Britannica Concise 2005

geodesy \je-'a-do-se\ Scientific discipline concerned with the size and shape of the Earth, its gravitational field, and the location of fixed points. Originally, all geodesic work was based on land surveys. Now satellites are used in conjunction with the land-based system.

geoduck Vgu-e-,dak\ Marine bivalve ( Panopea generosa ) that inhabits the intertidal zone of the Pacific coast from southern Alaska to Baja California. It is the largest known burrowing bivalve, with a shell about 7-9 in. (18-23 cm) long and siphons that extend up to about 4 ft (1.3 m). It may weigh as much as 8 lbs (3.6 kg). Though highly prized for food, it lives in deep bur¬ rows and is difficult to dig out (the name probably derives from an Indian phrase meaning “dig deep”). Similar species are found in other parts of the world.

Geoffrey of Monmouth Vjef- re...'man-moth \ (d. 1155) Medieval British chronicler. He was probably an Oxford cleric for most of his life. His mostly fictional History of the Kings of Britain (c. 1135-39) traced the descent of British princes from the Trojans; it brought the figure of

Arthur (see Arthurian legend) into European literature and introduced the enchanter Merlin, whose story Geoffrey related in the Vita Merlini (c. 1148-51?). Though denounced from the first by other historians, the His¬ tory was one of the most popular books of the Middle Ages and had an enormous influence on later chroniclers.

geographic information system (GIS) Computerized system that relates and displays data collected from a geographic entity in the form of a map. The ability of GIS to overlay existing data with new informa¬ tion and display it in colour on a computer screen is used primarily to conduct analyses and make decisions related to geology, ecology, land use, demographics, transportation, and other domains, most of which relate to the human use of the physical environment. Through the process of geocoding, geographic data from a database is converted into images in the form of maps.

geography Science of the Earth’s surface, which describes and ana¬ lyzes the spatial variations in physical, biological, and human phenom¬ ena that occur on the surface of the globe and treats their interrelationships and their significant regional patterns. Once associated entirely with map¬ ping and the exploration of the Earth, the field today is wide-ranging, and geographers use a variety of methods and techniques drawn from numer¬ ous disciplines. Subfields of geography include physical, human, and regional geography, which may range in scale from worldwide to a con¬ tinent, a country, or a city.

geologic oceanography See marine geology

geologic time Interval of time occupied by the Earth’s geologic his¬ tory, extending from c. 3.9 billion years ago (corresponding to the age of the oldest known rocks) to the present day. It is, in effect, the part of the Earth’s history that is recorded in rock strata. The geologic time scale is classified in nested intervals distinguished by characteristic geologic and biologic features. From longest to shortest duration, the intervals are eon, era, period, and epoch See table on following page.

geological engineering See engineering geology

geology Scientific study of the Earth, including its composition, struc¬ ture, physical properties, and history. Geology is commonly divided into subdisciplines concerned with the chemical makeup of the Earth, includ¬ ing the study of minerals (mineralogy) and rocks (petrology); the structure of the Earth (structural geology) and volcanic phenomena (volcanology); landforms and the processes that produce them (geomorphology and gla¬ ciology); geologic history, including the study of fossils (paleontology), the development of sedimentary strata (stratigraphy), and the evolution of planetary bodies and their satellites (astrogeology); and economic geology and its various branches, such as mining geology and petroleum geology. Some major fields closely allied to geology are geodesy, geophysics, and GEOCHEMISTRY. See also ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY.

geomagnetic field Magnetic field associated with the Earth. It is essentially dipolar (i.e., it has two poles, the northern and southern mag¬ netic poles) on the Earth’s surface. Away from the surface, the field becomes distorted. Most geomagnetists explain the field by means of dynamo theories, whereby a source of energy in the Earth’s core causes a self-sustaining magnetic field. In the dynamo theories, fluid motion in the Earth’s core involves the movement of conducting material within an existing magnetic field, thus creating a current and a self-enforcing field.

geomagnetic reversal Alternation of the Earth’s magnetic polarity. The Earth’s internal magnetic field reverses, on average, about every 300,000 to 1 million years. This reversal is very sudden on a geologic time scale, apparently taking about 5,000 years. The time between rever¬ sals is highly variable, sometimes less than 40,000 years and at other times as long as 35 million years. No regularities or periodicities have yet been discovered. A long interval of one polarity may be followed by a short interval of opposite polarity. See also polar wandering.

geomagnetics Branch of geophysics concerned with all aspects of the Earth’s magnetic field, including its origin, variation through time, and manifestations in the form of magnetic poles, the magnetization of rocks, and local or regional magnetic anomalies.

Geometric style Style of vase painting that flourished in Athens c. 1000-700 bc. Vases decorated in this style feature horizontal bands filled with geometric patterns such as zigzags, triangles, and swastikas in dark paint on a light ground. The rhythmic effect is similar to that of basketry. The abstract motifs developed into stylized animal and human forms in

"The Annunciation," painting by Orazio Gentileschi, 1623; in the Galle¬ ria Sabauda, Turin, Italy

SCALA—ART RESOURCE

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750 I geometry ► George III

Geologic Time

Eon

Era

Periods and systems

Epochs and series

Beginning of interval*

Biological forms

Phanerozoic

Cenozoic

Quaternary

Holocene

0.01

Pleistocene

1.8

Earliest humans

Tertiary

Pliocene

5

Miocene

24

Earliest hominids

Oligocene

34

Eocene

55

Earliest grasses

Paleocene

65

Earliest large mammals

Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary (65 million years ago): extinction of dinosaurs

Mesozoic

Cretaceous

Late

99

Early

144

Earliest flowering plants; dinosaurs in ascendance

Jurassic

206

Earliest birds and mammals

Triassic

248

Age of Dinosaurs begins

Paleozoic

Permian

290

Carboniferous

Pennsylvanian

323

Earliest reptiles

Mississippian

354

Earliest winged insects

Devonian

417

Earliest vascular plants (incl. ferns and mosses)

and amphibians

Silurian

443

Earliest land plants and insects

Ordovician

490

Earliest corals

Cambrian

543

Earliest fishes

Proterozoic

Precambrian

2,500

Earliest colonial algae and soft-bodied invertebrates

Archean

4,000

Life appears; earliest algae and primitive bacteria

*ln millions of years before the present.

such narrative scenes as funerals, dances, and boxing matches. Small bronze and clay figurines, elaborately decorated fibulas, and limestone seals were also produced. The patterns remained popular and influenced much later Greek art.

geometry See algebraic geometry, analytic geometry, differential geom¬ etry, ELLIPTIC GEOMETRY, EUCUDEAN GEOMETRY, FRACTAL GEOMETRY, HYPERBOLIC GEOM¬ ETRY, non-Euclidean geometry, projective geometry

geomorphology Scientific discipline that describes and classifies the Earth’s topographic features. Many systems of classifying landforms have been devised. Some systems describe and group topographic features pri¬ marily according to the processes that shaped or modified them. Others take additional factors into consideration (e.g., character of the surface rocks and climatic variations) and include the developmental stage of landforms as an aspect of their evolution over geologic time.

geophysics Major branch of earth science that applies the principles and methods of physics to the study of the Earth. Geophysics deals with such geologic phenomena as the temperature distribution of the Earth’s interior; the source, configuration, and variations of the geomagnetic field; and the large-scale features of the terrestrial crust, such as rifts, conti¬ nental sutures, and oceanic ridges. Modem geophysical research also examines phenomena of the outer parts of the Earth’s atmosphere and even the physical properties of other planets and their satellites. See also MARINE GEOPHYSICS.

geopolitics The study of geographic influences on power relationships in international politics. Geopolitical theorists have sought to demonstrate the importance in the determination of foreign policies of considerations such as the acquisition of natural boundaries, access to important sea routes, and the control of strategically important land areas. The term was first employed in the early 20th century by the Swedish political scientist Rudolph Kjellen (1864-1922). Geopolitical factors have become less sig¬ nificant in the foreign policies of states because of improvements in com¬ munications and transportation.

George I orig. George Louis German Georg Ludwig (b. May

28, 1660, Osnabriick, Hanover—d. June 11, 1727, Osnabruck) First king of England (1714-27) from the house of Hanover. He succeeded his father as the elector of Hanover (1698) and fought with distinction in the War of the Spanish Succession. As a great-grandson of James I of England and under the Act of Settlement, George ascended the English throne in 1714. He formed a Whig ministry and left internal politics to his ministers, including 1 st Earl Stanhope, Viscount Townshend, and Robert Walpole. He was unpopular because of his German manner and German mistresses and

their involvement in the South Sea Bubble crisis, but he strengthened Brit¬ ain’s position by forming the Quadruple Alliance (1718). He was suc¬ ceeded by his son, George II.

George I Greek Georgios orig. Prince William of Denmark

(b. Dec. 24, 1845, Copenhagen, Den.—d. March 18, 1913, Salonika, Greece) King of Greece. Son of Christian IX of Denmark, he served in the Danish navy and in 1862 was nominated to the Greek throne by Britain, France, and Russia after the Greek king, Otto, was deposed. Accepted by the Greek National Assembly, he ascended the throne as George 1 in 1863. He oversaw the incorporation of territory in Thessaly and Epirus into Greece as well as the annexation of Crete. In the unrest caused by the Balkan Wars, he was assassinated at Salonika; he was succeeded by his son, Constantine I. His long reign was the formative period for the devel¬ opment of Greece as a modem European state.

George II orig. George Augustus German Georg August (b.

Nov. 10, 1683, Herrenhausen Palace, Hanover—d. Oct. 25, 1760, Lon¬ don, Eng.) King of Great Britain and elector of Hanover (1727-60). His father, the elector of Hanover, became George I of England; he succeeded him in both roles in 1727. He retained Robert Walpole as his key minister until 1742. His new minister, John Carteret (1690-1763), brought England into the War of the Austrian Succession, where George fought coura¬ geously at the Battle of Dettingen (1743), the last time a British king appeared on the battlefield. The parliament and ministers forced Carter¬ et’s resignation and the appointment of William Pitt. George lost interest in politics, and Pitt’s strategy brought about a British victory in the Seven Years' War.

George II Greek Georgios (b. July 20, 1890, Tatoi, near Athens, Greece—d. April 1, 1947, Athens) King of Greece (1922-24, 1935-47). He became king when his father, Constantine I, was deposed in 1922, but the royal family was unpopular and George fled Greece in 1923. The National Assembly proclaimed Greece a republic in 1924. George remained in exile until the conservative Populist Party, with army sup¬ port, gained control of the legislature and restored the monarchy in 1935. Ioannis Metaxas seized power in 1936 with the king’s support. George was forced into exile in 1941 in World War II; republican sentiment threat¬ ened his throne, but he was restored by a plebiscite and returned to Greece in 1946.

George III orig. George William Frederick (b. June 4, 1738, London, Eng.—d. Jan. 29, 1820, Windsor Castle, near London) King of Great Britain and Ireland (1760-1820); also elector (1760-1814) and king (1814-20) of Hanover. The grandson of George II, he ascended the throne during the Seven Years' War. His chief minister, Lord Bute, forced Wil-

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George IV ► Georgetown University I 751

liam Pitt’s resignation and caused intrigue rather than stability within the government. Bute resigned in 1763, but George’s political overtures to others were snubbed, until Lord North became prime minister in 1770. England was in financial distress caused by the war, and George supported attempts to raise funds through taxation of the American colonies, which led to the American Revolution. With North, he was blamed for prolong¬ ing the war and losing the colonies. He reasserted his power when North and Charles James Fox planned to take control of the East India Company; he forced them to resign and reaffirmed his control through a new “patri¬ otic” prime minister, William Pitt, the Younger. George supported him until the war with Revolutionary France (1793) and fears of related uprisings in Ireland caused Pitt to propose political emancipation of the Roman Catholics. George’s vehement opposition led to Pitt’s resignation in 1801. In 1811 George’s ill health and a return of the madness that had afflicted him for short periods earlier in his life caused Parliament to enact the regency of his son, the future George IV.

George IV orig. George Augustus Frederick (b. Aug. 12, 1762, London, Eng.—d. June 26, 1830, Windsor, Berkshire) King of the United Kingdom (1820-30) and king of Hanover (1820-30). The son of George III, he earned his father’s ill will by his extravagances and dissolute hab¬ its, contracting a secret marriage that was annulled by his father. In 1811 George became regent for his father, who had been declared insane. Retaining his father’s ministers rather than appointing his Whig friends, he saw Britain and its allies triumph over Napoleon in 1815. A patron of the architect John Nash, he sponsored the restoration of Windsor Castle.

George V orig. George Frederick Ernest Albert (b. June 3, 1865, London, Eng.—d. Jan. 20,

1936, Sandringham, Norfolk) King of the United Kingdom (1910-36).

The second son of the future Edward VII, he succeeded his father in 1910.

Early in his reign, he faced problems resulting from the constitutional struggle to restrict the power of the House of Lords. Respect for the new king increased during World War I, and he visited the front in France several times. After the war he faced both serious industrial unrest and, in 1923, the resignation as prime min¬ ister of Andrew Bonar Law, who was replaced by Stanley Baldwin. After the collapse of the pound sterling and the subsequent financial crisis in 1931, he persuaded James Ramsay MacDonald to remain in office and form a national coalition government. He was succeeded successively by his sons Edward VIII and George VI.

George VI orig. Albert Frederick Arthur George (b. Dec. 14, 1895, Sandringham, Norfolk,

Eng.—d. Feb. 6, 1952, Sandring¬ ham) King of the United Kingdom (1936-52). The second son of George V, he was proclaimed king following the abdication of his brother, Edward VIII. He was an important symbolic leader of the British people during World War II, supporting the wartime leadership of Winston Churchill and visiting his armies on several battlefronts. In 1949 he was formally recognized as head of the Commonwealth by its member states. He earned the respect of his people by scrupulously observing the responsibilities of a constitutional monarch and by over¬ coming the handicap of a severe stammer. He was succeeded by his daughter, Elizabeth II.

George, David Lloyd See David Lloyd George

George, Henry (b. Sept. 2, 1839, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—d. Oct. 29, 1897, New York, N.Y.) U.S. land reformer and economist. He left school before age 14 to work as a clerk and then at sea. In 1858 George went to California, where he worked for newspapers (briefly founding his own) and took part in Democratic party politics. In 1879 he published Progress and Poverty, in which he proposed that the state fully tax all economic rent—the income from the use of the bare land, but not from improvements—and abolish all other taxes. George believed that the gov¬ ernment’s annual income from this “single tax” would be so large that there would be a surplus for expansion of public works.

George, Lake Lake, northeastern New York, U.S. It is 32 mi (51 km) long and 1-4 mi (1.6-6.4 km) wide and is connected to Lake Champlain through a series of waterfalls. In the foothills of the Adirondacks, it is noted for its scenic beauty and is a popular resort area. Memorialized in James Fenimore Cooper’s novels as Lake Horicon, the real lake was the scene of numerous battles during the French and Indian War and the American Revo¬ lution. Fort Ticonderoga is located on the falls at the lake’s outlet.

George, Saint (fl. 3rd century—d. traditionally Lydda, Palestine; feast day April 23) Early Christian martyr and patron saint of England. His his¬ torical existence is uncertain, but from the 6th century he was the subject of legends as a warrior-saint. He was said to have rescued a Libyan king’s daughter from a dragon, which he killed in return for a promise that the king’s subjects would be baptized. In art, the young saint often wears knight’s armor ornamented with a scarlet cross. He probably became England’s patron saint in the 14th century, when Edward III made him patron of the Order of the Garter.

George \ga-'6r-go\, Stefan (b. July 12, 1868, Budesheim, near Bin¬ gen, Hesse—d. Dec. 4, 1933, Minusio, near Locarno, Switz.) German poet. George traveled widely, becoming associated with Stephane Mallarme and the Symbolist movement in Paris and the Pre-Raphaelites in London. Returning to Germany, he edited the journal Blatter fur die Kunst (1892— 1919) and became the centre of the “George Circle,” gathering young poets around him in a close-knit aesthetic band. His collections include Hymnen (1890), Das Jahr der Seele (1897), Der siebente Ring (1907), and Der Stern des Bundes (1914). A supporter of “pure poetry,” he opposed not only the debasement of the language but also materialism and naturalism. Though politically conservative, he turned down Nazi offers of money and honours, preferring exile. His collected works include translations of Dante and William Shakespeare (the sonnets) as well as prose sketches.

George Washington Birthplace National Monument

National monument, eastern Virginia, U.S. Established in 1930, it con¬ sists of 538 acres (218 hectares) located along the Potomac River. Wake¬ field, the house where George Washington (b. Feb. 22, 1732) spent the first three years of his life, burned in 1779. The present Memorial House was reconstructed in 1931-32 and represents a typical 18th-century Vir¬ ginia plantation dwelling with a period garden.

Georges Bank Submerged sandbank in the Atlantic Ocean east of Massachusetts, U.S. It has long been an important fishing ground, with scallops harvested in its northeastern portion. Navigation is made dan¬ gerous by crosscurrents and fog. In 1994 it was closed to commercial fishing in order to replenish depleted stock.

George's War, King See King George's War

Georgetown formerly (1784-1812) Stabroek \'sta-,bruk\ City (pop., 1999 est.: 275,000), capital of Guyana. The country’s chief port, it lies on the Atlantic Ocean at the mouth of the Demerara River. It was founded by the British in 1781 and named after George III; it was largely rebuilt by the French by 1784. Known during the Dutch occupation as Stabroek, it was established as the seat of government of the combined colonies of Essequibo and Demerara in 1784. When the British regained control in 1812, the name was changed back to Georgetown. The mod¬ ern city is the chief commercial and manufacturing centre of Guyana.

Georgetown University Private university in Washington, D.C., U.S. Founded in 1789, it was the first Roman Catholic (Jesuit) college in the U.S. It has always been open to people of all faiths. It includes a col¬ lege of arts and sciences, a graduate school, and schools of foreign ser¬ vice, law, medicine, nursing, business, and languages and linguistics. Important facilities include a seismological observatory, the Woodstock Theological Center, and various medical research centres.

George V.

CAMERA PRESS

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752 I Georgia ► geosyncline

Georgia Country, Transcaucasia, western Asia. Located within the Cau¬ casus Mountains, on the southeastern shores of the Black Sea, it includes the autonomous republics of Abkhazia and Ajaria (Adjara). Area: 27,086 sq

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