected president of the constituent assembly that opened in Petrograd on Jan. 18, 1918, but was dispersed the next day by the Bolsheviks. He emigrated in 1920, wrote (sometimes as Boris Olenin) and lived in Paris until 1940, then went to the U.S., where he wrote for anticommunist periodicals.

Chernyshevsky \ch9r-ni-'shef-ske\, N(ikolay) G(avrilovich) (b.

July 12, 1828, Saratov, Russia—d. Oct. 17, 1889, Saratov) Russian radi¬ cal journalist and politician. In 1854 he joined the staff of the review Sovremennik (“Contemporary”), where he focused on social and eco¬ nomic evils. Arrested on charges of subversion, he was imprisoned in 1862 and then exiled to Siberia, where he remained until 1883. While in prison he wrote the classic novel What Is to be Done? (1863), which greatly influenced future Russian revolutionaries.

Cherokee American Indian people of Iroquoian lineage living mostly in Oklahoma, U.S. Their traditional homeland is eastern Tennessee and the western Carolinas. Cherokee culture resembled that of the Creek and other Southeastern Indians. Their name is derived from a Creek word meaning “people of different speech”; many prefer to be known as Keetoowah or Tsalagi. Cherokee is an Iroquoian language, but it differs considerably from other Iroquoian languages. At the time of first contact, the Cherokee possessed stone implements, wove baskets, made pottery, cultivated com, beans, and squash, and hunted deer, bear, and elk. Wars and treaties in the late 18th century severely reduced Cherokee power and landholdings. After a series of failed raids against U.S. troops and civilian settlements, they ceded land to attain peace and to pay debts. After 1800 the Cherokee were remarkable for their assimilation of European/American culture, forming a government modeled on that of the U.S. and adopting European methods of farming and homemaking. Most became literate following the development of a syllabary by Sequoyah. Beginning c. 1835, when gold was discovered on Cherokee land in Georgia, agitation increased for their removal to the West. The ensuing events culminated in the Trail of Tears, which left some 4,000 Cherokee dead. People claiming sole Cherokee descent numbered some 281,000 in the 2000 U.S. census.

cherry Any of various trees of the genus Primus and their edible fruits. Most are native to the Northern Hemisphere, where they are widely grown. Three types are grown mainly for their fruit: sweet cherries (P. avium ); sour, or tart, cherries (P. cerasus)\ and, to a much lesser extent, dukes (crosses of sweet and sour cherries). Sweet-cherry trees are large, and their fruit is generally heart-shaped to nearly globular, var¬ ies in colour from yellow through red to nearly black, and has a low acid content. Sour-cherry trees are smaller and bear fruit that is round to oblate, generally dark red, and more acidic. Dukes are intermediate in both tree and fruit characteristics.

The wood of some cherry species is especially esteemed for the manufac¬ ture of fine furniture. Ornamental varieties selected for the beauty of their flowers are a common feature of gardens.

Cherry Valley Raid (Nov. 11, 1778) Attack during the American Revo¬ lution by Iroquois Indians on a New York frontier settlement. In retalia¬ tion for earlier assaults on two Indian villages, the Iroquois chief Joseph Brant joined with British loyalists to lead the attack on the fortified vil¬ lage at Cherry Valley. Thirty militiamen and settlers were killed.

Chersonese Vk3r-s3-,nez\ In ancient geography, any of several penin¬ sulas in Europe and Asia (the term means “peninsula”). Tauric Cherson¬ ese comprised the Crimea and often the city of Chersonese, near modern Sevastopol. The city, founded by Ionian Greeks in the 6th century bc, later

traded with Athens, Delos, and Rhodes and flourished under the Romans and Byzantines. Thracian Chersonese constituted the modern Gallipoli Peninsula. On the main trade route between Europe and Asia, it was the site of several cities founded by Aeolians and Ionians in the 7th century bc. Abandoned to Darius I in 493 bc, it came under Athenian control and was later dominated by Augustus.

chert and flint Very fine-grained quartz, a silica mineral with minor impurities. Flint is gray to black and nearly opaque (translucent brown in thin splinters). Opaque, dull, whitish to pale brown or gray specimens are called simply chert. Chert and flint provided the main source of tools and weapons for Stone Age people. Flint is used today as an abrasive agent on sandpapers and in mills that grind raw materials for the ceramic and paint industries. Considerable amounts of chert are also used in road con¬ struction and as concrete aggregate. Some chert takes an excellent polish and is used as semiprecious jewelry. See also siliceous rock.

cherub In Jewish, Christian, and Islamic literature, a celestial winged being with human, animal, or birdlike characteristics. They are included among the angels, and in the Hebrew scriptures they are described as the throne bearers of God. In Christianity and Islam they are celestial atten¬ dants of God and praise him continually. Known as karubun in Islam, they repeat “Glory to God” ceaselessly, and they dwell in a section of heaven inaccessible to attacks by the Devil. In art they are often depicted as winged infants. See also seraph.

Cherubini \ I ka-ru-'be-ne\, Luigi (Carlo Zanobi Salvadore Maria) (b. Sept. 14, 1760, Florence—d. March 15, 1842, Paris, France) Italian-French composer. Bom into a musical family, the precocious youth had written dozens of works before he was 20 years old. In 1786 he settled permanently in Paris. He enjoyed operatic successes in the 1790s, and Napoleon expressed his particular admiration. He became co-superintendent of the royal chapel in 1816 and in 1822 director of the Paris Conservatoire, where he would remain the rest of his life. Ludwig van Beethoven called Cherubini his greatest contemporary. His counter¬ point text (1835) was used widely for a century. Of his nearly 40 operas, the most popular were Lodoi'ska (1791), Medee (1797), and Les Deux Journees (1800). His other important works include a symphony (1815), six string quartets, requiems in C minor and D minor (1816, 1836), and nine surviving masses.

Chesapeake Vche-s9-,pek\ City (pop., 2000: 199,184), southeastern Virginia, U.S. Located south of Norfolk, it was formed as an independent city in 1963 by the merger of Norfolk county and the city of South Nor¬ folk. Its area of 341 sq mi (883 sq km) is one of the largest of U.S. cit¬ ies. Encompassing part of Dismal Swamp, it was once the home of the Chesapeake Indians and was settled by colonists in the 1630s.

Chesapeake and Ohio Canal National Historical Park Park, eastern U.S. It consists of the former Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, a waterway running along the Potomac River between Washington, D.C., and Cumberland, Md. The canal, which extends 185 mi (297 km), was built beginning in the 1820s. Competition from the railroads later caused its economic decline. The canal was purchased in 1938 by the U.S. gov¬ ernment; it was restored and established as a historical park in 1971.

Chesapeake and Ohio Railway Co. (C&O) U.S. railroad com¬ pany established in 1868 with the consolidation of two smaller lines, the Virginia Central and the Covington and Ohio. The railroad later acquired several other lines, mainly in the upper South and the Midwest, which together became known as the Chessie System. In 1972 its passenger ser¬ vices were taken over by Amtrak, and in 1980 it merged with Seaboard Coast Line Industries, Inc., to form the CSX Corp.

Chesapeake Bay Inlet of the Atlantic Ocean, eastern U.S. With its lower section in Virginia and its upper section in Maryland, it is 193 mi (311 km) long and 3-25 mi (5-40 km) wide and has an area of about 3,230 sq mi (8,365 sq km). It receives many rivers, including the Susque¬ hanna, Patuxent, Potomac, and James. Jamestown, the area’s first Euro¬ pean settlement, was founded in 1607; a year later, Capt. John Smith explored and mapped the bay. The bay’s waters had supported vast amounts of marine life, but by the 1970s development of the surround¬ ing area led to alarming pollution of the bay; fishing dropped off sharply. Efforts have since been made to reverse the damage.

Cheselden Vchez-ol-donX, William (b. Oct. 19, 1688, Somerby, Leicestershire, Eng.—d. April 10, 1752, Bath, Somersetshire) British sur¬ geon and teacher. His Anatomy of the Human Body (1713) and

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

386 I Cheshire ► Chesterton

Osteographia (1733) were both used by anatomy students for nearly a century. His technique for extracting bladder stones through an incision in the side rather than the front (1727) was soon used by surgeons through¬ out Europe. He also devised a way to surgically create an “artificial pupil” to treat some forms of blindness.

Cheshire Vche-shoA Administrative (pop., 2001: 673,777), geographic, and historic county, northwestern England. The county seat is Chester. Cheshire borders Wales, fronts the Dee and Mersey estuaries to the north¬ west, and lies partly within Peak District National Park. Evidence of hill forts from the Bronze and Iron ages has been found, as well as ruins of structures from the Roman occupation. The county is largely rural, but, along with dairy farming, engineering and chemical and technology industries are important.

Chesnut, Mary orig. Mary Boykin Miller (b. March 31, 1823, Pleasant Hill, S.C., U.S.—d. Nov. 22, 1886, Camden, S.C.) U.S. writer. The daughter of a prominent South Carolina politician, she attended pri¬ vate schools in her youth. In 1840 she married James Chesnut, Jr., who would play an important role in the secession movement and the Con¬ federacy. After her husband became an officer in the Confederate army, she accompanied him on his military missions and recorded her views and observations in her journal. Her Diary from Dixie, a perceptive view of Southern life during the American Civil War, was published in 1905.

Chesnutt, Charles (Waddell) (b. June 20, 1858, Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.—d. Nov. 15, 1932, Cleveland) U.S. writer, the first important Afri¬ can American novelist. As a young school principal in North Carolina, he was so distressed by the treatment of African Americans that he moved his family to Cleveland, where he became an attorney and began writing in his spare time. He published numerous tales and essays, two collec¬ tions of short stories, a biography of Frederick Douglass, and three nov¬ els, including The Colonel’s Dream (1905). A psychological realist, he used familiar scenes of folk life to protest social injustice.

chess Checkerboard game for two players, each of whom moves 16 pieces according to fixed rules across the board and tries to capture or immobilize (checkmate) the opponent’s king. The game may have origi¬ nated in Asia about the 6th century, though it continued to evolve as it spread into Europe in Byzantine times; its now-standard rules first became generally accepted in Europe in the 16th century. The players, designated white or black, start with their pieces arranged on opposite ends of the board. Kings move one square in any direction—but not into attack (check). Bishops move diagonally, and rooks horizontally or vertically, any number of unobstructed squares. Queens move like either bishops or rooks. Knights move to the nearest nonadjacent square of the opposite colour (an “L” shape) and ignore intervening chessmen. Pieces capture by moving to an enemy-occupied square. Pawns move forward one square (except one or two on their first move) and are promoted to any non-king piece if they eventually reach the last row. Pawns capture only one diagonal square for¬ ward of them. For one turn only, a pawn has the option, known as en pas¬ sant, of capturing an enemy pawn that has just made a first move of two squares to avoid being captured by moving only one; the capture occurs as though the pawn had moved only one square. When the first row between a king and either rook is clear, and as long as the king and that rook have not moved, a maneuver known as castling can be done in which the king is shifted two squares toward that rook and the rook is placed directly on the other side of the king. Kings cannot castle when in check or through any square in which they would be in check. A draw, known as a stalemate, occurs if a player is not in check but any move he could make would place him in check. A draw also occurs if the same position occurs three times (such as through “perpetual check”). See illustration opposite.

Chess, Leonard orig. Lejzor Czyz (b. March 12, 1917, Motule, Pol.—d. Oct. 16, 1969, Chicago, Ill., U.S.) Polish-born U.S. record pro¬ ducer. He immigrated to the U.S in 1928 with his mother, sister, and brother and future partner, Fiszel (later Philip; b. 1921), and they joined his father, who had preceded them, in Chicago. After working at several trades, Leonard Chess opened a lounge, and Phil joined him in the busi¬ ness. In 1947 Leonard joined the Aristocrat record company; in 1950 he bought the company and, with Phil as partner, renamed it Chess. Fans of the electric blues that were being heard in the city after World War II, they signed such artists as Muddy Waters, Willie Dixon, Chuck Berry, How¬ lin’ Wolf (1910-76), Etta James (b. 1938), Koko Taylor (b. 1935), and Bo Diddley (b. 1928), and played a major role in introducing black music to a wider white audience.

Chess pieces located at their starting positions on the chessboard.

© MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

Chester ancient Deva or Castra Devana City and administrative district (pop., 2001: 118,207), seat of Cheshire county, England. Located on the River Dee south of Liverpool, it is an active port and railroad cen¬ tre. The Romans chose it as the headquarters of the 20th Legion; well- preserved Roman walls remain. It was the last place in England to surrender to William the Conqueror, who made it the centre of a palati¬ nate earldom in 1071. It became an important port in the 13 th—14th cen¬ tury, trading especially with Ireland. From about the 14th century, it was the scene of the presentation of the mystery plays of the Chester cycle. The

gradual silting of the Dee led to the city’s decline, but in the 19th century railroad traffic renewed Chester’s prosperity.

Chesterton, G(ilbert) K(eith)

(b. May 29, 1874, London, Eng.—d. June 14, 1936, Beaconsfield, Buck¬ inghamshire) British man of letters. Chesterton was a journalist, a scholar, a novelist and short-story writer, and a poet. His works of social and literary criticism include Robert Browning (1903), Charles Dickens (1906), and The Victorian Age in Literature (1913). Even before his conversion to Roman Catholicism in 1922, he was inter¬ ested in theology and religious argu¬ ment. His fiction includes The Napoleon of Notting Hill (1904), the popular allegorical novel The Man

" 3 )

i _

G.K. Chesterton, chalk drawing by James Gunn, 1932; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, LONDON

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

chestnut ► ch'i i 387

Who Was Thursday (1908), and his most successful creation, the series of detective novels featuring the priest-sleuth Father Brown.

chestnut Any of four species of deciduous ornamental and timber trees of the genus Castanea, in the beech family. Native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, they bear burrlike fruits that contain two or three edible nuts. The usually tall trees have furrowed bark and lance¬ shaped leaves. The American chestnut (C. dentata), which once extended over a large area of eastern North America, has been almost eliminated by chestnut blight. The other three species are the European chestnut (C. sativa), the Chinese chestnut (C. mollissima), and the Japanese chestnut (C. crenata ). The nuts of these three have local importance as food and are exported in large quantities, and varieties of all three are cultivated as ornamentals. The European chestnut produces useful timber as well; the American chestnut also was an important source of lumber and nuts before the arrival of the blight.

chestnut blight Plant disease caused by the fungus Endothia parasit¬ ica. Accidentally imported from East Asia and first observed in 1904 in New York, it has killed almost all native American chestnuts ( Castanea dentata ) in the U.S. and Canada and is destructive in other countries. Other blight-susceptible species include the European chestnut (C. sativa), the post oak ( Quercus stellata ), and the live oak. Symptoms include red¬ dish brown bark patches that develop into sunken or swollen and cracked cankers that kill twigs and limbs. Leaves on such branches turn brown and wither but remain attached for months. Gradually the entire tree dies. The fungus persists for years in short-lived sprouts from old chestnut roots and in less susceptible hosts. It is spread locally by splashing rain, wind, and insects, and over long distances by birds. Chinese (C. mollissima ) and Japanese (C. crenata) chestnuts are resistant.

Chetumal \,cha-tu-'mal\ City (pop., 2000: 121,602), capital of Quin¬ tana Roo state, Mexico. Located on the eastern coast of the Yucatan Pen¬ insula just north of Belize, it lies only 20 ft (6 m) above sea level. Founded in 1899, it became the territorial capital when Quintana Roo was sepa¬ rated from Yucatan state in 1902. It is set in tropical rainforests, and for¬ est products form the basis of the local economy.

chevalier See knight

Chevalier \sh3-val-'ya\, Maurice (b. Sept. 12,1888, Paris, France—d. Jan. 1, 1972, Paris) French singer and actor. He first appeared as a singer and comedian at the Folies- Bergere in 1909. He spent two years in a German prison camp during World War I. Known for his jaunty straw hat and bow tie and his lively, roguish manner, he went to Holly¬ wood in 1929, where he appeared in movies that helped establish the musical as a film genre, including The Love Parade (1929) and The Merry Widow (1934). He was criti¬ cized for entertaining the Germans during the wartime occupation of France. His later films include Gigi (1958) and Fanny (1961). In 1958 he was presented with an honorary

Academy Award. -

Cheviot Vshi-ve-9t\ Hills Range of hills along the England-Scotland border. Its highest elevation is Cheviot, at 2,676 ft (816 m). Evidence of prehistoric occupation is widespread. Part of the area was designated Northumberland National Park in 1956.

Chevreuse \sh3v-'rcez\, Marie de Rohan-Montbazon, duch¬ ess de orig. Marie de Rohan-Montbazon known as Madame de Chevreuse (b. December 1600—d. Aug. 12, 1679, Gagny, France) French princess. She participated in several conspiracies against the min¬ isterial government in Louis Xlll’s reign and the regency for Louis XIV. She was exiled several times for her activities, including participating in a plot against Cardinal de Richelieu, betraying state secrets to Spain, and plotting to assassinate Jules Mazarin.

chevrotain Yshev-rs-.tanV or mouse deer Any of several species (family Tragulidae) of small, delicately built ruminants of Asia and Africa. Resembling tiny deer, chevrotains stand about 12 in. (30 cm) at the shoul¬

der and seem to walk on their hooftips. Their fur is reddish brown with spots and pale stripes. Males have small, curved tusks protruding down¬ ward from the upper jaw. Shy and solitary, they are active at night. Asi¬ atic chevrotains are found in forests from India to the Philippines. The water chevrotain of western equatorial Africa inhabits thick cover on the banks of rivers and seeks escape in the water when disturbed.

Chewa Bantu-speaking people of eastern Zambia, northwestern Zim¬ babwe, and Malawi. They practice shifting (slash-and-burn) agriculture and they hunt and fish. Slavery was once universal among the Chewa. Descent, inheritance, and succession are matrilineal and polygyny is gen¬ eral. Chewa settlements are governed by a hereditary headman and a council of elders.

chewing or mastication Up-and-down and side-to-side movements of the lower jaw, using the teeth to grind food for easier swallowing. Dur¬ ing chewing, the tongue shapes food into a lump and saliva lubricates it for swallowing. Chewing softens tough meat or vegetable fibres and exposes them to digestive enzymes.

chewing gum Sweetened product made from chicle and similar resil¬ ient substances that is chewed for its flavour. Tree resins have been chewed as teeth cleaners and breath fresheners since ancient times. The latex (called chicle) of the Central American sapodilla tree was first used to mass-produce chewing gum in the 19th century; its plasticity, insolu¬ bility in water, and ability to hold a flavour made it an ideal chewing-gum base. After World War II other gums and synthetic rubbers came to replace chicle.

Cheyenne Plains Indian people of Algonquian stock (see Algonquian languages), living principally in Montana and Oklahoma, U.S. Originally farmers, hunters, and gatherers who lived in central Minnesota, the Chey¬ enne moved in the early 19th century to regions around the Platte and Arkansas rivers and split into the Northern Cheyenne and the Southern Cheyenne. In these areas they adopted the lifestyle of the Plains Indians; after acquiring horses, they became more dependent on the buffalo for food and developed a tepee-dwelling nomadic mode of life. They per¬ formed the sun dance and placed heavy emphasis on visions in which an animal spirit adopted the individual and bestowed special powers on him. They had well-organized military societies and fought constantly with the Kiowa until c. 1840. In the 1870s they participated in various Indian uprisings, joining the Sioux at Little Bighorn in 1876. More than 11,100 people claimed sole Cheyenne descent in the 2000 U.S. census.

Cheyenne \shl-'an\ City (pop., 2000: 53,011), capital of Wyoming, U.S. It is the state’s largest city and has been the capital since 1869. It became an outfitting point for the Black Hills goldfields to the northeast and a major shipping point for cattle from Texas. Its own grazing lands became famed for their herds and cattle barons. In July it celebrates Frontier Days, which includes one of America’s oldest and largest rodeos. Nearby Fort Francis E. Warren was the site of the nation’s first intercontinental ballistic mis¬ sile base (1957).

Cheyenne River River, northern central U.S. Rising in eastern Wyo¬ ming, it flows northeast 527 mi (850 km) to join the Missouri River in cen¬ tral South Dakota. Angostura Dam, part of the Missouri River basin irrigation project, is on the river near Hot Springs, S.D.

Cheyne \'chan. Sir William Watson (b. Dec. 14, 1852, at sea off Hobart, Tas.—d. April 19, 1932, Fetlar, Shetland Islands, Scot.) English surgeon and bacteriologist. His early work on preventive medicine and bacterial causes of disease was strongly influenced by that of Robert Koch. He became a devoted follower of Joseph Lister and was a pioneer of anti¬ septic surgical methods in Britain. He published the important works Antiseptic Surgery (1882) and Lister and His Achievements (1885).

Chhattisgarh State (pop., 2001 prelim.: 20,795,956), central India. Bordered by Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, and Maharashtra states, it occupies 52,199 sq mi (135,194 sq km); its capital is Raipur. The Chhattisgarh Plain covers much of the state, with the land becoming more hilly to the north and west. The area now comprising Chhattisgarh was the eastern portion of Madhya Pradesh state before it was made into a separate state in 2000. It is rich in minerals, but the population is mainly engaged in agriculture.

Ch'i See Qi ch'i See qi

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

388 I Chi-lin ► Chicago

Chi-lin See Jilin ch'i-lin See qilin Chi-nan See Jinan

Chiang Ching-kuo or Jiang Jingguo Vje-'aq-'jiq-'gwoV (b. March 18, 1910, Qikou, Zhejiang province, China—d. Jan. 13, 1988, Taipei, Tai¬ wan) Son of Chiang Kai-shek, and his successor as leader of the Nation¬ alist government in Taiwan. He was formally elected by the National Assembly to a six-year presidential term in 1978 and reelected in 1984. He tried to maintain Taiwan’s foreign-trade relationships and political independence as other countries began to break off diplomatic relations in order to establish ties with mainland China. Other actions during his presidency included ending martial law, allowing opposition parties, and encouraging native-born Taiwanese to participate in government.

Chiang-hsi See Jiangxi

Chiang Kai-shek Vje-'aq-'kI-'shekA English \chaq-kl-'shek\ or Chiang Chieh-shih or Jiang Jieshi yje-'aq-je-'esh-'eX (b. Oct. 31,

1887, Zhejiang, China—d. April 5,

1975, Taipei, Taiwan) Head of the Nationalist government in China (1928^19) and later in Taiwan (1949-75). After receiving military training in Tokyo, in 1918 he joined Sun Yat-sen, leader of the National¬ ist Party, which was trying to con¬ solidate control over a nation in chaos. In the 1920s Chiang became commander in chief of the revolu¬ tionary army, which he sent to crush warlords active in the north (see Northern Expedition). In the 1930s he and Wang Jingwei vied for control of a new central government with its capital at Nanjing. Faced with Japa¬ nese aggression in Manchuria and communist opposition led by Mao Zedong in the hinterland, Chiang decided to crush the communists first. This proved to be a mistake, and Chiang was forced into a temporary alliance with the communists when war broke out with Japan in 1937. After the war China’s civil war resumed, culminating in the Nationalists’ flight to Taiwan in 1949, where Chiang ruled, supported by U.S. economic and military aid, until his death, when his son, Chiang Ching-kuo, took up the reins of government. His years ruling Taiwan, though dictatorial, oversaw the island’s eco¬ nomic development and increasing prosperity even in the face of its pre¬ carious geopolitical position. His failure to keep control of mainland China has been attributed to poor morale among his troops, lack of respon¬ siveness to popular sentiment, and lack of a coherent plan for making the deep social and economic changes China required.

Chiang Mai Vjyaq-'mA City (pop., 1999 est.: 171,594), northwestern Thailand. Located on the Ping River about 80 mi (130 km) east of Myan¬ mar, it was founded in the late 13th century as the capital of the indepen¬ dent Lan Na kingdom. Later subject to Myanmar, it was taken by the Siamese in 1774, but retained a degree of independence from Bangkok until the late 19th century. It is now northern Thailand’s religious, eco¬ nomic, and cultural centre. Nearby is the temple complex of Wat Phra That Doi Suthop, whose monastery was built in the 14th century.

Chiang-su See Jiangsu

Chian-ning See Nanjing

Chiapas \che-'a-pas\ State (pop., 2000: 3,920,892), southeastern Mexico. Covering 28,653 sq mi (74,211 sq km), its capital is Tuxtla Gutier¬ rez. It is mountainous and forested and is bounded by Guatemala and the Pacific Ocean. Most of its inhabitants are Indian peoples. The extraordi¬ nary Maya ruins of Palenque are in the northeastern rainforests. Bonham- pak, with its famous Mayan murals, can be reached from the capital. Linked with Guatemala in colonial days, Chiapas became a Mexican state in 1824; its boundaries were fixed in 1882. In 1994 impoverished Indi¬ ans and middle-class residents, protesting economic and social inequali¬

ties, formed the Zapatista National Liberation Army and launched an armed uprising that continued into the 21st century.

chiaroscuro Xke-.ar-o-'skyur-oV Italian "light-dark" Contrasting effects of light and shade in a work of art. Leonardo da Vinci brought the technique to its full potential, but it is usually associated with such 17th- century artists as Caravaggio and Rembrandt, who used it to outstanding effect. The chiaroscuro woodcut, produced by printing different tones of a colour from separate woodblocks on a single sheet of paper, was first produced in 16th-century Italy.

Chibcha \'chib-,cha\ or Muisca \'mwesko\ Group of South American Indians who at the time of the Spanish conquest occupied the high val¬ leys surrounding what are now Bogota and Tunja in Colombia. They had a population of more than 500,000 and were more centralized politically than any other South American people outside the Inca empire. Their economy was based on intensive agriculture, a variety of crafts, and exten¬ sive trade. Society was highly stratified. The Chibchan political structure was crushed by Spanish invaders in the 16th century, and by the 18th cen¬ tury they had been assimilated into the rest of the population. See also Andean civilization.

Chicago City (pop., 2000: 2,896,016), northeastern Illinois, U.S. Located on Lake Michigan and the Chicago River, Chicago has extensive port facilities. In the 17th century the name was associated with a por¬ tage between the Des Plaines and Chicago rivers connecting the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes with the Mississippi River. Fort Dearborn was built in 1803 on a tract acquired from Indians. It expanded rapidly after the completion of the Illinois and Michigan Canal (1848), which connected the Chicago and Mississippi rivers, and also became the nation’s chief rail centre. Rebuilt quickly after a hugely destructive fire in 1871, it was the site of the World’s Columbian Exposition in 1893. It was the birthplace of the steel-frame skyscraper in the late 19th century, and it boasts designs by eminent architects, including Louis H. Sullivan, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. Nuclear scientists pro¬ duced the first nuclear chain reaction at the University of Chicago in 1942. After World War II the city underwent another building boom, but, as in other large cities, its population subsequently dropped as its suburbs grew. The third largest U.S. city, it is a major industrial, commercial, and trans¬ portation centre and is the site of the Chicago Mercantile Exchange and the Chicago Board of Trade. Several museums and the Art Institute of Chi¬ cago are located there.

Chicago, Judy orig. Judy Cohen (b. July 20, 1939, Chicago, Ill., U.S.) U.S. multimedia artist. She studied at UCLA, and in 1970 she adopted the name of her hometown. Motivated by perceived discrimina¬ tion in the art world and alienation from canonical art traditions, she developed “environments” featuring feminine imagery. Her most notable work, The Dinner Party (1974-79), is a triangular table with place set¬ tings for 39 important women, each represented by personalized ceramic plates and table runners embellished with embroidery styles typical of their eras. This installation established her reputation as a leader in femi¬ nist art. In 1973 she cofounded the Feminist Studio Workshop and Wom¬ an’s Building in Los Angeles.

Chicago, University of Independent university in Chicago, Illinois, U.S. It was founded in 1890 with an endowment from John D. Rockefeller. William Rainey Harper, its first president (1891-1906), did much to estab¬ lish its reputation, and under Robert M. Hutchins (1929-51) the university came to be recognized for its broad liberal arts curriculum. The world’s first department of sociology was established there in 1892 under Robert E. Park. In 1942 it was the site of the first controlled self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction, under the direction of Enrico Fermi. Other notable achievements include the development of carbon- 14 dating and the isolation of plutonium. More than 70 scholars associated with the University of Chicago have been awarded Nobel Prizes in their fields. The university comprises an under¬ graduate college, several professional schools, and centres for advanced research, including the Oriental Institute (Middle Eastern studies), Yerkes Observatory, the Enrico Fermi Institute, and the Center for Policy Study. The university operates the Argonne National Laboratory.

Chicago and North Western Transportation Co. Former U.S. railroad company. It was created when employees of the financially troubled Chicago and North Western Railway Co. purchased its assets in 1972. The initial company, founded in 1859, evolved from the Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, which had been the first railroad to enter Chicago (1848). Employees ceased to hold a majority of the company’s

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Chicago literary renaissance ► Chickasaw I 389

stock in 1983. The system served an 11-state region west of Lake Michi¬ gan, with principal routes in Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and Nebraska. It was purchased by Union Pacific in 1995.

Chicago literary renaissance Flourishing of literary activity in Chicago c. 1912-25. Its leading writers— Theodore Dreiser, Sherwood Anderson, Edgar Lee Masters, and Carl Sandburg —realistically depicted the contemporary urban environment, condemning the loss of traditional rural values in the increasingly industrialized and materialistic American society. Associated with the period were the Little Theatre, an outlet for young playwrights; the Little Room, a literary group; and magazines such as The Dial , Poetry, and The Little Review. The renaissance also encom¬ passed a revitalization of newspaper journalism as a literary medium.

Chicago Race Riot of 1919 Most severe of about 25 race riots throughout the U.S. in the summer after World War I. Racial friction was intensified by the migration of African Americans to the North. On Chi¬ cago’s South Side, the African American population had increased in 10 years from 44,000 to 109,000. The riot was triggered by the death of an African American youth swimming in Lake Michigan near a beach reserved for whites; he was stoned and he shortly drowned. When police refused to arrest the white man allegedly responsible, fighting broke out between gangs of African Americans and whites. Violence spread throughout the city, unchecked by the state militia. After 13 days, 38 people were dead (23 African Americans, 15 whites), and 537 injured, and 1,000 African American families were made homeless.

Chicago River River, northeastern Illinois, U.S. A small river, consist¬ ing of a northern and a southern branch, it originally flowed through Chi¬ cago into Lake Michigan. After a severe storm in 1885 caused the river to empty large amounts of polluted water into the lake, the river’s flow was reversed by constructing a canal, completed in 1900, the building of which was considered a significant engineering feat. Now flowing inland, it is connected with the Des Plaines River by the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal.

Chicago School Group of architects and engineers who in the 1890s exploited the twin developments of structural steel framing and the elec¬ trified elevator, paving the way for the ubiquitous modern-day skyscraper. Their work earned Chicago a reputation as the “birthplace of modern architecture.” Among the school’s members were Louis Sullivan, Daniel Burnham, and John Wellborn Root (1850-91).

Chicago Tribune Daily newspaper published in Chicago. The Tribune is one of the leading U.S. newspapers and long has been the dominant voice of the Midwest. Founded in 1847, it was bought in 1855 by six partners, including Joseph Medill (1823-99), who made the paper suc¬ cessful and increased its stature while promulgating his generally liberal views. He bought a controlling interest in 1874 and was publisher until his death. During Robert McCormick’s tenure (1914-55), the paper achieved the largest circulation among U.S. standard-sized newspapers and led the world in newspaper advertising revenue. The Tribune also reflected his nationalist-isolationist views, but its editorial positions mod¬ erated after his death. It subsequently became the flagship of the Tribune Company, which has holdings in broadcasting, cable TV, publishing, and other media.

Chichen Itza \che-'chen-et-'sa\ Ancient ruined Mayan city in Mexico’s Yucatan state. Chichen Itza was founded by the Maya about the 6th cen¬ tury ad in an arid region where water was obtained from natural wells called cenotes. The city was invaded in the 10th century—probably by a Mayan-speaking group under strong Toltec influence—and the invaders constructed another series of buildings, including the famous stepped pyramid known as El Castillo and a ball court. The site, though largely abandoned by the time the Spanish arrived in the 16th century, remained sacred to the Maya people. It was designated a World Heritage site in 1988. See photograph opposite.

Chicherin \chi-'cher-yin\, Georgy (Vasilyevich) (b. Nov. 24, 1872, Tambov province, Russia—d. July 7, 1936, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Russian diplomat. An aristocrat by birth, he entered the imperial diplo¬ matic service in 1897 but resigned to join the revolutionary movement and the Menshevik faction (1905). In 1918 he joined the Bolsheviks and resumed his diplomatic career, helping negotiate the Treaty of Brest- Litovsk. As people’s commissar for foreign affairs (1918-28), he led the Soviet delegation to the Conference of Genoa and later secretly negoti¬ ated the Treaty of Rapallo with Germany.

Chichester City (pop., 2001: 27,477), Chichester district, administra¬ tive county of West Sussex, England. It is located northeast of Portsmouth. The basic plan of the Roman town is preserved in the modem one. The economy relies mainly on agriculture and retailing. Chichester is noted for its early Norman cathedral, begun in the late 11th century, and for its pastoral landscapes.

chickadee Any of several North American songbird species in the genus Parus (family Paridae), whose name imitates their call notes. They are friendly and easily attracted to feeders. The black-capped chickadee (P. atricapillus), found across North America, is 5 in. (13 cm) long and has a dark cap and bib. Old World members of the genus and some New World members are called TITS or tit¬ mice.

Chickamauga, Battle of (Sept.

19-20, 1863) Engagement in the American Civil War fought over con¬ trol of the railroad centre of nearby Chattanooga, Tenn. Confederate forces under Braxton Bragg and James Longstreet attacked Union forces under William Rosecrans. After two days of fierce fighting, most of the Union army withdrew in disorder, though troops under George H. Thomas withstood the assault until the assistance of a reserve corps made possible an orderly withdrawal to Chattanooga. Casualties numbering 16,000 Union and 18,000 Confederate troops made this one of the bloodi¬ est battles of the war. Bragg and the Confederate force did not follow up their victory, and the subsequent Battle of Chattanooga reversed the results.

Chickasaw North American Indian people living mainly in Oklahoma, U.S. Their language, Chickasaw, is a Muskogean language closely related to that of the Choctaw. The Chickasaw, who once inhabited Kentucky, Tennessee, northern Mississippi, and Alabama, were a seminomadic people whose dwellings were loosely scattered along rivers rather than clustered in villages. They traced descent through the maternal line. The supreme deity was associated with the sky, sun, and fire. They frequently raided and intermarried with other tribes, and they were known to white traders as “mixed-bloods” or “breeds.” In the 1830s they were forcibly removed to Indian Territory (Oklahoma). In the 2000 U.S. census some 20,000 individuals claimed sole Chickasaw descent.

The Castillo (background) and a portion of the Colonnade, Chichen Itza

JOSEF MUENCH

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

390 I chicken ► child abuse

chicken One of the most widely domesticated poultry species ( Gallus gallus ), raised worldwide for its meat and eggs. Descended from the wild red jungle fowl of India, chickens have been domesticated for at least 4,000 years. Not until the 19th century did chicken meat and eggs become mass- production commodities. Modem high-volume poultry farms, with rows of cages stacked indoors for control of heat, light, and humidity, began to pro¬ liferate in Britain c. 1920 and in the U.S. after World War II (see factory farming). Females are raised for meat and eggs; immature males are cas¬ trated to become meat birds called capons. See also prairie chicken.

chickenpox or varicella \,var-9-'se-l9\ Contagious viral disease pro¬ ducing itchy blisters. It usually occurs in epidemics among young chil¬ dren, causes a low fever, and runs a mild course, leaving patients immune. The blisters can scar if scratched. The virus that causes chickenpox (varicella-zoster virus) can reactivate years later, causing shingles. Zoster immune globulin (ZIG) can prevent chickenpox in children with leuke¬ mia or immunodeficiency disorders who are exposed to the virus. A vac¬ cine has also been developed.

chickpea or garbanzo Annual legume ( Cicer arietinum) widely grown for its nutritious seeds. The bushy 2-ft (60-cm) plants bear pinnate leaves and small white or reddish flowers. The yellow-brown peas are borne one or two to a pod. Chickpeas are an important food plant in India, Africa, and Central and South America. They are the main ingredient of hummus, a sauce originating in the Middle East. In southern Europe, chickpeas are a common ingredient in soups, salads, and stews. A kind of meal or flour is also made from chickpeas.

chickweed Either of two species of small-leaved weeds, in the pink family. Common chickweed, or stitchwort (■ Stellaria media), is native to Europe but widely naturalized. It usually grows to 18 in. (45 cm) but is a low-growing and spreading annual weed in mowed lawns. Mouse-ear chickweed ( Cerastium vulgatum ), also from Europe, is a usually shorter, mat-forming, spreading perennial with many upright stems. It grows in lawns, pastures, and cultivated fields throughout temperate regions. Both species have inconspicuous but delicate white, star-shaped flowers.

chicory Blue-flowered perennial plant ( Cichorium intybus) of the COM¬ POSITE family. Native to Europe, it was introduced to the U.S. late in the 19th century. Chicory has a long, fleshy taproot; a rigid, branching, hairy stem; and lobed, toothed leaves, similar in appearance to dandelion leaves, around the base. Both roots and leaves are edible. The roots are used as a flavouring in or substitute for coffee. The plant is also grown as a fod¬ der or herbage crop for cattle.

chief justice Presiding judicial officer within any multijudge court. It is the title of the highest judicial officer in any U.S. state, and of the leader of the U.S. Supreme Court. The U.S. chief justice, like the associate jus¬ tices, is nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate for a lifetime tenure. The chief justices of some state supreme courts are sub¬ ject to popular election and mandatory retirement ages. Chief justices are normally responsible for the administration of their own court and the preparation of the judiciary’s budget.

chiefdom Type of sociopolitical organization in which political and economic power is exercised by a single person (or group) over many communities. It represents the centralization of power and authority at the expense of local and autonomous groupings. Political authority in chief- doms, such as those found in western Africa or Polynesia, is inseparable from economic power, including the right by rulers to exact tribute and taxation. A principal economic activity of the heads of chiefdoms is to stimulate the production of economic surpluses, which they then redis¬ tribute among their subjects on various occasions. See also sociocultural EVOLUTION.

Chiem Vkem\, Lake German Chiemsee Vkem-,za\ Lake, southern Germany. Located southeast of Munich, it lies 1,699 ft (518 m) above sea level, and drains through the Alz River into the Inn River. At 9 mi (15 km) long and 5 mi (8 km) wide, it is Bavaria’s largest lake. One of its three islands has a Benedictine monastery and a royal castle modeled on the palace at Versailles.

Ch'ien-lung emperor See Qianlong emperor

chigger Larva of some 10,000 mite species, ranging in length from 0.004 to 0.6 in. (0.1-16 mm). Some are terrestrial; others live in freshwater or salt water. They may be predators, scavengers, or plant feeders, and some are pests of humans, either as parasites or as carriers of disease. In North

America, the common chigger that attacks humans is found from the Atlan¬ tic coast to the Midwest and Mexico. The larva penetrates clothing and, once attached to the skin, injects a fluid that digests tissue and causes severe itching. After feeding, the larva drops to the ground and begins to mature.

Chih-i See Zhiyi Chihli See Hebei Chihli, Gulf of See Bo Hai

Chihuahua Smallest recognized dog breed, named for the Mexican state where it was first noted in the mid-19th century. It probably derived from the Techichi, a small, mute dog kept by the Toltec people as long ago as the 9th century. Typically a feisty-looking, alert dog that is stur¬ dier than its small build would suggest, it stands about 5 in. (13 cm) high and weighs 1-6 lb (0.5-2.7 kg). It has a rounded head, large, erect ears, prominent eyes, and a compact body. The coat varies in colour and may be either smooth and glossy or long and soft.

Chihuahua \che-'wa-wa\ State (pop., 2000: 3,052,907), northern Mexico. The country’s largest state, it covers 94,571 sq mi (244,938 sq km) and borders the U.S. states of New Mexico and Texas. Its capital is Chihuahua city. It consists largely of an elevated plain sloping northward toward the Rio Grande. Its western area is broken by the Sierra Madre Occidental. Chihuahua’s Copper Canyon (Barranca del Cobre) resembles the U.S. Grand Canyon in scale but is almost inaccessible. In Spanish colonial times it was ruled with Durango but was made a separate state in 1823. The state’s principal industry is mining; livestock raising is also important to the economy.

Chihuahua City (pop., 2000: 657,876), capital of Chihuahua state, Mexico. Founded in 1709, it was a prosperous mining centre during the colonial era. It was twice captured by U.S. forces during the Mexican War (1846-48). Now the centre of a cattle-raising area, it has many notewor¬ thy buildings, including the Church of San Francisco, one of the best examples of 18th-century Mexican colonial architecture.

Chikamatsu Monzaemon Vche-'ka-mat-su-mon-'za-a-monV orig. Sugimori Nobumori (b. 1653, Echizen, Japan—d. Jan. 6, 1725, Osaka) Japanese playwright. Born into a samurai family, he was attached to the court aristocracy at Kyoto before moving to Osaka to be near its puppet theatre. He is credited with more than 100 plays, mainly histori¬ cal romances and domestic tragedies, many based on actual incidents. Most were written for the bunraku, which he raised to artistic heights. His most popular work was The Battles of Coxinga (1715), a historical melo¬ drama based on the life of Zheng Chenggong. Also famous is Double Sui¬ cide at Amijima (1720). He is widely regarded as the greatest of Japanese dramatists.

Child, Julia orig. Julia McWilliams (b. Aug. 15, 1912 , Pasadena, Calif., U.S.—d. Aug. 13, 2004, Santa Barbara) U.S. cooking expert and television personality. She lived in Paris after her marriage in 1945, study¬ ing at the Cordon Bleu and with a master chef. After cowriting the best¬ seller Mastering the Art of French Cooking (1961) and moving to Boston, she created the popular PBS cooking series The French Chef( 1963-73), and later other cooking shows. Through her programs and books, she helped educate the U.S. public about traditional French cuisine and sparked interest in the culinary arts.

Child, Lydia Maria orig. Lydia Maria Francis (b. Feb. 11, 1802, Medford, Mass., U.S.—d. Oct. 20, 1880, Wayland) U.S. abolitionist and author. She was raised in an abolitionist family and was greatly influenced by her brother, a Unitarian clergyman. She wrote historical novels and published a popular manual, The Frugal Housewife (1829). After meet¬ ing William Lloyd Garrison in 1831, she became active in abolitionist work. Her Appeal in Favor of That Class of Americans Called Africans (1833) was widely read and induced many to join the abolitionist cause. From 1841 to 1843 she edited the National Anti-Slavery Standard. Her home was a stage on the Underground Railroad.

child abuse Crime of inflicting physical or emotional injury on a child. The term can denote the use of inordinate physical violence or verbal abuse; the failure to furnish proper shelter, nourishment, medical treat¬ ment, or emotional support; incest, rape, or other instances of sexual moles¬ tation; and the making of child pornography. Child abuse can cause serious harm to its victims. Estimates of the numbers of children who suffer physical abuse or neglect by parents or guardians range from about 1 per¬ cent of all children to about 15 percent, and figures are far higher if emo-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

child development ► Chile I 391

tional abuse and neglect are included. In many cases, the abuser himself suffered abuse as a child. When abuse results in death, evidence of child abuse or battered-child syndrome (e.g., broken bones and lesions, either healed or active) is often used to establish that death was not accidental.

child development Growth of perceptual, emotional, intellectual, and behavioral capabilities and functioning during childhood (prior to puberty). It includes development of language, symbolic thought, logic, memory, emotional awareness, empathy, a moral sense, and a sense of identity, including sex-role identity.

child labour Employment of boys and girls in occupations deemed unfit for children. Such labour is strictly controlled in many countries as a result of the effective enforcement of laws passed in the 20th century (e.g., the United Nations Declaration of the Rights of the Child in 1959). In developing nations the use of child labour is still common. Restrictive legislation has proved ineffective in impoverished societies with few schools, although some improvements have resulted from global activ¬ ism, such as boycotts of multinational firms alleged to be exploiting child labour abroad.

child psychiatry Branch of medicine concerned with mental, emo¬ tional, and behavioral disorders of childhood. It arose as a separate field in the 1920s, largely because of the pioneering work of Anna Freud. Therapy usually involves the family, whose behaviour powerfully affects children’s emotional health. Parental death or divorce may affect a child’s emotional growth. Child abuse and neglect have also been recognized as significant in childhood disorders. Learning disabilities need to be distin¬ guished from emotional problems—which they can also cause if not diag¬ nosed in time.

child psychology Study of the psychological processes of children. The field is sometimes subsumed under developmental psychology. Data are gathered through observation, interviews, tests, and experimental meth¬ ods. Principal topics include language acquisition and development, motor skills, personality development, and social, emotional, and intellec¬ tual growth. The field began to emerge in the late 19th century through the work of German psychophysiologist William Preyer, American psycholo¬ gist G. Stanley Hall, and others. In the 20th century the psychoanalysts Anna Freud and Melanie Klein devoted themselves to child psychology, but its most influential figure was Jean Piaget, who described the various stages of childhood learning and characterized children’s perceptions of themselves and the world at each stage. See also school psychology.

childbirth See parturition

Childe, V(ere) Gordon (b. April 14, 1892, Sydney, N.S.W., Australia—d. Oct. 19, 1957, Mount Victoria, N.S.W.) Australian-British archaeologist. He taught at the University of Edinburgh (1927-46) and later directed the Institute of Archaeology at the University of London (1946-56). His study of European prehistory, especially in The Dawn of European Civilization (1925), sought to evaluate the relationship between Europe and the Middle East and to examine the structure and character of ancient cultures of the Western world. His later books included The Most Ancient Near East (1928) and The Danube in Prehistory (1929). His approach established a tradition of prehistoric studies.

Childebert Vchil-do-.bsrA II (b. 570—d. Dec. 595) Merovingian king of Austrasia (575-95) and king of Burgundy (592-95). (See Merovingian dynasty.) He inherited the eastern Frankish kingdom of Austrasia on the death of his father, Sigebert I, and was dominated by his mother in the early years of his reign. His uncle, Guntram of Burgundy, adopted Childebert as his heir in 577. When he came of age he purged the Austrasian nobility (584) and launched a series of unsuccessful campaigns against the Lom¬ bards of Italy. He became ruler of Burgundy on his uncle’s death in 592.

Children's Crusade (1212) Religious movement in Europe in which thousands, including many children and young people, set out to take the Holy Land from the Muslims by love instead of by force. The events of the Crusade are disputed. According to one version, only partially accu¬ rate, the first group of approximately 30,000 was led by a French shep¬ herd boy, Stephen of Cloyes, who had a vision of Jesus and received a letter from him. Stephen led the Crusade to Paris and delivered the letter to King Philip II Augustus, who dispersed the Crusaders. A German boy led the second group across the Alps; a few survived to reach Rome, where Innocent III released them from their vows. Contemporary accounts describing horrible fates of the participants should be treated cautiously because they were written by those hostile to the movement. Though the

movement ended without reaching the Holy Land, it excited religious fer¬ vour that helped initiate the Fifth Crusade (1217-21).

children's literature Body of written works produced to entertain or instruct young people. The genre encompasses a wide range of works, including acknowledged classics of world literature, picture books and easy-to-read stories, and fairy tales, lullabies, fables, folk songs, and other, primarily orally transmitted, materials. It emerged as a distinct and inde¬ pendent form only in the second half of the 18th century and blossomed in the 19th century. In the 20th century, with the attainment of near- universal literacy in most developed nations, the diversity in children’s books came almost to rival that of adult popular literature.

Childress Vchil-drosV Alice (b. Oct. 12, 1916, Charleston, S.C., U.S.—d. Aug. 14, 1994, New York, N.Y.) U.S. playwright, novelist, and actress. She grew up in Harlem and studied drama with the American Negro Theatre, where she wrote, directed, and starred in her first play, Florence (produced 1949). Her other plays, some featuring music, include Trouble in Mind (produced 1955), String (1969), The African Garden (1971), and Gullah (1984). She was also a successful writer of children’s books, including A Hero Ain’t Nothing but a Sandwich (1973).

Chile Vche-la,\ English Vchi-le\ officially Republic of Chile Country, southwestern South America. Area: 291,930 sq mi (756,096 sq km). Popu-

© 2002 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

lation (2005 est.): 16,295,000. Capital: San¬ tiago. About three-fourths of Chileans are mestizos; most of the rest are of European ancestry or Aracanian (Mapuche) Indians.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

392 I Chilka Lake ► Chin-sha River

The indigenous peoples before Spanish colonization included the Diagu- ita, Picunche, Mapuche, Huilliche, Pehunche, and Cunco Indians. Spanish colonists arrived during the 16th-17th centuries, followed by Basque set¬ tlers in the 18th century. A relatively homogeneous population of mesti¬ zos has developed. Language: Spanish (official). Religion: Christianity (predominantly Roman Catholic; also Protestant, other Christians). Cur¬ rency: Chilean peso. Chile is noteworthy for its unique topography: it is a long, narrow country lying between the Andes Mountains and the Pacific Ocean. From north to south it is about 2,700 mi (4,300 km) long and nowhere more than 217 mi (349 km) wide. The north has an arid plateau, the Atacama Desert, and contains several peaks above 16,000 ft (4,900 m), but most of the highest peaks are on the borders with Bolivia and Argentina. The rivers, including the Bio-Bio, are limited in size. There are many lakes, including Lake Llanquihue. The extreme southern coast is marked by many inlets, islands, and archipelagoes; the western half of Tierra del Fuego (including the island on which Cape Horn is located) is in Chilean territory, as are small islets of Juan Fernandez and Easter Island. Chile has a partially developed free-market economy based mainly on mining and manufacturing. It is a republic with two legislative houses; its head of state and government is the president. Originally inhabited by native peoples, including the Mapuche, the area was invaded by the Span¬ ish in 1536. A settlement begun at Santiago in 1541 was governed under the Viceroyalty of Peru but became a separate captaincy general in 1778. Its people revolted against Spanish rule in 1810; independence was finally assured by the victory of Argentine and Chilean forces under Jose de San Martin at the Battle of Chacabuco in 1817. The area was governed by Chilean Gen. Bernardo O'Higgins until 1823. In the War of the Pacific (1879-83) against Peru and Bolivia, Chile won the rich nitrate fields on the coast of Bolivia, effectively severing that country’s access to the coast. Chile remained neutral in World War I (1914-18) and for most of World War II (1939^-5), though in 1942 it joined other Latin American coun¬ tries in declaring war on the Axis. In 1970 Salvador Allende was elected president, becoming the first avowed Marxist to be elected head of state in Latin America. Following economic upheaval, he was overthrown in 1973 in a coup led by Augusto Pinochet, whose military regime harshly suppressed internal opposition. A national referendum in 1988 and elec¬ tions the following year removed Pinochet from power and returned the country to democratic rule. Chile’s economy maintained steady growth through most of the 1990s and in the early 21st century remained one of the strongest in Latin America.

Chilka Lake Lake, eastern India. Located in Orissa state, and separated from the Bay of Bengal by a narrow spit, it is one of India’s largest lakes, at 40 mi (65 km) long and 5-13 mi (8-20 km) wide. It was once a bay of the ocean until it was silted up by monsoon tides. Dotted with islands, it offers good hunting, boating, and fishing.

Chiloe \,che-lo-'a\ Island, southwestern Chile. Lying some 30 mi (50 km) off the mainland, it has an area of 3,241 sq mi (8,394 sq km). Spaniards captured it from Indians in 1567 and controlled it until 1826, making it a last foothold in Chile of royalist forces during the wars for independence. Heavily forested, the island is little developed. The island’s inhabitants make their living by agriculture, fishing, and forestry.

Chilpancingo \,chel-pan-'seq-go\ in full Chilpancingo de los Bravos City (pop., 2000: 142,746 136,000), capital of Guerrero state, southern Mexico. Located in the Sierra Madre del Sur, it was founded in 1591 and gained prominence as the site of the first Mexican congress, convoked in 1813. Battles were fought there in both the war for indepen¬ dence from Spain and in the Mexican Revolution. It is an agricultural cen¬ tre for the surrounding region.

Chilperic Vchil-p3-rik\ I (b. c. 539—d. September or October 584, Chelles, France) Merovingian king of Soissons. On the death of his father, Chlotar I, he and his three half brothers divided the kingdom. Chilperic received Soissons, the poorest share, but gained more land when one of his brothers died. Thus Chilperic became the ruler of most of the king¬ dom later known as Neustria. Ambitious, brutal, and debauched, he was called the Nero and Herod of his age by a contemporary writer. Chilperic murdered his own wife in order to marry his mistress, Fredegund. The murder led to years of intrigue by family members seeking revenge and civil war. He was finally killed, possibly at Fredegund’s orders, by an unknown assassin. He was survived by his wife and an infant son.

Chilwa \'chil-wa. Lake Lake, southeastern Malawi. It lies in a depres¬ sion southeast of Lake Malawi between the Shire Highlands and the

Mozambique border. Today it covers about 1,000 sq mi (2,600 sq km); it was much larger when David Livingstone arrived there in 1859, and origi¬ nally it filled the entire depression.

Chimborazo \,chem-bo-'ra-zo\ Mountain peak, Ecuador. The highest peak in Ecuador, elevation 20,702 ft (6,310 m), it was once thought to be the highest in the Andes Mountains (see Mount Aconcagua). An inactive volcano, it is heavily glaciated. Many attempted to climb it in the 18th and 19th centuries, but the summit was not reached until 1880, by the English mountaineer Edward Whymper.

Chimera Vkl-'mir-oN In Greek mythology, a fire-breathing female mon¬ ster. Its foreparts resembled a lion, its middle a goat, and its hindquarters a dragon. It devastated the land around Caria and Lycia until it was killed by Bellerophon. The word is now often used to denote a fantasy or a fig¬ ment of the imagination.

chimera or chimaera \kI-'mir-3\ Any of the 28 species of ancient fishes constituting the subclass Holocephali (class Chondrichthyes), found in temperate to cold waters of all oceans. Like sharks and rays, chimeras have a skeleton of cartilage rather than bone, and the males possess exter¬ nal reproductive organs (claspers). They have a single external gill open¬ ing, covered by a flap as in the bony fishes, on each side of the body. Males have a supplemental clasping organ that is unique among fishes. Chimeras have large pectoral and pelvic fins and two dorsal fins, the first preceded by a sharp spine. They range in length from 24 to 80 in. (60 to 200 cm) and in colour from silvery to blackish. They inhabit rivers, estu¬ aries, coastal waters, and open ocean to depths of 8,000 ft (2,500 m) or more. They eat small fishes and invertebrates.

Chimkent See Shymkent

chimpanzee Species (Pan troglodytes) of great ape that inhabits the rain forests and woodland savannas of equatorial Africa, the closest liv¬ ing relative to humans. Chimps are 3-5.5 ft (1-1.7 m) tall when stand¬ ing upright, weigh 70-130 lbs (32-60 kg), and have a brown or black coat and a bare face. They do most of their feeding in the trees, swinging from branch to branch; to move any distance they walk, usu¬ ally on all fours, on the ground. They eat mostly fruits, berries, leaves, and seeds, some termites and ants, and occasionally a young baboon or bush pig. They are capable of problem solving, tool use, and deceit. Chim¬ panzees are highly social and live in flexible groups (15-100 or more members) known as communities. In the wild they live about 45 years, in captivity more than 50. See also bonobo.

Chimu \che-'mu\ South American Indians who maintained the largest and most important political system in Peru before the advent of the Inca. The Chimu state took shape in the early 14th century. It was a highly stratified society, with a mass of peasants labouring under a ruling nobil¬ ity. Its capital, Chan Chan, on the northern coast of present-day Peru, is now a major archaeological site. The Chimu produced fine textiles and gold, silver, and copper objects. In the 15th century they were conquered by the Inca, who absorbed much of Chimu high culture into their own imperial organization.

Chin dynasty See Jin dynasty, Juchen dynasty Ch'in dynasty See Qin dynasty

Chin Hills Mountainous region, northwestern Myanmar (Burma). Extending along the Indian border, it forms the central part of an arc that stretches from the Arakan Mountains to the Patkai Range. The Chin Hills vary from 7,000 to 10,000 ft (2,000 to 3,000 m) high. They and the arc are part of the north-south-trending mountain belt of Southeast Asia, which has hindered east-west movement; the region was populated by the Chin peoples from the north. It is a frontier zone between Myanmar and Indian cultures.

Ch'in Kuei See Qin Gui Chin-sha River See Jinsha River

West African, or masked, chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus ).

HELMUT ALBRECHT/BRUCE COLEMAN LTD.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Ch'in tomb ► China Sea I 393

China officially People's Republic of China Country, eastern Asia. Area:

3,696,100 sq mi (9,572,900 sq km). Popu¬ lation (2005 est.): 1,304,369,000. Capital: Beijing. It is the world’s most populous country, the Han (ethnic Chinese) forming more than nine-tenths of the population. Languages: dialects of Han Chinese, Mandarin being the most important. Religions: traditional beliefs, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Daoism (all legally sanctioned). Currency: renminbi (of which the unit is the yuan). China has several topographic regions. The southwest¬ ern area contains the Plateau of Tibet, which averages more than 13,000 ft (4,000 m) above sea level; its core area, averaging more than 16,000 ft (5,000 m) in elevation, is called “the Roof of the World” and provides the headwaters for many of Asia’s major rivers. Higher yet are the border ranges, the Kunlun Mountains to the north and the Himalayas to the south. China’s northwestern region stretches from Afghanistan to the Northeast (Manchurian) Plain. The Tien Shan (“Celestial Mountains”) separate Chi¬ na’s two major interior basins, the Tarim Basin (containing the Takla Makan Desert) and the Junggar Basin. The Mongolian Plateau contains the southernmost part of the Gobi Desert. The lowlands of the eastern region include the Sichuan Basin, which runs along the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang); the Yangtze divides the eastern region into northern and southern parts. The Tarim is the major river in the northwest. China’s numerous other rivers include the Huang He (Yellow River), Xi, Sungari (Songhua), Zhu (Pearl), and Lancang, which becomes the Mekong in Southeast Asia. The country is a single-party people’s republic with one legislative house. The chief of state is the president, and the head of gov¬ ernment is the premier.

The discovery of Peking man in 1927 (see Zhoukoudian) dates the advent of early hominins (human ancestors) to the Paleolithic Period. Chi¬ nese civilization is thought to have spread from the Huang He valley. The first dynasty for which there is definite historical material is the Shang (c. 17th century bc), which had a writing system and a calendar. The Zhou, a subject state of the Shang, overthrew its Shang rulers in the mid-11th century and ruled until the 3rd century bc. Daoism and Confucianism were founded in this era. A time of conflict, called the Warring States period, lasted from the 5th century until 221 bc. Subsequently the Qin (or Chin) dynasty (from whose name China is derived) was established, after its rulers had conquered rival states and created a unified empire. The Han

dynasty was established in 206 bc and ruled until ad 220. A time of tur¬ bulence followed, and Chinese reunification was achieved with the found¬ ing of the Sui dynasty in 581 and continued with the Tang dynasty (618— 907). After the founding of the Song dynasty in 960, the capital was moved to the south because of northern invasions. In 1279 this dynasty was over¬ thrown and Mongol (Yuan) domination began. During that time Marco Polo visited Kublai Khan. The Ming dynasty followed the period of Mon¬ gol rule and lasted from 1368 to 1644, cultivating antiforeign feelings to the point that China closed itself off from the rest of the world. Peoples from Manchuria overran China in 1644 and established the Qing (Man- chu) dynasty. Ever-increasing incursions by Western and Japanese inter¬ ests led in the 19th century to the Opium Wars, the Taiping Rebellion, and the Sino-Japanese War, all of which weakened the Manchu. The dynasty fell in 1911, and a republic was proclaimed in 1912 by Sun Yat-sen. The power struggles of warlords weakened the republic. Under Chiang Kai- shek some national unification was achieved in the 1920s, but Chiang broke with the communists, who had formed their own armies. Japan invaded northern China in 1937; its occupation lasted until 1945 (see Manchukuo). The communists gained support after the Long March (1934-35), in which Mao Zedong emerged as their leader. Upon Japan’s surrender at the end of World War II, a fierce civil war began; in 1949 the Nationalists fled to Taiwan, and the communists proclaimed the Peo¬ ple’s Republic of China. The communists undertook extensive reforms, but pragmatic policies alternated with periods of revolutionary upheaval, most notably in the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution. The anarchy, terror, and economic paralysis of the latter led, after Mao’s death in 1976, to a turn to moderation under Deng Xiaoping, who undertook eco¬ nomic reforms and renewed China’s ties to the West. The government established diplomatic relations with the U.S. in 1979. Since the late 1970s the economy has been moving from central planning and state-run industries to a mixture of state-owned and private enterprises in manu¬ facturing and services, in the process growing dramatically and trans¬ forming Chinese society. The Tiananmen Square incident in 1989 was a challenge to an otherwise increasingly stable political environment after 1980. In 1997 Hong Kong reverted to Chinese rule, as did Macau in 1999.

china, bone See bone china

China Sea Part of the western Pacific Ocean. Reaching from Japan to the southern end of the Malay Peninsula, it is divided by the island of Tai-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

394 I chinchilla ► Chinese writing system

wan into two sections. The northern section is the East China Sea, or Eastern Sea, which covers an area of some 290,000 sq mi (751,100 sq km), has a maximum depth of 8,912 ft (2,717 m), and is enclosed by east¬ ern China, South Korea, the Japanese island of Kyushu, the Ryukyu Islands, and Taiwan. The southern section is the South China Sea, often called simply the China Sea, which covers an area of 1,423,000 sq mi (3,685,000 sq km), has a maximum depth of about 16,000 ft (5,000 m), and is enclosed by southeastern China, Taiwan, the Philippines, Borneo, and mainland Southeast Asia.

chinchilla \chin-'chi-lo\ Small South American rodent (genus Chin¬ chilla, family Chinchillidae) long valued for its extremely fine-textured fur. Chinchillas look like long-tailed, small-eared rabbits. They are about 14 in. (35 cm) long, including the tufted tail. The soft fur is gray with dusky overtones; a black streak runs the length of the tail, above and below. Chinchillas live in loose com¬ munities in arid, rocky regions of the Chilean and Bolivian Andes, in bur¬ rows or rock crevices. They eat seeds, fruit, grain, herbs, and moss.

Once hunted almost to extinction, they are still scarce in the wild. They are raised commercially; almost all animals in captivity have descended from a few animals introduced into the U.S. in 1923.

Chindwin River River, northern Myanmar. Rising in the northern mountains, it flows 520 mi (840 km), at first northwest through the Hukawng valley, then southwest near the border with India, and finally south to join the Irrawaddy at Myingyan. It is generally navigable below its confluence with the Uyu River. It was the scene of heavy fighting dur¬ ing World War II.

Chinese cabbage Either of two widely cultivated members of the mustard family, bok choy and Brassica pekinensis. The latter vegetable, also called celery cabbage, forms a tight head of crinkled light green leaves. It has long been grown in the U.S. as a salad vegetable. All Chinese cab¬ bages are delicate and crisp, qualities that enable them to combine with a wide variety of foods. Kimchi, the universal Korean pickle, is often made with Chinese cabbage.

Chinese Communist Party (CCP) Political party founded in China in 1921 by Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao. It grew directly from the reform- oriented May Fourth Movement and was aided from the start by Russian organizers. Under Russian guidance, the CCP held its First Congress in 1921; the Russians also invited many members to the Soviet Union for study and encouraged cooperation with the Chinese Nationalist Party. This cooperation lasted until 1927, when the communists were expelled. CCP fortunes declined rapidly after several failed attempts at uprisings, and the few members that remained fled to central China to regroup, where they formed a soviet-style government in Jiangxi. Harried by the Nation¬ alist army under Chiang Kai-shek, the CCP forces undertook the Long March to northwestern China, when Mao Zedong became the party’s undisputed leader. War with the Japanese broke out in 1937 and led to a temporary alliance between the CCP and the Nationalists. After World War II, the CCP participated in U.S.-mediated talks with the Nationalists, but in 1947 the talks were abandoned and civil war resumed. The CCP increased its already strong rural base through land redistribution, and in 1949 it took control of mainland China. In the decades that followed, radical members led by Mao and moderates led initially by Liu Shaoqi vied for control of the party and the direction of China. After Mao’s death in 1976 the party moved steadily toward economic, if not political, liberal¬ ization. The government’s brutal suppression of student protesters at Tiananmen Square in 1989 produced a major shakeup in party leadership. Today the CCP sets policy, which government officials implement. The organs at the top of the CCP are the Political Bureau, the Political Bureau’s Standing Committee, and the Secretariat, among which the divi¬ sion of power is constantly shifting. See also Lin Biao; Zhou Enlai; Deng Xiaoping.

Chinese examination system In China, system of competitive examinations for recruiting officials that linked state and society and dominated education from the Song dynasty (960-1279) onward, though its roots date to the imperial university established in the Han dynasty (206

bc-ad 220). Candidates faced fierce competition in a series of exams dealing primarily with Confucian texts and conducted on the prefectural, provincial, and national levels. Despite a persistent tendency to empha¬ size rote learning over original thinking and form over substance, the exams managed to produce an elite grounded in a common body of teach¬ ings and to lend credibility to claims of meritocracy. Too inflexible to be capable of modernization, the system was finally abolished in 1905. See also Five Classics; Four Books.

Chinese languages or Sinitic languages Family of languages comprising one of the two branches of Sino-Tibetan. They are spoken by about 95% of the inhabitants of China and by many communities of Chi¬ nese immigrants elsewhere. Linguists regard the major dialect groups of Chinese as distinct languages, though because all Chinese write with a common system of ideograms, or characters (see Chinese writing system), and share Classical Chinese as a heritage, traditionally all varieties of Chinese are regarded as dialects. There is a primary division in Chinese languages between the so-called Mandarin dialects—which have a high degree of mutual intelligibility and cover all of the Chinese speech area north of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) and west of Hunan and Guang¬ dong provinces—and a number of other dialect groups concentrated in southeastern China. Far more people—more than 885 million—speak a variety of Mandarin Chinese as a first language than any other language in the world. The northern Mandarin dialect of Beijing is the basis for Modem Standard Chinese, a spoken norm that serves as a supradialectal lingua franca. Important dialect groups other than Mandarin are Wu (spo¬ ken in Shanghai), Gan, Xiang, Min (spoken in Fujian and Taiwan), Yue (including Cantonese, spoken in Guangzhou [Canton] and Hong Kong), and Kejia (Hakka), spoken by the Hakka. The modern Chinese languages are tone languages, the number of tones varying from four in Modem Standard Chinese to nine in some dialects.

Chinese law Law that evolved in China from the earliest times until the 20th century, when Western socialist law (see Soviet law) was intro¬ duced. The oldest extant and complete Chinese law code was compiled in ad 653 during the Tang dynasty. Traditional Chinese law was influenced both by Confucianism, which allowed variability in moral conduct accord¬ ing to status and circumstances, and by Legalist, or Fajia, principles, which stressed reliance on uniform objective standards. The law also was affected by the emperor’s divine role in the universe. The emperor was considered responsible to heaven for any disturbance in the earthly sphere; whenever a disturbance occurred, punishment was considered a means of restoring the cosmic equilibrium. All citizens were obliged to denounce wrongdoers to the local magistrate’s office. The magistrate studied the facts of a case and, using the penal code, determined punishments, includ¬ ing beatings and torture. A profession of advocates, or lawyers, never developed in China. Traditional law continued to exert influence even after the communists gained power in China in 1949.

Chinese medicine, traditional System of medicine at least 23 cen¬ turies old that aims to prevent or heal disease by maintaining or restoring yin-yang balance. Detailed questions are asked about a patient’s illness and such things as taste, smell, and dreams, but close examination of the pulse, at different sites and times and with varying pressure, is paramount. Of Chinese medicine’s numerous remedies, Western medicine has adopted many, including iron (for anemia) and chaulmoogra oil (for lep¬ rosy). Use of certain animal remedies has seriously contributed to the endangered-species status of some animals (including tiger and rhinoc¬ eros). Chinese medicine used inoculation for smallpox long before West¬ ern medicine. Other practices include hydrotherapy, acupuncture, and ACUPRESSURE.

Chinese mustard See bok choy Chinese Nationalists See Guomindang Chinese New Year See New Year's Day

Chinese writing system System of symbols used to write the Chi¬ nese language. Chinese writing is fundamentally logographic: there is an exact correspondence between a single symbol, or character, in the script and a morpheme. Each character, no matter how complex, is fit into a hypo¬ thetical rectangle of the same size. The Chinese script is first attested in divinatory inscriptions incised on bone or tortoise shells dating from the Shang dynasty. Early forms of characters were often clearly pictorial or iconic. Shared elements of characters, called radicals, provide a means of classifying Chinese writing. It is thought that an ordinary literate Chinese

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Ch'ing dynasty ► Chiron I 395

person can recognize 3,000-4,000 characters. Efforts have been made to reduce the number of characters and to simplify their form, though the fact that they can be read by a speaker of any Chinese language and their inextricable link with China’s 3,000-year-old culture makes abandonment of the system unlikely. Chinese characters have also been adapted to write Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese.

Ch'ing dynasty See Qing dynasty Chinggis Khan See Genghis Khan Ch'ing-hai See Qinghai

Ch'ing-hai Hu See Koko Nor

chinoiserie \shen-'waz-re\ Fanciful European interpretations of Chi¬ nese styles in the design of interiors, furniture, pottery, textiles, and gar¬ dens. The expansion of trade with East Asia produced a lively vogue for Chinese fashions in the 17th—18th centuries. The most outstanding chi¬ noiserie interior was the Trianon de Porcelaine (1670-71), built for Louis XIV at Versailles. The style featured lavish gilding and lacquering, the use of blue and white (as in delftware), asymmetrical forms, unorthodox per¬ spective, and Asian motifs. In the 19th century, the fashion gave way to Turkish and other styles considered exotic.

Chinook \sh3-'nuk\ Northwest Coast Indian people of Washington and Oregon, U.S. At the time of first contact, the Chinook—who were in fact composed of several smaller groups, including the Lower Chinook, the Clatsop, the Clackamas, and the Wasco—lived along the lower Colum¬ bia River and spoke Chinookan languages. They were famous as traders, with connections stretching as far as the Great Plains. They traded dried salmon, canoes, shells, and slaves. Chinook Jargon, the trade language of the Northwest Coast, was a combination of Chinook with Nootka and other Indian, English, and French terms. The Chinook were first described by the explorers Lewis and Clark, who encountered them in 1805. The basic social unit was the clan. Chinook religion focused on salmon rites and guardian spirits, and the potlatch was an important social ceremony. Following a smallpox epidemic in the early 19th century that brought about the collapse of Chinook culture, most of the remaining Chinook were absorbed into other Northwest Coast groups and many were removed to reservations. Only some 600 individuals claimed sole Chi¬ nook descent in the 2000 U.S. census. In 2001 the Chinook gained fed¬ eral recognition of tribal status.

chinook salmon or king salmon Prized North Pacific food and sport fish ( Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) of the salmon family. The average weight is about 22 lbs (10 kg), but individuals of 50-80 lbs (22-36 kg) are not unusual. Chinook salmon are silvery, with round black spots. In fresh water they are found from the Amur River of Asia northward and, across the Bering Sea, southward to the Sacramento River of North America. Their range in the open ocean extends farther south. During spring spawning runs, adults swim as far as 2,000 mi (3,200 km) up the Yukon River, spawn, and then die. Young chinook salmon enter the sea when one to three years old. They were successfully introduced into Lake Michigan, creating a new sport fishery after the virtual elimination of lake trout by sea lampreys in the mid 20th century.

Chios Vkl-,as\ or Khios \'ke-os\ Island, Greece. It lies 5 mi (8 km) west of Turkey, in the Aegean Sea. Of volcanic origin, it is 30 mi (48 km) long and 8-15 mi (13-24 km) wide with an area of 321 sq mi (831 sq km). It was noted in antiquity as Homer’s birthplace. It was colonized by Ion- ians and became subject to Persia in 546 bc. Though later a member of the Delian League, it revolted several times against Athens. It prospered successively under Rome, Venice,

Genoa, and the Ottoman Empire; it passed to Greece after the Balkan Wars (1912-13). The city of Chios is the principal municipality.

chip, computer See computer chip,

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

chipmunk Any of 17 species of terrestrial rodents in the squirrel fam¬ ily. The eastern chipmunk ( Tamias

striatus ), found in eastern North America, is 5.5-7.5 in. (14-19 cm) long, excluding a bushy, 3-4-in. (8-10-cm) tail. It is reddish brown with five black stripes alternating with two brown and two white stripes. The other species (all in the genus Eutamia) are found in western North America and central and eastern Asia. They are smaller and have different stripe patterns. Chipmunks are active burrow dwellers that eat primarily seeds, berries, and tender plants. They store seeds underground, carrying them in roomy cheek pockets. Their call is a shrill chirring or chipping sound.

Chippendale, Thomas (baptized June 5, 1718, Otley, Eng.—d. November 1779, London) English cabinetmaker. Little is known of his life before 1753, when he opened a showroom and workshop in London. In 1754 he published The Gentleman and Cabinet-Maker’s Director, a popular collection of designs illustrating almost every type of domestic furniture. The designs were mostly his improvements on already existing styles. Though much 18th-century furniture is attributed to him, only a few pieces can be assigned with certainty to his workshop. See also Chip¬ pendale style.

Chippendale style Style of furniture derived from designs by Thomas Chippendale. The term specifically refers to English furniture made in a modified Rococo style in the 1750s and ’60s, though Chippendale also designed furniture in Gothic and Chinese styles. Some of his designs are adapted from the Louis XV style. Furniture based on his designs was also made in Europe and the American colonies.

Chippewa See Ojibwa

Chippewa Vchi-po-.woV, Battle of (July 5, 1814) Engagement in the War of 1812 that restored U.S. military morale. After U.S. troops under Winfield Scott captured Fort Erie, N.Y., they began to push north into Canada. A British force marched south from Fort George and attacked them at Chippewa. The British were defeated, suffering 604 casualties to 335 for the U.S.

Chirac \she-'rak\, Jacques (Rene) (b. Nov. 29, 1932, Paris, France) President of France (from 1995). In 1967 he was elected to the National Assembly as a Gaullist. As prime minister (1974-76), he resigned over differences with Valery Giscard d'Estaing and formed a neo-Gaullist group, Rally for the Republic. As mayor of Paris (1977-95), he continued to build a conservative political base. His campaign for the presidency in 1981 split the conservative vote and allowed socialist Francois Mitterrand to win. Mitterrand later appointed Chirac prime minister (1986-88) in an unusual power-sharing arrangement after the right swept to victory in parliamentary elections. Although defeated again in presidential elections in 1988, Chirac won the presidency on his third try, in 1995. He was reelected in 2002 in a landslide victory over Jean-Marie Le Pen.

Chiricahua \,chir-i-'ka-w3\ National Monument Natural area, southeastern Arizona, U.S. Unusual volcanic rock formations forming a wilderness of tall pinnacles are crowded into 19 sq mi (48.5 sq km) of ridge and canyon on the western flank of the Chiricahua Mountains. Established in 1924, the park unfolds a geologic story dating back mil¬ lions of years. The region was once a stronghold of Apache Indians under Cochise and Geronimo.

Chirico Vke-re-.koX, Giorgio de (b. July 10, 1888, Volos, Greece—d. Nov. 19, 1978, Rome, Italy) Italian painter. Born to Italian parents in Greece, he studied art in Munich and began painting images juxtaposing the fantastic with the commonplace. In 1911 he moved to Paris, where he produced ominous scenes of deserted piazzas with Classical statues, isolated figures, and oppressive architecture. The element of mystery in his work exerted a great influence on Surrealism in the 1920s. He is known as the founder, with Carlo Carra and Giorgio Morandi, of Metaphysical

PAINTING.

Chiron \'kl-,ran\ In Greek mythology, one of the Centaurs. The son of Cronus and the sea nymph Philyra, he lived at the foot of Mount Pelion in Thessaly and was renowned for his wisdom and his knowledge of medicine. He was the teacher of many Greek heroes, including Achilles, Heracles, Jason, and Asclepius. Wounded accidentally by a poisoned arrow shot by Heracles, he was in such agony that he surrendered his immor¬ tality in order to die. Zeus placed him among the stars as the constella¬ tion Sagittarius.

Chiron Comet once thought to be the most distant known asteroid. Dis¬ covered in 1977, it travels in an unstable, eccentric orbit between those of Saturn and Uranus. In 1989 astronomers detected a fuzzy cloud (coma)

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

396 I chiropractic ► chlorofluorocarbon

around Chiron. Because such a cloud is a defining feature of comets, Chi¬ ron was reclassified as a comet. See also Centaur object.

chiropractic Vkl-ro-.prak-tikA System of healing based on the theory that disease results from lack of normal nerve function, often caused by displaced vertebrae putting pressure on nerve roots. Treatment involves manipulations of body structures, primarily the spinal column, and use of other techniques when necessary. It concerns the relationship between musculoskeletal structures and functions of the body and the nervous sys¬ tem. The chiropractic method was propounded in 1895 by Daniel David Palmer (1845-1913). Practitioners are trained at accredited chiropractic colleges.

chisel Cutting tool with a sharpened edge at the end of a metal blade, used (often by driving with a mallet or hammer) in dressing, shaping, or working a solid material such as wood, stone, or metal. Flint ancestors of the chisel existed by 8000 bc; the ancient Egyptians used copper and later bronze chisels to work both wood and soft stone. Chisels today are made of steel, in various sizes and degrees of hardness, depending on use.

Chisholm, Shirley orig. Shirley Anita St. Hill (b. Nov. 30, 1924, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.—d. Jan. 1, 2005, Ormond Beach, Fla.) U.S. poli¬ tician. A graduate of Columbia University (M.A., 1952), she was a school¬ teacher before becoming active in local politics. Elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1968, she became the first African American woman to serve in Congress. During her 15 years in the House, she was known for her strong liberal views, including her opposition to U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War and her advocacy of full-employment programs. She cofounded the National Women’s Political Caucus. As a candidate for the Democratic Party’s 1972 U.S. presidential nomination, she won 152 del¬ egates before withdrawing from the race.

Chisholm Trail Ychiz-omX 19th-century route for cattle drives from Texas to Kansas, probably named for the trader Jesse Chisholm (1806?- 1868?). The trail ran from south of San Antonio, across Oklahoma to Abilene, Kan., where a railhead was established in 1867. Between 1867 and 1871 1.5 million head of cattle were driven north over the trail to be shipped to markets in the East. After the 1880s the trail’s importance declined as other railheads were established.

Chisinau \,ke-she-'nau\ formerly (1812-1918, 1940-91) Kishinev Vki-shi-.nefN City (pop., 1999: 655,000), capital of Moldova. It lies on a tributary of the Dniester River. Ruled by Moldavia in the 15th century and taken by the Ottoman Turks in the 16th century, it was ceded to Russia in 1812. From 1918 the city was controlled by Romania; it was ceded back to the Soviet Union in 1940 and became the capital of the newly formed Moldavian S.S.R. The city is a commercial centre and the site of a university.

chitin Vkl-CnX White, homy substance found in the external skeleton of crabs, lobsters, and many insects; in internal structures of some other invertebrates; and in some fungi, algae, and yeasts. It is a polysaccharide, the monomer unit being glucosamine. It is used industrially in purifying wastewater, thickening and stabilizing foods and pharmaceuticals, and sizing and strengthening paper, and as a wound-healing agent, an ion- exchange resin, a membrane for industrial separations, and a binder for dyes, fabrics, and adhesives.

Chittagong \'chi-t9-,gaq\ City (pop., 2001 prelim.: city, 2,199,590; metro, area, 3,361,244), chief Indian Ocean port, Bangladesh. It is the country’s second most important industrial city, with jute mills, engineer¬ ing works, and a large oil refinery. Known to Arab sailors by the 10th century ad, it was conquered by Muslims in the 14th century and occu¬ pied by the governor of Bengal in the 17th century. Ceded to Britain’s East India Company in 1760, it was constituted a municipality in 1864. Damaged in the conflict between India and Pakistan in 1971, its port facilities were rebuilt. It is the site of the University of Chittagong (founded 1966).

Ch'iu Ch'u-chi See Qiu Chuji

chivalry Vshi-v3l-re\ Knightly class of feudal Europe, and especially the gallantry and honor expected of medieval knights. The ideal of cour¬ teous knightly conduct developed in the 12th-13th century. It arose out of feudal obligation (see feudalism) and stressed loyalty and obeisance by a knight to his God, his lord, and his lady, thus melding Christian and military virtues. Chivalry was greatly strengthened by the Crusades, a military endeavor on behalf of Christianity, which led to the founding of

the earliest orders of chivalry, the Knights of Malta and the Templars. In addition to loyalty and honor, the chivalric virtues included valor, piety, courtesy, and chastity. Questions of love and honor were combined in the ethos of courtly love. The knight’s lady was meant to be unobtainable, ensuring chastity; the feminine ideal thus became melded with the Virgin Mary. In the 14th—15th century, chivalry came to be associated increas¬ ingly with aristocratic display and public ceremony, particularly in joust¬ ing tournaments, rather than with service in the field.

chive Small, hardy perennial plant ( Allium schoenoprcisum ) of the lily family, related to the onion. Its small, white, elongated bulbs and thin, tubu¬ lar leaves grow in clumps. Dense, attractive, spherical umbels of bluish or lilac flowers rise above the foli¬ age. The leaves may be cut off at ground level and used for seasoning foods.

Chivington Massacre See Sand Creek Massacre

chlamydia \kl3-'mi-de-9\ Any of the bacterial parasites that make up the genus Chlamydia, which cause several diseases in humans, including conjunctivitis and chlamydial pneu¬ monia. One form causes a variety of sexually transmitted diseases. In men, symptoms are similar to those of gonorrhea. In women, chlamydial infec¬ tion ordinarily produces few, if any, symptoms, and most infected women thus are unaware of their condition. However, untreated infections in women can lead to sterility, a higher risk of premature births, and ectopic pregnancies. Chlamydia frequently causes conjunctivitis or pneumonia in the newborn infant. Treatment is with antibiotics.

Chlamydomonas Ykla-mo-'da-mo-nosN Genus of single-celled green algae considered to be primitive life-forms of evolutionary significance. The cell has a spherical cellulose membrane, an eyespot, and a cup-shaped, pigment-containing chloroplast. Though capable of photosynthesis, Chlamydomonas may also absorb nutrients through the cell surface. It is found in soil, ponds, and ditches polluted by manure. It may colour water green. A red-pigmented species turns melting snow red.

chlorella \klo-'re-l3\ Any green algae of the genus Chlorella, found in fresh or salt water and in soil. They have a cup-shaped chloroplast. Chlo- rellas are used often in studies of photosynthesis, in mass cultivation experiments, and for purifying sewage wastes. Because they multiply rapidly and are rich in proteins and in B-complex vitamins, they have been studied as a potential food product for humans both on Earth and in outer space. Chlorella farms, closed systems that provide humans with food, water, and oxygen, have been established in the U.S., Japan, The Neth¬ erlands, Germany, and Israel.

chlorine Nonmetallic chemical element, chemical symbol Cl, atomic number 17. It is a toxic, corrosive, greenish yellow GAS (as the diatomic molecule Cl 2 ) that severely irritates the eyes and respiratory system (and was used for that purpose as a chemical-warfare agent in World War I). As the chloride ion and in the hypochlorite ion, it has valence 1 ; in the chlo¬ rite, chlorate, and perchlorate ions, it has higher valences. Chlorine and its compounds are important industrial materials with myriad uses in the manufacture of other chlorinated compounds (e.g., PVC, hydrochloric acid, ethylene dichloride, trichloroethylene, PCBs), in water purification (municipal systems, swimming pools), in textile industries, in flame retar¬ dants, in special batteries, and in food processing. Sodium chloride (table salt) is by far the most familiar of its compounds. See also bleach.

chlorite Widespread group of layer silicate minerals composed of hydrous aluminum silicates, usually of magnesium and iron. The name, from the Greek for “green,” refers to chlorite’s typical colour. Chlorites have a silicate layer structure similar to that in micas. They characteris¬ tically occur as alteration products of other higher temperature minerals and are most common in sedimentary and igneous rocks and in some metamorphic rocks.

chloroethylene See vinyl chloride

chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) Any of several organic compounds con¬ taining carbon, fluorine, chlorine, and hydrogen. A number of different CFCs have been made and sold under the trade name Freon. Developed

Wild chives (Allium schoenoprasum)

INGMAR HOLMASEN

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

chloroform ► cholera I 397

in the 1930s, these halogenated hydrocarbons were widely used as refrig¬ erants and aerosol propellants and in other applications because they are nontoxic and nonflammable and readily evaporate and condense. How¬ ever, CFCs released into the atmosphere rise into the stratosphere, where solar radiation breaks them down; the chlorine released reacts with ozone, depleting the ozone layer. In 1992 most developed countries agreed to end CFC production by 1996; 1997 production, weighted according to the ozone depletion potential of each CFC, was 10% of peak (1988) produc¬ tion.

chloroform Clear, colourless, heavy, nonflammable liquid organic compound with a pleasant etherlike odour, chemical formula CHC1 3 . It was the first substance successfully used as a surgical anesthetic (1847); being somewhat toxic, it has been increasingly displaced by other sub¬ stances for this purpose. It has some industrial uses, primarily as a solvent.

chlorophyll Any member of one of the most important classes of pig¬ ment molecules involved in photosynthesis. Found in almost all photosyn¬ thetic organisms, it consists of a central magnesium atom surrounded by a nitrogen-containing structure called a porphyrin ring, to which is attached a long carbon-hydrogen side chain, known as a phytol chain. In structure it is remarkably similar to hemoglobin. Chlorophyll uses energy that it absorbs from light to convert carbon dioxide to carbohydrates. In higher plants it is found in chloroplasts.

chloroplast Microscopic, ellipsoidal organelle in a green plant cell. It is the site of photosynthesis. It is distinguished by its green colour, caused by the presence of chlorophyll. It contains disk-shaped structures called thylakoids that make possible the formation of ATP, an energy-rich stor¬ age compound.

Internal structures of the chloroplast. The interior contains flattened sacs of photo¬ synthetic membranes (thylakoids) formed by the invagination and fusion of the inner membrane. Thylakoids are usually arranged in stacks (grana) and contain the photosynthetic pigment (chlorophyll). The grana are connected to other stacks by simple membranes (lamellae) within the stroma, the fluid proteinaceous portion con¬ taining the enzymes essential for the photosynthetic dark reaction, or Calvin cycle.

© MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

Chlotar \'klo-,tar\ I (b. c. 500?—d. late 561, Compiegne, Fr.) Merov¬ ingian king of Soissons from 511 and of the whole Frankish kingdom from 558. (See Merovingian dynasty.) The youngest son of Clovis I, he shared in the partition of his father’s kingdom in 511 and extended his lands by murder and intrigue. He launched campaigns against the Burgundians (523, 532-34), the Visigoths (532, 542), and the Thuringians (c. 531). A ruthless and brutal ruler, Chlotar put to death his rebellious son Chram with his family (560).

Chobe Vcho-ba\ National Park National preserve, northern Botswana. The preserve, which acquired national park status in 1968, borders Namibia and touches Zimbabwe and Zambia, covering 4,500 sq mi (11,700 sq km). It is noted for its wildlife, particularly its large elephant population.