Britannica Concise 2005

carburizing Oldest method for surface-hardening steel, by heat or mechanical means to increase the hardness of the outer surface while leaving the core relatively soft. The combination of hard surface and soft interior withstands very high stress and fatigue, and also offers low cost and superior flexibility in manufacturing. To carburize, the steel parts are placed in a carbonaceous environment (with charcoal, coke, and carbon¬ ates, or with carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, or propane) at a high temperature for several hours. The carbon diffuses into the surface of the steel, altering the crystal structure of the metal. Gears, ball and roller bearings, and piston pins are often carburized.

Carcassonne \,kar-ka-'s6n\ ancient Carcaso City (pop., 1999: 43,950), southwestern France. Situated on the Aude River, it was occupied by the Iberians in the 5th century bc and later by Gallo-Romans. Muslims took it in ad 728. The French soldier Simon de Montfort captured it c. 1209, and in 1247 it was united with the French crown. It was burned by Edward the Black Prince in 1355 when he failed to take the citadel. A 13th- century church and cathedral survive, as do remains of medieval fortifi¬

cations, the last of which were designated a World Heritage site in 1997. The city’s main economic activities are tourism and retailing.

Carchemish Vkar-ko-.mishX Ancient city-state, western bank of the Euphrates River. Its remains lay southeast of Gaziantep, Tur., near the Syr¬ ian border. It was a city of the Mitanni kingdom in the 2nd millennium bc and later a chief Hittite city. Probably subjugated by Sea Peoples after c. 1200 bc, it gradually came under Assyrian rule, finally capitulating in 717 bc. In a battle at Carchemish in 605 bc, Babylonian king Nebucha¬ drezzar II expelled the Egyptians from Syria. The ruins were excavated in

1911-20.

carcinogen Vkar-'si-no-jonX Agent that can cause cancer. Exposure to one or more carcinogens, including certain chemicals, radiation, and cer¬ tain viruses, can initiate cancer under conditions not completely under¬ stood. Some people have a genetic tendency to develop cancer when exposed to a specific carcinogen or combination of carcinogens. Repeated local injury or irritation to a part of the body can be carcinogenic. Iden¬ tifying and eliminating carcinogens in time can reduce the incidence of cancer.

cardamom Vkar-do-moirA Spice consisting of whole or ground dried fruit, or seeds, of Elettaria cardamomum, a perennial herb of the ginger family. The flavour is warm, slightly pungent, and highly aromatic. Car¬ damom is a popular seasoning. Native to moist forests of southern India, the fruit may be collected from wild plants, but most is cultivated. The whole fruit is a green, three-sided oval capsule containing 15-20 dark, hard, angular seeds.

Cardenas, Bartolome de See Bartolome Bermejo

Cardenas \'kar-d 3 n-,as\ (del Rio), Lazaro (b. May 21, 1895, Jiquil- pan, Mex.—d. Oct. 19, 1970, Mexico City) President of Mexico (1934- 40). Of Indian descent, he joined the armed struggle against the dictatorial Victoriano Huerta, rising through the ranks of the revolutionary forces. His faction triumphed, and Cardenas was made a general in the Mexican army in 1920. In 1928 he became governor of Michoacan, and in 1934 he became president. Noted for his efforts to carry out the social and eco¬ nomic aims of the revolution, he distributed a record amount of land to peasants, made loans available to them, organized workers’ and peasants’ confederations, and nationalized the oil industry, the principal railways, and other foreign-owned industries. He opposed U.S. influence in Mexico and later supported Fidel Castro. For many Mexicans he remains the fore¬ most symbol of the political left. His son Cuauhtemoc, a prominent leader of the opposition to Mexico’s ruling party, is widely believed to have been denied victory in the 1988 presidential elections by fraud; he has since served as mayor of Mexico City. See also Indigenismo.

Cardiff City and county (pop., 2001: 305,340), capital of Wales. It is located on the Bristol Channel in southeastern Wales. The Romans built a fort there c. ad 75. The town itself was established with the arrival of the Normans in the 11th century. Its population was small into the early 19th century, but by the early 20th century Cardiff had become the largest coal-exporting port in the world. The coal trade ceased in the 1960s, but Cardiff remains the largest city and the principal commercial centre of Wales.

Cardigan, James Thomas Brudenell, 7th earl of (b. Oct. 16, 1797, Hambleden, Buckinghamshire, Eng.—d. March 27/28, 1868, Deene Park, Northamptonshire) British general. After entering the army (1824), he purchased promotions to become a lieutenant colonel (1832) and gained a reputation as a martinet. He spent his inherited wealth to make his regiment the best-dressed in the service (introducing the later-named cardigan jacket). At the outbreak of the Crimean War (1853), he was appointed commander of the Light Brigade of British cavalry, which he led in the ill-fated charge at the Battle of Balaklava. Despite the disaster, Cardigan was lionized on his return to England and appointed inspector general of cavalry.

Cardigan Bay Bay, western Wales. A widemouthed inlet of St. George's Channel, it is about 65 mi (105 km) long. Two national parks, Snowdonia and Pembrokeshire Coast, incorporate substantial stretches of shoreline. Many resort towns line the bay, including Aberystwyth and Fish¬ guard, a base for ferry service between Wales and Ireland.

Cardin \kar-'da n \, Pierre (b. July 7, 1922, Venice, Italy) French fash¬ ion designer. At age 17 he went to Vichy to become a tailor at a men’s shop. After World War II he joined the Parisian fashion house of Paquin

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

cardinal ► Carducci I 335

and designed the costumes for Jean Cocteau’s film Beauty and the Beast (1945). In 1959 he created the first ready-to-wear collection for women ever presented by a top designer and in 1960 introduced the first designer ready-to-wear collection for men. He showed himself a master of the bias cut, soft semifitted lines, and lavish colour. In the late 1960s his stark, short tunics, and his use of vinyl, helmets, and goggles launched the Space Age look. His men’s clothing influenced other designers, including Bill Blass.

cardinal Member of the Sacred College of Cardinals. The cardinals’ duties include electing the pope, acting as his principal counselors, and aiding in the governance of the Roman Catholic Church. Cardinals serve as officers of the Roman Curia, bishops of major dioceses, and papal envoys. Since 769 only cardinals have been eligible to become pope, and since 1059 the pope has been elected only by cardinals. The first cardinals were the deacons of the seven regions of Rome. Their present-day successors are known as cardinal deacons. Cardinal bishops are the successors of the bishops of the sees just outside Rome and of the patriarchal sees of the Eastern Catholic Church. Cardinal priests are the bishops of important sees around the world and constitute the most numerous order of cardi¬ nals. The number of cardinals was limited to 70 for nearly 400 years until 1958, when John XXIII (1958-63) eliminated the restriction. Under Paul VI (1963-78) there were 145 cardinals, and under John Paul II (1978— 2005) there were 182. With the increase in the size of the cardinalate came new restrictions imposed by the popes. Paul VI directed that cardinals who do not resign by age 75 relinquish the right to vote for a pope when they reach 80. He also limited the number of voting cardinals to 120, a restriction confirmed during the pontificate of John Paul II. A red biretta and ring are symbolic of the office.

cardinal or redbird Songbird ( Cardinalis cardinalis, family Fring- illidae or Emberizidae) of North America, primarily east of the Rocky Mountains. It is 8 in. (20 cm) long and has a pointed crest. The male is bright red, the female a duller red or olive-brown. Pairs of cardinals utter loud, clear whistling notes year- round in gardens and open wood¬ lands. They feed on insects, wild seeds, and fruits. Cardinals are espe¬ cially abundant in the southeastern U.S. and have been introduced into Hawaii, southern California, and Bermuda. Related species also called cardinals live in South America.

cardinal flower Any of several closely related species of the genus Lobelia, perennial plants of the lobelia family, native to North and Central America. All bear spikes of scarlet, lipped flowers on leafy stems up to 5 ft (1.5 m) tall. L. cardinalis and L. splendens, considered to be one spe¬ cies by some authorities, are taller than L. fulgens, the Central American parent species of the garden cardinal flower. The blue cardinal (L. siphi- litica) is smaller than the others and has blue or whitish flowers.

carding In yarn production, a process of separating individual fibres, causing many of them to lie parallel and removing most of the remaining impurities. Cotton, wool, waste silk, and man-made staple are subjected to carding. Carding produces a thin sheet of uniform thickness that is then condensed to form a thick, continuous, untwisted strand called sliver. When very fine yarns are desired, carding is followed by combing, a pro¬ cess that removes short fibres, leaving a sliver composed entirely of long fibres, all laid parallel and smoother and more lustrous than uncombed types. Carded and combed sliver is then spun.

carding machine Machine for carding textile fibres. In the 18th cen¬ tury, hand carding was laborious and constituted a bottleneck in the newly mechanized production of textiles. Several inventors worked to develop machines to perform the task, notably John Kay, Oliver Evans, Lewis Paul, R. Arkwright, and Johann Bodmer.

cardiology Medical specialty dealing with heart diseases and disorders. It began with the 1749 publication by Jean Baptiste de Senac of contem¬ porary knowledge of the heart. Diagnostic methods improved in the 19th century, and in 1905 the electrocardiograph was invented. The 20th cen¬ tury saw many surgical advances in cardiology, including heart transplants and the use of artificial hearts. Current diagnostic methods include chest

percussion (tapping) and auscultation, electrocardiography, and echocar¬ diography (see ultrasound). Cardiologists provide continuing care of heart patients, doing basic heart-function studies, supervising therapy, includ¬ ing drug therapy, and working closely with heart surgeons.

cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) Emergency procedure to restore breathing and circulation in an unconscious person. A trained res¬ cuer opens the airway and confirms the absence of breathing and pulse. Resuscitation itself consists of alternating mouth-to-mouth breathing (see artificial respiration) and repeated pressure on the chest to circulate the blood.

cardiovascular system System of vessels that convey blood to and from tissues throughout the body, bringing nutrients and oxygen and removing wastes and carbon dioxide. It is essentially a long, closed tube through which blood moves in a double circuit—one through the lungs (pulmonary circulation) and one through the rest of the body (systemic circulation). The heart pumps blood through the arteries, which branch into smaller arterioles, which feed into microscopic capillaries (see artery; capillary). These converge to form small venules, which join to become larger veins, generally following the same path as the arteries back to the heart. Cardiovascular diseases include atherosclerosis, congenital and rheumatic heart disease, and vascular inflammation.

Cardoso, Fernando Henrique (b. June 18, 1931, Rio de Janeiro, Braz.) President of Brazil (1995-2003). Born into a wealthy military fam¬ ily, he taught sociology at the University of Sao Paulo and was a promi¬ nent member of the left-wing intellectual opposition when Brazil was under military rule, though he turned more centrist after civilian rule was restored. In 1993 he became finance minister and supervised the creation of the Real Plan, an effective anti-inflation package that helped him gain the presidency in 1994. He worked for privatization of state-owned com¬ panies and increased foreign investment. In 1998 he became the first president in Brazilian history to be reelected. A foreign-exchange crisis in 1999 damaged Brazil’s growth prospects.

Cardozo, Benjamin (Nathan) (b. May 24, 1870, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. July 9, 1938, Port Chester)

U.S. jurist. Born into a distinguished Jewish family, he was admitted to the New York bar in 1891 and became a successful courtroom lawyer.

Elected to the state Supreme Court as a reform candidate (1913), he was quickly promoted to the Court of Appeals. During his tenure many thought the quality of the appellate bench exceeded that of the U.S.

Supreme Court. He influenced the trend in U.S. appellate judging toward greater involvement in pub¬ lic policy and consequent modern¬ ization of legal principles. He was both a creative common-law judge and a notable legal essayist.

Appointed to the Supreme Court of the United States in 1932, he usually voted with liberals Louis Brandeis and Harlan Fiske Stone. He wrote the majority opinion upholding the con¬ stitutionality of the Social Security Act (1937). In a 1937 case on double jeopardy, he held that the states were not required to implement all the provisions of the Bill of Rights, a position that became known as “selec¬ tive incorporation.” He served on the Supreme Court until 1938. The law school at Yeshiva University is named for him.

cards, playing See playing cards

Carducci \kar-'du-che\, Giosue (b. July 27, 1835, Val di Castello, near Lucca, Tuscany—d. Feb. 16, 1907, Bologna, Italy) Italian poet. He taught literary history in Bologna for 40 years and in later years served as a sena¬ tor. He opposed the prevailing Romanticism and advocated a return to classical models of prosody, but his rhetorical tirades provoked resistance to reform. His best volumes of verse, The New Lyrics and The Barbarian Odes (1887), contain evocations of landscape, memories of childhood, and representations of the glory of ancient Rome. Regarded in his time as Italy’s national poet, he won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1906.

Benjamin Cardozo.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

336 I Careme ► Carissimi

Careme \ka-'rem\, Marie-Antoine (b. June 8, 1784, Paris, Fr.—d. Jan. 12, 1833, Paris) French chef. Born into a poor family, he attained employment in a pastry shop frequented by Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand. He served as Talleyrand’s chef for 12 years and subsequently created grandiose dishes and elaborately sculpted confections for the most splen¬ did households of Europe, including those of the young George IV, Tsar Alexander I, and the baron de Rothschild. He wrote several classics of grande cuisine.

Carew, Rod in full Rodney Cline Carew (b. Oct. 1, 1945, Gatun, Pan.) Panamanian-born U.S. baseball player. Carew moved from Panama to New York City in 1962, where he learned sandlot ball. Playing for the Minnesota Twins (1967-78), he became one of the great hitters of the modern era and led the American League in batting seven times between 1969 and 1978. His highest average was .388, in 1977. He was traded in 1979 to the California (later Anaheim) Angels and retired in 1986 with a lifetime batting average of .328.

Carey, Peter (Philip) (b. May 7, 1943, Bacchus Marsh, Vic., Austl.) Australian writer. He worked as an advertising copywriter and at other odd jobs until 1988, when he became a full-time writer. His short-story collection The Fat Man in History (1974) contains macabre elements. His novels, more realistic but laced with black humour, include Bliss (1981), Illywhacker (1985), Oscar and Lucinda (1988, Booker Prize), The Unusual Life of Tristan Smith (1994), Jack Maggs (1997), and True His¬ tory of the Kelly Gang (2000; Booker Prize, 2001).

cargo cult Any religious movement based on the observation by local residents of the delivery of supplies by ship and aircraft to colonial offi¬ cials. Cargo cults were observed chiefly in Melanesia in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. They were characterized by the expectation of a new age of blessing and prosperity to be initiated by the arrival of a special “cargo” of goods from supernatural sources. Such beliefs may have expressed traditional millennial ideas, often revived by the teaching of Christian missions.

Caria \'kar-e-o\ Ancient district, southern Anatolia. It was one of the most thoroughly Hellenized districts in ancient Anatolia; its territory included Greek cities along the shore of the Aegean Sea and a mountain¬ ous interior bounded by Lydia, Phrygia, and Lycia. Absorbed first by Lydia, it later was annexed (4th century bc) by the Persian Achaemenian Empire, one of whose governors, Mausolus, transferred its capital from Mylasa to Halicarnassus. Taken from Persia in 334 bc by Alexander the Great, it was incorporated into the Roman province of Asia in 129 bc.

Carib Vkar-ob\ American Indian people who inhabited the Lesser Antilles and parts of the South American coast at the time of the Spanish conquest. The Island Carib (now extinct) were a warlike, individualistic people who reportedly practiced cannibalism (the term derives from their name). Carib groups on the mainland, some of whom still survive, lived in the Guianas and as far south as the Amazon River; they subsisted by hunting and grow¬ ing crops and were less aggressive than their island relatives.

Cariban Vkar-e-bonN languages Large family of South American Indian languages. It has an estimated 43 members; nearly half are now extinct, and most of the remainder have very few speakers. Most Cariban languages are spoken in southern Venezuela, the Guianas, and Brazil north of the Amazon, though several have strayed far from this area. Cariban incursions into the mainly ARAWAKAN-speaking Antilles at the time of Columbus provided European languages with the words Carib (hence, Caribbean) and cannibal, both perhaps from a proto-Cariban form mean¬ ing “Indian, person.”

Caribbean Sea Arm of the Atlantic Ocean. It covers about 1,049,500 sq mi (2,718,200 sq km) and washes the northern coast of South America, eastern Central America, and eastern Mexico. It reaches its greatest known depth, about 25,000 ft (7,500 m), in Cayman Trench, between Cuba and Jamaica. Its generally tropical climate varies, depending on mountain elevations, water currents, and trade winds. The economies of its island countries, including Saint Kitts and Nevis, Dominica, Saint Lucia, and Barbados, are greatly dependent on tourism; the region is one of the world’s principal winter resort areas. See map on opposite page.

caribe See piranha

caribou Vkar-o-.biiX Arctic deer ( Rangifer tarandus) of the tundra, taiga, and forests, native to North America and northern Eurasia from Scandi¬ navia to eastern Siberia. Both sexes have antlers. Caribou stand 2.3—4.6

ft (0.7-1.4 m) tall at the shoulder and weigh up to 660 lbs (300 kg); domesticated races are about the size of donkeys. They are usually gray¬ ish or brownish with lighter underparts but may be whitish or nearly black. Their herds are famous for their seasonal migration between summer and winter ranges. Their staple winter food is a lichen, popularly called rein¬ deer moss, which they reach by scraping the snow away with their feet. In summer they also eat grasses and saplings. See also reindeer.

caricature Vkar-i-ko-.chuA Comically distorted drawing or likeness intended to satirize or ridicule its subject. The word, derived from the Italian caricare (“to load or charge”), was probably coined by the Car¬ racci family, who defended the practice as a counterpart to idealization. In the 18th century the caricature became connected with journalism and was put to virulent use by political commentators. In the 1880s photo-process engraving made it possible to produce and illustrate daily newpapers cheaply, bringing caricatures to the general public. In the 20th century caricature increasingly moved into the editorial, sports, and theatrical sec¬ tions of newspapers. Important caricaturists include Jacques Callot, George Cruikshank, Honore Daumier, Gustave Dore, and Al Hirschfeld.

caries \'kar-ez\ or tooth decay Localized disease that causes decay and cavities in teeth. It begins at the tooth’s surface and may penetrate the dentin and the pulp cavity. Microorganisms in the mouth are believed to consume sugars and produce acids that eat away at tooth enamel. The dentin’s protein structure is then destroyed by enzymes. Diet, general health, structural tooth defects, and heredity affect the risk of having car¬ ies. Prevention involves avoiding excessive sweets, brushing and flossing the teeth, and having regular dental care. Treatment includes restoration of teeth with cavities. Fluoridation of water can reduce the occurrence of caries by as much as 65%.

carillon \'kar-3-,lan\ Musical instrument consisting of at least 23 cast bronze bells tuned in chromatic order. Usually located in a tower, it is played from a keyboard. Most carillons encompass three to four octaves. The carillon originated in Flanders c. 1480, and the art of carillon build¬ ing reached its height in the Netherlands in the 17th century, when the tuning of the bells became highly refined.

Carillon clavier

GILLETT & JOHNSTON (CROYDON) LIMITED

Carinthia See Karnten

Carissimi Vka-'res-se-meX, Giacomo (baptized April 18, 1605, Marino, near Rome—d. Jan. 12, 1674, Rome) Italian composer. He worked as maestro di cappella at the Collegio Germanico in Rome, a musically important post at a notable Jesuit institution, from 1629 until

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Carl XVI Gustaf ► Carlsbad Decrees I 337

made him the principal oratorio composer of the mid-17th century. He also wrote some 150 cantatas and nearly 100 motets.

Carl XVI Gustaf Swedish Carl Gustaf Folke Hubertus (b. April 30, 1946, Stockholm, Swed.) King of Sweden from 1973. Grandson of King Gustav VI Adolf (1882-1973), he became crown prince in 1950, his father having died in 1947. After studying at military schools, he became a naval officer. His accession occurred at a time when the role of the Swedish monarchy was being radically altered; the new constitutional laws of 1973 left the king with a solely symbolic function rather than a formal role in the country’s administration.

Carleton, Guy See Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester

Carleton Vkar-ol-tonN College Private liberal arts college in North- field, Minn., founded in 1866. It offers a variety of undergraduate majors. Small classes and opportunities to participate in faculty research projects attract a select student body, most from out of state. The academic year is based on three 10-week trimesters, with each student typically enroll¬ ing in three courses per trimester.

Carlisle \kar-'l!l\ City, administrative district (pop., 2001: 100,734), and seat of the administrative county of Cumbria, northwestern England. It was founded as Luguvallium by the Romans on the River Eden opposite a for¬ tified camp on the line of Hadrian's Wall. Destroyed by Norse invaders c. 875, it was restored when claimed from the Scots by William II in 1092. Mary, Queen of Scots, was imprisoned there in 1568. It was besieged dur¬ ing the English Civil Wars, and its Royalist defenders eventually surren¬ dered to Parliamentary forces in 1645. Its cotton textile industry grew in the 18th—19th centuries, and it has remained the centre of northern England’s cotton industry.

Law (introduced into Spain in 1713), which excluded females from the royal succession. The disputed succession led to several unsuccessful civil rebellions, known as the Carlist Wars (1833-39, 1872-76). Later adher¬ ents of Carlism formed the Traditionalist Party (1918), which merged with the Faiange in 1937.

Carlowitz Vkar-b-,vits\, Treaty of (1699) Peace settlement that ended hostilities (1683-99) between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League (Austria, Poland, Venice, and Russia). Signed at Carlowitz (now Sremski Karlovci), near Belgrade, it significantly diminished Turkish influence in eastern Europe and made Austria the dominant power there. Austria received most of Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, and Slovenia. Venice acquired most of Dalmatia, and Poland regained Podolia and part of Ukraine. The Russians concluded a two-year armistice at Carlowitz, sign¬ ing a treaty in 1700 that gave Azov to Russia, though the Turks regained Azov in 1711.

Carlsbad See Karlovy Vary

Carlsbad Caverns National Park Preserve, southeastern New Mexico, U.S. Established as a national monument in 1923 and as a national park in 1930, it covers 73 sq mi (189 sq km). Beneath the sur¬ face winds a maze of underground chambers; one of the largest caverns ever discovered, the Big Room, is about 2,000 ft (600 m) long and 1,100 ft (330 m) wide, and its ceiling arches 255 ft (78 m) above the floor. In the summer a colony of bats inhabits a part of the caverns known as Bat Cave.

Carlsbad Decrees (Aug. 6-31, 1819) Resolutions issued by German leaders to suppress liberal and nationalistic tendencies. Meeting at Carls¬ bad, Bohemia (now Karlovy Vary, Cz.Rep.), the conference of ministers

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

338 I Carlsson ► Carnegie Hall

from the major German states agreed to Prince von Metternich’s propos¬ als advocating censorship, the disbanding of the Burschenschaft groups, and the creation of a commission to ferret out conspiratorial organiza¬ tions. In the long run, the repressive decrees failed to stifle German nation¬ alism or liberal developments.

Carlsson, Arvid (b. Jan. 25, 1923, Uppsala, Swed.) Swedish pharma¬ cologist. He received his M.D. from the University of Lund. Carlsson established that dopamine is an important neurotransmitter, showing that high levels of dopamine are found in areas of the brain that control walk¬ ing and other voluntary movements. He determined that levodopa, a sub¬ stance that the brain uses to make dopamine, could be employed as a treatment for parkinsonism. His work also contributed to an understanding of the relationship between neurotransmitters and mental states such as clinical depression, which led to new antidepressant drugs, including Prozac. Along with Eric Kandel and Paul Greengard, Carlsson was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2000.

Carlton, Steve in full Steven Norman Carlton (b. Dec. 22,1944, Miami, Fla., U.S.) U.S. baseball pitcher. Carlton pitched in junior college before signing with the St. Louis Cardinals in 1965. A left-handed pitcher, he won 20 or more games in a single season six times and was a four-time Cy Young Award winner for best pitcher. He played for the Cardinals (1966-70), the Philadelphia Phillies (1971-83), and several other teams. His career total of 4,136 strikeouts is second only to that of Nolan Ryan.

Carlyle, Thomas (b. Dec. 4, 1795, Ecclefechan, Dumfriesshire, Scot.—d. Feb. 5, 1881, London,

Eng.) Scottish historian and essayist.

The son of a mason, Carlyle was reared in a strict Calvinist household and educated at the University of Edinburgh. He moved to London in 1834. An energetic, irritable, fiercely independent idealist, he became a leading moral force in Victorian lit¬ erature. His humorous essay “Sartor Resartus” (1836) is a fantastic hodge¬ podge of autobiography and German philosophy. The French Revolution,

3 vol. (1837), perhaps his greatest achievement, contains outstanding set pieces and character studies. On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History (1841) showed his reverence for strength, particularly when combined with the conviction of a God-given mission. He later pub¬ lished a study of Oliver Cromwell (1845) and a huge biography of Fre¬ derick the Great, 6 vol. (1858-65).

Carmarthen Vkor-'mar-thonV Town (pop., 2001: 13,130), administra¬ tive centre of the county of Carmarthenshire, southern Wales. It lies on the Afon Tywi above the mouth of the Bristol Channel. Both the Romans and Normans built strongholds there. An Augustinian priory dating from the Norman period once housed the Black Book of Carmarthen (c. 1250), which is the oldest Welsh manuscript extant.

Carmelite Mendicant order of the Roman Catholic church. It originated c. 1155 on Mount Carmel in Palestine, where a number of former pil¬ grims and crusaders began to live as hermits. Their rule was written by St. Albert, Latin patriarch of Jerusalem, and approved by Pope Honorius III in 1226. As Muslim incursions made Palestine increasingly unsafe, the Carmelites scattered to Cyprus, Sicily, France, and England. In England and Western Europe the order transformed itself from a group of hermits into one of mendicant friars. The first institution of Carmelite nuns was founded in 1452. St. Teresa of Avila and St. John of the Cross reempha¬ sized the strictness and austerity of Carmelite traditions, establishing Dis¬ eased (barefoot) Carmelite orders in 1562 and 1569, which gave rise to an independent order in 1593. Both the reformed and the original orders suffered greatly during the French Revolution and the Napoleonic era, but they were later restored in most of Western Europe as well as in the Middle East, Latin America, and the U.S.

Carmichael, Hoagy orig. Hoagland Howard Carmichael (b.

Nov. 22, 1899, Bloomington, Ind., U.S.—d. Dec. 27, 1981, Rancho

Mirage, Calif.) U.S. songwriter. While studying law in Indiana, he met many jazz musicians, including Bix Beiderbecke, who recorded Carmicha¬ el’s first composition, “Riverboat Shuffle” (1924). The relaxed tuneful¬ ness of later songs such as “Georgia (Georgia on My Mind),” “Rockin’ Chair,” and “Lazy River” gave them a universal appeal. For Hollywood films he wrote “Thanks for the Memory,” “Two Sleepy People,” “Heart and Soul,” and “In the Cool, Cool, Cool of the Evening” (1951, Acad¬ emy Award). His “Stardust” is reputedly the most recorded popular song of all time. He acted in several films, including To Have and Have Not (1944) and Young Man with a Horn (1950), and wrote the memoirs The Stardust Road (1946) and Sometimes I Wonder (1965).

Carmona \kar-'mo-n3\, Antonio Oscar de Fragoso (b. Nov. 24, 1869, Lisbon, Port.—d. April 18, 1951, Lisbon) Portuguese general and politician. A career officer, he rose to the rank of general by 1922. He took part in the army coup of May 1926 and became premier later that year. He ruled as a virtual dictator before calling for a plebiscite; elected president, he served from 1928 to 1951, acting as a symbol of political continuity after he named Antonio de Oliveira Salazar premier in 1932.

Carnap, Rudolf (b. May 18, 1891, Ronsdorf, Ger.—d. Sept. 14, 1970, Santa Monica, Calif., U.S.) German-born U.S. philosopher. He earned a doctorate in physics at the University of Jena in 1921. In 1926 he was invited to join the faculty of the University of Vienna, where he soon became an influential member of a group of philosophers, mathemati¬ cians, and scientists known as the Vienna Circle. Out of their discussions developed the basic ideas of logical positivism. Carnap immigrated to the U.S. in 1935 and taught at the University of Chicago (1936-52). After two years at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton (1952-54), he joined the faculty of the University of California at Los Angeles, where he remained until his death. Carnap sought to give the basic thesis of empiricism —that all concepts and beliefs about the world ultimately derive from immediate experience—a precise interpretation, construing it as a logical thesis about the evidential grounding of empirical knowledge. For Carnap, empiricism is the doctrine that the terms and sentences that express assertions about the world are “reducible” in a clearly specifiable sense to terms and sentences describing the immediate data of experience. His major works include The Logical Structure of the World (1928), The Logical Syntax of Language (1934), Introduction to Semantics (1942), Meaning and Necessity (1947), and The Logical Foundations of Prob¬ ability (1950).

carnation Herbaceous plant (. Dianthus caryophyllus) of the pink family, native to the Mediterranean, widely cultivated for its fringe-petaled, often spicy-smelling flowers. Border, or garden, carnations include a range of varieties and hybrids. The perpetual flowering carnation, taller and stouter, produces larger flowers and blooms almost continuously in the green¬ house; miniature (baby) and spray varieties are also grown for the florist trade. Carnations are among the most popular cut flowers, used in floral arrangements, corsages, and boutonnieres.

carnauba wax Very hard wax obtained from fronds of the carnauba tree, Copernicia cerifera, a fan palm of Brazil. During the regular dry sea¬ sons in Brazil, where it is called the tree of life, the carnauba palm protects its fanlike fronds from loss of moisture by secreting a coat of carnauba wax. Carnauba has been used in high-gloss polishes, phonograph records, and explosives. Synthetics have replaced it for many applications.

Carne \kar-'na\, Marcel (b. Aug. 18, 1906, Paris, France—d. Oct. 31, 1996, Clamart) French film director. He worked as an assistant director before directing his first feature, Jenny (1936). This success was followed by Bizarre, Bizarre (1937), Port of Shadows (1938), and Daybreak (1939), works of poetic realism that were the fruit of his collaboration with screen¬ writer Jacques Prevert. During the Nazi occupation he made The Devil’s Envoys (1942) and later his masteipiece, The Children of Paradise (1945), which chronicled life in the theatre and celebrated the French spirit. His work declined after his breakup with Prevert in 1948.

Carnegie Hall Concert hall in New York, N.Y., U.S. It was endowed by the industrialist Andrew Carnegie at the insistence of the conductor Walter Damrosch (1862-1950). Designed in a Neo-Italian Renaissance style by William Burnet Tuthill, it opened in 1891, with Pyotr Tchaikovsky as guest of honour. Threatened by destruction in the late 1950s, it was saved by a public outcry and purchased by the city. It was extensively renovated in 1982-86. Admired for its beauty and its superb acoustics, it seats almost 2,800 people and has long been the most famous concert hall in the U.S.

Carlyle, detail of an oil painting by G.F. Watts, 1877; in the National Por¬ trait Gallery, London

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, LONDON

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Carnegie Mellon University ► Carnot cycle I 339

Carnegie Mellon University Private university in Pittsburgh, Penn¬ sylvania, U.S. It was formed in 1967 through the merger of the Carnegie Institute of Technology (created in 1900 through a gift from Andrew Car¬ negie) and the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research (founded in 1913 through a gift from Andrew W. Mellon). It comprises schools of technol¬ ogy, science, computer science, humanities and social sciences, fine arts, public policy, and industrial administration. It has built a reputation as an arts centre, operating three galleries, two concert halls, and two theatres.

I

Carnegie \kar-'ne-ge, 'kar-no-geX, Andrew (b. Nov. 25, 1835, Dun¬ fermline, Fife, Scot.—d. Aug. 11,

1919, Lenox, Mass., U.S.) U.S. industrialist and philanthropist. The son of a Scottish weaver, he emi¬ grated to the U.S. with his family in 1848. A job in a telegraph office led to his early career with the Pennsyl¬ vania Railroad Co., and his canny investments made him wealthy by age 30. In 1872-73 he founded the steelworks near Pittsburgh, Pa., that evolved into the Carnegie Steel Co. in 1889. By adopting technological innovations such as the open-hearth furnace and by increasing efficiency through vertical integration, Carnegie built a vast enterprise that dominated the U.S. steel industry. In 1901 he sold his company to J.P. Morgan, and it became part of U.S. Steel. Andrew Carnegie Believing that the affluent were brown brothers obliged to use their surplus wealth

for the improvement of mankind, Carnegie retired to devote himself to philanthropy, giving hundreds of millions of dollars to libraries and uni¬ versities, including Carnegie Mellon University, and endowing such orga¬ nizations as the Carnegie Institute of Pittsburgh and the Carnegie Corp. of New York, the largest of all his foundations.

Carnegie, Dale orig. Dale Carnegey (b. Nov. 24, 1888, Maryville, Mo., U.S.—d. Nov. 1, 1955, Forest Hills, N.Y.) U.S. lecturer and author. Born into poverty, he worked as a traveling salesman and an actor before he began teaching public speaking at a YMCA in New York City in 1912. His classes were extremely successful, and he was soon lecturing to packed houses. To standardize his teaching methods he began publishing pamphlets, which he collected into book form as Public Speaking: A Practical Course for Business Men (1926). His hugely popular How To Win Friends and Influence People (1936) won him a national following; like most of his books, it reveals little that was unknown about human psychology but stresses that an individual’s attitude is crucial. The Dale Carnegie Institute subsequently established hundreds of chapters through¬ out the country.

cornelian \kar-'ne-le-on\ or cornelian Translucent, semiprecious variety of the silica mineral chalcedony that owes its red to reddish brown colour to the incorporation of small amounts of iron oxide. A closely related variety of chalcedony, sard, differs only in the shade of red. Car- nelian was highly valued and used in rings and signets by the Greeks and Romans, some of whose intaglios have retained their high polish better than those made from harder stones. Carnelian is mined principally in India, Brazil, and Australia. Its physical properties are those of quartz.

Carniola Region, western Slovenia. It is located northeast of the head of the Adriatic Sea and includes a mountainous area. Its chief town is Ljubljana. It was part of the Roman province of Pannonia in ancient times and was occupied by the Slovenes in the 6th century ad. In the 13th cen¬ tury it became part of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1335 it became a pos¬ session of the Austrian Habsburgs, who held it as a duchy until 1849, when it was recognized as an Austrian crown land (1849-1918). After World War I it was divided between Italy and the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia); it was incorporated entirely into Yugo¬ slavia by a 1947 treaty. When Yugoslavia was fragmented in the 1990s, Carniola was included in Slovenia.

carnival Final celebration before the fasting and austerity of Lent in some Roman Catholic regions. The most famous and probably most exu¬ berant carnival is that of Rio de Janeiro, which is celebrated with masked

balls, costumes, and parades; the best-known U.S. celebration is Mardi Gras in New Orleans. The first day of carnival season varies with local traditions, but carnival usually ends on Shrove Tuesday, the day before the start of Lent.

carnivore Any meat-eating animal, but especially any member of the order Carnivora, consisting of 12 families of primarily predatory mam¬ mals: Canidae (e.g., dogs), Ursidae (bears), Procyonidae (raccoons), Mus- telidae (weasels), Mephitidae (skunks), Viverridae (civets), Herpestidae (mongooses), Hyaenidae (hyenas), Felidae (cats), Otariidae and Phocidae (seals), and Odobenidae (the walrus). Though most carnivores eat only meat, some rely heavily on vegetation (e.g., the panda). Most have a com¬ plex tooth structure and a lower jaw that can move only vertically but can exert great power. The earliest carnivores, which probably evolved from an insectivorous ancestor, appeared during the Paleocene Epoch (about 65-55 million years ago). Carnivores are highly intelligent.

carnivorous plant Any of about 400 diverse species of plants spe¬ cially adapted for capturing insects and other tiny animals by ingenious pitfalls and traps and for digesting the nitrogen-rich animal proteins to obtain nutrients. These adaptations are thought to enable such plants to survive under otherwise marginal or hostile environmental conditions. The conspicuous trapping mechanism (a leaf modification) draws the prey’s attention to the plant. More than half the species belong to the family Lentibulariaceae, most being bladder worts. The remainder belong to several families composed of the pitcher plants, sundews, and flytraps (see Venus's-flytrap). Most are found in damp heaths, bogs, swamps, and muddy or sandy shores where water is abundant and where nitrogenous materials are often scarce or unavailable because of acid or other unfavourable soil conditions. The smallest Drosera species are often hid¬ den among the moss of a sphagnum bog; most carnivorous plants are small herbaceous perennials. Some become large shrubby vines.

carnosaur Any of the large carnivorous dinosaurs, a branch of thero- pod dinosaurs that evolved into predators of large herbivorous dinosaurs. Carnosaurs were massive animals with short necks, large skulls, and wide, gaping mouths equipped with formidable teeth. They walked on two legs. Tyrannosaurs were the largest of all carnosaurs. The carnosaurs became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous period (65 million years ago).

Carnot \kar-'no\, Lazare (-Nicolas-Marguerite) (b. May 13,

1753, Nolay, Burgundy, France—d. Aug. 2, 1823, Magdeburg, Prussian Saxony) French statesman and administrator in successive governments of the French Revolution. He entered the army as an engineer (1773) and was elected to the Legislative Assembly in 1791. As a leading member of the Committee of Public Safety and the Directory, he helped mobilize the Revolutionary armed forces and materiel, and he was lauded as the “Orga¬ nizer of Victory.” During the Coup of 18 Fructidor he fled France to escape arrest. He returned after Napoleon rose to power and served him in vari¬ ous offices, including minister of the interior during the Hundred Days.

Carnot \kar-'no\, (Nicolas-Leonard-) Sadi (b. June 1, 1796, Paris, France—d. Aug. 24, 1832, Paris) French scientist, known for describing the Carnot cycle. Son of Lazare Carnot, he was an army officer most of his life. Convinced that Britain’s advanced steam engines and France’s inadequate use of steam were factors in Napoleon’s downfall, he wrote a nontechnical essay on steam engines (1824). He subsequently developed a theory of heat engines, predicting that efficiency depends only on the temperature of the hottest and coldest parts and not on the substance (steam or any other fluid) that drives the mechanism. Though adopted slowly, his theory was eventually incorporated into the general theory of THERMODYNAMICS.

Carnot, (Marie-Francois-) Sadi (b. Aug. 11, 1837, Limoges, France—d. June 24, 1894, Lyon) French politician. Grandson of Lazare Carnot and son of Sadi Carnot, he worked as a government engineer before turning to politics. After serving as minister of public works (1880— 81) and finance (1885-87), he was elected in 1887 as fourth president of the Third Republic. He competently handled the plots by Georges Boulanger, anarchist agitation, and the Panama Canal scandals, and retained his popu¬ larity through 10 different governments but was assassinated in 1894 by an Italian anarchist.

Carnot cycle In heat engines, the ideal cycle of changes of pressures and temperatures of a working fluid, such as steam or ammonia, conceived by Sadi Carnot. It is the standard of performance of all heat engines oper¬ ating between a high and a low temperature. In the cycle, the working

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

340 I Carnuntum ► carpal tunnel syndrome

fluid undergoes four successive changes: (1) the fluid receives heat, expanding at high temperature; (2) it delivers work during the reversible adiabatic expansion (it changes in volume or pressure without losing or gaining heat); (3) it rejects heat (to the heat sink) during compression at low temperature; and (4) it receives work during the reversible adiabatic compression. The efficiency is determined by the difference between the temperatures of the heat source and the heat sink divided by the tempera¬ ture of the heat source. See also Rankine cycle.

Carnuntum Ancient town, Roman Empire. Located in northern Pan- nonia on the Danube River, it was an important Roman post from the time of Tiberius. It was used as a base by Marcus Aurelius in his campaign against the Marcomanni (ad 172-174); there he wrote the second book of his Meditations. The camp was finally destroyed by the Germans in the 4th century.

carob Leguminous evergreen tree ( Ceratonia siliqua) native to the east¬ ern Mediterranean region and cultivated elsewhere. It is sometimes known as locust, or St. John’s bread, in the belief that the “locusts” on which John the Baptist fed were carob pods. The tree, about 50 ft (15 m) tall, bears compound, glossy leaves with thick leaflets. Its red flowers are fol¬ lowed by flat, leathery pods that contain 5-15 hard brown seeds embed¬ ded in a sweet, edible pulp that tastes similar to chocolate.

carol Popular song, usually of religious joy, associated with a season, especially Christmas. It typically alternates verses with a repeated refrain or chorus. The carol originated in medieval England, with texts in English or Latin or both, and it was often associated with dancing and proces¬ sions. The French noel, the German Weihnachtslied, and the Spanish vil- lancico can also be regarded as carols.

Carol I Vka-rol ,\ English Vkar-ol \orig. Karl Eitel Friedrich, prince von Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (b. April 20, 1839, Sigmaringen, Hohenzollem-Sigmaringen—d. Oct. 10 1914, Sinaia, Rom.) King of Romania (1881-1914). Originally a German prince, he became prince of Romania in 1866, and when Romania gained full independence from the Ottoman Empire he was crowned its first king. He brought notable mili¬ tary and economic development along Western lines, but his neglect of festering rural problems led to the bloody peasant rebellion of 1907.

Carol II (b. Oct. 15, 1893, Sinaia, Rom.—d. April 4, 1953, Estoril, Port.) King of Romania (1930^-0). He became crown prince on the death of his great uncle, Carol I, in 1914. Because of his scandalous affair with Magda Lupescu (18967-1977), he was obliged to renounce his rights to the throne and go into exile in 1925, but he returned in 1930 and became king. He gradually undermined Romanian democracy and in 1938 proclaimed a corporatist dictatorship, but in 1940 he was forced to abdicate in favour of his son Michael.

Caroline Islands Archipelago, western Pacific Ocean. Lying south of the Philippines, the islands cover a land area of about 460 sq mi (1,190 sq km). Formerly part of the U.S.-administered Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, the group consists of several larger islands, including Yap,

Pohnpei, Chuuk (Truk), Kosrae, and Babelthuap, as well as many small coral islets and reefs. Though explored by the Spanish in the 16th century, they were rarely visited until Germany took them in 1899. Granted as a mandate to Japan after World War I, they were placed under U.S. trusteeship in 1947. The islands became the Federated States of Micronesia in 1986, with the excep¬ tion of Palau (Babelthuap and asso¬ ciated islands), which became independent in 1994.

Carolingian V.kar-o-'lin-jonV art Art produced in Europe during the reign of Charlemagne and his succes¬ sors until c. 900. The outstanding characteristic of the period was a revival of interest in Roman antiq¬ uity. Works of Byzantine art and architecture served as models. Illu¬ minated manuscripts and relief

Ivory book cover from the Lorsch Gos¬ pels, early 9th century; in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.

COURTESY OF THE VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, LONDON, CROWN COPYRIGHT

scenes in ivory and metalwork reflected Classical motifs; mosaics and murals were also produced, but few have survived.

Carolingian dynasty Family of Frankish aristocrats that ruled nearly all or part of western Europe in 751-987. Pippin I (d. 640), the dynasty’s founder, came to power in the office of mayor of the palace under the Merovingian king Chlotar II, with authority over Austrasia. From this post, his descendants, including Charles Martel, continued to usurp authority from the Merovingians, who remained on the throne as figureheads until 751, when Charles’s son Pippin III, with papal support, deposed Childeric III and formally took the title of King of the Franks. Under Pippin’s son Charlemagne (Carolus Magnus—the source of the dynasty’s name), the Carolingian realm was extended into Germany and Italy, where he con¬ quered the Lombards and continued the alliance with Rome. Charlemagne also promoted religious reform and cultural growth and was crowned emperor by Pope Leo III on Dec. 25, 800. On his death, Charlemagne was succeeded by his son Louis the Pious, whose three sons divided the realm in 843. Despite internal strife and foreign invasion, the dynasty sur¬ vived until 911 in the eastern part of the realm, where German rulers would revive Carolingian political ideals later in the century, and in the western realm until 987.

Carondelet Vko-.ran-da-'letV (Francisco Luis) Hector, baron de

(b. c. 1748, Noyelles, Flanders—-d. Aug. 10, 1807, Quito, Viceroyalty of New Granada) Spanish governor of the territory of Louisiana and west¬ ern Florida (1791-97). When he arrived in New Orleans, he formed alli¬ ances with local Indian tribes to defend disputed territory north of the 31st parallel of latitude against U.S. settlers. He negotiated with Gen. James Wilkinson to effect the secession of the trans-Appalachian territo¬ ries from the U.S. and to secure their alliance with Spain. These efforts were terminated in 1795 with the signing of Pinckney’s Treaty (see Tho¬ mas Pinckney). Carondelet was recalled in 1797 and went to South America to become governor-general of Quito.

carotene Vkar-3-,ten\ Any of several organic compounds widely dis¬ tributed in plants and animals. They are pigments that give orange, yellow, or sometimes red colours to, for example, dandelions, apricots, carrots, sweet potatoes, butter, egg yolks, canary feathers, and lobster shells. Car¬ otenes are converted in the body into vitamin A, but, unlike the vitamin, they are not toxic even at high doses. Carotene has an antioxidant effect and is therefore used in pharmaceuticals and as a food and feed additive, as well as to colour margarine and butter.

Carothers Vko-'roth-srzX, W(allace) H(ume) (b. April 27,1896, Bur¬ lington, Iowa, U.S.—d. April 29, 1937, Philadelphia, Pa.) U.S. chemist. He became director of organic chemical research at DuPont in 1928. There he first worked on polymerization of acetylene and derivatives, leading to the development of neoprene. His outstanding achievement involved the theory of linear polymerization; he tested it by synthesizing polymers structurally resembling cellulose and silk, culminating in the production of nylon. The first synthetic polymer fibre to be produced commercially (1938), it laid the foundation of the synthetic fibre industry.

carp Hardy, greenish brown fish ( Cyprinus carpio, family Cyprinidae) native to Asia but introduced into Europe, North America, and elsewhere. Large-scaled, with two barbels (fleshy, whiskerlike feelers) on each side of its upper jaw, the carp lives alone or in small schools in quiet, weedy, mud-bottomed ponds, lakes, and rivers. An omnivore, it often stirs up sediment while rooting about for food, adversely affecting many plants and animals. Carp grow to an average length of about 14 in. (35 cm); some grow to 40 in. (100 cm) and 49 lbs (22 kg). In captivity they may live more than 40 years.

Carpaccio \kar-'pat-cho\, Vittore (b. c. 1460, Venice—d. 1525/26, Venice) Italian painter active in Venice. Little is known of his early life, but the dominant influences on his work were the Bellini family and Antonello da Messina. In the 1490s he began the first of four cycles of paintings that are his greatest achievement: scenes from the life of St. Ursula, now in the Accademia, Venice; scenes from the lives of St. George, St. Jerome, and St. Tryphon (1502-07) for the Scuola di San Giorgio degli Schiavoni, Venice; and scenes from the life of the Virgin (c. 1500-10) and the life of St. Stephen (1511-20). He was one of the greatest early Renaissance narrative painters of the Venetian school.

carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) \'kar-pol\ Painful condition caused by repetitive stress to the wrist over time. The median nerve and the ten¬ dons that bend the fingers pass through the carpal tunnel on the inner side

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Carpathian Mountains ► Carrickfergus I 341

of the wrist, between the wrist (carpal) bones on three sides and a liga¬ ment on the fourth. Repetitive finger and wrist movements rub the ten¬ dons against the walls of the carpal tunnel and may make the tendons swell, squeezing the nerve. Numbness, tingling, and pain in the wrist and hand may progress to loss of muscle control. CTS is most common in assembly-line workers and computer keyboard users. Treatment may include avoidance of the causative activity, ergonomic workplace design, anti-inflammatory drugs, brace or splint use, and surgery.

Carpathian Mountains \kar-'pa-the-3n\ Mountain system, eastern Europe. It extends along the Slovakia-Poland border and southward through Ukraine and eastern Romania about 900 mi (1,450 km). Its high¬ est peak, Gerlachovka (in Slovakia), rises 8,711 ft (2,655 m). The Little Carpathians and White Carpathians are its southwestern extensions; the Transylvanian Alps are sometimes called the South Carpathians. The mountains are the source for the Vistula, Dniester, and Tisza rivers. Agri¬ culture, forestry, and tourism are economically important.

carpel One of the leaflike, seed-bearing structures that constitute the innermost whorl of a flower. One or more carpels make up the pistil. Fer¬ tilization of an egg within a carpel by a pollen grain from another flower results in SEED development within the carpel.

Carpentaria \,kar-pen-'tar-e-9\, Gulf of Gulf, northeastern Australia. An inlet of the Arafura Sea, it is bordered by the Northern Territory and by Cape York Peninsula and extends north-south about 375 mi (600 km) and east-west 310 mi (500 km). It was explored by the Dutch 1605-28; its western coasts were discovered by Abel Janszoon Tasman in 1644. Neglected for centuries, it became economically significant from the late 20th century for its bauxite and manganese deposits and for its prawn- rich waters.

Carpenter Gothic U.S. domestic architecture style of the 19th cen¬ tury. The houses executed in this phase of the Gothic Revival style display little awareness of the original Gothic approach, but rather an eclectic and naive use of superficial Gothic decorative motifs. Turrets, spires, and pointed arches were liberally applied, as was much decorative gingerbread, made possible by the invention of the scroll saw. Carpenter Gothic houses were built throughout the U.S., but surviving structures are found chiefly in the Northeast and Midwest.

Carpentier, Ale jo (b. Dec. 26, 1904, Lausanne, Switz.—d. April 24, 1980, Paris, France) Latin American novelist, essayist, and playwright, a leading literary figure. Born to a French father and a Russian mother, Car¬ pentier spoke French before he learned Spanish, although he was taken to Havana, Cuba, as an infant. Educated in Havana, he helped found the Afro-Cuban movement that sought to incorporate African forms into the arts. He initiated the use of magic realism in his story collection Guerra del tiempo (1958; War of Time). His best-known novel, Los pasos perdi- dos (1953; The Lost Steps), portrays a character who travels to the Orinoco jungle in search of the origins of time. Carpentier fled Cuba in 1928 and settled in Paris. In 1945 he went to Venezuela, but in 1959 he returned to Cuba and became a diplomat in Fidel Castro’s regime.

carpet See rug and carpet

carpetbagger Epithet used during the Reconstruction period (1865— 77) to describe a Northerner in the South seeking private gain. The word referred to an unwelcome outsider arriving with nothing more than his belongings packed in a satchel or carpetbag. Many carpetbaggers were involved in corrupt financial schemes, but others helped rebuild the economy in the South and participated in educational and social reform.

Carpocration V.kar-po-'kra-shonV Follower of the 2nd-century Chris¬ tian Gnostic Carpocrates, whose sect flourished in Alexandria. Carpocra- tians revered Jesus as an ordinary man whose soul had not forgotten that its origin and true home was within the sphere of the unknown perfect God. They rejected the created world, claimed superiority due to their ability to communicate with demons, and subverted biblical law as the work of the evil angels who created the world. Their goal of transcendent freedom required having every possible experience, which required sev¬ eral lifetimes. The first sect known to have used pictures of Christ, they also made images of Plato, Pythagoras, and Aristotle. See also Gnosticism.

Carracci \ka-'rat-che\ family Family of Italian painters. Annibale Car¬ racci (1560-1609) was prominent in Bologna and Rome in the movement against Mannerism. In the 1580s, with his brother and cousin, he founded a teaching academy in Bologna, the Accademia degli Incamminati

(“Academy of the Progressives”). He specialized in fresco painting and monumental religious altarpieces but was also a pioneer in the develop¬ ment of ideal landscapes, genre subjects, and caricature. The fresco deco¬ ration of the Gallery of the Famese Palace in Rome (1597-1601), comprising scenes from the loves of the gods, remains his masterpiece; it was indispensable as a source of figure design and technical procedure for young painters into the 18th century. His elder brother, Agostino Car¬ racci (1557-1602), assisted him in decorating the Farnese Gallery but was known primarily as a teacher and engraver; his anatomical studies were used as teaching aids for nearly two centuries. His cousin Lodovico (or Ludovico) Carracci (1555-1619) collaborated with them on various fresco commissions. He directed the academy in Bologna after his cousins had gone to Rome, produced works of a passionate and poetic quality, and trained some of the major Bolognese artists of the next generation, includ¬ ing Domenichino, Guido Reni, and Alessandro Algardi. See also Bolognese school.

Carranza \kar-'ran-sa\, Venustiano (b. Dec. 29, 1859, Cuatro Ciene- gas, Mex.—d. May 20/21, 1920,

Tlaxcalantongo) First president of the post-PoRFiRio Diaz Mexican Republic (1917-20). The son of a landowner, he was active in politics from 1877. In 1910 he joined the struggle of Francisco Madero against Diaz. A moderate and a nationalist, he favoured political but not social reform. Because he did little to implement the far-reaching reforms called for in the constitution of 1917, his presidency was plagued by social unrest and clashes with the more radical leaders Pancho Villa and Emil- iano Zapata as well as by serious financial problems. His nationalism led him to oppose U.S. intervention in Mexican affairs, even when he stood to benefit from it. He is held responsible for Zapata’s assassina¬ tion and was himself murdered while fleeing an armed rebellion. See also Mexican Revolution.

Carre, John Le See John Le Carre

Carrel \k3-'rel\, Alexis (b. June 28, 1873, Sainte-Foy-les-Lyon, Fra.—d. Nov. 5, 1944, Paris) French surgeon, sociologist, and biologist. He received a 1912 Nobel Prize for developing a way to suture (stitch) blood vessels and laid the groundwork for further studies of blood-vessel and organ transplantation. He also researched preservation of tissues out¬ side the body and the application of the process to surgery, and he helped develop the Carrel-Dakin method of flushing wounds with an antiseptic. His writings include Man, the Unknown (1935), The Culture of Organs (with Charles A. Lindbergh, 1938), and Reflections on Life (1952).

Carrhae \'kar-e. Battle of (53 bc) Battle that stopped the Roman invasion of Parthian Mesopotamia (see Parthia). The Romans were led by Crassus, who wanted a victory to balance those of his fellow triumvirs Pompey and Julius Caesar. With seven legions (about 44,000 men) but little cavalry, he was defeated in the desert by 10,000 mounted Parthian archers and was killed while trying to negotiate. His defeat damaged Roman prestige, and his death gave impetus to Caesar’s quest for power.

carriage Four-wheeled, horse-drawn vehicle, mainly for private pas¬ senger use. It was the final refinement of the horse-drawn passenger con¬ veyance, having developed from the wagon, chariot, and coach. Light carriages with enhanced suspension for added comfort had been devel¬ oped by the 17th century. A variety of carriages were common in the 19th century, including the brougham and the buggy. Carriage manufacturers provided the very similar early designs for automobile bodies.

Carrickfergus X.kar-ik-'for-gosN District (pop., 2001: 37,659), north¬ eastern Northern Ireland. Established in 1974, it lies on Belfast Lough. The name, meaning “rock of Fergus,” commemorates King Fergus, ship¬ wrecked off the coast c. ad 320. Carrickfergus town (pop., 1991: 22,786) is the district seat. Carrickfergus Castle, a relic of the Norman period, sits on a crag above the town; it was a refuge for the Protestants of Antrim in the English Civil Wars.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

342 I Carrier ► cartel

Carrier, Willis Haviland (b. Nov. 26, 1876, Angola, N.Y., U.S.—d. Oct. 7, 1950, New York, N.Y.) U.S. inventor and industrialist. Carrier designed the first system to control temperature and humidity in 1902. His “Rational Psychrometric Formulae,” introduced in 1911, initiated sci¬ entific air-conditioning design. In 1915 he cofounded the Carrier Engi¬ neering Company, which became the world’s largest manufacturer of air- conditioning equipment. Carrier was purchased by United Technologies Corporation in 1979.

Camera \,ka-re-'a-r3\, Rosalba (Giovanna) (b. Oct. 7, 1675, Venice—d. April 15, 1757, Venice) Venetian pastel portraitist and minia¬ turist. She became known for her miniature portraits on snuffboxes and was the first artist to use ivory rather than vellum as a support for min¬ iatures. An originator of the Rococo style, she achieved spectacular suc¬ cess throughout Europe with her fashionable pastel portraits of notables. On a trip to Paris (1720-21) she received commissions for numerous por¬ traits, including one of Louis XV as a child. In 1721 she was elected to the French Royal Academy.

Carroll, Charles (b. Sept. 19, 1737, Annapolis, Md.—d. Nov. 14, 1832, Baltimore, Md., U.S.) American patriot leader. He attended Jesuit colleges in Maryland and studied law in France and England. He served on Committees of Correspondence, signed the Declaration of Independence, and served in the Continental Congress (1776-78). He was a U.S. sena¬ tor (1789-92).

Carroll, Lewis orig. Charles Lufwidge Dodgson (b. Jan. 27, 1832, Daresbury, Cheshire, Eng.—d. Jan. 14, 1898, Guildford, Surrey) British logician, mathematician, and novelist. An unmarried deacon and a lecturer in mathematics at the University of Oxford, he enjoyed the company of young girls. His novel Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland (1865; illustrated by John Tenniel) is based on stories he told to amuse young friends, especially Alice Liddell. Its sequel, Through the Looking- Glass (1871), describes Alice’s further adventures. The two books, full of whimsy but also of sophisticated wit and puzzles, became among the most famous and admired children’s books in the world. Carroll’s other works include the narrative nonsense poem The Hunting of the Snark (1876) and the children’s novels Sylvie and Bruno (1889) and Sylvie and Bruno Con¬ cluded (1893). He was also an important early portrait photographer.

carrot Herbaceous, generally biennial plant ( Daucus carota) of the pars¬ ley family, that produces an edible globular or long taproot in the first growing season. Native to Afghani¬ stan and neighbouring lands, it is grown extensively in temperate zones. It is a rich source of carotene.

An erect rosette of feathery leaves develops above ground in the first season; the edible carrot is below.

After a rest period at temperatures near freezing, large flower stalks arise, bearing large compound umbels.

Carson (of Duncairn),

Edward Henry, Baron (b. Feb.

9, 1854, Dublin, Ire.—d. Oct. 22,

1935, Minster, Kent, Eng.) Irish law¬ yer and politician. In 1892 he was elected to the British House of Commons and was appointed Irish solici¬ tor general. He served as British solicitor general (1900-05), attorney general (1915), first lord of the Admiralty (1916-17), and lord of appeal (1921-29). Known as the “uncrowned king of Ulster,” he successfully led Northern Irish resistance to the British government’s attempts to intro¬ duce Home Rule for all of Ireland.

Carrot (Daucus carota).

KENNETH AND BRENDA FORMANEK/EB INC.

Carson, Johnny in full John William Carson (b. Oct. 23, 1925, Corning, Iowa, U.S.—d. Jan. 23, 2005, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. televi¬ sion personality. He worked as a radio announcer and television comedy writer before hosting several television quiz shows (1955-62). As the long-standing host of The Tonight Show (1962-92), he was noted for his wry monologues, comedy sketches, and genial banter, and the program became a staple for a large and faithful late-night audience.

Carson, Kit orig. Christopher Carson (b. Dec. 24, 1809, Madison county, Ky., U.S.—d. May 23, 1868, Fort Lyon, Colo.) U.S. frontiersman,

scout, and Indian agent. Raised in Missouri, he ran away from home at age 15 to become a trapper and trader in the Southwest. In the early 1840s he served as a guide to John

C. Fremont’s explorations of the West. He guided Gen. Stephen Kearny’s expedition to California during the Mexican War, often car¬ rying dispatches to Washington,

D. C. In 1854 he was appointed Indian agent (an official representa¬ tive of the U.S. government to Indian tribes) at Taos, N.M. During the American Civil War he commanded the 1st New Mexico Volunteers. In 1868 he was appointed superinten¬ dent of Indian affairs for the Colo¬ rado Territory. His contributions to westward expansion made him a folk hero.

Carson, Rachel (Louise) (b. May 27, 1907, Springdale, Pa., U.S.—d. April 14, 1964, Silver Spring, Md.) U.S. biologist and science writer. Carson trained as a marine biologist and had a long career at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The Sea Around Us (1951) won a National Book Award. Her prophetic Silent Spring (1962), about the dangers of pesti¬ cides in the food chain, is regarded as the seminal work in the history of the environmental movement, which in some respects can be seen to date from its publication.

Carson City City (pop., 2000: 52,457), capital of Nevada, U.S. Located east of Lake Tahoe and south of Reno, it was settled in 1858 and named for Kit Carson. The discovery of silver in 1859 in the nearby Virginia City area stimulated Carson City’s economy.

The federal government established a mint at Carson City, which later became the Nevada State Museum.

Carson City became the state capital in 1864 when Nevada gained state¬ hood.

cart Two-wheeled vehicle drawn by a draft animal, used throughout recorded history for transporting freight and people. The simplest of vehicles, its frame consists merely of crossed wooden stakes or a box with shafts as an extension of the frame.

Carts are known to have been used by the Greeks and Assyrians by 1800 bc, though earlier use (c. 3500 bc) can be assumed.

Cartagena \,kar-ta-'ha-na\ City (pop., 2003 est.: 902,688), Colombia. Located on the northern coast, it has a good harbour and is Colombia’s principal port for oil exports. Founded in 1533, it became one of Spanish America’s chief cities. It was strongly fortified and often attacked, nota¬ bly by British forces under Francis Drake (c. 1585-86) and Edward Ver¬ non (c. 1741-42). It remained under Spanish control until the province of Cartagena, which included the city, declared independence in 1811. After reverting back to Spanish control in 1815, the city was recaptured by patriot forces in 1821. It declined in the 19th century but regained prominence in the 20th century as an oil-processing centre.

Cartagena Port city (pop., 2001: 184,686), southeastern Spain. Founded by the Carthaginians under Hasdrubal in 227 bc, it was captured by Scipio Africanus the Elder in 209 bc and made a Roman colony. It was sacked by the Goths in ad 425. It was held by the Moors from 711 until it was taken by James I of Aragon in 1269. In the 16th century Philip II made it a great naval port; it remains Spain’s chief Mediterranean naval base as well as a commercial port.

cartel \,kar-'tel\ Organization of a few independent producers for the purpose of improving the profitability of the firms involved (see oli¬ gopoly). This usually involves some restriction of output, control of price, and allocation of market shares. Members of a cartel generally maintain

State Capitol, Carson City, Nev.

DONALD DONDERO

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Cartel des Gauches ► Carthusian I 343

their separate identities and financial independence while engaging in cooperative policies. Cartels can either be domestic (e.g., the historical example of the German IG Farben) or international (e.g., OPEC). Because cartels restrict competition and result in higher prices for consumers, they are outlawed in some countries. The only industry operating in the U.S. with a blanket exemption from the antitrust laws is major league baseball, but several U.S. firms have been given permission to participate in inter¬ national cartels.

Cartel des Gauches \kar-'tel-da-'gosh\ (French: “Coalition of the Left”) In the French Third Republic, a coalition of left-wing parties (the Socialists and the Radicals) in the Chamber of Deputies. They formed the Cartel in opposition to the right-wing Bloc National, which they defeated in the elections of 1924. Led by Edouard Herriot and later Aristide Briand, the Cartel was defeated in 1926 by a financial crisis brought about by continuing inflation.

Carter, Benny orig. Bennett Lester Carter (b. Aug. 8, 1907, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. July 12, 2003, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. jazz musi¬ cian. Known as one of the primary stylists of the alto saxophone, he was also an accomplished arranger, composer, clarinetist, trumpeter, and bandleader. He played in the big bands of Chick Webb and Fletcher Hend¬ erson before assuming leadership of McKinney’s Cotton Pickers (193 1— 32). Carter worked in Europe (1935-38) and moved to California in 1945 to write music for film and television. His best-known composition is “When Lights Are Low.” He was awarded the National Medal of Arts in

Carter, Elliott (Cook, Jr.) (b. Dec. 11, 1908, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. composer. Born to a wealthy family, he studied English and music at Harvard University and later studied in Paris with Nadia Boulanger. He taught at many institutions, after 1972 primarily at the Juilliard School. He absorbed a range of influences, including Igor Stravinsky and Charles Ives. His style evolved into a densely contrapuntal, dissonant, and rhythmically complex texture in which the various instrumental parts frequently sug¬ gest conversation and combat. His principal works include a sonata for flute, oboe, cello, and harpsichord (1952), Variations for Orchestra (1955), a double concerto for piano and harpsichord (1961), a piano con¬ certo (1965), Concerto for Orchestra (1969), A Symphony of Three Orchestras (1977), Night Fantasies for piano (1980), and four string quar¬ tets (1951, 1959, 1971, 1986), two of which received the Pulitzer Prize. He is often called the greatest American composer of the late 20th century.

Carter, Jimmy orig. James Earl Carter (b. Oct. 1, 1924, Plains, Ga., U.S.) 39th president of the U.S.

(1977-81). He graduated from Annapolis and served in the U.S.

Navy until 1953, when he left to manage the family peanut business.

He served in the state senate from 1962 to 1966. He ran unsuccessfully for governor in 1966; depressed by this experience, he found solace in evangelical Christianity, becoming a born-again Baptist. In 1970 he ran again and won. As governor (1971—

75), he opened Georgia’s govern¬ ment offices to African Americans and women and introduced stricter budgeting procedures for state agencies. In 1976, though lacking a national political base or major backing, he won the Democratic nomi¬ nation and the presidency, defeating the Republican incumbent, Gerald Ford. As president, Carter helped negotiate a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel, signed a treaty with Panama to make the Panama Canal a neu¬ tral zone after 1999, and established full diplomatic relations with China. In 1979-80 the Iran hostage crisis became a major political liability. He responded forcefully to the Soviet Union’s invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, embargoing the shipment of U.S. grain to the Soviet Union and pressing for a U.S. boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. The poor state of the economy, which was plagued by high inflation and high unemployment, contributed to Carter’s electoral defeat by Ronald Reagan in 1980. He subsequently became involved in numerous interna¬ tional diplomatic negotiations and helped to oversee elections in coun¬ tries with insecure democratic traditions; he also became the first sitting or former American president to visit Fidel Castro’s Cuba. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 2002.

Carter Family U.S. singing group. It consisted of Alvin Pleasant Carter (1891-1960), his wife Sara (1898-1979), and his sister-in-law Maybelle (1909-78). Natives of Virginia, they began their recording career in 1927. Over 16 years, with various combinations of Carter daughters, they recorded more than 300 songs from the 19th and early 20th centuries, including “Wabash Cannonball,” “I’m Thinking Tonight of My Blue Eyes,” “Wildwood Flower,” and “Keep on the Sunny Side.” They helped popularize Appalachian folk songs. After the original group broke up in 1943, its members continued to perform. “Mother” Maybelle Carter formed a successful act with her daughters and later performed with her son-in-law Johnny Cash. In the 1950s the Carter Family re-formed and appeared intermittently, with a changing lineup. The original Carter Fam¬ ily was the first group admitted (1970) to the Country Music Hall of Fame.

Carteret \'kart-3-,ret. Sir George (b. c. 1610, probably Jersey, Chan¬ nel Islands, Eng.—d. January 1680, New Jersey) British politician and colonial proprietor. His naval exploits and service as lieutenant governor of the Channel Island of Jersey won him a knighthood (1644) and bar¬ onetcy (1645). After the 1660 Restoration he became a powerful admin¬ istrator and legislator. In 1663 he became one of eight original proprietors granted the area of Carolina; in 1664 he received half of New Jersey, named for his birthplace. The other owner sold out to the Quakers in 1674. With the Quakers, Carteret agreed to divide the colony. After Carteret’s death, his heirs sold the remaining portion to the Quakers.

Cartesian \,kar-'te-zh3n\ circle Allegedly circular reasoning used by Rene Descartes to show that whatever he perceives “clearly and distinctly” is true. Descartes argues that clear and distinct perception is a guarantor of truth because God, who is not a deceiver, would not allow Descartes to be mistaken about that which he clearly and distinctly perceives. The argument relies on Descartes’s earlier proof of the existence of God. But Descartes cannot know that this proof does not contain an error unless he assumes that his clear and distinct perception of the steps of his reason¬ ing guarantees that the proof is correct. Thus the criterion of clear and distinct perception depends on the assumption that God exists, which in turn depends on the criterion of clear and distinct perception. See also COGITO, ERGO SUM.

Cartesianism Philosophical tradition derived from the philosophy of Rene Descartes. A form of rationalism, Cartesianism upholds a metaphysi¬ cal dualism of two finite substances, mind and matter. The essence of mind is thinking; the essence of matter is extension in three dimensions. God is a third, infinite substance, whose essence is necessary existence. God unites minds with bodies to create a fourth, compound substance, man. Mind-body dualism generates problems concerning the possibility of causal interaction between mind and body and knowledge of the external world (see mind-body problem ), and various lines of Cartesianism devel¬ oped from different proposed solutions to these problems. A historically important Cartesian theory holds that animals are essentially machines, lacking even the ability to feel pain. See also Arnold Geulincx; Nicolas de Malebranche; occasionalism.

Carthage Ancient city and state, northern Africa. Located near mod¬ ern Tunis, Tun., it was built around a citadel called the Byrsa. Founded by colonists from Tyre, probably in the 8th century bc, its people undertook conquests in western Africa, Sicily, and Sardinia in the 6th century bc. Under the descendants of Hamilcar, it came to dominate the western Mediterranean Sea. In the 3rd century bc it fought the first of the three Punic Wars with Rome. Destroyed by a Roman army led by Scipio Afri- canus the Younger (146 bc), it became the site of a colony founded by Julius Caesar in 44 bc; in 29 bc Augustus made it the administrative cen¬ tre of the province of Africa. Among the Christian bishops who served there were Tertuluan and St. Cyprian. Captured by the Vandals in 439 and the Byzantine Empire in the 6th century, it was taken by the Arabs in the 7th century and was eclipsed by their emphasis on Tunis.

Carthaginian Wars See Punic Wars

Carthusian \kar-'thii-zh3n\ Member of a Roman Catholic monastic order founded by St. Bruno of Cologne (c. 1030-1101) in 1084 in the Chartreuse valley of southeastern France. Members of the Order of Carthusians pray, study, eat, and sleep alone but gather in church for morning mass, vespers, and the night office. They dine together on Sun¬ days and major holidays and walk together once a week. They wear hair shirts, abstain from eating meat, and consume only bread and water on Fridays and fast days. At the motherhouse, or Grande Chartreuse (today

Jimmy Carter.

COURTESY JIMMY CARTER LIBRARY

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

344 I Cartier ► Carver

in Voiron, Isere), the monks distill the liqueur that bears the house’s name. Carthusian nuns are also strictly cloistered and contemplative.

Cartier \kar-'tya\, Jacques (b. 1491, Saint-Malo, Brittany, France—d. Sept. 1, 1557, near Saint-Malo) French sailor and explorer. He was com¬ missioned by Francis I to explore North America in the hope of discov¬ ering gold, spices, and a passage to Asia. Cartier’s explorations of the North American coast and the St. Lawrence River (1534, 1535, 1541—42) did not produce the desired results, but they did lay the basis for later French claims to Canada.

Cartier \kar-'tya\, Sir George Etienne, Baronet (b. Sept. 6, 1814, St. Antoine, Lower Canada—d. May 20, 1873, London, Eng.) Canadian prime minister jointly with John Macdonald (1858-62). He was elected as a Liberal to the Canadian legislative assembly (1848) and was later appointed provincial secretary (1855) and attorney general for Canada East (1857). In 1858 Cartier represented Canada East in the alliance with Macdonald and promoted the improvement of Anglo-French relations in Canada. He was a proponent of the Grand Trunk Railway. In 1867, despite great opposition, he carried his native province into confederation. He then served as minister of militia and defense in Macdonald’s first Con¬ federation cabinet (1867-72).

Cartier-Bresson \kar-tya-br3-'so n \, Henri (b. Aug. 22, 1908, Chan- teloup, Fr.—d. Aug. 3, 2004, Cereste) French photographer. He studied art in Paris and literature and painting at the University of Cambridge. His interest in photography developed c. 1930 when he encountered the works of Eugene Atget and Man Ray. He is known for spontaneous, sequential images in still photography, a technique inspired by his enthu¬ siasm for filmmaking. He helped establish photojournalism as an art form and with Robert Capa, David Seymour, and others founded the coopera¬ tive Magnum Photos (1947). The best known of his many collections is The Decisive Moment (1952).

cartilage \'kar-t 3 l-ij\ Connective tissue in parts of the human skeleton. A network of collagen fibres in a firm, gelatinous base, it contains no blood vessels or nerves. Different types of cartilage are found at the ends of some bones and in nasal and respiratory structures; in the spinal disks; and in the ear and epiglottis (back of the throat). Most of the skeleton of an embryo is made of cartilage, which is later replaced by bone.

Cartland, Dame (Mary) Barbara (Hamilton) (b. July 9, 1901, Edgbaston, Birmingham, Eng.—d. May 21, 2000, Hatfield, Hertfordshire) English author. Her first novel, Jigsaw (1925), was a popular success. She wrote two more novels and a play during the 1920s; thereafter her output grew steadily, and by the 1970s she was averaging 23 books a year, all of which she dictated. Her approximately 600 books, mostly formulaic romance novels, have sold more than 600 million copies. Cartland’s non¬ fiction includes autobiographies and books on health food, vitamins, and beauty. She was the step-grandmother of Diana, Princess of Wales.

cartography \kar-'ta-gro-fe\ or mapmaking Art and science of representing a geographic area graphically, usually by means of a map or chart. Political, cultural, or other nongeographic features may be superim¬ posed. Ptolemy’s eight-volume Geography showed a flat, disc-shaped pro¬ jection of part of the Earth. Medieval European maps followed Ptolemy’s guide but placed east at the top of the map. In the 14th century more- accurate maps were developed for use in navigation. The first surviving globe dates from 1492. Discovery of the New World led to new techniques in cartography, notably projection of a curved surface onto a flat surface. In particular, Gerardus Mercator projected landmasses onto a cylinder wrapped around the Earth’s Equator. Such cylindrical projections main¬ tain proper directions or bearings, though they cause distortions in dis¬ tances at high latitudes. Contour maps show relief by connecting points of equal elevation with lines, mean sea level being the reference point. Mod¬ ern cartography uses aerial photography and satellite radar for a degree of accuracy previously unattainable. Satellites have also made possible the mapping of features of the Moon and of several planets and their moons. See also geographic information system; global positioning system.

cartoon Originally, a full-size drawing used for transferring a design to a painting, tapestry, or other large work. Cartoons were used from the 15th century by fresco painters and stained-glass artists. In the 19th cen¬ tury the term acquired its popular meaning of a humorous drawing or parody. Cartoons in that sense are used today to convey political com¬ mentary, editorial opinion, and social comedy in newspapers and maga¬ zines. The greatest early figure is William Hogarth, in 18th-century Britain.

In 19th-century France, Honore Daumier introduced accompanying text that conveyed his characters’ unspoken thoughts. Britain’s Punch became the foremost 19th-century venue for cartoons; in the 20th century The New Yorker set the American standard. A Pulitzer Prize for editorial cartoon¬ ing was established in 1922. See also caricature; comic strip.

Cartwright, Alexander (Joy) (b. April 17, 1820, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. July 12, 1892, Honolulu, Hawaii) U.S. surveyor and baseball enthusiast. Cartwright was a founder of the amateur New York Knicker¬ bocker Base Ball Club and chaired the commission that established base¬ ball’s official rules. These included the requirement of tagging out a base runner rather than hitting him with a thrown ball and fixing the distance between bases at 90 ft (27.4 m). The first game under the newly codified rules was apparently played in Hoboken, N.J., in 1846. See also Abner Doubleday.

Cartwright, Edmund (b. April 24, 1743, Marnham, Nottinghamshire, Eng.—d. Oct. 30, 1823, Hastings, Sussex) British inventor. On visiting Richard Arkwright’s cotton-spinning mills, he was inspired to construct a power-driven machine for weaving. He invented a power loom and set up a weaving and spinning factory in Yorkshire. In 1789 he patented a wool- combing machine. In 1809 the House of Commons voted to reward him for the benefits his loom had conferred on the nation. His other inventions included a cordelier (machine for making rope) and a steam engine that used alcohol instead of water.

Caruso \k3-'ru-so\, Enrico orig. Errico Caruso (b. Feb. 27, 1873, Naples, Italy—d. Aug. 2, 1921, Naples) Italian tenor. Apprenticed to a mechanical engineer at age 10, at 18 he began to sing in public in his free time. He attracted the notice of a teacher and made his professional debut in 1894. He sang his best-known role, Canio in Ruggero Leoncavallo’s Pagliacci, for the first time in 1896. He recovered from a disastrous La Scala debut in 1900 and within two years had gained the high notes that made him an international star and a legend. He sang at the Metropolitan Opera (1903-20) in almost 60 roles, becoming the most famous male opera star of his time. His warm, appealing tenor voice of great emotive power made his recordings (which include some of the first vocal record¬ ings ever made) best-sellers for decades after his death.

Carver, George Washington (b

U.S.—d. Jan. 5, 1943, Tuskegee,

Ala.) U.S. agricultural chemist and agronomist. Born a slave, Carver lived until age 10 or 12 on his former owner’s plantation, then left and worked at a variety of menial jobs.

He did not obtain a high school edu¬ cation until his late twenties; he then obtained bachelor’s and master’s degrees from Iowa State Agricultural College. In 1896 he joined Booker T.

Washington at the Tuskegee Institute (now Tuskegee University) in Alabama, where he became director of agricul¬ tural research. He was soon promot¬ ing the planting of peanuts and soybeans, legumes that he knew would help restore the fertility of soil depleted by cotton cropping. To make them profitable, he worked intensively with the sweet potato and the peanut (then not even recognized as a crop), ultimately developing 118 derivative products from sweet pota¬ toes and 300 from peanuts. His efforts helped liberate the South from its untenable cotton dependency; by 1940 the peanut was the South’s sec¬ ond largest cash crop. During World War II he devised 500 dyes to replace those no longer available from Europe. Despite international acclaim and extraordinary job offers, he remained at Tuskegee throughout his life, donating his life’s savings in 1940 to establish the Carver Research Foun¬ dation at Tuskegee.

Carver, Jonathan (b. April 13, 1710, Weymouth, Mass.—d. Jan. 31, 1780, London, Eng.) American explorer. He served in the French and Indian War. In 1766 he was sent by Maj. Robert Rogers to explore an area west of northern Michigan. He traveled through the Great Lakes and up

. 1861?, near Diamond Grove, Mo.,

George Washington Carver

COURTESY OF THE TUSKEGEE INSTITUTE, ALABAMA; PHOTOGRAPH, P.H. POLK

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Cary ► cashew I 345

the Mississippi River, wintering in a Sioux village. Though his travel journal (published 1778) was a huge success, he died penniless.

Cary, (Arthur) Joyce (Lunel) (b. Dec. 7,1888, Londonderry, Ire.—d. March 29, 1957, Oxford, Oxfordshire, Eng.) British novelist. Cary stud¬ ied art in Edinburgh and Paris before graduating from the University of Oxford. After serving in West Africa in World War I, he began publish¬ ing short stories, then novels, some set in Africa, including An American Visitor (1933) and Mister Johnson (1939). The Horse’s Mouth (1944), his best-known novel, was the third in a trilogy in which each volume is nar¬ rated by one of three protagonists. Other works include a second trilogy, A Prisoner of Grace (1952), Except the Lord (1953), and Not Honour More (1955).

caryatid \,kar-e-'a-t3d\ Supporting column sculpted in the form of a draped female figure. Caryatids first appeared in three small buildings (treasuries) at Delphi (550-530 bc). The most celebrated example is the caryatid porch of the Erechtheum (421-406 bc), with six figures, on the Acropolis (see acropolis) of Athens. Caryatids are sometimes called korai (“maidens”). Their male counterpart is the atlas.

Casa Grande Vka-s9-'gran-da\ Ruins National Monument

Archaeological site, southern Arizona, U.S. Designated a national monu¬ ment in 1918, it occupies 448 acres (181 hectares). The site’s pre- Columbian ruins are dominated by the Casa Grande (“Big House”), a multistory building built by Salado Indians in the 14th century; it is the only surviving building of its type. Nearby are partially excavated village sites established much earlier by Hohokam Indians (see Hohokam culture).

Casablanca Coastal city (pop., 1994: 2,940,623), western Morocco. It occupies the site of the ancient city of Anfa, destroyed by the Portuguese in 1468. The Portuguese returned in 1515 and built a new town, Casa Branca (“White House”). Abandoned after an earthquake, it was occupied by a Moroccan sultan in 1757. European traders, including the French, began to settle there. In 1907, after French citizens were murdered there, French forces occupied the town. During the subsequent French protec¬ torate, it became Morocco’s chief port. Since then, its growth and devel¬ opment have been continuous. In World War II (1939—45) it surrendered to the Allied Powers in 1942, and in 1943 the Casablanca Conference was held there.

Casablanca Conference (Jan. 12-23, 1943) Meeting during World War II at Casablanca, Morocco, between Franklin Roosevelt and Winston Churchill. They planned future global military strategy for the Western allies, reaching agreement on such issues as the invasion of Sicily, opera¬ tions in the Pacific theatre, and the concentrated bombing of Germany. Most importantly, they issued a demand for an “unconditional surrender” from Germany, Italy, and Japan.

Casals \k3-'salz\, Pablo (Carlos Salvador Defillo) orig. Pau Casals (b. Dec. 29, 1876, Vendrell, Spain—d. Oct. 22, 1973, Rio Pie- dras, PR.) Spanish (Catalan)-born U.S. cellist and conductor. He received early instruction from his organist father and took up the cello and com¬ position in his teens. A romantic who eschewed the drier, literal interpre¬ tations of modernism, Casals established an innovative technique employing more flexible fingering positions and freer bowing. He per¬ formed internationally as soloist, in a trio with Alfred Cortot (1877-1962) and Jacques Thibaud (1880-1953), and from the 1920s as a conductor. Refusing to return to Spain after Francisco Franco took power, he ulti¬ mately made his home in Puerto Rico.

Casamance \,ka-za-'ma n s\ River River, Senegal. Rising in southern Senegal, it flows west between The Gambia and Guinea-Bissau and emp¬ ties into the Atlantic Ocean after a course of about 200 mi (322 km). Only some 80 mi (130 km) of the river are navigable.

Casanova \ I ka-s9-'no-v9\ / Giovanni Giacomo (b. April 2, 1725, Venice—d. June 4, 1798, Dux, Bohemia) Italian ecclesiastic, writer, sol¬ dier, spy, and diplomatist. Expelled from a seminary for scandalous con¬ duct, he launched a dissolute career that took him throughout Europe. In Venice in 1755 he was denounced as a magician and imprisoned; he escaped and fled to Paris, where he mingled with the aristocracy. Fleeing from creditors, he took the name Chevalier de Seingalt and traveled again before returning to Venice in 1774 to become a spy for the Venetian inquisi¬ tors of state. He spent his late years (1785-98) as librarian to the Count von Waldstein in Bohemia. His huge autobiography, first published in 12 vol¬ umes in 1825-38, gives a splendid picture of 18th-century Europe; it estab¬ lished his reputation as an extraordinary seducer of women.

Casas, Bartolome de las See Bartolome de Las Casas

Cascade Range Mountain range, western U.S. A continuation of the Sierra Nevada, it extends north from Mount Lassen in northeastern Cali¬ fornia across Oregon and Washington for 700 mi (1,100 km). Its highest elevation is Mount Rainier. Some of the summits, including Mount St. Helens, have erupted in the recent past. The Lewis and Clark Expedition passed through the range in the Columbia River Gorge. Its northern con¬ tinuation in British Columbia is known as the Coast Mountains. See also North Cascades National Park.

CASE in full computer-aided software engineering Use of

computers in designing sophisticated tools to aid the software engineer and to automate the software development process as much as possible. It is particularly useful where major software products are designed by teams of engineers who may not share the same physical space. CASE tools can be used for simple operations such as routine coding from an appropriately detailed design in a specific programming language, or for more complex tasks such as incorporating an expert system to enforce design rules and eliminate software defects and redundancies before the coding phase.

Case, Steve orig. Stephen McConnell Case (b. Aug. 21, 1958, Honolulu, Hawaii, U.S.) U.S. businessman. In 1985 he cofounded Quan¬ tum Computer Services, which was renamed America Online, Inc. (AOL), in 1991. As chairman and CEO of the company, he developed it into the world’s foremost Internet service provider and helped turn the Internet into a mass medium. In 2001 he became the CEO of the newly formed AOL Time Warner Inc. (later Time Warner Inc.) but resigned the post in 2003.

Casement, Sir Roger (David) (b. Sept. 1, 1864, Kingstown, County Dublin, Ire.—d. Aug. 3, 1916, London, Eng.) British civil servant and Irish rebel. As British consul in Africa (1895-1904) and Brazil (1906- 11), he became famous for his reports revealing white traders’ cruel exploitation of native labour in the Congo and in the Putumayo River region of Peru. Ill health forced his retirement to Ireland (1912), where he joined the Irish nationalists and helped form the Irish National Volun¬ teers. After World War I broke out, he sought German support for the Irish independence movement. For his additional intrigue in the Easter Rising, he was convicted of treason and hanged. His execution made him an Irish martyr in the revolt against British rule in Ireland.

cash flow Financial and accounting concept. Cash flow results from three major groups of activities: operating activities, investing activities, and financing activities. A cash-flow statement differs from an income statement in reflecting actual cash on hand rather than money owed (accounts receivable). Its purpose is to throw light on management’s use of its available financial resources and to help in evaluating a company’s liquidity.

Cash, Johnny orig. J.R. Cash (b. Feb. 26, 1932, Kingsland, Ark., U.S.—d. Sept. 12, 2003, Nashville, Tenn.) U.S. singer and songwriter. He learned guitar and began writing songs during military service in the early 1950s. Settling in Memphis, he earned regular appearances on Louisiana Hayride and the Grand Ole Opry with hits such as “Hey, Porter,” “Fol¬ som Prison Blues,” and “I Walk the Line.” By 1957 Cash was acknowl¬ edged the top country music artist. His popularity waned for a time because of health and drug addiction problems, but his album Johnny Cash at Folsom Prison (1968) led to his rediscovery by a wider audience. In 1968 he married June Carter of the Carter Family, with whom he had worked since 1961. In 1994 he released American Recordings, which was a criti¬ cal and popular success and won him a new generation of fans. His later albums include American IV: The Man Comes Around (2002). Cash was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1980 and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1992. His autobiographies Man in Black and Cash (cowritten with Patrick Carr) were published in 1975 and 1997, respectively.

cashew Edible seed or nut of Anacardium occidentale, a tropical and subtropical evergreen shrub or tree in the sumac family, native to tropical Central and South America.

Important chiefly for its nuts, the tree

Cashew apples (hypocarp) and nuts of the domesticated cashew tree ( Anacar ¬ dium occidentale ).

W.H. HODGE

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

346 I cashmere ► Cassidy

also produces wood used for shipping crates, boats, and charcoal, and a gum similar to gum arabic. Related to poison ivy and poison sumac, it must be handled with care. The two-shelled nut is shaped like a large, thick bean. A brown oil between the two shells blisters human skin and is used as a lubricant and an insecticide and in the production of plastics. The nut is rich and distinctively flavoured.

cashmere Animal-hair fibre forming the downy undercoat of the Kash¬ mir goat. The fibre became known for its use in beautiful shawls and other handmade items produced in Kashmir, India. The fibres have diameters finer than those of the best wools. Natural colour is usually gray or tan but ranges from white to black. Cashmere fabric is warm and comfort¬ able and has excellent draping qualities and soft texture; it is used mainly for fine coat, dress, and suit fabrics and for high-quality knitwear and hosiery. A sweater requires the fleece of 4-6 goats; an overcoat uses that of 30-40. Because world production is small and gathering and process¬ ing are costly, cashmere is a luxury fibre.

Casimir Vka-zs-.mirX III known as Casimir the Great Polish Kazimierz Weilki (b. April 30, 1310, Kujavia, Pol.—d. Nov. 5, 1370) King of Poland (1333-70). He was the son of Wladyslaw I, who revived the Polish kingship, and he continued his father’s quest to make Poland a power in central Europe. He crafted treaties with Hungary, Bohemia, and the Teutonic Order and acquired Red Russia and Masovia by diplo¬ macy. Casimir also arranged a series of dynastic alliances that tied Poland to many royal European families. He codified Teutonic law, gave new towns self-government under the Magdeburg Law, and founded the Uni¬ versity of Krakow.

Casimir IV known as Casimir Jagiellonian \yag-yel-'lo-ne-3n\ Pol¬ ish Kazimierz Jagiellonczyk (b. Nov. 30, 1427—d. June 7, 1492) Grand duke of Lithuania (1440-92) and king of Poland (1447-92). He became ruler of Lithuania by will of the boyars and king of Poland on his brother’s death. He sought to preserve the political union between Poland and Lithuania and to recover the lost lands of old Poland. Through his own marriage to Elizabeth of Habsburg and the marriages of his chil¬ dren, he formed alliances with various European royal houses and built the Jagiellon dynasty. The great triumph of his reign was the effective destruction of the Teutonic Order (1466), which brought Prussia under Polish rule.

casino Building or room used for gambling. The term originally referred to a public hall for music and dancing, but by the late 19th century it had come to denote a gaming house, particularly one in which card and dice games were played. Today casinos are places where gamblers can risk their money against a common gambler (called the banker or house), and they have an almost uniform character throughout the world. One of the oldest and best-known casinos is that at Monte Carlo (Monaco), founded in 1861. Others include those at Cannes and Nice (France), Corfu (Greece), Baden-Baden (Germany), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), and Las Vegas and Reno (Nevada, U.S.). Casinos in Havana (Cuba) were confis¬ cated by the Castro government after the 1959 revolution, spelling the end of a flourishing gambling scene that rivaled Las Vegas. Nevada has long had casino gambling, but other U.S. states prohibited it; that ban was ended when a casino opened in Atlantic City, N.J., in 1978. From the 1980s casinos began appearing on American Indian reservations, which are not subject to state antigambling statutes, and casino gambling expanded vastly in the U.S. as gambling became legal in more states, par¬ ticularly as a riverboat operation. In the late 1990s Internet gambling sites permitted players to play casino games such as roulette and blackjack. These virtual casinos usually offered the option of playing against other players or only against the house.

Casper City (pop., 2000: 49,644), east-central Wyoming, U.S., on the North Platte River. Founded in 1888, it was located on the Oregon Trail and the Pony Express route. The discovery of oil in the 1890s began an oil boom, and the oil fields of the Teapot Dome scandal were nearby. Casper’s economy is based on the production of oil and natural gas and the manu¬ facture of oil-field equipment. Mining (uranium, coal, bentonite) and cattle and sheep raising also are important.

Caspersson \kas-'per-,s6n\, Torborn Oskar (b. Oct. 15, 1910, Mot- ala, Swed.) Swedish cell biologist and geneticist. After receiving his medi¬ cal degree from the University of Stockholm in 1936, he initiated the use of the ultraviolet microscope to determine the nucleic acid content of cel¬ lular structures such as the nucleus and nucleolus. He theorized that nucleic acids must be present for protein synthesis to occur. He was the

first to perform cellular chemical studies on the giant chromosomes found in insect larvae. He also investigated the role of the nucleolus in protein synthesis.

Caspian Sea Inland salt lake between Europe and Asia, bordering Azerbaijan, Russia, Kazakhstan, and Iran. With a basin 750 mi (1,200 km) long and up to 200 mi (320 km) wide and an area of 149,200 sq mi (386,400 sq km), it is the largest inland body of water in the world. Though it receives many rivers, including the Volga, Ural, and Kura, the sea itself has no outlet. It was important as a commercial route in the premodern era, when it formed part of the Mongol-Baltic trade route for goods from Asia. It is now a major source of petroleum. Its numerous ports include Baku in Azerbaijan and Bandar-e Anzall and Bandar-e Torka- man in Iran.

Cass, Lewis (b. Oct. 9, 1782, Exeter, N.H., U.S.—d. June 17, 1866, Detroit, Mich.) U.S. politician. He fought in the War of 1812 and served as governor of Michigan Territory (1813-31). As secretary of war (1831- 36) under Pres. Andrew Jackson, he directed the conduct of the Black Hawk and Seminole wars. He served as U.S. minister to France (1836— 42). In the U.S. Senate (1845^18, 1849-57), he supported westward expansion and the Compromise of 1850. He was the Democratic nominee in the presidential election of 1848, which he lost to Zachary Taylor. He later served as secretary of state (1857-60) but resigned when Pres. James Buchanan took no action to counter the secession of the Southern states.

Cassandra In Greek mythology, the daughter of King Priam of Troy. Apollo promised her the gift of prophecy if she would grant his desires; she accepted the gift but rebuffed the god, who took his revenge by ordaining that her prophecies should never be believed. She predicted the fall of Troy and the death of Agamemnon, but her warnings went unheeded. Given as part of the war spoils to Agamemnon, she was mur¬ dered with him.

Cassatt \ko-'sat\, Mary (b. May 22, 1844, Allegheny City, Pa., U.S.—d. June 14, 1926, Chateau de Beaufresne, near Paris, France) U.S. painter and printmaker, active in Paris. She spent her early years travel¬ ing in Europe with her wealthy family. After attending the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts (1860-65) she later studied in Paris, copying Old Masters. In 1874 Cassatt chose Paris as her permanent residence and established her studio there. She shared with the Impressionists an inter¬ est in experiment and in the use of bright colours inspired by the out-of- doors. Edgar Degas became her friend, and at his request she exhibited with the Impressionists. She portrayed scenes of everyday life, particu¬ larly images of mothers and children, and was skilled at drawing and printmaking. Some of her best works were executed in pastel. Through her social contacts with wealthy private collectors, she promoted Impres¬ sionism in the U.S. and exerted a lasting influence on U.S. taste.

cassava \k3-'sa-v3\ or manioc or yuca Tuberous edible perennial plant (. Manihot esculenta ) of the spurge family, from the New World trop¬ ics. It is cultivated for its tuberous roots, from which cassava flour, breads, tapioca, a laundry starch, and an alcoholic beverage are derived. It has conspicuous, almost palmate (fan-shaped) leaves and fleshy roots. Dif¬ ferent varieties range from low herbs through many-branched shrubs to slender, unbranched trees adapted to diverse habitats.

Cassavetes X.ka-so-'ve-tezV John (b. Dec. 9, 1929, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Feb. 3, 1989, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. film director and actor. He acted in films and in television dramas before making his directorial debut with the critically praised Shadows (1961), a low-budget indepen¬ dent film in the cinema verite style. He played featured roles in such films as The Dirty Dozen (1967) and Rosemary’s Baby (1968) and returned to directing independent films, including Faces (1968), Husbands (1970), and A Woman Under the Influence (1974), which dramatized marital prob¬ lems.

cassia \'ka-sha\ Spice, also called Chinese cinnamon, consisting of the aromatic bark of the Cinnamomum cassia plant, of the laurel family. Simi¬ lar to true cinnamon bark, cassia bark has a more pungent, less delicate flavor and is thicker. It is used as a flavoring in cooking. Whole buds, the dried, unripe fruits of C. cassia and C. loureirii , taste like the bark and are added to foods for flavoring. Confusion sometimes arises with another group of plants because Cassia is the name of an extensive genus of legumes, the source of various medicinal products and of senna leaves.

Cassidy, Butch orig. Robert Leroy Parker (b. April 13, 1866, Beaver, Utah, U.S.—d. 1909?, Concordia Tin Mines, near San Vicente,

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Cassini ► caste i 347

Bol.?) U.S. outlaw. Taking his name from an older outlaw mentor, Cassidy was a cattle rustler and a robber from the mid-1880s. In 1900 he became the criminal partner of Harry Longabaugh, the “Sundance Kid” (1870- 1909?), whose nickname derived from a town where he had once been imprisoned. They became the foremost members of the Wild Bunch, a group of bank and train robbers. The two eluded Pinkerton detectives by escaping to South America in 1901. They bought a ranch in Argentina but returned to a life of outlawry in 1906. In 1909, trapped by soldiers in Bolivia, Sundance was mortally wounded, and Cassidy shot himself. The time, place, and circumstances of their deaths vary widely in different accounts.

Cassini, Gian Domenico (b. June 8, 1625, Perinaldo, Republic of Genoa—d. Sept. 14, 1712, Paris, France) Italian-born French astronomer. His early studies were mainly observations of the Sun, but, after obtain¬ ing more powerful telescopes, he turned his attention to the planets. He calculated Jupiter’s and Mars’s rotational periods and compiled a table of the positions of Jupiter’s satellites. His observations of the Moon (1671— 79) led to his compiling a large map. In 1683, after a study of the zodia¬ cal light, he concluded it was of cosmic origin. He discovered four of Saturn’s moons: Iapetus (1671), Rhea (1672), Tethys (1684), and Dione (1684). The dark gap between two of Saturn’s main rings (Cassini’s divi¬ sion) is named for him.

Cassiodorus \,ka-se-o- l dor-os\ in full Flavius Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus (b. 490, Scylletium, Bruttium, kingdom of the Ostrogoths—d. c. 585, Vivarium Monastery, near Scylletium) Historian, statesman, and monk who helped preserve Roman culture after the col¬ lapse of the Roman Empire. He was secretary to Theodoric and later held other high imperial offices. Soon after 540 he founded a monastery to per¬ petuate the culture of Rome. He collected pagan and Christian manu¬ scripts and had the monks copy them, establishing a practice continued in later centuries. His own works included the Chronicon, a history of mankind to 519; De anima, on the soul after death; and Institutiones div- inarum et saecularium litterarum, on the study of scripture and the seven liberal arts.

Cassirer \ka-'sir-9r\, Ernst (b. July 28, 1874, Breslau, Silesia, Ger.—d. April 13, 1945, New York, N.Y., U.S.) German philosopher and educa¬ tor. He taught at the University of Berlin (1905-19) and the University of Hamburg (1919-33) before the rise of Nazism forced him to flee to Sweden and the U.S. Cassirer’s philosophy, based primarily on the work of Immanuel Kant, expanded that philosopher’s doctrines concerning the ways in which human experience is structured by innately existing con¬ cepts. After examining various forms of cultural expression, Cassirer con¬ cluded that man is uniquely characterized by his ability to use the “symbolic forms” of myth, language, and science to structure his expe¬ rience and thereby to understand both himself and the natural world. His most important original work is The Philosophy of Symbolic Forms (1923-29); he also wrote works on Kant, G.W. Leibniz, Renaissance cos¬ mology, and the Cambridge Platonists.

Cassius \'kash-os\ (Longinus), Gaius (d. 42 bc, near Philippi, Mace¬ donia) Roman general and administrator. He fought alongside Pompey the Great against Julius Caesar but was reconciled with Caesar after Pompey’s defeat. Motivated by jealousy and bitterness, he joined Brutus in the suc¬ cessful conspiracy to assassinate Caesar (44 bc). Forced to leave Rome after the assassination, he went to Syria, and there he ousted the Roman governor (43). With Brutus he raised an army in Macedonia to challenge the Second Triumvirate. Defeated at the Battle of Philippi by Mark Antony, he had his freedmen slay him. He was lamented by Brutus as “the last of the Romans.”

cassone \ko-'so-na\ or marriage chest Chest, usually of wood, intended to contain a bride’s dowry or to be given as a wedding present. It was the most elaborately decorated piece of furniture in Renaissance Italy. In the 15th century, wealthy Florentine families employed artists such as Sandro Botticelli and Paolo Uccello to decorate cassoni with paint¬ ings. They were often made in pairs, bearing the respective coats of arms of the bride and groom. Though cassoni were made in many countries, the finest come from Italy.

cassowary \'ka-S9-,wer-e\ Any of several species of rattle (family Casuariidae) of the Australo-Papuan region. Related to the emu, it has been known to kill humans with slashing blows of its feet, which have long, daggerlike claws on the innermost toe. It has a featherless blue head pro¬ tected by a bony crest and has a black body (immature birds are brown¬

ish). It moves rapidly along narrow tracks in the bush. Cassowaries eat fruit and small animals. The largest species is the common, or southern, cassowary ( Casuarius casuarius), which stands almost 5 ft (1.5 m) tall.

cast iron Alloy of iron that con¬ tains 2-4% carbon, along with sili¬ con, manganese, and impurities. It is made by reducing iron ore in a blast furnace (cast iron is chemically the same as blast-furnace iron) and cast¬ ing the liquid iron into INGOTS called pigs. Pig iron is remelted, along with scrap and alloying elements, in cupola furnaces and recast into molds for a variety of products. In the 18th—19th centuries, cast iron was a cheaper engineering material than wrought iron (not requiring intensive refining and hammering). It is more brittle and lacks tensile strength. Its compressive (load- bearing) strength made it the first important structural metal. In the 20th century, steel replaced it as a construction material, but cast iron still has industrial applications in auto¬ mobile engine blocks, agricultural and machine parts, pipes, hollowware, stoves, and furnaces. Most cast iron is either so-called gray iron or white iron, the colours shown by fracture; gray iron contains more silicon and is less hard and more machinable than white iron. Both are brittle, but malleable cast iron (produced by prolonged heat-treating), first made in 18th-century France, was developed into an industrial product in the U.S. Cast iron that is ductile as cast was invented in 1948. The latter now con¬ stitutes a major family of metals, widely used for gears, dies, automobile crankshafts, and many other machine parts.

Castagno \ka-'sta-nyo\, Andrea del orig. Andrea di Bartolo (b.

c. 1421, San Martino a Corella, Republic of Florence—d. Aug. 19, 1457, Florence) Italian painter active in Florence. Little is known of his early life, and many of his paintings have been lost. His earliest dated works are frescoes in the church of San Zaccaria in Venice (1442). In 1447 he began his greatest work, a series of monumental frescoes depicting the Last Supper and other scenes of Christ’s Passion for the convent of Sant’ Apollonia in Florence (now a museum). His use of pictorial illusionism and scientific perspective, as well as the powerful, sculptural form of his figures, established him as one of the most influential Renaissance paint¬ ers of the 15th century.

caste Any of the ranked, hereditary, endogamous (see exogamy and endogamy) occupational groups that constitute traditional societies in cer¬ tain regions of the world, particularly among Hindus in India. There caste is rooted in antiquity and specifies the rules and restrictions governing social intercourse and activity. Each caste has its own customs that restrict the occupations and dietary habits of its members and their social con¬ tact with other castes. There are about 3,000 castes, or jatis (broadly, “form of existence fixed by birth”), and more than 25,000 subcastes in India. They are traditionally grouped into four major classes, or varnas (“colours”). At the top are the Brahmans, followed by the Kshatriyas, Vaish- yas, and Shudras. Those with the most defiling jobs (such as those who dispose of body emissions and dead animals) are ranked beneath the Shu¬ dras. Considered untouchable, they were simply dubbed as “the fifth” (panchama ) category. Although a great many spheres of life in modem India are little influenced by caste, most marriages are nevertheless arranged within the caste. This is in part because most people live in rural communities and because the arrangement of marriages is a family activ¬ ity carried out through existing networks of kinship and caste.

caste \'kast\ In biology, a subset of individuals within a colony of social animals (chiefly ants, bees, termites, and wasps) that has a specialized func¬ tion and is distinguished from other subsets by morphological and ana¬ tomical differences. Typical insect castes are the queen (the female responsible for reproduction), workers (the usually sterile female care¬ takers of the queen, eggs, and larvae), soldiers (defenders of the colony; also sterile females), and sometimes drones (short-lived males). The dif-

Common, or southern, cassowary (Casuarius casuarius).

ANTHONY MERCIECA FROM ROOT RESOURCES

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348 I Castelo Branco ► castor-oil plant

ferentiation of larvae into various castes is often determined by diet, though hormonal and environmental factors can also play a role.

Castelo Branco \kash-'tel-u-'bra n i]-ku\, Camilo, viscount of Cor¬ reia Botelho (b. March 16, 1825, Lisbon, Port.—d. June 1, 1890, Seide) Portuguese novelist. An orphan from a family with a tendency to insanity, he studied medicine and theology before beginning to write. While imprisoned for eloping with another man’s wife, he wrote his best- known work, Amor de perdigao (1862; “Fatal Love”), about a thwarted love that leads to crime and exile. His 58 novels, many mirroring his pas¬ sionate life, range from Romantic melodrama to realism. His best works include O romance d’um homem rico (1861; “The Love Story of a Rich Man”) and O retrato de Ricardina (1868; “Portrait of Ricardina”). Ennobled in 1885, he committed suicide five years later.

Castiglione V.kas-tel-'yo-naV, Baldassare (b. Dec. 6, 1478, Casat- ico, near Mantua—d. Feb. 2, 1529,

Toledo) Italian diplomat, courtier, and writer. Born into a noble family, he was attached to the courts of Man¬ tua and Urbino and later entered papal service. He is remembered for The Courtier (1528). Written in the form of a philosophical dialogue, it describes the conduct of the perfect courtier, the qualities of a noble lady, and the ideal relationships between the courtier and his prince. Immedi¬ ately successful in Italy and beyond, it became a manual for those aspir¬ ing to aristocratic manners during the Renaissance.

Castile \ka-'stel\ Spanish Castilla \ka-'ste-lya\ Traditional region, pen¬ insular Spain. Comprising several modern provinces, its northern part is called Old Castile and its southern part New Castile. Castilian territory was united under Leon by Feman Gonzalez in the 10th century. Though it separated from Leon in the 12th century, it was reunited with it by Ferdinand III in 1230. The Spanish part of the kingdom of Navarra was annexed by Castile in 1512, thus complet¬ ing the formation of modern Spain. Castile remains Spain’s centre of politi¬ cal and administrative power. See also Castile-Leon; Castile-La Mancha.

Castile-La Mancha Spanish Castilla La Mancha Autonomous community (pop., 2005 est.: 1,894,667) and historic region, central Spain. Established in 1982, it encompasses the provinces of Toledo, Ciudad Real, Cuenca, Guadalajara, and Albacete and covers an area of 30,681 sq mi (79,463 sq km). Its capital is Toledo. The watershed of the low-lying Toledo Mountains bisects the region; land to the north is drained by the Tagus River, and the plains of La Mancha to the south are drained by the Guadiana. In the 20th century, emigration to Madrid depleted the popula¬ tion. Agriculture dominates the economy. See Castile; Miguel de Cervantes.

Castile-Leon Spanish Castilla y Leon Autonomous community (pop., 2001: 2,456,474) and historic region, northern Spain. Established in 1983, it encompasses the provinces of Valladolid, Burgos, Leon, Sala¬ manca, Zamora, Polencia, and Segovia and covers an area of 36,380 sq mi (94,224 sq km). Its capital is Valladolid. It occupies the elevated Cen¬ tral Plateau and is drained by the Douro River, which bisects the region. The Cantabrian Mountains rise to the north. The area’s population expe¬ rienced periods of decline in the 20th century, with notable emigration from the countryside to the provincial capitals. Its economy is largely agricultural. See also Castile.

Castilho \kash-'tel-yii\, Antonio Feliciano de (b. Jan. 28, 1800, Lisbon—d. June 18, 1875, Lisbon) Portuguese poet. Though blind from childhood, he became a classical scholar and by age 16 was publishing poems, translations, and pedagogical works. With his Obras completas (1837; “Complete Works”), he became a literary figure in Lisbon. As director of the important journal O panorama and later of the major cul¬ tural review Revista universal Lisbonense, he became a central figure in the Portuguese Romantic movement. After 1850 he gradually returned to a genteel traditionalism. His lifeless style so dominated literary taste that it provoked a rebellion by younger writers, and he was dethroned as lit¬ erary arbiter.

Castillo de San Marcos \ka-'ste-yo-da-san-'mar-kos\ National Monument Historic site, northeastern Florida, U.S. Established in 1924, it is the 25-acre (10-hectare) site of the oldest masonry fort in the U.S., built by the Spanish (1672-95) to protect St. Augustine. The fort played an important role in the Spanish-English struggle for the South¬ east (c. 1670-1763). In the 19th century it served as a U.S. military prison.

casting Pouring of molten metal into a mold, where it solidifies into the shape of the mold. The process was well established in the Bronze Age, when it was used to form bronze pieces now found in museums. It is par¬ ticularly valuable for the economical production of complex shapes, rang¬ ing from mass-produced parts for automobiles to one-of-a-kind production of statues, jewelry, or massive machinery. Most steel and iron castings (see cast iron) are poured into silica sand. For metals of lower melting point, such as aluminum or zinc, molds can be made of another metal or of sand. See also die casting, founding, investment casting, lost- wax CASTING, PATTERNMAKING.

castle Medieval European stronghold, generally the fortified dwelling of the king or lord of the territory in which it stood. The castle developed rapidly in western Europe from the 9th century. In form it was somewhat sprawling compared to later fortified buildings. The castle’s enceinte (outer wall) was surrounded by one or more moats, which were crossed by drawbridges that could be raised from the inner side. The gateway itself was heavily protected and often defended by a barbican, or watchtower. One or more baileys, or walled courtyards, surrounded the donjon. The age of the medieval castle came to an end with the increasing use of fire¬ arms in the 15th-16th centuries.

Castle, Vernon and Irene orig. Vernon Blythe and Irene Foote (respectively b. May 2, 1887, Norwich, Norfolk, Eng.—d. Feb. 15, 1918, Fort Worth, Texas, U.S.; b. 1893, New Rochelle, N.Y., U.S.—d. Jan. 25, 1969, Eureka Springs, Ark.) U.S. husband-and-wife ballroom dance team. Vernon moved to the U.S. in 1906 and married Irene in 1911. They gained worldwide popularity for their graceful style, and they intro¬ duced such dances as the one-step, fox-trot, turkey trot, castle polka, castle walk, and hesitation waltz and popularized several others. Irene is cred¬ ited with creating the fashion for bobbed hair. Following Vernon’s death in an airplane crash, Irene retired from dancing.

Castlereagh Vka-s3l-,ra\ District (pop., 2001: 66,488), Northern Ire¬ land. Located southeast of Belfast, it was established in 1973. The area was settled in the 14th century by the O’Neill clan of Ulster, from whose main stronghold, Grey Castle (no longer extant), it takes its name. It is closely linked to eastern Belfast, the district seat, where many of its resi¬ dents are employed.

Castlereagh, Robert Stewart, Viscount (b. June 18, 1769, Dub¬ lin, Ire.—d. Aug. 12, 1822, London, Eng.) British politician. He was elected to the Irish Parliament in 1790 and later served in the British Par¬ liament (1794-1805, 1806-22). As chief secretary for Ireland (1798— 1801), Castlereagh singlehandedly forced the Act of Union through the Irish Parliament in 1800. He served as Britain’s secretary for war (1805— 06, 1807-09) and as secretary for foreign affairs and leader of the House of Commons (1812-22). Considered one of the most distinguished for¬ eign secretaries in British history, he played a leading role in bringing together the Grand Alliance that overthrew Napoleon and in deciding the form of the peace settlements at the Congress of Vienna. Beset with para¬ noia and believing that he was being blackmailed, he eventually commit¬ ted suicide.

Castor and Pollux See Dioscuri

castor-oil plant Large plant (Ricinus communis) of the spurge family, probably native to Africa and naturalized throughout the tropics. It is grown commercially for the phar¬ maceutical and industrial uses of its oil and for use in landscape garden¬ ing because of its handsome, giant, fanlike leaves. The bristly, spined, bronze-to-red clusters of fruits are attractive but are often removed

before they mature because of the Castor-oil plant (Ricinus communis). poison concentrated in their mottled, kenneth and brenda formanek/eb inc.

Baldassare Castiglione, detail of a por¬ trait by Raphael, 1516; in the Louvre, Paris

GIRAUDON-ART RESOURCE/EB INC.

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castration ► Catalonia I 349

beanlike seeds. There are hundreds of natural forms and many horticul¬ tural varieties of this species.

castration or neutering Removal of the testes. The procedure stops most production of the hormone testosterone. If done before puberty, it pre¬ vents the development of functioning adult sex organs. Castration after sexual maturity makes the sex organs shrink and stop functioning, ending sperm formation and sexual interest and behaviour. Livestock and pets are castrated to keep them from reproducing (see sterilization) or to create a more docile animal. In humans, castration has been used for both cultural (see eunuch, castrato) and medical (e.g., for testicular cancer) reasons.

castrato \ka-'stra-,to\ Male soprano or alto voice produced as a result of castration before puberty. The castrato voice was introduced in the Vatican’s Sistine Chapel in the 16th century, when women were still banned from church choirs as well as the stage. It reached its greatest prominence in 17th- and 18th-century opera. The illegal and inhumane practice of castration, largely practiced in Italy, could produce a treble voice of extraordinary power, attributable to the lung capacity and physi¬ cal bulk of the adult male. The unique tone quality and the ability of intensively trained singers to execute virtuosic passagework made cast- rati the rage among opera audiences and contributed to the spread of Ital¬ ian opera. Most male singers in 18th-century opera were castrati; the most famous bore the stage names Senesino (Francesco Bemardi; died c. 1750), Caffarelli (Gaetano Majorano; 1710-1783), and Farinelli. Castrati sang in the Sistine Chapel choir until 1903.

Castries \ka-'stre, 'kas-,tre\ Seaport (pop., 1997 est.: 16,187), capital of Saint Lucia. Located on the island’s northwestern coast, its fine harbour is Saint Lucia’s chief port. A fortress on Mount Fortune (852 ft [260 m]) overlooks the town. Castries is a gateway for tourists visiting the island.

Castro (Ruz), Fidel (b. Aug. 13, 1926/27, near Biran, Cuba) Political leader of Cuba (from 1959). Son of a prosperous sugar planter, he became a lawyer and worked on behalf of the poor in Havana. He was a candi¬ date for Cuba’s legislature when Gen. Fulgencio Batista overthrew the government in 1952. He organized a rebellion against Batista in 1953, but it failed; captured, he served time in prison and then went to Mexico, where he and others, including Che Guevara, continued to plot Batista’s overthrow. Castro led an armed expedition back to Cuba in 1956; most of his men were killed, but a dozen survivors took refuge in the moun¬ tains, where they gradually managed to organize guerrillas throughout the island. In 1959 Batista was forced to flee the country. Castro nationalized private commerce and industry and expropriated U.S.-owned land and businesses, vastly expanded health services and eliminated illiteracy, and ruthlessly suppressed opposition, outlawing all political groups but the Communist Party. The U.S. attempted to bring about his overthrow and failed (see Bay of Pigs invasion), precipitating the Cuban missile crisis. Cas¬ tro exercised total control of the government and economy, which was increasingly dependent on subsidies from the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union’s collapse (1991) devastated Cuba’s economy, and Castro has attempted to replace its former revenues by encouraging tourism.

Castro y Bellvis Vkas-tro-e-beP-'vesX, Guillen de (b. 1569, Valen¬ cia, Spain—d. 1631, Madrid) Spanish playwright. Of his approximately 50 plays, the best-remembered is The Youth of the Cid (c. 1599), on which Pierre Corneille based his Le Cid (1637). Castro’s play is notable for its naturalistic dialogue. He was one of the earliest playwrights to deal with the difficulties of marriage, as in The Unhappy Marriages of Valencia. He drew heavily on traditional Castilian ballads and based three of his plays on novels by Miguel de Cervantes.

casualty insurance Provision against loss to persons and property, covering legal hazards as well as those of accident and sickness. Major classes include liability, theft, aviation, workers' compensation, credit, and title. Liability insurance contracts may cover liability arising from use of an automobile, operation of a business, professional negligence (malprac¬ tice insurance), or property ownership. Credit insurance may cover the risk of bad debts from insolvency, death, and disability, the risk of loss of sav¬ ings from bank failure, and the risk of loss of export credit due to com¬ mercial or political changes.

casuarina \,kazh-y3-'re-n9\ Any of the chiefly Australian trees that make up the genus Casuarina (family Casuarinaceae), which have whorls of scalelike leaves and segmented stems resembling horsetails. Several species, especially C. equisetifolia, are valued for their hard, dense, yel¬ lowish to reddish brown wood, which is strong and reputed to be resis¬

tant to termite attack. Beefwood and ironwood are common names that reflect the wood’s colour and hardness.

cat or feline Any member of the family Felidae, the most highly spe¬ cialized group of mammalian carnivores. Modern-type cats appeared in the fossil record about 10 million years ago. Cats in the genus Panthera (leopard, jaguar, tiger, and lion) roar but cannot purr, and their pupils are round. Other cats, including the snow leopard and cougar, can purr but do not roar; the pupil is usually vertical. Cats have sharp, retractable (except in the cheetah) claws, and their teeth are adapted for stabbing, anchoring, and cutting. They almost always land on their feet when they fall from a height. Most species are nocturnal, and their eyes are adapted for seeing in low light. Cats are known for their habit of grooming them¬ selves with their rasplike tongue. Small cats have been domesticated for some 3,500 years (see domestic cat). Other cat species include the bobcat, CARACAL, LYNX, OCELOT, SERVAL, and WILDCAT.

CAT See computed axial tomography cat bear See lesser panda

catacomb Subterranean cemetery of galleries with recesses for tombs. The term was probably first applied to the cemetery under St. Sebastian’s Basilica that was a temporary resting place for the bodies of Sts. Peter and Paul in the late 3rd century ad, but it came to refer to all the subterranean cemeteries around Rome. In addition to serving as burial sites, catacombs in early Christian Rome were the sites of funeral feasts celebrated in fam¬ ily vaults on the day of burial and on anniversaries. They were used as hiding places during times of persecution; Pope Sixtus II was supposedly captured and killed (ad 258) while hiding in the St. Sebastian’s catacomb during Valerian’s persecution. Catacombs are also found in Sicily and other parts of Italy, in Egypt, and in Lebanon.

Arched niche of a tomb with early Christian paintings of scenes from the Old and New Testaments, in the catacomb on Via Latina, Rome

PONT. COMM. Dl ARCH. SACRA/M. GRIMOLDI

Catalan Vka-t3-,lan\ language Romance language spoken in eastern and northeastern Spain, chiefly Catalonia and Valencia, and in Andorra, the Balearic Isles, and the Roussillon region of France. Its literary tradi¬ tion dates from the 12th century, when it was the official language of the kingdom of Aragon. As Catalonia achieved greater autonomy in the late 20th century, Catalan revived as the language of politics and education there. Its dialects, divided into an Occidental and an Oriental group, remain mutually intelligible. Catalan is related to the Occitan language of southern France and to Spanish.

Catalhuyuk Vcha-.tal-hiE-'yuikA English foha-.tal-hii-'yukX Neolithic site, Anatolia. Located near Konya in southern Turkey, it was the centre of an advanced Neolithic culture. The earliest period of settlement is ten¬ tatively dated to c. 6700 bc and the latest to c. 5650 bc. Excavation of the religious quarter produced a series of shrines; the wall paintings have been linked with Upper Paleolithic art.

Catalonia Catalan Catalunya Spanish Cataluna Autonomous community (pop., 2001: 6,343,110) and historic region, northeastern

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

350 I catalpa ► catbird

Spain. It encompasses the provinces of Girona, Barcelona, Tarragona, and Lleida and covers an area of 12,399 sq mi (32,113 sq km). Its capital is Barcelona. The Pyrenees separate Catalonia from France; the Mediterra¬ nean Sea lies to the east. Its principal rivers, the Ter, Llobregat, and Ebro, all run into the Mediterranean. Catalonia was one of Rome’s first Span¬ ish possessions. Occupied in the 5th century ad by the Goths, it was taken by the Moors in 712 and by Charlemagne in 795. After the unification of Spain (1469), Catalonia lost its centrality in Spanish affairs, and by the 17th century its conflict of interest with Castile-Leon led to the first of a series of separatist movements. Catalan nationalism became a serious force after 1876. In 1932 a compromise with the central government granted Catalonia autonomy; this was revoked with the 1939 Nationalist victory in the Spanish Civil War, and Francisco Franco’s government adopted a repressive policy toward Catalan nationalism. The reestablish¬ ment of democratic rule after Franco’s death again led to autonomy in 1979. Today it is the richest and most industrialized part of Spain.

catalpa Xko-'tal-psX Any of 11 species of trees in the genus Catalpa (family Bignoniaceae), native to eastern Asia, eastern North America, and the West Indies. Catalpas have large, attractive leaves and showy white, yellowish, or purplish flowers. The catalpa fruit is a long cylindrical pod bearing numerous seeds with white tufts of hair at each end. The com¬ mon catalpa, C. bignonioides, yields a durable timber and is one of the most widely planted ornamental species.

catalysis \ko-'ta-b-s3s\ Modification (usually acceleration) of a chemi¬ cal reaction rate by addition of a catalyst, which combines with the reac¬ tants but is ultimately regenerated so that its amount remains unchanged and the chemical equilibrium of the conditions of the reaction is not altered. Catalysts reduce the activation energy barrier between reactants and prod¬ ucts. When more than one reaction is possible, a catalyst that accelerates only one reaction pathway selectively enhances the creation of its prod¬ uct. Catalysis is inhibited if the reactant or the catalyst is removed or altered by any of several types of agents (inhibitors). Catalysis in a single phase (e.g., the catalyst is dispersed in a liquid solution or gaseous mix¬ ture with the reactants) is homogeneous; that in more than one phase (e.g., the reactants are liquids and the catalyst a solid) is heterogeneous. Chemi¬ sorption, a type of heterogeneous catalysis, often involves bonding between the catalyst’s solid surface and the reactant, changing the nature of the chemisorbed molecules. To make the accessible surface area as large as possible, such catalysts are finely powdered or highly porous sol¬ ids. Catalysis is essential to the modern chemical industry. See also enzyme.

catalyst \'ka-t 3 l-3st\ Any substance of which a small proportion nota¬ bly affects the reaction rate of a chemical reaction without itself being changed or consumed (see catalysis). One molecule may transform sev¬ eral million reactant molecules a minute. Catalysts may be gaseous, liq¬ uid, or solid; they may be inorganic compounds, organic compounds, or complex combinations. They tend to be highly specific, reacting with only one substance or a small set of substances. Substances that reduce the effectiveness of catalysts by altering them or blocking reactants’ access to them are called catalyst inhibitors or catalyst poisons. Catalysts are essential to virtually all industrial chemical reactions, especially in petro¬ leum refining and synthetic organic chemical manufacturing. Most solid catalysts are transition elements (metals) or their oxides in finely divided or porous form. In a car’s catalytic converter, the platinum catalyst con¬ verts unburned hydrocarbons and nitrogen compounds to products less harmful to the environment. Water, especially saltwater, catalyzes oxida¬ tion (see oxidation-reduction) and corrosion. Enzymes are among the most active and selective catalysts known.

catalytic converter In automobiles, a component of emission control systems used to reduce the discharge of noxious gases from the internal- combustion engine. The catalytic converter consists of an insulated cham¬ ber containing pellets of catalyst through which the exhaust gases are passed. The exhaust’s hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide are converted to water vapour and carbon dioxide.

catamaran Vka-to-mo-.ranV Twin-hulled sailing and engine-powered boat. Its design was based on a raft of two logs bridged by planks used by peoples in the Indonesian archipelago, Polynesia, and Micronesia. Up to 70 ft (21 m) long, early catamarans were paddled by many men and used for travel, in war, and in recreation. Especially after the sail was added, voyages as long as 2,000 mi (3,700 km) were made. In the 1870s they sailed so successfully against monohulled boats that they were barred

from racing. The modern catamaran, which averages about 40 ft (12 m) in length, has been produced since 1950. They are very fast craft, achiev¬ ing speeds of 20 mph (32 kph).

Catania \ka-'ta-nya\ City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 306,464), Sicily, Italy. It was founded by Greeks in 729 bc at the foot of Mount Etna on the Gulf of Catania. Taken by the Romans in the First Punic War (263 bc), Cata¬ nia was made a Roman colony by Octavian (later Augustus). Catanian Christians suffered under the emperors Decius and Diocletian; their mar¬ tyrs included St. Agatha, patron saint of the city. Catania fell successively to the Byzantines, Arabs, and Normans, and it suffered devastation by earthquakes especially in 1169 and 1693. In World War II the city was severely damaged by bombing. Rebuilt, it is Sicily’s second largest city and is an industrial and transportation centre.

Catanzaro \,ka-tand-'za-r6\ City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 93,540), capital of Calabria, southern Italy. Catanzaro lies near the Gulf of Squillace. It was probably founded in the 10th century by Byzantines. It was taken in 1059 by the Normans under Robert Guiscard. It played an important part in the Napoleonic Wars and in the movement for Italian unity. Catanzaro suffered severely from earthquakes in 1905 and 1907 and from bombing in World War II. It is an agricultural centre.

catapult Mechanism for forcefully propelling stones, spears, or other projectiles, in use since ancient times. Nearly all catapults employed in ancient and medieval artillery operated by a sudden release of tension on wooden beams or twisted cords of horsehair, gut, sinew, or other fibres. An exception was the medieval trebuchet, powered by a counterweight. Modem mechanisms using steam, hydraulic pressure, tension, or other force to launch gliders, aircraft, or missiles are also called catapults.

cataract Opacity of the eye’s crystalline lens. Cataracts causing central visual-field defects are most likely to affect vision. Cataracts may occur in newborns and infants. Diabetes mellitus, prolonged exposure to ultravio¬ let rays, or trauma can cause them in adults, but they most often occur with age, resulting from gradual loss of transparency of the lens. Treat¬ ment is a surgical procedure to replace the lens with an artificial one.

catastrophe theory Branch of mathematics (considered a branch of geometry) that explores how gradual changes to a system produce sud¬ den, drastic results (though usually not as dire as the name suggests). A simple example is how a plastic coffee stirrer subjected to gradually increasing pressure from both ends will suddenly buckle in one direction or another. Other “catastrophes” include optical phenomena such as reflection or refraction of light through moving water. More speculatively, ideas from catastrophe theory have been applied by social scientists to such situations as the sudden eruption of mob violence.

Catatumbo \,ka-ta-'tum-bo\ River River, northern South America. Rising in northern Colombia, it flows northeast across the Venezuelan border and the oil-rich Maracaibo lowland to empty into Lake Maracaibo after a course of 210 mi (338 km).

Catawba Vko-'to-bsN North American Indian people of South Carolina, U.S. The meaning of the name Catawba, which seems to have been applied after European contact to several small bands of peoples in the region of the Catawba River, is unknown. The peoples first encountered by Hernando de Soto subsisted principally by farming, harvesting com, beans, squash, and gourds. Fish and birds were also staples of their diet. They traded bowls, baskets, and mats to other native groups and, later, to colonists. Each village was governed by a council presided over by a chief. After contact with European settlers, disease and other factors diminished their numbers rapidly. In the 2000 U.S. census some 1,700 people identified themselves as of sole Catawba descent.

Catawba River River, southeastern U.S. Rising in North Carolina’s Blue Ridge, it flows south into South Carolina, where it becomes the Wateree River. It is 220 mi (350 km) long. With the Wateree, it forms an important source of hydroelectric power for South Carolina.

catbird Any of several passerine species (family Mimidae) named for their mewing calls, which they use in addition to song. The North Ameri¬ can catbird ( Dumetella carolinensis) is 9 in. (23 cm) long and gray with a black cap. It is found in gardens and thickets. The black catbird ( Mel- anoptila glabrirostris) is found in coastal Yucatan. Three species of the bowerbird family are also called catbirds; they are found in Australia, New Guinea, and nearby islands and do not build bowers but hold territories in the forest by loud singing.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

catch ► Catherine II I 351

catch English round, or simple perpetual canon, for three or more unac¬ companied voices. Catches were sung by men as a popular pastime in the 16th-19th centuries. Catch texts were often humorous or ribald, and in some instances a pause in the melody in one voice was filled in by the notes and text of another, creating a pun or change of meaning, especially in the late-17th-century Restoration period.

Cateau-Cambresis \ka-to-ka I1 -bra- , ze\ / Treaty of (April 3, 1559) Agreement marking the end of the 65-year struggle (1494-1559) between France and Spain for the control of Italy. France gave up its claims to Italian territory, leaving Habsburg Spain the dominant power there. France returned Savoy and Piedmont to Spain’s ally Emmanuel-Philibert of Savoy (1528-80) and restored Corsica to Genoa. Elsewhere, France retained Calais, which it had seized from England in 1558, and the bish¬ oprics of Toul, Metz, and Verdun, taken from Emperor Charles V.

catechesis See kerygma and catechesis

catechism Manual of religious instruction usually arranged in the form of questions and answers and used to instruct the young, win converts, and testify to the faith. The medieval catechism concentrated on the mean¬ ing of faith, hope, and charity. Later catechisms added other subjects and became more important following the Reformation and the invention of the printing press. Martin Luther’s Small Catechism (1529) added discus¬ sions of baptism and the Eucharist. John Calvin published a children’s cat¬ echism in 1542. The Anglican catechism is included in the Book of Common Prayer. The Baltimore Catechism (1885) is the Catholic cat¬ echism best known in the U.S. In 1992 the Vatican issued a new univer¬ sal Catechism of the Catholic Church.

catecholamine \ l ka-t3- , ko-b-,men\ Any naturally occurring amine functioning as a neurotransmitter or hormone, including dopamine, norepi¬ nephrine, and epinephrine. All are derived from tyrosine and have a catechol group (benzene ring with two hydroxyl groups) with an attached amine group. Neurons in the brain, in the adrenal gland, and in some sympa¬ thetic nerve fibres produce different catecholamines.

categorical imperative In Immanuel Kant’s moral philosophy, an imperative that presents an action as unconditionally necessary (e.g., “Thou shalt not kill”), as opposed to an imperative that presents an action as necessary only on condition that the agent wills something else (e.g., “Pay your debts on time, if you want to be able to obtain a mortgage”). Kant held that there was only one formally categorical imperative, from which all specific moral imperatives could be derived. In one famous formulation, it is: “Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.” See also deontological ethics.

categorical proposition In syllogistic, a proposition in which the predicate is affirmed or denied of all or part of the subject. Thus, cat¬ egorical propositions are of four basic forms: “Every S is P,” “No S is P,” “Some S is P,” and “Some S is not P.” These are designated by the letters A, E, I, and O, respectively; thus, “Every man is mortal” is an A-proposition. Categorical propositions are to be distinguished from com¬ pound and complex propositions, into which they can enter as integral terms. In particular, they contrast especially with hypothetical proposi¬ tions, such as “If every man is mortal, then Socrates is mortal.”

caterpillar Larva of a butterfly or moth. Caterpillars have a cylindrical body consisting of 13 segments, with three pairs of legs on the thorax and “prolegs” on the abdomen. The head has six eyes on each side, short antennae, and strong jaws. Though not true worms, many caterpillars are called worms (e.g., the inchworm, or looper, and the cutworm). Caterpillar-like larvae are also found in other insect groups (e.g., sawflies and scorpionflies).

catfish Any of about 2,500 species of scale-less, mostly freshwater, fishes (order Siluriformes) related to carp and minnows and named for their whiskerlike barbels (fleshy feelers). All species have at least one pair of barbels on the upper jaw, and some have a pair on the snout and addi¬ tional pairs on the chin. Many species possess spines that may be asso¬ ciated with venom glands. Found almost worldwide, they are generally bottom-dwelling scavengers that feed on almost any kind of plant or ani¬ mal matter. Species vary from 1.5 in. to 15 ft (4 cm-4.5 m) long and may weigh up to 660 lbs (300 kg). Many small species are popular aquarium fishes; many large species are used for food.

Cathari Vka-tho-.rA or Albigensians \al-b9-'jen-se-onz\ Heretical Christian sect that flourished in Western Europe in the 12th—13th century.

The Cathari adhered to the dualist belief that the material world is evil and that humans must renounce the world to free their spirits, which are good and long for communion with God. Jesus was seen as an angel whose human suffering and death were an illusion. Followers divided themselves into the “perfect,” who had to maintain the highest moral standards, and ordinary “believers,” of whom less was expected. By 1200 they had established 11 bishoprics in France and Italy. In an effort to stamp out their heresy, Pope Innocent III declared the Albigensian Crusade, in which the populace in Cathar regions was indiscriminately massacred. Persecution through the Inquisition, sanctioned by St. Louis IX, was even more effective, and when the Cathar stronghold of Montsegur fell in 1244, most Cathari fled to Italy. The movement disappeared in the 15th century.

catharsis \k3-'thar-s3s\ Purging or purification of emotions through art. The term is derived from the Greek katharsis (“purgation,” “cleansing”), a medical term used by Aristotle as a metaphor to describe the effects of dramatic tragedy on the spectator: by arousing vicarious pity and terror, tragedy directs the spectator’s own anxieties outward and, through sym¬ pathetic identification with the tragic protagonist, purges them.

Cathay \ka-'tha\ Former name for China, especially northern China. The word is derived from Khitay, the name of a seminomadic people who dominated northern China in the 10th— 12th century. By the time of Geng¬ his Khan, the Mongols had begun referring to northern China as Kitai (still the Russian word for China). The name may have been introduced to Europe by returning Franciscan friars c. 1254, but it was Marco Polo’s Travels 50 years later that put Cathay’s image before the European public.

cathedral Church, often large and magnificent, in which a residential bishop has his official seat. Cathedrals are usually embellished versions of early Christian basilicas; their construction, on an ever-larger scale, was a major preoccupation throughout Europe in the Middle Ages. Masonry vaulting replaced the earlier timber roofs, and the basilican plan grew more complex. Above the arches of the nave, and below the clerestory, was the triforium, an arcaded upper story that often contained vaulted tri¬ bune galleries open to the nave. The portion containing seats for the choir, usually east of the transept, was called the chancel. Between the chancel and the sanctuary (high altar) was the presbytery, a raised area occupied only by clergy. The chapter house, a popular feature of English cathe¬ drals, was a chamber, typically octagonal, in which business was trans¬ acted. Small chapels, including the founder’s chantry and the Lady Chapel (dedicated to the Virgin Mary) were often added. Many cathedrals of the Ile-de-France region were remodeled to embody a chevet, or arc of radi¬ ating chapels, on the eastern wall, a feature reflected in England in West¬ minster Abbey and Canterbury Cathedral.

Cather Vka-thorV Willa orig. Wilella Sibert Cather (b. Dec. 7, 1873, near Winchester, Va., U.S.—d. April 24, 1947, New York, N.Y.) U.S. novelist. Cather moved with her family to Nebraska at age 9; she returned east 12 years later, eventually settling in New York. The Troll Garden (1905), her first short-story collection, contains some of her best- known work. The novels O Pioneers! (1913) and My Antonia (1918), often judged her finest achievement, celebrate frontier spirit and courage. Song of the Lark (1915), Youth and the Bright Medusa (1920), and other works reflect the struggle of a talent to emerge from small-town provin¬ cialism. One of Ours (1922, Pulitzer Prize) and A Lost Lady (1923) mourn the loss of the pioneer spirit. Pioneers of earlier eras also inspired Death Comes for the Archbishop (1927) and Shadows on the Rock (1931).

Catherine I Russian Yekaterina Alekseyevna orig. Marta Skowronska (b. April 15, 1684—d. May 17, 1727, St. Petersburg, Russia) Second wife of Peter I and empress of Russia (1725-27). A peas¬ ant woman of Baltic origin, she became Peter’s mistress in 1702. In 1703, after the birth of their first child, she was received into the Russian Ortho¬ dox church and rechristened. She married Peter in 1712 and in 1724 was crowned empress-consort. After Peter’s death (1725), she served two years as empress of Russia.

Catherine II Russian Yekaterina Alekseyevna orig. Sophie Friederike Auguste, princess von Anhalt-Zerbst known as Catherine the Great (b. May 2, 1729, Stettin, Prussia—d. Nov. 17, 1796, Tsarskoye Selo, near St. Petersburg, Russia) German-born empress of Russia (1762-96). The daughter of an obscure German prince, she was chosen at age 14 to be the wife of the future Peter III. The marriage was a complete failure. Because her neurotic husband was incapable of rul¬ ing, the ambitious Catherine saw the possibility of eliminating him and governing Russia herself. After Peter became emperor in 1762, she con-

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352 I Catherine de Medicis ► Catiline

spired with her lover, Grigory G., Count Orlov, to force Peter to abdi¬ cate (he was murdered soon after) and have herself proclaimed empress. In her 34-year reign she led Russia into full participation in European political and cultural life. With her ministers she reorganized the admin¬ istration and law of the Russian Empire and extended Russian territory, adding the Crimea and much of Poland. Though she had once intended to emancipate the serfs, she instead strengthened the system she had once condemned as inhuman. She had great energy and wide interests, and her personal life was notable for her many lovers, including Grigory Potemkin.

Catherine de Medicis \ka-tren-d3-ma-de-'ses\ orig. Caterina de' Medici (b. April 13, 1519, Florence—d. Jan. 5, 1589, Blois, France) Queen consort of Henry II (1547-59), mother of Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III, and regent of France (1560-74). A member of the Medici fam¬ ily, she married Henry in 1533 and bore him 10 children. She became queen when Henry inherited the crown in 1547, and she greatly mourned his accidental death in 1559. After their son Francis became king, she began a long struggle with members of the Guise family, extremists who sought to dominate the crown. After Francis’s premature death in 1560, she became regent for Charles IX until 1563 and dominated the rest of his reign until 1574. She attempted to settle the Wars of Religion between Catholics and Huguenots. She has traditionally been blamed for the Mas¬ sacre of Saint Bartholomew's Day, but, though she authorized the assas¬ sination of Gaspard II de Coligny and his principal followers, it appears that she did not authorize the massacre that followed.

Catherine Howard (b. c. 1520—d. Feb. 13, 1542, London, Eng.) Fifth wife of Henry VIII of England. The granddaughter of the 2nd duke of Norfolk, she became a maid of honour to Anne of Cleves, Henry’s fourth wife. After Henry had his marriage to Anne annulled, he married Catherine (1540). In 1541 he learned that Catherine had had several affairs before their marriage and that she also had probably committed adultery. Incensed, he had Parliament pass a bill in 1542 declaring it treason for an unchaste woman to marry the king. Catherine was beheaded two days later in the Tower of London.

Catherine of Alexandria, Saint (d. c. early 4th century, Alexan¬ dria, Egypt; feast day November 25) Early Christian martyr. According to tradition, she was a learned girl of noble birth who protested the per¬ secution of Christians during the reign of the Roman emperor Maxentius. She converted the emperor’s wife and defeated in debate the best schol¬ ars he sent to oppose her. She was sentenced to be killed with a spiked wheel (the Catherine wheel), but, when it broke, she was beheaded instead. Her body was transported by angels to the top of Mount Sinai. One of the most popular saints of the Middle Ages, she was patron of philosophers and scholars. Her historicity is doubtful.

Catherine of Aragon (b. Dec. 16, 1485, Alcala de Henares, Spain—d. Jan. 7, 1536, Kimbolton,

Huntingdon, Eng.) First wife of Henry VIII. The daughter of Ferdinand II and Isabella I, she married Henry in 1509. She gave birth to six children, but only one daughter (later Mary I) survived infancy. Henry’s desire for a legitimate male heir prompted him in 1527 to appeal to Rome for an annulment, but Pope Clement VII refused, triggering the break between Henry and Rome and leading to the English Reformation. In 1533 Henry had his own archbishop of Canter¬ bury, Thomas Cranmer, annul the marriage, and Catherine spent her last years isolated from public life.

Catherine of Braganza (b.

Nov. 25,1638, Vila Vigosa, Port.—d.

Dec. 31, 1705, Lisbon) Portuguese wife of Charles II of England. She was married to Charles in 1662 as part of an alliance between England and Portugal, bringing England trad¬ ing privileges and the port cities of Tangier and Bombay (now Mumbai). She produced no heir. Though not a faithful husband, Charles defended her against accusations of scheming

to poison him. She helped convert him to Catholicism shortly before his death. In 1692 she returned to Portugal, and in 1704 she governed the country as regent for her ailing brother, Pedro II.

Catherine of Siena, Saint orig. Caterina Benincasa (b. March 25, 1347, Siena, Tuscany—d. April 29, 1389, Rome; canonized 1461; feast day April 29) Dominican mystic and patron saint of Italy. She joined the Dominican third order in Siena in 1363 and soon became known for her holiness and severe asceticism. Catherine called for a Crusade against the Muslims as a means of calming domestic conflict in Italy. She also played a major role in returning the papacy from Avignon to Rome (see Avignon papacy). Her writings include four treatises on religious mysti¬ cism known as The Dialogue of St. Catherine.

Catherine Parr (b. 1512—d. Sept. 7, 1548) Sixth and last wife of King Henry VIII of England. The daughter of an official in the royal household, she had been widowed twice by the time she married Henry in 1543. She exerted a beneficial influence on the increasingly paranoid king and devel¬ oped close friendships with his children by previous marriages. After Henry’s death in 1547, she married Baron Thomas Seymour but died shortly after giving birth to a daughter.

catheterization V.ka-tho-ts-ro-'za-shonV Threading of a flexible tube (catheter) through a channel in the body to inject drugs or a contrast medium, measure and record flow and pressures, inspect structures, take samples, diagnose disorders, or clear blockages. A cardiac catheter, passed into the heart through an artery or vein (the incision is often in the groin), can also carry pacemaker electrodes. A bladder catheter goes through the urethra into the bladder.

cathode Terminal or electrode at which electrons enter a system, such as an electrolytic cell or an electron tube. In a battery or other source of direct current, the cathode is the positive terminal. In a passive load it is the negative terminal. In an electron tube, such as a cathode-ray tube, elec¬ trons stream off the cathode and travel through the tube toward the anode.

cathode ray Stream of electrons leaving the negative electrode, or cathode, in an evacuated or gas-filled discharge tube or emitted by a heated filament in certain electron tubes. Cathode rays cause fluorescent mate¬ rials to luminesce and are utilized in cathode-ray oscilloscopes and tele¬ vision tubes (see cathode-ray tube).

cathode-ray tube (CRT) Vacuum tube that produces images when its phosphorescent surface is struck by electron beams. CRTs can be mono¬ chrome (using one electron gun) or colour (typically using three electron guns to produce red, green, and blue images that, when combined, ren¬ der a multicolour image). They come in a variety of display modes, including CGA (Color Graphics Adapter), VGA (Video Graphics Array), XGA (Extended Graphics Array), and the high-definition SVGA (Super Video Graphics Array). See illustration on opposite page.

Catholic church. Old See Old Catholic church

Catholic Emancipation Freedom from discrimination and civil dis¬ abilities granted to the Roman Catholics of Britain and Ireland in the late 18th and early 19th century. After the Reformation, Roman Catholics in Britain could not purchase land, hold offices or seats in Parliament, inherit property, or practice their religion without incurring civil penalties. Irish Catholics faced similar limitations. By the late 18th century, Catholicism no longer seemed so great a social and political danger, and a series of laws, culminating in the Emancipation Act of 1829, eased the restrictions. A major figure in the struggle for full emancipation was Daniel O'Connell.

Catholic League (1609-35) Military alliance of the Catholic powers of Germany, led by Maximilian I, duke of Bavaria, and designed to stem the growth of Protestantism in Germany. Plans for a league had long been discussed, but the formation of the Protestant Union in 1608 finally caused the Catholics to unite. In alliance with the Habsburg emperors, the League’s forces, led by Graf von Tilly, played a key role in the Thirty Years' War. The league was abolished by the Peace of Prague (1635).

Catholic Reformation See Counter-Reformation

Catiline \ , kat- 3 l-,In\ orig. Lucius Sergius Catilina (b. c. 108—d. 62

bc, Pistoria, Etruria [Italy]) Roman aristocrat turned demagogue who sought to overthrow the republic. He was first suspected of conspiracy in 65, after which he sought to be elected consul. Failing twice, he planned a coup, known as Catiline’s conspiracy (63), assembling an army outside Rome from his supporters among the alienated and discontented elements

Catherine of Aragon.

ANN RONAN PICTURE UBRARY/HERITAGE-IMAGES

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

cation ► Catt i 353

of society. Cicero, then consul, learned of the conspiracy; with Senate approval, he caught and executed a group of the plotters in Rome, and later sent the army to defeat and kill Catiline in northern Italy (62).

cation Vkat-,I-9n\ Atom or group of atoms carrying a positive electric charge, indicated by a superscript plus sign after the chemical symbol. Cations in a liquid subjected to an electric field collect at the negative pole (cathode). Examples include sodium (Na + ), calcium (Ca 2+ ), and ammonium (NH 4 + ; see ammonia). See also ion; compare anion.

catkin Elongated cluster of single-sex flowers bearing scaly bracts and usually lacking petals. Many trees bear catkins, including willows, birches, and oaks. Wind carries pollen from male to female catkins or from male catkins to female flowers that take a different form (e.g., in spikes).

Catlett, Elizabeth (b. April 15, 1919, Washington, D.C., U.S.) Expa¬ triate U.S. sculptor and printmaker. Catlett was born into a middle-class family. After studying sculpture, she went to Mexico City in 1946 to work at the Taller de Grafica Popular, an artists’ collective, where she created prints depicting Mexican life. About 1962 she took Mexican citizenship. In her sculptures and prints, Catlett focused on mother-child pairings, famous subjects such as Harriet Tubman and Malcolm X, and anonymous workers—notably strong, solitary black women.

Catlin, George (b. July 26, 1796, Wilkes-Barre, Pa., U.S.—d. Dec. 23, 1872, Jersey City, N.J.) U.S. painter and author. He practiced law briefly before becoming a self-taught portrait painter in Philadelphia (1823). Long interested in Native American life, in 1830 he began a series of visits to various tribes on the Great Plains. He produced some 500 paintings and sketches based on his travels and exhibited them in the U.S.

heater accelerating anodes

graphite coating

electron beam

| electron-emitting insulator glass neck / i cathode of tube /

red, green, and blue / electron guns

green

beam

blue beam

aperture

grille

"glass tube face ^phosphor coating on back of glass

In a colour-television tube, three electron guns (one each for red, green, and blue) fire electrons toward the phosphor-coated screen. The electrons are directed to a specific spot (pixel) on the screen by magnetic fields, induced by the deflection coils. To prevent "spillage" to adjacent pixels, a grille or shadow mask is used. When the electrons strike the phosphor screen, the pixel glows. Every pixel is scanned about 30 times per second.

© ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, INC.

and Europe. In 1854-57 he traveled to Central and South America; in 1858-70 he lived in Europe. He published several illustrated books on Native American life. Most of his collection was acquired by the Smith¬ sonian Institution for its ethnographic and historical interest.

catnip or catmint Aromatic herb {Nepeta cataria ) of the mint family. Catnip has spikes of small, purple- dotted flowers. It has been used as a seasoning and as a medicinal tea for colds and fever. Because its mintlike flavour and aroma are particularly exciting to domestic cats, it is often used as a stuffing for cat toys.

Cato \'ka-to\, Marcus Porcius known as Cato the Censor or Cato the Elder (b. 234, Tusculum,

Latium—d. 149 bc) Roman states¬ man and orator, the first important Latin prose writer. Born of plebeian stock, he fought in the Second Punic War. His oratorical skills paved the way for his political career. He held conservative anti-Hellenic views and opposed the pro-Hellenic Scipio family, whose power he broke. Elected censor (magistrate in charge of censuses, taxes, and the public good) in 184, he tried to restore the mos majorum (“ancestral custom”) and com¬ bat Greek influence, which he believed undermined Roman morality. He crafted laws against luxury and the financial freedom of women and never ceased to demand the destruction of Carthage. His writings include works on history, medicine, law, military science, and agriculture. His great- grandson Cato the Younger (b. 95—d. 46 bc) was a leading Optimate (see Optimates and Populares) who sought to preserve the republic against Julius Caesar.

Catnip (Nepeta cataria).

WALTER CHANDOHA

Cats \'kats\, Jacob(us) known as Father Cats (b. Nov. 10, 1577, Brouwershaven, Zeeland, Spanish Netherlands—d. Sept. 12, 1660, Zorgvliet, near The Hague) Dutch poet. A magistrate and high official, he was enormously popular as a writer of emblem books, consisting of wood- cuts or engravings with verses possessing a moral. His Mirror of Old and New Times (1632) contains many quotations that have become household sayings in the Netherlands, and he used it to express the ethical concerns of Dutch Calvinists, especially about love and marriage.

that display a luminous band remi-

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—

cat's-eye Any of several gemstones niscent of the eye of a cat. Grayish green or greenish quartz cat’s-eye is the most common type; although it comes from the Orient, it is often called occidental cat’s-eye to differ¬ entiate it from the rarer, and more valuable, precious or oriental cat’s- eye, which is a greenish variety of chrysoberyl. Crocidolite cat’s-eye (African cat’s-eye) is more com¬ monly known as tigereye. Corundum cat’s-eye is an imperfect star sap¬ phire or ruby in which the star is reduced to a luminous zone.

Catskill Mountains Mountain group of the Appalachian mountain system, southeastern New York, U.S.

It is bounded by the Mohawk and Hudson rivers. Many of its peaks reach 3,000 ft (900 m); the highest. Slide Mountain, reaches 4,204 ft (1,281 m). The area has many resorts, and its lakes supply New York City with water. The mountains were made famous through Washington Irv¬ ing’s stories of Rip Van Winkle, who supposedly took his long nap near the town of Catskill.

Chrysoberyl cat's-eye with yellow banding on a brown stone

JOHN H. GERARD

Catt, Carrie Chapman orig. Carrie Lane (b. Jan. 9, 1859, Ripon, Wis., U.S.—d. March 9, 1947, New Rochelle, N.Y.) U.S. advocate of woman suffrage. A graduate of Iowa State College (1880), she became a high-school principal in Mason City, Iowa, in 1881 and superintendent of schools two years later; she was one of the first U.S. women to hold such a post. She married Leo Chapman in 1884. After his untimely death in

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

354 I cattail ► caudillo

1886 she devoted herself to organiz¬ ing the Iowa Woman Suffrage Asso¬ ciation (1887-90). Her marriage to George W. Catt, an engineer, in 1890, was unusual in its prenuptial legal contract providing her with four months of free time each year to work exclusively for woman suf¬ frage. In 1900 she was elected to suc¬ ceed Susan B. Anthony as president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA).

Between 1905 and 1915 Catt reorga¬ nized the NAWSA along political district lines. By then an accom¬ plished public speaker, she served as the group’s president from 1915 until her death. After ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment, which granted voting rights to women, she reorganized the NAWSA as the League of Women Voters to work for progressive legislation, including the cause of world peace. See also woman suffrage movement.

cattail Any of the tall reedy marsh plants (see reed) that bear brown, furry fruiting spikes and make up the genus Typha (family Typhaceae), particularly T. latifolia, the long flat leaves of which are used especially for making mats and chair seats. Cattails are found mainly in temperate and cold regions of the Northern and Southern hemispheres. Important to wildlife, they are also often cultivated ornamentally as pond plants and for dried-flower arrangements. The leaves, which swell when wet, are used for caulking cracks in barrels and boats.

Cattell \k3-'tel\, James McKeen (b. May 25, 1860, Easton, Pa., U.S.—d. Jan. 20, 1944, Lancaster, Pa.) U.S. psychologist. He studied with Wilhelm Wundt in Leipzig and later assisted Francis Galton in London. Teaching at the University of Pennsylvania (1888-91) and Columbia Uni¬ versity (1891-1917), where Edward L. Thorndike was his student, he ori¬ ented U.S. psychology toward use of objective experimental methods, mental testing, and applied psychology. Much of his career was devoted to editing and publishing scientific periodicals; he was a founder of Psy¬ chological Review (1894), edited Science for 50 years (from 1894), and founded the directory American Men of Science (1906).

cattle Domesticated bovids that are raised for meat, milk, or hides or for draft purposes. Depending on the breed, mature bulls (fertile males) weigh 1,000-4,000 lbs (450-1,800 kg); cows (fertile females) weigh 800-2,400 lbs (360-1,080 kg). All modern cattle are believed to belong to either of two species (Bos indicus or B. taurus) or to be crosses of the two. About 277 identifiable breeds include those prominent in beef production (e.g., Angus, Hereford, and shorthorn) and dairy farming. Cattle feed primarily by grazing on pasture, but in modem farming their diet is ordinarily supplemented with prepared animal feeds. See also aurochs, Brahman, ox.

Cattle Raid of Cooley, The \'tan y - l b6- , ku-3l y -n y 9, 'tany-'bo-'ku-PeV Irish Tain Bo Cuailgne Irish narrative, the longest of the Ulster cycle. It was composed in prose with verse passages in the 7th-8th century, probably by an author acquainted with such epics as the Aeneid. Its hero is Cu Chulainn, who singlehandedly held off the Connaught army that invaded Ulster to capture a famous and valuable brown bull. After three days of battle, Cu Chulainn gained victory, yet the Connaughts success¬ fully captured the bull. Madb, the warrior-queen of Connaught, secured her superiority over her husband Ailill when the brown bull defeated Ail- ill’s white-horned bull.

Catullus \k3-'t9l-9s\, Gaius Valerius (b. c. 84, Verona, Cisalpine Gaul—d. c. 54 bc, Rome) Roman poet. Few facts about his life are cer¬ tain. Of 116 extant poems, 25 portray an intense and unhappy affair with a married woman (“Lesbia”); others reflect an affair with the youth Juven- tius; still others are outbursts of contempt for Julius Caesar and other per¬ sonages. He displayed remarkable versatility in assorted poetic forms, and his conversational rhythms carry an immediacy unrivaled by any other classical poet. His expressions of love and hatred represent perhaps the finest lyric poetry of ancient Rome.

Cauca \'kau-ka\ River River, western Colombia. It rises in the Andes Mountains and flows northward, between the Cordillera Occidental and

the Cordillera Oriental, 838 mi (1,348 km) to join the Magdalena River north of Mompos. In its middle reaches, its valley is important for agri¬ culture and cattle raising. Two-thirds of Colombia’s coffee is produced in the adjacent uplands.

Caucasian \k6-'ka-zhon\ languages Group of languages spoken in the Caucasus region that are not members of any language families spo¬ ken elsewhere in the world. Caucasian languages, spoken by some nine million people, are divided into three subgroups: the South Caucasian, or Kartvelian family; the Northwest Caucasian, or Abkhaz-Adyghe lan¬ guages; and the Northeast Caucasian, or Nakh-Dagestanian languages. Kartvelian, with more than 4.5 million speakers, comprises four relatively closely related languages, including Georgian. Northwest Caucasian lan¬ guages include Abkhaz and a chain of dialects called collectively Circas¬ sian. The Northeast Caucasian languages are further divided into two groups, Nakh and Dagestanian. The Nakh languages include Chechen and Ingush, spoken by more than a million people mainly in Chechnya and Ingushetia. Dagestanian is an extraordinarily diversified group of 25-30 languages spoken by some 1.7 million people mainly in northern Azer¬ baijan and the Republic of Dagestan. Several Dagestanian languages, including Avar, Lak, Dargva, and Lezgi, number their speakers in the hundreds of thousands; others are spoken in only a few villages. In spite of their great diversity, most Caucasian languages have in common large consonant inventories; in some languages the number of consonants dis¬ tinguished approaches 80. Those Caucasian languages with standard writ¬ ten forms employ the Cyrillic alphabet, with the prominent exception of Georgian. An effort is being made to introduce the Latin alphabet for Chechen in Chechnya.

Caucasoid See race

Caucasus Vko-ko-sosV or Caucasia \k6-'ka-zho\ Mountainous region, between the Black and Caspian seas. Occupying roughly 170,000 sq mi (440,000 sq km), it is divided among Russia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia and forms part of the traditional dividing line between Europe and Asia. It is bisected by the Caucasus Mountains; the area north of the Greater Caucasus range is called Ciscaucasia and the region to the south Transcaucasia. Inhabited from ancient times, it was under nominal Per¬ sian and Turkish suzerainty until conquered by Russia in the 18th-19th centuries.

Caucasus Vko-ko-sosN Mountains Russian Kavkazsky Khrebet

\k3f-'ka-ske-kryi-'byet\ Mountain range between the Black and Caspian seas. It is sometimes considered the southeastern limit of Europe. Of vol¬ canic origin, it forms two distinct chains—the Greater Caucasus in the north and the Lesser Caucasus in the south—that extend about 750 mi (1,200 km) across southern Russia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia. Many peaks rise above 15,000 ft (4,600 m); the highest is Mount Elbrus. The range is crossed by several high passes, including the Daryal and Mamison. It possesses considerable waterpower resources, including those in the Kura-Aras Lowland, and valuable petroleum and natural gas reserves. Caucasus Nature Reserve and other areas in the western part of the range were designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1999.

Cauchy \ko-'she\, Augustin-Louis, Baron (b. Aug. 21, 1789, Paris, France—d. May 23, 1857, Sceaux) French mathematician, pioneer of analysis and group theory. After a career as a military engineer in Napo¬ leon’s navy, he wrote a treatise in 1813 that became the basis of the theory of complex variables. He also clarified the theory of calculus by develop¬ ing the concepts of limits and continuity, laid the foundations for the math¬ ematical theory of elasticity, and made important contributions to number theory. He is considered one of the greatest mathematicians of the mod¬ ern era.

Cauchy-Schwarz \'shworts\ inequality Any of several related inequalities developed by Augustin-Louis Cauchy and, later, Herman Schwarz (1843-1921). The inequalities arise from assigning a real num¬ ber measurement, or norm, to the functions, vectors, or integrals within a particular space in order to analyze their relationship. For functions/and g, whose squares are integrable and thus usable as a norm, (.Ifgf ^ df)(lg 2 )- For vectors a = (a u a 2 , a 3 ,..., a„) and b = (b 3 , b 2 , b 3 ,..., b n ), together with the inner product (see inner product space) for a norm, (Z(aj, bf) 2 < Z(fl f ) 2 Z(ft f ) 2 . In addition to functional analysis, these inequali¬ ties have important applications in statistics and probability theory.

caudillo \kau-'de-y6\ Latin American military dictator. In the wake of the Latin American independence movement in the early 19th century.

Carrie Chapman Catt.

COURTESY OF THE LEAGUE OF WOMEN VOTERS OF ILLINOIS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.