Britannica Concise 2005

drupe Fruit in which the outer layer is a thin skin, the middle layer is thick and usually fleshy (though sometimes tough, as in the almond, or fibrous, as in the coconut), and the inner layer (the pit) is hard and stony.

Within the pit is usually one seed. In aggregate fruits such as the raspberry and blackberry (which are not true berries), many small drupes are clumped together. Other representa¬ tive drupes are the cherry, peach,

MANGO, OUVE, and WALNUT.

Drury Lane Theatre Oldest English theatre still in use. It was built in London by Thomas Killi- grew for his acting company as the Theatre Royal (1663). It burned in 1672 and was rebuilt in 1674 with Christopher Wren as architect. It prospered under such actor-managers as Colley Cibber and later under David Garrick and Richard Brinsley Sheridan. An expanded “fireproof’ theatre opened in 1794 and burned in 1809. Rebuilt in 1812 with over 2,000 seats, it declined in popularity from the 1840s, but it revived in the 1880s with melodramas and spectacles and was the scene of the acting triumphs of Henry Irving and Ellen Terry. More recently it has played host to many U.S. musicals.

Drusus Germanicus Vdru-sos-jor-'ma-ni-kosX, Nero Claudius (b.

38 bc —d. 9) Younger brother of Tiberius and commander of Roman forces in German territory. The reputed son of Octavian (later Augustus), he was allowed to take office five years earlier than the legal age. In 13 bc he became governor of the three Gauls, where he conducted a census and erected an altar to Augustus. In 12 he marched into Germany, reaching the Elbe three years later. During those years he was made praetor in 11 and consul in 9. At the Elbe he was thrown from his horse and died. His son Claudius later became emperor.

Druze \'driiz\ or Druse Relatively small Middle Eastern religious sect. It originated in Egypt in 1017 and is named for one of its founders, Muhammad al-Daraz! (d. 1019/20). Strictly monotheistic and based in Islam, particularly IsmaTlI Islam, Druze beliefs include an eclectic mix¬ ture of elements from Gnosticism, Neoplatonism, Judaism, and Iranian reli¬ gion. The Druze believe in the divinity of al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah (985- 1021?), sixth caliph of the Fajimid dynasty of Egypt, and expect him to return someday to inaugurate a golden age. The Druze are divided hier- achically into two orders—the sages, who are fully initiated in the beliefs of the religion, and the ignorant, who constitute the uninitiated lay major¬ ity. They permit no converts, either to or from their religion, and no inter¬ marriage. Their religious system is kept secret from the outside world, and they are permitted to deny their faith if their life is in danger. In the early 21st century they numbered about one million, mostly in Syria and Lebanon.

dry cleaning System of cleaning textiles with chemical solvents instead of water. The chemicals, often halides or organohalogens (com¬ pounds that contain halogen atoms bonded to carbon atoms), dissolve dirt and grease from fabrics. Carbon tetrachloride was once widely used as a dry-cleaning liquid, but its adverse health effects have cut back its use; other organic halogen compounds are now preferred, particularly tetra- chloroethylene, which is much more stable and less toxic.

dry ice Carbon dioxide in solid form. It is a dense, colourless substance, resembling compressed snow, that at normal atmospheric pressure passes directly from solid to vapour (see sublimation) at -109.3 °F (-78.5 °C).

Barrel drum from India with cord- tensioned construction, in the Metro¬ politan Museum of Art, New York City

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dry lake ► dualism I 575

Commonly available in blocks, it is used chiefly to keep foods, vaccines, and other perishable products cold during shipping or storage.

dry lake See playa

dry rot Symptom of fungal disease in plants (see fungus), characterized by firm spongy to leathery or hard decay of the stem (branch), trunk, root, rhizome, corm, bulb, or fruit. The fungus consumes the cellulose of wood, leaving a soft skeleton that is readily reduced to powder.

Dry Tortugas \t6r-'tu-g3z\ National Park National park located on the Dry Tortugas islands, southwestern Florida, U.S. The islands are situ¬ ated at the entrance to the Gulf of Mexico, west of Key West, Fla. Estab¬ lished in 1935 as Fort Jefferson National Park, it occupies an area of about 64,700 acres (26,200 hectares). Its current name was adopted in 1992. The park’s principal features are a marine exhibit and the remains of for¬ tifications built in 1846.

dryad Ydri-sd, 'dri-,ad\ or hamadryad In Greek mythology, tree nymphs. Dryads were originally the spirits of oak trees ( drys : “oak”), but the name was later applied to all tree nymphs. They were nature spirits who took the form of beautiful young women, and it was believed that they lived only as long as the trees they inhabited.

Dryden, John (b. Aug. 9, 1631, Aldwinkle, Northamptonshire, Eng.—d. May 1, 1700, London) British poet, dramatist, and literary critic. The son of a country gentleman, Dryden was educated at the University of Cambridge. His poetry celebrating the Restoration so pleased Charles II that he was named poet laureate (1668) and, two years later, royal his¬ toriographer. Even after losing the laureateship and his court patronage in 1688 with the accession of William III, he succeeded in dominating the literary scene with his numerous works, many attuned to politics and pub¬ lic life. Several of his nearly 30 comedies, tragedies, and dramatic operas—including Marriage A-la-Mode (1672), Aureng-Zebe (1675), and All for Love (1677)—were outstandingly successful. His Of Dramatick Poesie (1668) was the first substantial piece of modern dramatic criticism. Turning away from drama, he became England’s greatest verse satirist, producing the masterpieces Absalom and Achitophel (1681) and Mac Flecknoe (1682). He also produced extensive translations of Latin poetry, including Virgil’s Aeneid.

dryopithecine X.drl-o-'pi-tho-.smX Any member of the genus Dryo- pithecus, a group of extinct apelike animals. The species are representa¬ tive of a group of generalized apes that includes the ancestors of both the modern apes and humans. Fragmentary materials found over a widespread area, including Europe, Africa, and Asia, have been attributed to other groups but were probably remains of Dryopithecus. Dryopithecines are found as fossils in Miocene and Pliocene deposits (23.8-1.8 million years old) and apparently originated in Africa. Several distinct forms are known, including small, medium, and large (GORiLLA-sized). Dryopithecines lacked most of the specializations that distinguish modern apes from humans.

DSL in full Digital Subscriber Line Broadband digital communica¬ tions connection that operates over standard copper telephone wires. It requires a DSL modem, which splits transmissions into two frequency bands: the lower frequencies for voice (ordinary telephone calls) and the upper band for digital data, especially for connection to the Internet. Data can be transferred via DSL at much higher rates than with ordinary dial-up modem service; the range of DSL signals, however, is very small. Con¬ nections can be made only within a few miles of the nearest transmitting station. DSL and “xDSL” are umbrella terms under which a variety of protocols and technologies fall. ADSL (Asymmetric DSL) is a popular type of DSL in which most of the bandwidth of the connection is devoted to downloading data from the network to the user, leaving only a small- scale connection for uploading data. In HDSL (High bit-rate DSL) and SDSL (Symmetric DSL) the data stream is symmetric; that is, the upstream and downstream rates are the same. UDSL (Unidirectional DSL), VDSL (Very high data rate DSL), and others still under develop¬ ment are intended to offer even greater rates of data transmission.

Du Bois \dii-'b6is\, W(illiam) E(dward) B(urghardt) (b. Feb. 23, 1868, Great Barrington, Mass., U.S.—d. Aug. 27, 1963, Accra, Ghana) U.S. sociologist and civil-rights leader. He received a Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1895. Two years later he accepted a professorship at Atlanta University, where he conducted empirical studies on the social situation of African Americans (1897-1910). He concluded that change could be attained only through agitation and protest, a view that clashed with that of Booker T. Washington. His famous book The Souls of Black Folk

appeared in 1903. In 1905 Du Bois founded the Niagara Movement, the forerunner of the NAACP. In 1910 he left teaching to become the NAACP’s director of research and editor of its magazine, Crisis (1910— 34). He returned to Atlanta University in 1934 and devoted the next 10 years to teaching and scholarship. After a second research position with the NAACP (1944-48), he moved steadily leftward politically. In 1951 he was indicted as an unregistered agent of a foreign power (the Soviet Union); though a federal judge directed his acquittal, he was by then completely disillusioned with the U.S. In 1961 he joined the Communist Party, moved to Ghana, and renounced his U.S. citizenship.

Du Buat Vdie-biE-'aV, Pierre-Louis-Georges (b. April 23,1734, Tor- tisambert, France—d. Oct. 17, 1809, Vieux-Conde) French hydraulic engineer. He compiled experimental data from which he determined his basic algebraic expression for discharge from pipes and open channels. Though valid only within the range of his experimental data, this equa¬ tion provided the best means at the time of predicting the performance of water-supply systems and similar works. His emphasis on achieving results that would be of practical use strongly influenced the development of experimental hydraulics in the 18th—19th centuries.

du Cange, Charles du Fresne, seigneur See Charles du Fresne, seigneur du Cange

Du Fu Vdti-'fiA or Tu Fu (b. 712, Xiangyang, China—d. 770, Hunan) Chinese poet, often considered the greatest of all time. After a traditional Confucian education, he failed the important civil service examinations and consequently spent much of his life wandering, repeatedly attempt¬ ing to gain court positions, with mixed success. His early poetry, which celebrates the natural world and bemoans the passage of time, garnered him renown. He suffered periods of extreme personal hardship, and as he matured his verse began to express profound compassion for humanity. An expert in all the poetic genres of his day, he is renowned for his superb classicism and skill in prosody, though many of the subtleties of his art do not survive translation.

du Maurier \du-'m6r-e-,a. Dame Daphne (b. May 13, 1907, Lon¬ don, Eng.—d. April 19, 1989, Par, Cornwall) British novelist and play¬ wright. Granddaughter of George du Maurier and daughter of the actor- manager Sir Gerald Du Maurier (1873-1934), she is best known for the romantic gothic suspense novel Rebecca (1938), one of many successful tales set on the wild coast of Cornwall. Her other novels include Jamaica Inn (1936), Frenchman’s Creek (1942), and My Cousin Rachel (1951). Her story “The Birds,” like Jamaica Inn and Rebecca , was filmed by Alfred Hitchcock.

du Maurier, George (Louis Palmella Busson) (b. March 6, 1834, Paris, France.—d. Oct. 6, 1896, London, Eng.) British caricaturist and novelist. Forced to abandon painting for drawing when he was blinded in one eye, his skilled draftsmanship and engaging personality quickly established his success. His drawings for Punch, Once a Week, and The Leisure Hour were acute commentaries on the Victorian scene. His highly successful novel Trilby (1894), about an artist’s model who falls under the spell of the musician Svengali, has entered popular mythology. His other novels were Peter Ibbetson (1891) and The Martian (1897). His granddaughter Daphne du Maurier was also a writer.

Du Mont, Allen B(alcom) (b. Jan. 29, 1901, Brooklyn, N.Y., N.Y., U.S.—d. Nov. 15, 1965, New York City) U.S. engineer. He became inter¬ ested in television in 1928, as chief engineer at the De Forest Radio Co., and concluded that television required a purely electronic system to work. In 1931 he set up what would become Allen B. Du Mont Laboratories, where he improved the cathode-ray tube and developed the modem oscil¬ loscope. In 1937 he began manufacturing the first commercial television receivers. After World War II he marketed the first widely available TV receivers and set up one of the first TV broadcasting networks. He served with the National Television System Committee formulating broadcast¬ ing standards and worked with the Federal Communications Commission in allocating frequencies for TV channels.

Dual Alliance See Austro-German Alliance, Franco-Russian Alliance dual-aspect theory See double-aspect theory Dual Monarchy See Austria-Hungary

dualism In philosophy, any pair of irreducible, mutually heterogeneous principles used to analyze the nature and origins of knowledge (episte¬ mological dualism) or to explain all of reality or some broad aspect of it

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576 I Dubayy ► Duchamp

(metaphysical dualism); also, any theory that employs dualisms. Examples of epistemological dualisms are subject and object and sensa¬ tion and sensibilia; examples of metaphysical dualisms are mind and mat¬ ter, good and evil, and God and world. Dualism is distinguished from monism and pluralism.

Dubayy or Dubai \du-'bl\ Constituent emirate (pop., 2001 est.: 913,000), United Arab Emirates (UAE). It is surrounded by the emirates of Abu Dhabi and Al-Shariqah (Sharjah), and it has 45 mi (72 km) of coastline on the Persian Gulf. Occupying an area of 1,510 sq mi (3,900 sq km), it is the second most populous and second largest state of the federation. Most of its population live in or near its capital, Dubai city (pop., 1995: 669,181). Settled in 1799 by people from Abu Dhabi, Dubayy became a locally powerful state in the early 19th century, and until the 1930s it was known for its pearl exports. It has since been enriched by petroleum exports. Dubai city is now a centre for most of the banks and insurance companies of the UAE.

Dubcek Vdiib-.chekV Alexander (b. Nov. 27, 1921, Uhrovec, Czech.—d. Nov. 7, 1992, Prague) Czech politician. In World War II he took part in the underground resistance to Nazi occupation. After the war he rose in Communist Party ranks to become a member of the Presidium of the party’s Central Committee (1962). In 1968 he forced Antonin Novotny (1904-75) to resign and replaced him as head of the Commu¬ nist Party. He introduced liberal reforms in the brief period known as the Prague Spring, which ended when the Soviet Union invaded Czechoslo¬ vakia in August 1968. Demoted to lesser posts, he was expelled from the party in 1970. He returned to prominence in 1989 after the Communist Party had given up its monopoly on power, and was elected speaker of the Czech parliament.

Dubinsky, David (b. Feb. 22, 1892, Brest-Litovsk, Russian Empire—d. Sept. 17, 1982, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. labour leader. The son of a baker in Russian Poland, he was sent to Siberia in 1908 for his union activities. In 1911 he escaped and immigrated to the U.S., where he renewed his union work. In 1932 he became president of the Interna¬ tional Ladies' Garment Workers' Union (ILGWU), a post he held until 1966. As president, he transformed the ILGWU from a small, fractious regional organization into a model international union. He also played a significant role in the merger of the American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations (see AFL-CIO) in 1955.

Dublin ancient Eblana City and county borough (pop., 2002 prelim.: city, 495,101; county borough, 1,122,600), capital of Ireland. On the River Liffey, it was settled by Danish Vikings arriving in the area in the 9th cen¬ tury ad; they held it until it was taken by the Irish in the 11th century. Under English control in the 12th century, it was given a charter by Henry II, establishing it as a seat of government. It prospered in the 18th cen¬ tury as a centre of the cloth trade, and its harbour dates from this period. In the 19th and 20th centuries it was the site of bloody nationalist vio¬ lence, including the 1867 Fenian movement and the 1916 Easter Rising. It is the country’s chief port, centre of finance and commerce, and seat of culture. Its Guinness Brewery is the country’s largest private employer. Educational and cultural institutions include the University of Dublin; the National Library and National Museum are housed on the grounds of Leinster House (1748), now the seat of the Irish parliament.

Dublin, University of or Trinity College Oldest university in Ire¬ land, founded in 1592 by Elizabeth I and endowed by the city of Dublin. Trinity was originally intended to be the first of many constituent colleges of the university, but no others were established, and the two names became interchangeable. The full benefits of the university (degrees, fel¬ lowships, scholarships, etc.) were for many years limited to Anglicans, but in 1873 all religious requirements were eliminated. The university has faculties of arts (humanities and letters), sciences, business, economic and social studies, engineering and systems sciences, health sciences, and graduate studies. The library contains many illuminated manuscripts, including the Book of Kells.

Dublin Bay prawn See scampi

Dubnow Vdub-.noA, Simon Markovich (b. Sept. 10, 1860, Mstislavl, Russia—d. December 1941, Riga, Latvia, U.S.S.R.) Russian Jewish historian. Largely self-educated, he gained notice as a scholar of Jewish history before the Bolshevik Revolution prompted him to leave his native Russia for Germany in 1922. He emphasized the cultural autonomy of the Jewish people throughout history, rejecting assimilation but also

opposing Zionism as unrealistic. His best-known works were History of the Jews (10 vol., 1925-30) and History of Hasidism (1931). He fled Nazi Germany in 1933 for Riga, Latvia, where he was eventually killed by the Germans.

Dubos \du-'boz\, Rene (Jules) (b. Feb. 20, 1901, Saint-Brice, France—d. Feb. 20, 1982, New York, N.Y., U.S.) French-born U.S. micro¬ biologist and environmentalist. He immigrated to the U.S. in 1924 and earned his Ph.D. from Rutgers University. His pioneering research in iso¬ lating antibacterial substances from soil microorganisms led to the dis¬ covery of major antibiotics. He researched and wrote on antibiotics, acquired immunity, tuberculosis, and the bacteria of the gastrointestinal tract. In his later years his interest shifted to the relationship of humans to the natural environment; his So Human an Animal (1968) won the Pulitzer Prize. See also Selman Waksman.

Dubrovnik Vdu-.brov-nikV Port city (pop., 2001: 43,770), Croatia. It is situated on the southern Adriatic coast southwest of Sarajevo. Founded in the 7th century by Roman refugees, it came under Byzantine rule after the fall of Rome. It acknowledged Venetian suzerainty (1205-1358) but remained largely independent and became a mercantile power. It was known as a centre of Slavic literature and art in the 15th—17th centuries. Subjugated by Napoleon I in 1808, it was passed to Austria in 1815 and to Yugoslavia in 1918. It was bombed by the Serbs (1991-92) during Croatia’s struggle for independence. The old city, enclosed by medieval city walls, contains 14th-century convents and the 15th-century Rector’s Palace.

Dubuffet VdlE-btE-'feX, Jean (-Philippe-Arthur) (b. July 31, 1901, Le Havre, Fr.—d. May 12, 1985, Paris) French painter, sculptor, and printmaker. He studied painting in Paris, but in 1929 he began making a living as a wine merchant. When he returned to art full-time in the early 1940s, he became a leading artist in Paris and proponent of art brut. He executed crude images incised into rough impasto surfaces made of mate¬ rials such as sand, plaster, tar, gravel, and ashes bound with varnish and glue, and sculptural works made of junk materials; their unfinished appearance provoked public outrage. In the 1960s he experimented with musical composition and architectural environments, and in his later years he produced large fibreglass sculptures for public spaces.

Duby, Georges (b. Oct. 7, 1919, Paris, France—d. Dec. 3, 1996, near Aix-en-Provence) Prolific and influential French historian. After receiv¬ ing a doctorate in history at the Sorbonne (University of Paris) in 1950, Duby taught at the university of Marseilles-Aix-en-Provence. In 1970 he moved to the College de France, where he served as professor of the his¬ tory of medieval societies until 1993. The most influential of his many works was his dissertation, La Societe awe Xle et Xlle siecles dans la region maconnaise (“Society in the Maconnais in the 11th and 12th Cen¬ turies”), published in 1953, which helped shape a new understanding of medieval society. He also served as director of the Societe d’Edition de Programmes de Television, a public television production agency. He was elected to the Academie Fran£aise in 1987.

Duccio \'dut-cho\ (di Buoninsegna) (b. 13th century, Siena, Repub¬ lic of Siena—d. c. 1318, Siena?) Italian painter. Little is known of his life, but several commission records survive, as well as two documented works, the Rucellai Madonna for the Florentine church of Santa Maria Novella (1285) and the famous Maesta altarpiece for Siena Cathedral (1308-11); both represent landmarks in the history of Italian painting. His style reflected the influence of Cimabue and Byzantine art, though he intro¬ duced a warmth of human feeling that was comparable to that of Giotto in Florentine painting. He was the leading painter in Siena, one of Italy’s most vital artistic centres in the Middle Ages.

Duchamp Ndui-'shaA, Marcel (b. July 28, 1887, Blainville, France—d. Oct. 2, 1968, Neuilly) French artist and art innovator. In 1913 he caused a sensation at the Armory Show with his painting Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 (1912), which combined the principles of Cubism and Futurism. His irreverence for conventional aesthetic standards then led him to devise his famous ready-mades: in 1913 he exhibited Bicycle Wheel, which was simply an ordinary bicycle wheel displayed as a work of art, and in 1917 he exhibited a urinal he entitled Fountain. Intended as a deri¬ sive gesture against the excessive importance attached to works of art, the ready-mades ushered in an era when contemporary art became in itself a mixture of creation and criticism. In Paris in 1919 he established contact with the Dada group of artists, whose nihilistic ideas he had anticipated. During this period he exhibited a photograph of the Mona Lisa with a

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duck ► Duisburg i 577

moustache and goatee added, a gesture that expressed the Dadaists’ scorn for the art of the past. He greatly influenced the Surrealists, and his atti¬ tude toward art and society led to Pop art and other modern and post¬ modern movements. A legend in his lifetime, he is considered one of the leading spirits of 20th-century art.

duck Any of various relatively small, short-necked, large-billed water- fowl (several genera in subfamily Anatinae, family Anatidae). The legs of true ducks (Anatinae) are placed rearward (as are those of swans), resulting in a waddling gait. Most true ducks differ from swans and true geese (see goose) in that male ducks molt twice annually, females lay large clutches of smooth-shelled eggs, and both sexes have overlapping scales on the skin of the leg and exhibit some differences between sexes in plumage and in call. All true ducks except shelducks and sea ducks (see diving duck) mature in the first year and pair only for the season. They are generally divided into three groups: perching ducks, dabbling ducks, and diving ducks. The whistling duck species, also called tree ducks, are not true ducks but are more closely related to geese and swans.

duck hawk See peregrine falcon duckbill See platypus

ductility Capacity of a material to deform permanently (e.g., stretch, bend, or spread) in response to stress. Most common steels, for example, are quite ductile and hence can accommodate local stress concentrations. Brittle materials, such as glass, cannot accommodate concentrations of stress because they lack ductility, and therefore fracture easily. When a material specimen is stressed, it deforms elastically (see elasticity) at first; above a certain deformation, called the elastic limit, deformation becomes permanent.

ductus arteriosus Vdok-tos-ar-.tir-e-'o-sosN Channel between the pul¬ monary artery and the aorta in the fetus, which bypasses the lungs to dis¬ tribute oxygen received through the placenta from the mother’s blood. It normally closes once the baby is born and the lungs inflate, separating the pulmonary and systemic circulations. Closure before birth causes circu¬ latory problems. If the ductus stays open after birth (patent ductus arte¬ riosus, more common in premature births), oxygenated and deoxygenated blood mix. Alone, this may not be serious; in some heart malformations it is even necessary for life.

Dudley City (pop., 1998 est.: 311,500), West Midlands, England. It is the site of several Saxon and Norman fortifications. Coal and ironstone have been mined there since the Middle Ages. By the mid-19th century there were numerous blast furnaces, and the resultant pollution helped to give the area to the north and east the name “Black Country.” Metalwork¬ ing is an important industry.

Dudley, Dud (b. 1599, England?—d. 1684, England?) English iron¬ master. He was an illegitimate son of Edward Sutton, the 9th Baron of Dudley, who recalled him from Oxford in 1619 to manage the family’s ironworks in Staffordshire. He was the first to experiment with smelting iron ore in a coAL-fired furnace. Previously, charcoal had been exclusively used for smelting iron, but it was becoming increasingly costly, and unpopular, with the depletion of England’s forests for fuel. Dudley pat¬ ented his innovation in 1621, but the poor quality of his metal limited its sale. Dudley’s work culminated in Abraham Darby’s coKE-fired furnace in

Dudley, Robert See Earl of Leicester

due process Legal proceedings carried out fairly and in accord with established rules and principles. Due process standards are sometimes referred to as either substantive or procedural. Substantive due process refers to a requirement that laws and regulations be related to a legitimate government interest (e.g., crime prevention) and not contain provisions that result in the unfair or arbitrary treatment of an individual. The 5th Amendment to the Constitution of the United States states that “no person shall...be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law.” This right was extended to the states by the 14th Amendment (1868). Fundamental to procedural due process are adequate notice before the government can deprive one of life, liberty, or property, and the oppor¬ tunity to be heard and defend one’s rights. The boundaries of due process are not fixed and are the subject of endless judicial interpretation and decision making. See also rights of the accused; double jeopardy.

duel Formal combat with weapons fought between two persons in the presence of witnesses. Intended to settle a quarrel or point of honour, it

represented an alternative to the usual process of justice. The judicial duel, or trial by battle, is reported in ancient sources and was prevalent in medieval Europe. A judge could order two parties to meet in a duel to settle a matter. It was believed that through such an appeal to the “judg¬ ment of God” the righteous would emerge victorious; the loser, if still alive, was dealt with according to the law. Duels of honour were private encounters over real or imagined slights or insults. Eventually fought with pistols, duels were frequent in France and Germany in the 19th and early 20th centuries, and they were legal or encouraged by the fascist regimes in Italy and Germany. By the late 20th century they were prohibited; the last duel recorded in France occurred in 1967. The most famous duel in the U.S. was that between Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr (1804). See also ORDEAL.

Duero River See Douro River

Dufay \dLE-'fe\, Guillaume or Du Fay (b. c. 1400—d. Nov. 27,1474, Cambrai, Bishopric of Cambrai) Franco-Flemish composer, principal composer of the Burgundian school. As a boy he sang in the choir of Cambrai Cathedral. Ordained a priest, he acquired a high reputation for learnedness. In 1428 he joined the papal singers in Rome, by which time his works had made him famous. He returned to Cambrai c. 1440, where he would supervise the cathedral’s music for the rest of his life, apart from a period (1451-58) working for the duke of Savoy. Many musicians came to learn under him, and he enjoyed renown as the greatest living com¬ poser. His surviving works, which employ a richly harmonic texture, include some 90 chansons, 13 motets, and at least 6 complete masses, including such early cantus-firmus works as L’Homme arme and Se la face ay pale.

Dufy \dtE-'fe\, Raoul (b. June 3, 1877, Le Havre, Fr.—d. March 23, 1953, Forcalquier) French painter and designer. In 1900 he studied at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris and experimented with Impressionism, but by 1904 he had adopted the flat areas of bright colour typical of Fauvism. In the early 1920s he developed a distinctive style characterized by rapid calligraphic drawing on backgrounds of bright, decorative colour; his subjects were usually recreational scenes such as horse races, parades, and concerts. He also designed textiles and made numerous book illustrations.

dugong Vdii-.gaqV Large marine mammal ( Dugong dugon, the sole liv¬ ing member of the family Dugongidae) that lives in shallow coastal waters from the Red Sea and eastern Africa to the Philippines, New Guinea, and northern Australia. It is 7-11 ft (2.2-3.4 m) long and usually weighs 500- 800 lbs (230-360 kg). Its round, tapered body ends in a flipper with paired, pointed, horizontal branches. The forelimbs are rounded flippers; there are no hind limbs. The head blends into the body, and the snout is broad, square, and bristled. Dugongs live in pairs or in groups of up to six indi¬ viduals. Once heavily hunted for their meat, hides, and oil, they are now protected throughout most of their range, though some populations remain in danger of extermination. See also manatee, sea cow.

duiker Vdl-korV Any of 19 species of small, shy antelope. They live in most of Africa but are rarely seen by humans. The gray, or bush, duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia) has long legs and lives where there is bush or grass cover. It stands 22-26 in. (57-67 cm) tall at the shoulder. Only males have horns, which are short and straight.

Forest duikers (18 species, genus Cephalophus ) are short-legged, hunchbacked animals that live in dense brush and in forests. They stand 14-18 in. (36-46 cm) tall and vary from pale brown through red¬ dish brown to nearly black. Both sexes have short, straight horns.

Duisburg Vdii-es-.burkA English \'duz-barg\ City (pop., 2002 est.: 478,600), North Rhine-Westphalia state, western Germany. It lies at the junction of the Rhine and Ruhr rivers and is connected with the North Sea ports by the Rhine-Herne Canal. Known to the Romans as Castrum Deu- tonis, it was mentioned in ad 740 as Diuspargum, a seat of the Frankish kings. It passed to Cleves in 1290 and, with Cleves, to Brandenburg in 1614. After suffering heavily in the Thirty Years' War, it revived as the seat of a Protestant university from 1655 to 1818. With increasing indus¬ trialization after 1880, it is now one of the world’s largest inland ports.

Zebra duiker (Cephalophus zebra).

KENNETH W. FINK FROM THE NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCIETY COLLECTION/PHOTO RESEARCHERS-EB INC.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

578 I Dujardin ► Dumas

Dujardin XdiB-zhar-'daA, Felix (b. April 5, 1801, Tours, France—d. April 8, 1860, Rennes) French biologist. His studies of microscopic ani¬ mal life frequently found in decaying organic materials led him in 1834 to propose a new group of one-celled animals that he called Rhizopoda. He named the seemingly formless life substance that oozed outward through openings in certain shells sarcode', later it became known as pro¬ toplasm. This work led him in 1835 to argue against Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg’s theory that microscopic organisms have the same organs as higher animals. Dujardin also studied jellyfish, corals, and sea stars; his study of flatworms laid the foundation for the later development of the study of parasites and parasitism.

Dukas \dLe-'kas\, Paul (-Abraham) (b. Oct. 1, 1865, Paris,

I m France—d. May 17, 1935, Paris) French composer. Born into a musical

family, he studied at the Paris Conservatoire. His first success was the overture Polyeucte (1892). Perfectionism led him to destroy much of his work. His fame rests almost entirely on the tone poem The Sorceror’s Apprentice (1897); his other surviving works include the opera Ariane et Barbe-Bleue (1906), the ballet La Peri (1912), and a symphony (1896).

duke European title of nobility, the highest rank below a prince or king except in countries having such titles as archduke or grand duke. The wife of a duke is a duchess. The Romans gave the title dux to high military commanders with territorial responsibilities. It was adopted by the bar¬ barian invaders of the Roman Empire and was used in their kingdoms and also in France and Germany for rulers of very large areas. In some Euro¬ pean countries a duke is a sovereign prince who rules an independent duchy. In Britain, where there were no ducal titles until 1337, it is a hereditary title.

Duke, James B(uchanan) (b. Dec. 23, 1856, Durham, N.C., U.S.—d. Oct. 10, 1925, New York, N.Y.) U.S. tobacco magnate and phi¬ lanthropist. He and his brother Benjamin (1855-1929) entered the family tobacco business. In 1890 James became president of the American Tobacco Co., which controlled the entire U.S. tobacco industry until anti¬ trust laws caused it, in 1911, to be broken into several companies that would become the principal U.S. cigarette makers. He oversaw the fami¬ ly’s contributions to Trinity College in Durham, which was renamed Duke University.

Duke, Vernon orig. Vladimir (Aleksandrovich) Dukelsky (b.

Oct. 10, 1903, Parfyanovka, near Pskov, Russia—d. Jan. 16, 1969, Santa Monica, Calif., U.S.) Russian-born U.S. composer. He fled Russia at age 16, settling in Constantinople. From there he visited the U.S., where George Gershwin suggested his new name and advised him not to be afraid of “going low-brow.” He composed classical works in Europe, including Zephyr et Flore (1925) for the Ballets Russes but returned to the U.S. in 1929. With lyricists including Edgar Harburg and Howard Dietz, he wrote music for shows (including Walk a Little Faster , 1932) and movies (including Cabin in the Sky, 1943, and Sadie Thompson, 1944). His songs include “April in Paris,” “Taking a Chance on Love,” and “Banjo Eyes.”

Duke University Private university in Durham, N.C. It was created in 1924 through an endowment from James B. Duke, although the original college (Trinity) traces its roots to the mid 19th century. Duke maintained separate campuses for undergraduate men and women until the 1970s. Besides an undergraduate liberal arts college, the university includes schools of business, divinity, engineering, environmental studies, gradu¬ ate studies, law, medicine (including a medical centre), and nursing.

Dukhobor See Doukhobor

Dulany \d3-'la-ne\, Daniel (b. June 28, 1722, Annapolis, Md.—d. March 17, 1797, Baltimore, Md., U.S.) American lawyer. He was edu¬ cated in England and became a lawyer after returning to Maryland. After serving in Maryland’s legislative assembly (1751-54), he was appointed to the Governor’s Council (1757-76) in recognition of his support for the colony’s proprietary government. Though he wrote an influential pam¬ phlet criticizing the Stamp Act (1765), he opposed revolt against British rule and remained a loyalist during the American Revolution.

Dulbecco \d3l-'be-ko\, Renato (b. Feb. 22, 1914, Catanzaro, Italy) Italian-born U.S. virologist. He received his M.D. from the University of Turin in 1936 and immigrated to the U.S. in 1947. With Marguerite Vogt he pioneered the culturing of animal viruses and investigated how certain viruses gain control of the cells they infect. They showed that polyoma virus inserts its DNA into the DNA of the host cell and that the cell is then transformed into a cancer cell, reproducing the viral DNA along with

its own and producing more cancer cells. Dulbecco suggested that human cancers could be caused by similar reproduction of foreign DNA frag¬ ments. He shared a 1975 Nobel Prize with two former students, Howard Temin (b. 1934) and David Baltimore. The last of his academic appoint¬ ments in the U.S. and Britain was as president of the Salk Institute.

dulcimer or hammered dulcimer Stringed musical instrument in which the strings are beaten with small hammers rather than plucked. Its soundbox is flat and usually trapezoidal; each pair of strings produces a single note, and the pairs slope upward alternately left and right to facili¬ tate rapid playing. The Hungarian cimbalom is a large dulcimer with legs and a damper pedal, much used in Roma (Gypsy) orchestras. The Appa¬ lachian dulcimer is a narrow zither with a fretted fingerboard and three to five strings, which are stopped with one hand and plucked with a plec¬ trum held in the other.

DuLhut \dLE-'ltBt\, Daniel Greysolon, Lord (b. c. 1639, Saint- Germain-Laval, France—d. Feb. 25/26, 1710, Montreal) French soldier and explorer. He made two voyages to New France before 1674 and returned to Montreal in 1675. He negotiated fur-trade agreements with Indian tribes, rescued Louis Hennepin from the Sioux, assisted count de Frontenac in the campaign against Indian allies of the British, and is cred¬ ited with establishing French control over the land north and west of Lake Superior. Duluth, Minn., is named for him.

Dulles Vdo-losV Allen W(elsh) (b. April 7, 1893, Watertown, N.Y., U.S.—d. Jan. 29, 1969, Washington, D.C.) U.S. diplomat and adminis¬ trator. He held diplomatic posts before practicing law with his brother, John Foster Dulles. In World War II he served in the Office of Strategic Services. After the war he chaired a committee to survey the U.S. intel¬ ligence system. When the Central Intelligence Agency was established in 1951, he became its deputy director. As director (1953-61), he oversaw the agency’s early successes, but the U-2 Affair (1960) and the Bay of Pigs invasion (1961) led to his resignation.

Dulles, John Foster (b. Feb. 25, 1888, Washington, D.C., U.S.—d. May 24, 1959, Washington, D.C.) U.S. secretary of state (1953-59). He was counsel to the American Peace Commission at Versailles, France, and later helped oversee the payment of World War I reparations. He helped prepare the charter of the UN and was a delegate to its General Assem¬ bly (1946-49). He negotiated the complex Japanese peace treaty (1949- 51). As secretary of state under Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower, he advocated active opposition to Soviet actions and developed the Eisenhower Doc¬ trine. His critics considered him inflexible and harsh and a practitioner of “brinkmanship” for raising international tensions and bringing the coun¬ try to the brink of war; later assessments credit his firmness in checking communist expansion.

Duluth \do-'luth\ City (pop., 2000: 86,918) and inland port, northeast¬ ern Minnesota, U.S. It is situated on Lake Superior at the mouth of the St. Louis River, opposite Superior, Wis. The combined Duluth-Superior har¬ bour is the western terminus of the St. Lawrence Seaway. Through it are shipped iron ore, coal, grain, and oil. The site was named after Daniel DuLhut, one of the French voyageurs who visited the area in the 17th cen¬ tury. It was laid out in 1856 and incorporated as a city in 1870.

Duma Russian Gosudarstvennaya Duma ("State Assem¬ bly") Elected legislative body that, with the State Council, constituted the imperial Russian legislature (1906-17). It had only limited power to control spending and initiate legislation, and the four Dumas that con¬ vened (1906, 1907, 1907-12, 1912-17) rarely enjoyed the cooperation of the ministers or the emperor, who retained the right to rule by decree when the Duma was not in session. In the Soviet era, soviets were the basic unit of government. After the fall of the Soviet Union (1991), the Russian par¬ liament (composed of the Congress of People’s Deputies and the Supreme Soviet) exercised legislative responsibilities until 1993, when conflicts with Pres. Boris Yeltsin reached a crisis. Parliament’s revolt was suppressed by military force, and a new constitution established a new parliament composed of a Federation Council (in which all 89 of Russia’s republics and regions have equal representation) and a Duma, with 450 members, half elected through proportional representation on a party basis and half through single-member constituencies. The president may override and even dissolve the legislature under certain circumstances.

Dumas \duj-'ma,\ English \d(y)u-'ma, , d(y)u-,ma\ / Alexandre known as Dumas pere (b. July 24, 1802, Villers-Cotterets, Aisne, France—d. Dec. 5, 1870, Puys, near Dieppe) French playwright and novelist.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Dumfries ► Dundee i 579

Dumas’s first success was as a writer of melodramatic plays, including Napoleon Bonaparte (1831) and Antony (1831). His immensely popular novels, set in colourful historical backgrounds, include The Three Mus¬ keteers (1844), a romance about four swashbuckling heroes in the age of Cardinal Richelieu, and its sequel Twenty Years After (1845); The Count of Monte Cristo (1844^45); and The Black Tulip (1850). His illegitimate son Alexandre Dumas (1824-95), called Dumas fils, is best known for his play La Dame aux camelias (1848), the basis of Giuseppe Verdi’s opera La Tra- viata and later of several films titled Camille.

Dumfries Xdsm-'fresX Town (pop., 1995 est.: 31,000) and royal burgh, administrative centre of Dumfries and Galloway council area, southwest¬ ern Scotland. In the historic county of Dumfriesshire, the town is situated on the left bank of the River Nith near the border with England. It is the main market centre for an intensive livestock-farming region. The poet Robert Burns lived there from 1791 to 1796 and is buried there; his house is now a museum.

Dummer, Jeremiah (b. 1681, Boston, Mass.—d. May 19, 1739, Plaistow, Essex, Eng.) American lawyer and colonial agent. In England in 1708 he defended Massachusetts’ claim to Martha’s Vineyard. As colo¬ nial agent in England for Massachusetts (1710-21) and for Connecticut (1712-30), he was a diligent advocate for the colonies. In 1715 he wrote a pamphlet defending the charter rights of the New England colonies.

Dummett, Sir Michael A(nthony) E(ardley) (b. June 27, 1925, London, Eng.) British philosopher. Dummett has done influential work in the philosophy of language, metaphysics, logic, and the philosophy of mathematics; he is also one of the foremost expositors of the work of Gott¬ lob Frege. He is known chiefly for his defense of antirealism (see realism) and his attempt to explicate sentence meaning in terms of “assertibility conditions” rather than truth conditions. His major works include Frege: Philosophy of Language (1973), Truth and Other Enigmas (1978), The Logical Basis of Metaphysics (1991), and The Seas of Language (1993).

Dumont d'Urville \dffi-mo n -diEr- , vel\, Jules (-Sebastien-Cesar)

(b. May 23, 1790, Conde-sur-Noireau, France—d. May 8, 1842, near Meudon) French navigator. His exploration of the South Pacific (1826— 29) resulted in extensive revision of charts of South Sea waters and redes¬ ignation of island groups into Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia, and Malaysia. In 1830 he conveyed the exiled king Charles X to England. He set sail for Antarctica in 1837; though unable to penetrate the pack ice, his expedition surveyed the Straits of Magellan, discovered Joinville Island and Louis Philippe Land, and sighted the Adelie coast (named for Dumont’s wife) before returning in 1840.

Dumuzi-Abzu Vdu-mii-ze-'ab-.ziiV In Mesopotamian religion, a Sumer¬ ian fertility goddess. The city goddess of Kinirsha in the southeastern marshland region, she represented the power of new life in the marshes. Her counterpart in the central herding region was Tammuz.

Dumuzi-Amaushumgalana N'du-mu-ze-.a-ma-'u-shum-ga-'la-naX In Mesopotamian religion, a Sumerian god who represented the power of growth and new life in the date palm. He was the young bridegroom of the fertility goddess Inanna or Ishtar. Their marriage was celebrated annually as a harvest festival. He was also identified with the Sumerian god Tammuz.

Dunajec River \dii-'na-yets\ River, southern Poland. Rising in the Tatra Mountains near the Slovakia border, it flows about 156 mi (251 km) northeast into the Vistula River. It was the scene of heavy fighting during World War I in the Austro-German offensive. In 1975 Czechoslovakia and Poland modified their border along the Dunajec to permit Poland to con¬ struct a dam for irrigation in the region southeast of Krakow.

Dunant XdiB-'naA, (Jean-) Henri (b. May 8, 1828, Geneva, Switz.—d. Oct. 30, 1910, Heiden) Swiss humanitarian. An eyewitness to the Battle of Solferino, he organized emergency aid services for the Aus¬ trian and French wounded. In 1862 he proposed the formation of volun¬ tary relief services in all countries and proposed an international agreement covering the war wounded. In 1864 he founded the Red Cross, and the Geneva Convention came into being. He continued to promote interest in the treatment of prisoners of war, the abolition of slavery, inter¬ national arbitration, disarmament, and the establishment of a Jewish homeland. In 1901 he shared with Frederic Passy (1822-1912) the first Nobel Peace Prize.

Dunaway, (Dorothy) Faye (b. Jan. 14, 1941, Bascom, Fla., U.S.) U.S. film actress. She acted in several off-Broadway plays (1962-67)

before making her film debut in The Happening (1967). She became an international star in Bonnie and Clyde (1967). In her best roles, such as those she played in Bonnie and Clyde, Chinatown (1974), and Network (1976, Academy Award), she gave textured performances that embodied the spirit of the films. She later starred in notable films such as Mommie Dearest (1981), Barfly (1987), and Arizona Dreams (1993).

Dunbar, Paul Laurence (b. June 27, 1872, Dayton, Ohio, U.S.—d. Feb. 9, 1906, Dayton) U.S. author.

The son of former slaves, Dunbar became the first African American writer to try to live by his writings and one of the first to attain national prominence. He wrote for a largely white readership, using black dialect and depicting the pre-Civil War South in pastoral, idyllic tones. His verse collections include Oak and Ivy (1893), Majors and Minors (1895), and Lyrics of Lowly Life (1896). His poems reached a wide readership, and he gave readings in the U.S. and England. He also pub¬ lished four short-story collections and four novels, including The Sport of the Gods (1902).

Dunbar, William (b. 1460/65,

Scotland—d. before 1530) Scottish -

poet. He was attached to the court of

James IV. Of the more than 100 poems attributed to him, most are short occasional pieces, ranging from gross satire to hymns of religious exal¬ tation. The longer works include the charming dream allegory “The Gol- dyn Targe,” the nuptial song “The Thrissill and the Rois,” and “The Flyting of Dunbar and Kennedie,” a virtuoso piece of personal abuse directed at a rival. Dunbar was the dominant makar (courtly poet) in the golden age of Scottish poetry.

Duncan I (d. Aug. 1, 1040, near Elgin, Moray, Scot.) King of the Scots (1034-40). The grandson of King Malcolm II, his accession to the throne violated the system in which kingship alternated between two branches of the royal family. He was challenged by Macbeth, mormaer (subking) of Moray, who was the inspiration for the play by William Shakespeare and who may have had a stronger claim to the throne. Macbeth murdered Duncan in 1040, and Duncan’s elder son later killed Macbeth and ruled as Malcolm III Canmore.

Duncan, David Douglas (b. Jan. 23, 1916, Kansas City, Mo., U.S.) U.S. photojournalist. After graduating from college, he became a freelance photographer. In 1946 he joined the staff of Life magazine and covered the Korean War (1950); his photographs depicting the life of the ordinary soldier were published in This Is War! (1951). Resuming his freelance life, in 1956 he met Pablo Picasso, with whom he became fast friends; Duncan later published several photographic essays on Picasso’s works, including The Private World of Pablo Picasso (1958) and Picasso’s Pic¬ assos (1961).

Duncan, Isadora orig. Angela Duncan (b. May 26, 1877, or May 27, 1878, San Francisco, Calif., U.S.—d. Sept. 14, 1927, Nice, Fr.) U.S. interpretive dancer. She rejected the conventions of classical ballet and based her technique on natural rhythms and movement inspired by ancient Greece, dancing barefoot in a tunic without tights. Enjoying little success in the U.S., she moved to Europe in 1898. She toured Europe, giving recitals to great acclaim throughout her life and earning notoriety for her liberated unconventionality, and she founded several dance schools. She was strangled when her long scarf became entangled in the rear wheel of the car in which she was riding. Her emphasis on “free dance” made her a precursor of modern dance, and she became an inspiration to many avant-garde artists.

Dundee \,d3n-'de\ City and royal borough (pop., 2001: 145,663), east¬ ern Scotland. It constitutes the council area of Dundee City in the historic county of Angus. An important seaport, it is situated on the Firth of Tay, an inlet of the North Sea. Earliest mention of the town dates from the late 12th century, and over the next four or five centuries it was repeatedly sacked, with much bloodshed, by the English. Among surviving build¬ ings, the City Churches, a collection of three parish churches housed under

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

580 I dune ► Dupleix

one roof, are a focal point in the modem city centre. Dundee was a world centre for jute manufacturing in the 19th century. Textiles are still pro¬ duced, but since World War II light engineering has become the predomi¬ nant industry. The University of Dundee was founded in 1881.

dune See sand dune

dung beetle Any member of one subfamily (Scarabaeinae) of scarab beetles, which shapes manure into a ball (sometimes as large as an apple) with its scooperlike head and paddle-shaped antennae. They vary from 0.2 to more than 1 in. (5-30 mm) long. In early summer it buries itself and the ball and feeds on it. Later in the season the female deposits eggs in dung balls, on which the larvae will later feed. They are usually round with short wing covers (elytra) that expose the end of the abdomen. They can eat more than their own weight in 24 hours and are considered help¬ ful because they hasten the conversion of manure to substances usable by other organisms.

Dungannon Won-'ga-nonV District (pop., 2001: 47,735), Northern Ire¬ land. Created in 1973, it extends from Lough Neagh to the district of Fer¬ managh and from the foothills of the Sperrin Mountains to the River Blackwater and the republic of Ireland. An essentially pastoral area, its early history is linked with the O’Neills, earls of Tyrone, whose chief resi¬ dence was at the town of Dungannon, the district seat. The Irish Parlia¬ ment’s independence was first proclaimed there in 1782.

Dungeness crab Vdon-jo-nosN Edible crab ( Cancer magister ) found along the Pacific coast from Alaska to lower California, one of the coast’s largest and most important commercial crabs. The male is 7-9 in. (18-23 cm) wide and 4-5 in. (10-13 cm) long. The reddish brown upper surface is lighter toward the back; the legs and undersurface are yellowish. It lives on sandy bottoms below the high-tide mark. Closely related North Ameri¬ can species are the rock crab of the Atlantic coast, the Jonah crab in coastal waters from New England to Canada, and the red and Pacific rock crabs, both in Pacific coastal waters. All are edible, but their commercial impor¬ tance varies.

Dunham, Katherine (b. June 22, 1910, Joliet, Ill., U.S.) U.S. dancer, choreographer, and anthropologist noted for her interpretation of tribal and ethnic dances. In 1931 she opened a dance school in her native Chicago. In 1940 she formed the U.S.’s first all-black dance company, for which she choreographed revues based on her anthropological research in the Caribbean; her early works included Tropics and Le Jazz hot. She later received a Ph.D. in anthropology from the University of Chicago. Many well-known black dancers were trained in her studios in Chicago and New York City. In the 1950s she toured in Europe with her company. She also choreographed Broadway stage productions, operas, and movies.

dunite Vdii-.nlt, 'do-.nlA Yellowish green to green igneous rock composed almost entirely of olivine. Chromite and magnetite also occur in dunite, as do spinel, ilmenite, pyr- rhotite, and platinum in some cases. Dunites may be a source of chromium. Places of occurrence include Dun Mtn., New Zealand (the source of its name), South Africa, and Sweden.

Dunkirk Evacuation (1940) In World War II, the evacuation of the British Expeditionary Force and other Allied troops, cut off by the Germans, from the French seaport of Dunkirk (Dunkerque) to England. Naval ves¬ sels and hundreds of civilian boats were used in the evacuation, which began on May 26. When it ended on June 4, about 198,000 British and 140,000 French and Belgian troops had been saved. The operation’s suc¬ cess was due to fighter cover by the RAF and (unintentionally) to Adolf Hitler’s order of May 24 halting the advance of German armored forces into Dunkirk.

Dunmore's War, Lord See Lord Dunmore's War

Dunne, Finley Peter (b. July 10, 1867, Chicago, Ill., U.S.—d. April 24, 1936, New York, N.Y.) U.S. journalist and humorist. A son of Irish immigrants, Dunne began contributing Irish-dialect sketches to Chicago newspapers in 1892. In these he created the character Martin Dooley, who commented on current events in a rich Irish brogue. Mr. Dooley soon became a force for clear thinking and tolerance in public affairs. Dunne wrote more than 700 dialect essays, some of which were republished in eight volumes, including Mr. Dooley in Peace and War and Mr. Dooley’s Philosophy, from 1898 to 1919.

Dunnet Head Cape, northeastern Scotland. A rounded headland, it is the northernmost point of the Scottish mainland, jutting into the North Sea. It is crowned by a lighthouse, 346 ft (105 m) high, built in 1831.

Duns Scotus Vdonz-'sko-tosX, John (b. 1266, Duns, Lothian, Scot.—d. Nov. 8, 1308, Cologne) Medieval Scottish philosopher and Scholastic theologian. He studied and taught at Oxford, where he joined the Fran¬ ciscans, and later taught at the University of Paris, from which he was briefly exiled for supporting Pope Boniface VIII in his quarrel with King Philip IV. In 1307 he became professor of theology at Cologne, perhaps to escape charges of heresy over his defense of the doctrine of the Immacu¬ late Conception, which the Dominicans and secular authorities opposed. His two major works are Ordinatio and Quaestiones quodlibetales, both left unfinished at his death.

Dunstable Vdon-sto-boR, John (b. c. 1385, England—d. Dec. 24, 1453, London) English composer. His life and career are almost com¬ pletely obscure. After his death he came to be credited with the achieve¬ ments of all his English contemporaries, including Leonel Power (c. 1380-1445). He left at least 50 compositions, all for three and four voices and almost all sacred. Their full triadic harmony and frequent parallel motion in the voices represented an important innovation that influenced composers such as Guillaume Dufay and Gilles Binchois (c. 1400-60), softening the austerity of 14th-century polyphony.

Dunstan of Canterbury, Saint (b. c. 909, near Glastonbury, Eng.—d. May 19, 988, Canterbury; feast day May 19) Archbishop of Canterbury. He served as a chief adviser to the kings of Wessex, begin¬ ning with Edmund I, who made him abbot of Glastonbury (c. 943). Under King Eadred he served as minister of state, working to conciliate the Danish section of the kingdom and reform the church. Dunstan was out¬ lawed (955) under King Eadwig and went into exile in Flanders, but he was recalled by King Edgar (957) and continued his reforms, restructur¬ ing English monasticism on the continental model. He became archbishop of Canterbury in 959.

duodenum X.du-o-'de-nom, du-'a-d 3 n-om\ First and shortest (9-11 in., or 23-28 cm) segment of the small intestine. It curves down and then up from the pylorus of the stomach, where chyme enters it. Ducts from the pancreas and gallbladder bring in bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid, pancreatic enzymes to further digestion, and bile salts to break up fats. Nutrient absorption begins in the lower duodenum, which has a mucous lining. Exposure to stomach acid makes the upper duodenum susceptible to peptic ulcers, the duodenum’s most common problem. Compression of the lower duodenum between the liver, pancreas, and major blood ves¬ sels can require surgery.

Duparc NdtE-'parkX, (Marie-Eugene-) Henri (b. Jan. 21, 1848, Paris, France—d. Feb. 12, 1933, Mont-de-Marsan) French song composer. He studied music with Cesar Franck while also studying law. His composing career lasted about 16 years; he stopped composing at age 36 for psy¬ chological reasons. Highly self-critical, he destroyed an incomplete opera and other works and acknowledged only 13 completed songs, including “L’lnvitation au voyage,” “Phidyle,” “Testament,” and “Extase,” as his lifetime oeuvre. Almost all the songs, universally admired, were origi¬ nally for voice and piano; he later orchestrated eight of them.

Dupleix Vdte-'pleksR English \dii-'pleks\, Joseph-Francois (b. 1697, Landrecies, France—d. Nov. 10, 1763, Paris) French colonial adminis¬ trator who attempted to establish a French empire in India. His father, a director of the French East India Company, secured him an appointment in 1720 to the superior council of Pondicherry, capital of French India, and in 1742 he was named governor-general of French India. He fought the British in India during the War of the Austrian Succession (1744) and later attempted to undermine the British position in southern India. His schemes exhausted French finances, and he was recalled to France, dis¬ credited, in 1754.

1910, Joliet, Ill., U.S.) U.S. dancer,

Katherine Dunham in Tropical Revue

(1945-46).

COURTESY OF THE DANCE COLLECTION, NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY, ASTOR, LENOX AND TILDEN FOUNDATIONS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

DuPont Co. ► Diirer I 581

DuPont Co. in full E.l. du Pont de Nemours & Co. U.S. chemi¬ cal, coatings, and fibre manufacturer. The company was founded near Wilmington, Del., in 1802 by a French immigrant, Eleuthere Irenee du Pont de Nemours, son of the eminent economist Pierre-Samuel du Pont de Nemours (1739-1817). The company originally manufactured gun¬ powder and other explosives. It was incorporated in 1899 after nearly a century as a partnership, after which it began to diversify its product line, partly through extensive acquisitions. DuPont developed nitrocellulose plastics in 1915 and synthetic rubber in 1931 and later developed the fibres nylon, Orion, Dacron, Kevlar, and Lycra, as well as Mylar film and Teflon resin, among many other synthetics. The company was run by the Du Pont family until World War II. Today it is a highly diverse conglomerate with interests in chemicals, agriculture, electronics, and packaging.

Dupuytren NdiE-pwye-traA, Guillaume later Baron Dupuytren

(b. Oct. 5, 1777, Pierre-Buffiere, near Limoges, Fr.—d. Feb. 8, 1835, Paris) French surgeon and pathologist. Dupuytren was the first to excise the lower jaw and to clearly describe the pathology of congenital hip dis¬ location. He revised the classification of burns and devised surgery for cervical cancer and for creation of an artificial anus, among other advances. He is best known for surgical procedures to alleviate Dupuytren contracture, in which fibrosis in the palm causes permanent retraction of one or more fingers.

Dura-Europus Vdur-o-yu-'ro-posV Ancient town on the Euphrates River, Syria. Originally a Babylonian town, it was rebuilt as a military colony c. 300 bc under the Seleucid dynasty. Annexed by the Romans in ad 165, it became a frontier fortress. Shortly after 256 it was overrun and destroyed by the Sasanian dynasty. Its ruins give an unusually detailed picture of everyday life there and provide information about the fusion of Hellenistic and Semitic culture.

Durance River \dui- , ra n s\ ancient Druentia. River, southeastern France. The principal river draining the French side of the Alps toward the Mediterranean, its origin is in the Montgenevre region. To its conflu¬ ence with the Rhone River below Avignon, it is 189 mi (304 km) long. It is the site of extensive hydroelectric projects that were established after World War II.

Durand \du-'rand\, Asher B(rown) (b. Aug. 21, 1796, Jefferson Vil¬ lage, N.J., U.S.—d. Sept. 17, 1886, Jefferson Village) U.S. painter, engraver, and illustrator. He had established his reputation as an engraver by 1823 with his print of John Trumbull’s Declaration of Independence and his portraits of prominent contemporary Americans. He later devoted himself to landscape painting, becoming a founder of the Hudson River school and one of the earliest U.S. artists to work directly from nature. In 1826 he cofounded the National Academy of Design in New York City and served as its president (1845-61).

Durango \du-Tai]-go\ State (pop., 2000: 1,448,661), north-central Mexico. It covers 47,560 sq mi (123,181 sq km), and its capital is Durango. The western portion of the state lies within the mineral-laden Sierra Madre Occidental; semiarid plains, used for ranching, comprise the eastern portion. The Nazas River, which flows about 375 mi (600 km), is the largest in the state and is a main source of water for commercial agri¬ culture. Along the river’s lower course is the Laguna cotton district, a large state-operated cooperative that Durango city shares with Coahuila state. First explored by Europeans in 1562, Durango shared the colonial history of Chihuahua as a major part of Nueva Vizcaya; the two states separated in 1823.

Durango officially Victoria de Durango City (pop., 2000: 427,135), capital of Durango state, north-central Mexico. It lies in a fer¬ tile valley of the Sierra Madre, about 6,200 ft (1,890 m) above sea level. North of the city is the Cerro del Mercado, a hill of nearly pure iron ore representing one of the world’s largest deposits of that mineral. First settled in 1556, Durango was the political and ecclesiastical capital of Nueva Vizcaya, which included Durango and Chihuahua until 1823. The city, long known as a health resort, is an important commercial and min¬ ing centre.

Durant \du-'rant\, Will(iam James) and Ariel Ariel Durant orig. Ada Kaufman or Ida Kaufman (respectively b. Nov. 5, 1885, North Adams, Mass., U.S.—d. Nov. 7, 1981, Los Angeles, Calif.; b. May 10, 1898, Prosurov, Russia—d. Oct. 25, 1981, Los Angeles) U.S. writers. After the great success of Will’s Story of Philosophy (1926), they cowrote the 11-volume The Story of Civilization (1935-75), including Rousseau

and Revolution (1967, Pulitzer Prize). Though involved in the writing of every volume, Ariel was not listed as coauthor until the seventh.

Durant, William C(rapo) (b. Dec. 8, 1861, Boston, Mass., U.S.—d. March 18, 1947, New York, N.Y.) U.S. industrialist, founder of General Motors Corp. He established a carriage company in 1886 and joined the new but failing Buick Motor Car Co. (founded by David Buick in 1902) in 1903-04, quickly reviving it. In 1908 he brought together several auto¬ motive manufacturers to form the General Motors Co. He lost control of the company two years later. With Louis Chevrolet (1878-1941) he founded the Chevrolet Motor Co., which acquired control of General Motors in 1915. As president of General Motors Corp. until 1920, he pre¬ sided over its steady expansion.

Durante \d3-'ran-te\, Jimmy orig. James Francis Durante (b.

Feb. 10, 1893, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Jan. 29, 1980, Santa Monica, Calif.) U.S. comedian. By age 16 he was playing piano in nightclubs in New York City’s Bowery. In the 1920s the team of Durante, Lou Clay¬ ton, and Eddie Jackson starred in vaudeville and nightclubs; they appeared on Broadway in Florenz Ziegfeld’s Show Girl (1929). Durante made his film debut in Roadhouse Nights (1930) and over the next 30 years bright¬ ened many films and musicals with his gravelly voice, malapropisms, and warmhearted buffoonery. Nicknamed “Schnozzola” for his large nose, he is remembered for ending his many radio and television programs with the line “Goodnight, Mrs. Calabash, wherever you are.”

Duras \diE- , ras\, Marguerite orig. Marguerite Donnadieu (b.

April 4, 1914, Gia Dinh, Cochinchina—d. March 3, 1996, Paris, France) French novelist, playwright, film director, and screenwriter. Indochina was the setting for Duras’s first successful novel, The Sea Wall (1950). Her writing grew increasingly minimal and abstract, and she is sometimes associated with the nouveau roman (“new novel”) movement. Perhaps her best-known novel is the semiautobiographical The Lover (1984, Prix Gon- court; film, 1992), about a French teenage girl’s love affair with an older Chinese man; she revised this work as The North China Lover (1991). Her original screenplay for Hiroshima mon amour (1959) and her adap¬ tation for film of her play India Song (1975) were highly acclaimed.

Durban City (pop., 1996: metro, area, 2,117,650) and chief seaport, South Africa. Located on Natal Bay of the Indian Ocean, it was the site of a European trading settlement from 1824 and was named Port Natal by the traders. Land was ceded to them by the Zulu king Shaka, and the Old Fort (now a museum) was built. Durban was founded in 1835 on the site of Port Natal. In the 1840s the Boers clashed with the British over control of Durban. One of the world’s major commercial ports, it is the headquarters of South Africa’s sugar industry and a centre of diverse manufacturing. Tourism is also important, based on the city’s proximity to game and nature reserves and to beaches.

Durer VdiEr-9r,\ English Vdur-3r\, Albrecht (b. May 21, 1471, Impe¬ rial Free City of Niimberg—d. April 6, 1528, Niimberg) German painter and printmaker. He worked as a draftsman in his father’s goldsmith workshop before being apprenticed at 15 to a painter and illustrator in his native Niimberg. He opened his own workshop c. 1494 and began produc¬ ing woodcuts and copper engravings.

His extensive travel took him twice to Italy; Italian influence can be seen in such engravings as The Four Witches (c. 1497) and Adam and Eve (1504). He became known for his penetrating half-length portraits and self-portraits. In 1506, in Venice, he completed his great altarpiece The Feast of the Rose Garlands for the German chapel in the church of San Bartolommeo. Later important graphic works include his famous Passion series of copperplate engravings (1507-13) as well as his greatest engravings: St. Jerome in His Study, Melencolia I and The Knight, Death, and the Devil (1513-14). Back in Ntirnberg he worked for

Self-Portrait in Furred Coat, oil on wood panel by Albrecht Durer, 1500; in the Alte Pinakothek, Munich.

ALTE PINAKOTHEK, MUNICH; PHOTOGRAPH, BLAUEL/GNAMM—ARTOTHEK

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

582 I Durga ► Durrenmatt

Emperor Maximilian I (1512-19). By 1515 he had achieved international fame. In 1518 he became a devoted follower of Martin Luther. His finest painting is the Four Apostles of 1526. He was the greatest Renaissance artist in northern Europe and had many pupils and imitators.

Durga In Hinduism, one of the forms of the goddess Devi or Shakti (see shakti), and the wife of Shiva. She was bom fully grown, created out of flames that issued from the mouths of Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, and other gods and embodying their collective energy (shakti). They created her to slay the buffalo-demon Mahisasura, whom they were unable to overcome. She is usually depicted riding a lion or tiger, each of her multiple arms bearing a weapon. See also Durga-puja.

Durga, Rajasthani miniature of the Mewar school, mid-17th century; in a private collection

PRAMOD CHANDRA

Durga-puja Vdur-ga-'pii-jaV Hindu festival held annually in northeast¬ ern India in September-October in honor of the goddess Durga. Images of the goddess are made, worshiped for nine days, and then immersed in water. The celebration includes colourful processions and much public and private festivity.

Durham See shorthorn

Durham Saxon Dunholme City (pop., 2001: district, 87,725), admin¬ istrative and historic county of Durham, northeastern England. It is on a peninsula in the River Wear. This natural defensive site, fortified by Wil¬ liam I (the Conqueror) against the Scots, became a seat of the feudal prince-bishops of Durham. Medieval Durham was a place of pilgrimage, holding the remains of St. Cuthbert in its cathedral (begun in 1093). The bishops of Durham helped establish the city as an educational centre. It is the site of the Gulbenkian Museum of Oriental Art and Archaeology, part of the University of Durham.

Durham Vdor-onA Administrative (pop., 2001: 493,470), geographic, and historic county, northeastern England. Adjacent to the North Sea coast, it includes the city of Durham. The northern part of the county is cut by the valleys of the Rivers Wear and Tees; the Tees lowlands extend across the south. Under the Romans the region was a military outpost associated with Hadrian's Wall. Durham was later incorporated into the Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. It was unimportant economically until the 19th century, when exploitation of its coalfields, now exhausted, made it a key area of industrial growth in Britain. The area is now a centre of light industry.

Durham, John George Lambton, 1 st earl of (b. April 12,1792, London—d. July 28, 1840, Cowes, Isle of Wight, Eng.) British colonial administrator in Canada. He was a member of the British House of Com¬ mons (1813-28) and served in the cabinet of Earl Grey (1830-33). In 1838 he was appointed governor-general and lord high commissioner of Canada. He appointed a new executive council to placate the rebellious

French Canadians of Lower Canada (later Quebec). Criticized in England for his action, he resigned. He later issued the Durham Report, which advocated the union of Lower Canada and Upper Canada and the expan¬ sion of self-government to preserve Canadian loyalty to Britain.

durian Vdur-e-9n\ Tree ( Durio zibethinus ) of the bombax family (Bom- bacaceae) and its fruit, cultivated in Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, and southern Thailand. The tree has oblong, tapering leaves and yellow¬ ish green flowers and resembles the elm in shape. The spherical fruit has a hard spiny shell and contains five oval compartments, each filled with an edible, cream-coloured, custardlike pulp, in which are embedded one to five chestnut-sized seeds, which are edible if roasted. The ripe fruits are eaten by many animals. Though the durian has a mild, sweet flavour, it also has a pungent foul odour. It is seldom exported.

Durkheim \dmr-'kem\, Emile (b. April 1858, Epinal, France—d. Nov. 15, 1917, Paris) French social scientist. He developed a vigorous meth¬ odology combining empirical research with sociological theory and is widely regarded as the founder of the French school of sociology. Durkheim was greatly influenced by philosopher Auguste Comte, and his sociological reflections, never remote from the moral philosophy he was schooled in, were first expressed in The Division of Labor in Society (1893) and Suicide (1897). In his view, ethical and social structures were endangered by technology and mechanization. The division of labour pro¬ duced alienation among workers, and the increased prosperity of the late 19th century generated greed and passions that threatened the equilibrium of society. Durkheim drew attention to anomie, or social disconnectedness, and studied suicide as a decision to renounce life. Following the Dreyfus affair, he came to regard education and religion as the most potent means of reforming humanity and molding new social institutions. His Elemen¬ tary Forms of the Religious Life (1915) is an anthropological study— centring largely on totemism —of the origins and functions of religion, which Durkheim saw as expressing the collective conscience of a soci¬ ety and producing social solidarity. He also wrote influential works on sociological method. He taught at the Universities of Bordeaux (1887— 1902) and Paris (1902-17). See also Marcel Mauss.

Durocher Vdu-'ro-shaiA, Leo (Ernest) (b. July 27, 1905, West Spring- field, Mass., U.S.—d. Oct. 7, 1991, Palm Springs, Calif.) U.S. baseball player and manager. Durocher played for various teams from 1928 to 1938, distinguishing himself by his sharp fielding at shortstop. He gained notoriety as the cheeky, contentious manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers (1939-46, 1948); he was suspended from managing for the entire 1947 season for “conduct detrimental to baseball,” a vague charge that was based upon Durocher’s reputation for gambling and fast living. He man¬ aged the New York Giants 1948-55, left to become a commentator, returned to the game as a coach for the Los Angeles Dodgers (1961-64), and managed the Chicago Cubs (1966-72) and the Houston Astros (1972- 73). He is credited with the observation “Nice guys finish last” (what he actually said was, “The nice guys over there are in seventh place”).

Durrani, Ahmad Shah See Ahmad Shah Durrani

Durrell Vdo-roL, Lawrence (George) (b. Feb. 27, 1912, Jullundur, India—d. Nov. 7, 1990, Sommieres, France) British writer. He spent most of his life in Mediterranean countries, often in diplomatic posts. He is best known for the tetralogy The Alexandria Quartet, composed of the novels Justine (1957), Balthazar (1958), Mountolive (1958), and Clea (1960), which explore the erotic lives of a group of exotic characters in Alexandria, Egypt. His poetry—including Cities, Plains and People (1946)—and nonfiction books about locales—including Prospero’s Cell (1945), Reflections on a Marine Venus (1953), and Bitter Lemons (1957), describing three Greek islands—are often considered his best works.

Durrenmatt \'diEr-9n- l mat\, Friedrich (b. Jan. 5, 1921, Konolfingen, near Bern, Switz.—d. Dec. 14, 1990, Neuchatel) Swiss playwright. His plays, showing the influence of Bertolt Brecht as well as the Theatre of the Absurd, were central to the post-1945 revival of the German theatre. In his first three plays, All as It Is Written (1947), The Marriage of Mr. Mis¬ sissippi (1952), and An Angel Comes to Babylon (1953), he took comic liberties with historical facts to present parables about modern life. His play The Visit (1956) and the modern morality play The Physicists (1962) earned him international acclaim. After 1970 he wrote adaptations, detec¬ tive novels, radio plays, and essays. His works have been translated into more than 50 languages.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Duryea ► Dutchman's-pipe i 583

Duryea Vdur- 1 ya\, Charles E(dgar) and J(ames) Frank (respec¬ tively b. Dec. 15, 1861, Canton, Ill., U.S.—d. Sept. 28, 1938, Philadel¬ phia, Pa.; b. Oct. 8, 1869, Washburn, Ill., U.S.—d. Feb. 15, 1967, Saybrook, Conn.) U.S. automotive inventors. Charles initially worked as a bicycle mechanic. After seeing a gasoline engine at a state fair, he designed a gasoline-powered automobile, and in 1893 he and his brother Frank constructed the first U.S. automobile, which they drove success¬ fully on the streets of Springfield, Mass. In Chicago in 1895, Frank drove an improved model to win the first U.S. auto race. In 1896 their company manufactured the first commercially produced U.S. automobiles; 13 cars were sold before the company failed and the brothers separated. Both started new automobile manufacturing ventures; Frank later developed the Stevens-Duryea limousine, which was produced into the 1920s.

Dusan, Stefan See Stefan Dusan

Duse Ydu-za\, Eleonora (b. Oct. 3, 1858, near or in Vigevano, Lom¬ bardy, Austrian Empire—d. April 21,

1924, Pittsburgh, Pa., U.S.) Italian actress. Bom into a family of touring actors, she appeared on stage from age four. She acted in several French plays to great acclaim from 1878 and toured with her own company in Europe and the U.S. after 1885. She fell in love with the poet Gabriele D'Annunzio in the 1890s and acted in several plays he wrote for her.

Unlike her contemporary Sarah Bernhardt, she did not try to project her own personality but instead sought to lose herself in her charac¬ ters. The most fluent and expressive actress of her day, she was especially noted for her roles in Henrik Ibsen’s plays. She retired in 1909 but returned to the stage in 1921 and was touring the U.S. when she died.

Dushanbe Vdyu-.sham-bo, .dyii-sham-'ba \ formerly (until 1929) Dyu- shambe Ydyti-.sham-bo, .dyii-sham-'baV (1929-61) Stalinabad \,sta-lyi-n3-'bad\ City (pop., 1998 est.: 513,000), capital of Tajikistan. It lies on the Varzob River in southwestern Tajikistan. It was built in the Soviet period on the site of three former settlements, the largest of which, Dyushambe, was a part of the khanate of Bukhara; the old city suffered severe damage during the Soviet takeover in 1920. In 1924 it became the capital of the new Tajik Autonomous S.S.R., and rapid industrial and population growth followed. An important transport junction, it accounts for much of the country’s industrial output.

Dussek Vdu-sek\, Jan Ladislav (b. Feb. 12, 1760, Caslav, Bohemia—d. March 20, 1812, St. Germain-en-Laye, France) Bohemian (Czech) composer and pianist. He toured Europe with great success as a pianist and studied with C.P.E. Bach. He joined his father-in-law’s music publishing firm in London (1792-99) but fled England to escape his credi¬ tors. He served two princely patrons and spent his last years in the house¬ hold of Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand. A transitional figure between Classicism and Romanticism, he wrote some 60 violin sonatas, 15 piano concertos, and 30 admired piano sonatas, which may have influenced Lud¬ wig van Beethoven.

Diisseldorf Vdui-sol-.dorfN City (pop., 2002 est.: city, 570,765; metro, area, 1,315,736), capital of North Rhine-Westphalia state, western Ger¬ many. Located on the Rhine River, it is the administrative and cultural cen¬ tre of the industrial Rhine-Ruhr area. Chartered in 1288 by the count of Berg, Diisseldorf passed to the Palatinate-Neuberg line in 1609. Although it suffered considerably in the Thirty Years' War and the War of the Span¬ ish Succession, it later revived. It was transferred to Prussia in 1815 and grew rapidly with the establishment of iron and steel industries in the 1870s. Heavily damaged in World War II, its old buildings were repaired and new ones erected. It is the site of the first German skyscraper, the Wilhelm-Marx-Haus (1924). It is the birthplace of Heinrich Heine.

Dust Bowl Section of the U.S. Great Plains that extended over south¬ eastern Colorado, southwestern Kansas, the panhandles of Texas and Oklahoma, and northeastern New Mexico. The term originated after World War I, when the area’s grasslands were converted to agricultural

Eleonora Duse.

COURTESY OF THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

fields. In the naturally dry climate, overcultivation added to the effect of a severe drought in the early 1930s, when heavy winds blew the loose topsoil in “black blizzards” that blocked out the sun and piled dirt in drifts. Many farmers and ranchers left the region for California and elsewhere. The planting of windbreaks and grassland enabled the area to recover by the early 1940s.

dusting See spraying and dusting

Dutch East India Co. See Dutch East India Co.

Dutch East Indies See Indonesia

Dutch elm disease Widespread disease that kills elms, caused by the FUNGUS Ceratocystis ulmi. It was first identified in the U.S. in 1930, and an eradication campaign could not stop its spread into regions wherever the very susceptible American elm ( Ulmus americana) grew. The leaves on one or more branches of a stricken tree suddenly wilt, turn dull green to yellow or brown, curl, and may drop early. Because symptoms are eas¬ ily confused with other diseases, positive diagnosis is possible only through laboratory culturing. The fungus can spread up to 50 ft (15 m) from diseased to healthy trees by natural root grafts. Overland, the fun¬ gus normally is spread by the European elm bark beetle ( Scolytus mul- tistriatus ; see bark beetle), less commonly by the American elm bark beetle (Hylurgopinus rufipes). Control involves exclusion of the beetles, usually by use of an insecticidal spray applied to the tree.

Dutch Guiana See Suriname

Dutch language West Germanic language spoken by more than 20 million people in The Netherlands, northern Belgium, and a small corner of northern France; it is also an official language in Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles. Though English-speakers are accustomed to calling the main Germanic language of The Netherlands “Dutch” and that of Bel¬ gium “Flemish,” the two are regarded as the same language, called Ned- erlands in both countries, where efforts have been made to unify spelling and literary usage. Many Dutch-speakers command both a local dialect and Standard Dutch, based approximately on the speech of the major urban centres of North Holland and South Holland. “Flemish” (or Dutch in Belgium) has its own phonetic and lexical regionalisms.

Dutch Reformed Church See Reformed church

Dutch Republic officially Republic of the United Netherlands

Former state (1581-1795), about the size of the modern kingdom of The Netherlands. It consisted of the seven northern Netherlands provinces that formed the Union of Utrecht in 1579 and declared independence from Spain in 1581 (finally achieved in 1648). Political control shifted between the province of Holland and the princes of Orange. In the 17th century the Dutch Republic developed into a world colonial empire far out of pro¬ portion to its resources, emerging as a centre of international finance and a cultural capital of Europe. In the 18th century the republic’s colonial empire was eclipsed by that of England. In 1795 the Dutch Republic col¬ lapsed under the impact of a Dutch democratic revolution and invading French armies.

Dutch Wars See Anglo-Dutch Wars

Dutchman's-breeches Plant (Dicentra cucullaria ) of the fumitory family (Fumariaceae) named for its sprays of tremulous, yellow-tipped white flowers that fancifully resemble the wide-legged, tradi¬ tional pantaloons worn by Dutch men. The plant is native throughout eastern and mid western North America, usually in open woodlands.

The gray-green foliage grows from white underground tubers and is not as tall as the flowering stalk, which also springs directly from the ground.

Dutchman's-pipe Climbing vine (Aristolochia durior), also called pipe vine, of the birthwort family (Aristolochiaceae), native to central and eastern North America. It bears heart-shaped or kidney-shaped

Dutchman's-breeches (Dicentra cuc¬ ullaria).

JOHN H. GERARD

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

584 I Duvalier ► dynamite

leaves and yellowish-brown or purplish-brown tubular flowers resembling a curved pipe. Exhibiting rapid growth, Dutchman’s-pipe is often planted as a screen or an orna¬ mental on porches and arbors.

Duvalier \du-'val-ya\, Francois known as Papa Doc (b. April 14,

1907, Port-au-Prince, Haiti—d.

April 21, 1971, Port-au-Prince)

President of Haiti (1957-71). After receiving his M.D. in 1934, Duvalier was appointed director general of the National Public Health Service in 1946 under Pres. Dumarsais Estime.

When Estime was overthrown by Paul Magloire, Duvalier led the opposition and assumed the presidency soon after Magloire’s resignation in 1956. He reduced the size of the military and organized the Tontons Macoutes (“Bogeymen”), a private force that terrorized and assassinated alleged foes of his regime. He played on the culture of vodun to intimidate the opposition as well. Promoting a cult of his person as the semidivine embodiment of the nation, he declared himself president for life in 1964. His regime’s corruption and despotism isolated Haiti, the poorest country in the hemisphere, from the rest of the world. His 19-year-old son, Jean-Claude Duvalier (“Baby Doc”; b. 1951), succeeded him on his death. A weak ruler dominated by his mother and later by his wife, Baby Doc instituted slight reforms, but increasing social unrest forced him to flee into exile in France in 1986.

Dvaravati \dvo-'ra-v3-te\ Ancient kingdom of Southeast Asia (fl. 6th- 13th centuries). The first Mon kingdom established in what is now Thai¬ land, it had early commercial and cultural contact with India, which influenced Mon sculpture, writing, law, and governmental forms. Con¬ quered in turn by the Burmans (Burmese), the Khmer, and the Tai (Thai), the Dvaravati Mon passed on Indian culture to their conquerers.

DVD in full digital video disc or digital versatile disc Type of optical disc. The DVD represents the second generation of compact-disc (CD) technology. Like a CD drive, a DVD drive uses a low-power laser to read digitized (binary) data that have been encoded onto the disc in the form of tiny pits. Because it uses a digital format, a DVD can store any kind of data, including movies, music, text, and graphical images. DVDs are available in single- and double-sided versions, with one or two layers of information per side. Single-sided DVDs have become standard media for recorded motion pictures, largely replacing videotape in the home market. A double-sided, dual-layer version can store about 30 times as much information as a standard CD. DVDs are made in a ROM (read¬ only memory) format as well as in erasable (DVD-E) and recordable (DVD-R) formats. Though DVD players can usually read CDs, CD play¬ ers cannot read DVDs. It is expected that DVDs will eventually replace CDs, especially for multimedia workstations.

Dvina River, Northern See Northern Dvina River Dvina River, Western See Western Dvina River

Dvorak \'v6r-,zhak, do-'vor-.zhakX, Antonin (Leopold) (b. Sept. 8, 1841, Nelahozeves, Bohemia, Austrian Empire—d. May 1, 1904, Prague) Bohemian (Czech) composer. Son of a rural innkeeper and butcher, he was permitted to attend organ school in Prague in 1857. He played viola in a theatre orchestra, often under the Czech nationalist composer Bedrich Smetana, and eventually found employment that left him ample time for composition. Johannes Brahms assisted in getting Dvorak’s works pub¬ lished, and by 1880 his fame had spread throughout Europe. While serv¬ ing as director of New York’s new National Conservatory of Music (1892-95) he composed the symphony From the New World (1893), his best-known work, which is thought to be based on black spirituals and other American influences. His music frequently draws on folk tunes and is seen as an expression of Czech nationalism. Highly prolific, he is pri¬ marily known for his orchestral and chamber compositions; his works include 9 symphonies, concertos for piano, violin, and cello, 2 serenades, several tone poems, 14 string quartets, 2 piano quartets, and 2 piano quin¬ tets. His many piano works include the four-hand Slavonic Dances (1878, 1886). His sacred music includes a Stabat Mater (1877), a Requiem (1890), and a Te Deum (1892). Of his 13 operas, only Rusalka (1900) is still performed.

dwarf star Any star of average or low luminosity, mass, and size, including white dwarf stars and red dwarf stars. Dwarf stars include most main-sequence stars (see Hertzsprung-Russell diagram), including the Sun. Their colour can range from blue to red, corresponding to temperatures varying from over 17,500 °F (10,000 °C) to a few thousand degrees.

dwarfism Growth retardation resulting in abnormally short adult stat¬ ure. It is caused by a variety of hereditary and metabolic disorders. Pitu¬ itary dwarfism is caused by insufficient growth hormone. Hereditary dwarfisms include achondroplasia, with normal trunk size but short limbs and a large head; hypochondroplasia, similar except for normal head size; and diastrophic dwarfism, with progressive, crippling skeletal deformi¬ ties. Intelligence is normal in these forms of dwarfism. Some kinds include mental retardation. Dwarfism may also result from inadequate nutrition in early life (see rickets).

dybbuk \'di-bok\ In Jewish folklore, a disembodied human spirit that must wander restlessly, burdened by former sins, until it inhabits the body of a living person. Belief in such spirits was common in eastern Europe in the 16th-17th century. Individuals thought to be possessed by a dyb¬ buk were taken to a ba'al shem, who would carry out a rite of exorcism. The mystic Isaac ben Solomon Luria helped promote belief in dybbukim with his doctrine of the transmigration of souls. The folklorist S. Ansky depicted such a spirit in his classic Yiddish drama The Dybbuk (c. 1916).

Dyck, Anthony Van See Anthony Van Dyck

dye Any of a class of intensely coloured complex organic compounds used to colour textiles, leather, paper, and other materials. Dyes known to the ancients came from plants such as indigo and madder (see madder family) or from the shells of mollusks; today most dyes are made from coal tar and petrochemicals. The chemical structure of dyes is relatively easy to modify, so many new colours and types of dyes have been syn¬ thesized. Dye molecules are deposited from solution onto materials in such a way that they cannot be removed by the original solvent. Fibre- reactive dyes form a covalent bond with the fibre. Other dyes require prior application of a mordant, an inorganic material that causes the dye to pre¬ cipitate as an insoluble salt. Another technique is vat dyeing, in which a soluble colourless compound is absorbed by the fibres, then oxidized (see oxidation-reduction) to the insoluble coloured compound, making it remarkably resistant to the fading effects of washing, light, and chemi¬ cals. See also azo dye.

Dylan \'dil-3n. Bob orig. Robert Allen Zimmerman (b. May 24,

1941, Duluth, Minn., U.S.) U.S. singer and songwriter. He grew up in the iron-range town of Hibbing, Minn., adopted the name of the poet Dylan Thomas, and traveled to New York in search of idol Woody Guthrie. In the early 1960s he performed professionally in Greenwich Village coffee¬ houses and released albums that made him the darling of critics and folk music devotees. “Blowin’ in the Wind” and “The Times They Are a-Changin’” became anthems of the civil rights movement. In 1965 he adopted electrically amplified instruments and the rhythms of rock and roll in a major departure. The landmark albums Highway 61 Revisited (1965) and Blonde on Blonde (1966) established him as a leading figure in rock music, and his lyrics, influenced partly by the Beat movement, brought poetic complexity to pop music. After a motorcycle accident in 1966, he underwent another musical turnabout and released several albums (notably Nashville Skyline, 1969) characterized by country music elements and a muted, reflective tone. Among the most praised of his many later albums are Blood on the Tracks (1975), Time Out of Mind (1997) and Love and Theft (2001). He is perhaps the most admired and influential American songwriter of his time.

dynamics Branch of mechanics that deals with the motion of objects in relation to force, mass, momentum, and energy. Dynamics can be divided into two branches, kinematics and kinetics. The foundations of dynamics were laid by Galileo, who derived the law of motion for falling bodies and was the first to recognize that all changes of velocity of a body are the result of forces. Isaac Newton formulated this observation in his sec¬ ond law of motion (see Newton's laws of motion).

dynamite Blasting explosive, patented in 1867 by Alfred P. Nobel. Dyna¬ mite is based on nitroglycerin but is much safer to handle than nitroglyc¬ erin alone. By mixing the nitroglycerin with kieselguhr, a porous silica- containing earth, in proportions that left an essentially dry and granular material, Nobel produced a solid that was resistant to shock but readily explodable by heat or sudden impact. Later, wood pulp was substituted

Dutchman's-pipe (Aristolochia durior).

AJ. HUXLEY

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

dysentery ► Dzerzhinsky I 585

as the absorbent, and sodium nitrate was added as an oxidizing agent to increase the strength of the explosive.

dysentery \'di-s 3 n-,ter-e\ Infectious intestinal disorder. It is character¬ ized by inflammation, abdominal pain and straining, and diarrhea, often containing blood and mucus. Dysentery is spread in food or water con¬ taminated by feces, often by infected individuals with unwashed hands. Bacillary dysentery (shigellosis), caused by Shigella bacteria, may be mild or may be sudden, severe, and fatal. Fluid loss causes dehydration. Advanced stages include chronic large-intestine ulceration. It is treated with antibiotics, fluid replacement, and sometimes blood transfusion. Amoebic (or amebic) dysentery, caused by the amoeba Entamoeba his¬ tolytica, has two forms, one much like bacillary dysentery and the other chronic and intermittent, sometimes with large-intestine ulcerations. It is treated with drugs that kill the amoeba.

dyslexia \dis-'lek-se-o\ Chronic neurological disorder causing inability or great difficulty in learning to read or spell, despite normal intelligence. It inhibits recognition and processing of graphic symbols, particularly those pertaining to language. Symptoms, including very poor reading skills, reversed word and letter sequences, and illegible handwriting, usu¬ ally become evident in the early school years. With early recognition and specialized approaches to teaching reading, most dyslexics can learn to read. Anomalies have recently been found in reading-related pathways in the brains of dyslexic persons.

dysmenorrhea N.dis-.me-no-'re-sV Pain or cramps before or during menstruation. In primary dysmenorrhea, caused by endocrine imbalances, severity varies widely. Irritability, fatigue, backache, or nausea may also occur. Long assumed to be psychosomatic, it is now known to be due to

excess prostaglandins, which contract the uterus, causing cramps. Pain relievers that block prostaglandin formation can decrease its severity, which may also be eased after childbearing. Secondary dysmenorrhea is caused by other disorders, including genital obstructions, pelvic inflam¬ mation, infection, polyps, or tumours. Treatment is directed toward the underlying disorder.

dysphasia See aphasia

dysplasia \dis-'pla-zho\ Abnormal formation of a bodily structure or tissue, usually bone, that may occur in any part of the body. Several types are well-defined diseases in humans. In the most common, epiphyseal dysplasia, the ends of children’s bones (epiphyses) grow and harden very slowly; dwarfism often results (sometimes only in the legs), and degen¬ erative joint disease usually develops by middle age. Large dogs bred for narrow hips may have hip dysplasia, with abnormalities involving the head of the thighbone and the hip socket.

Dyushambe See Dushanbe

Dzerzhinsky \dyir-'zhen-ske\, Feliks (Edmundovich) (b. Sept. 11, 1877, Dzerzhinovo, near Minsk, Russian Empire—d. July 20, 1926, Mos¬ cow, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Russian Bolshevik leader, head of the first Soviet secret-police organization. Son of a Polish nobleman, he was repeatedly arrested for revolutionary activities beginning in 1897. After the Russian Revolution of 1917, he headed the newly created Cheka, which became Soviet Russia’s security-police agency. He organized the first concentra¬ tion camps in Russia and acquired a reputation as a ruthless and fanatical communist. In 1924 he was given control of the Supreme Economic Council.

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586 I E. coli ► Early

E. coli \'ko-,lI\ in full Escherichia coli Yesh-o-'ri-ke-o-'ko-JU Species of bacterium that inhabits the stomach and intestines. E. coli can be trans¬ mitted by water, milk, food, or flies and other insects. Mutations can lead to strains that cause diarrhea by giving off toxins, invading the intestinal lining, or sticking to the intestinal wall. Therapy consists largely of fluid replacement, though specific drugs are effective in some cases. The ill¬ ness is usually self-limiting, with no evidence of long-lasting effects. However, one dangerous strain causes bloody diarrhea, kidney failure, and death in extreme cases. Proper cooking of meat, washing of produce, and pasteurization of cider prevent infection from contaminated food sources.

e-commerce in full electronic commerce business-to-consumer and business-to-business commerce conducted by way of the Internet or other electronic networks.

E-commerce originated in a standard for the exchange of documents during the 1948^49 Berlin block¬ ade and airlift. Various industries elaborated upon the sys¬ tem until the first general standard was published in 1975.

The electronic data interchange (EDI) standard is unam¬ biguous, independent of any particular machine, and flex¬ ible enough to handle most simple electronic transactions.

In addition to standard forms for business-to-business transactions, e-commerce encompasses much wider activity—for example, the deployment of secure private networks (intranets) for sharing information within a com¬ pany, as well as selective extensions of a company’s intra¬ net to collaborating business networks (extranets). A new form of cooperation known as a virtual company, actually a network of firms, each performing some of the pro¬ cesses needed to manufacture a product or deliver a service, has flourished.

e-mail in full electronic mail Messages and other data exchanged between individuals using computers in a network. An e-mail system allows computer users to send text, graphics, and sometimes sounds and animated images to other users. It developed from large organizations using an internal messaging system as a communication link among employees. The mass provision of e-mail addresses for private individu¬ als by Internet service providers led to the development of e-mail as a sys¬ tem to supplement or replace communication by letter.

Ea \'a-a\ In Mesopotamian religion, the god of water. He formed a triad of deities with Anu and Bel. Originally a local deity in the city of Eridu, he evolved into the lord of the fresh waters beneath the earth, the god of ritual purification, and a patron of sorcery and incantations. Akkadian mythology makes him the father of Marduk. His counterpart among the Sumerians was Enki, from whose half-fish, half-goat form the astrologi¬ cal figure of Capricorn is derived.

eagle Any of many large, heavy-beaked, big-footed birds of prey belong¬ ing to the family Accipitridae, found worldwide. Eagles are generally larger and more powerful than hawks and may resemble a vulture in build and flight characteristics, but they have a fully feathered (often crested) head and strong feet equipped with great curved talons. Most species subsist mainly on live prey, which they generally capture on the ground.

Eagles have been a symbol of war and imperial power since Babylo¬ nian times. They mate for life. They nest in inaccessible places and use the same nest each year. Species vary from 24 in. to 3.3 ft (60 cm-1 m) long. The sea eagles include the bald eagle. See also golden eagle.

Eagle See F-l 5

Eakins Ya-konzV Thomas (b. July 25, 1844, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—d. June 25, 1916, Philadelphia) U.S. painter. After early training at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris (1866-70), he spent most of his life in his native Philadelphia. He reinforced his study of the live model at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts by studying anatomy at a medi¬ cal college. The Gross Clinic (1875), depicting a surgical operation, was too realistic for his contemporaries but is now seen as his masterpiece. In 1876 he began teaching at the Pennsylvania Academy, but he was

forced to resign in 1886 for working with nude models in mixed classes. In addition to numerous portraits, he painted boating and other outdoor scenes that reflect his fascination with the human body in motion. His interest in locomotion led him to the sequential photography of Eadweard Muybridge, and he began producing photographs and sculpture as well as paintings. Perhaps the most outstanding U.S. painter of the 19th century, his work inspired the trend of realism in American painting in the early 20th century.

Eales, John (b. June 27, 1970, Brisbane, Austl.) Australian rugby union player. Between 1990 and 2001 Eales, who stands 6 ft 7 in. (2.01 m), displayed exceptional all-around ability while playing second row forward (lock) for Queensland and Australia. With Australia he won two World Cups (1991, 1999) and two Tri-Nations Cups (2000, 2001) and served as captain of the Walla¬ bies from 1996 to 2001. In 1999 he was awarded the Order of Australia (AM) for services to the community and rugby.

Eames Vemz\, Charles and Ray (respectively b. June 17, 1907, St. Louis, Mo., U.S—d. Aug. 21, 1978, St. Louis; b. Dec. 15, 1912, Sacramento, Calif.—d. Aug. 21, 1988, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. designers. Charles was trained as an architect, while Ray (b. Ray Kaiser) studied painting with Hans Hofmann. After marry¬ ing in 1941, they moved to California, where they designed movie sets and researched the uses of ply¬ wood for furniture. In 1946 an exhibit of their furni¬ ture designs at the Museum of Modern Art, New York City, resulted in the mass production of their molded plywood chairs by the Herman Miller Furniture Co., and their furniture soon became known for its beauty, comfort, and elegance. After 1955 they made educational films, notably Powers of Ten (1969). They worked as design consultants to major U.S. corporations, including IBM.

ear Organ of hearing and balance. The outer ear directs sound vibrations through the auditory canal to the eardrum, which is stretched across the end of the auditory canal and which transmits sound vibrations to the middle ear. There a chain of three tiny bones conducts the vibrations to the inner ear. Fluid inside the cochlea of the inner ear stimulates sensory hairs; these in turn initiate the nerve impulses that travel along the audi¬ tory nerve to the brain. The inner ear is also an organ of balance: the sen¬ sation of dizziness that is felt after spinning is caused when fluid inside the inner ear’s semicircular canals continues to move and stimulate sen¬ sory hairs after the body has come to rest. The eustachian tube connects the middle ear with the nasal passages; that connection allows the com¬ mon cold to spread from the nasal passages to the middle ear, especially in infants and small children. The most common cause of hearing loss is otosclerosis, a surgically correctable disease in which one of the bones of the middle ear loses its capacity to vibrate. See also deafness, otitis. See illustration on opposite page.

EarhartVer-.harA, Amelia (Mary) (b. July 24,1897, Atchinson, Kan. U.S.—disappeared July 2, 1937, near Howland Island, Pacific Ocean) U.S. aviator, the first woman to fly alone across the Atlantic Ocean. Ear- hart worked as a military nurse in Canada during World War I and later as a social worker in Boston. In 1928 she became the first woman to cross the Atlantic in a plane, though as a passenger. In 1932 she accomplished the flight alone, becoming the first woman and the second person to do so. In 1935 she became the first person to fly solo from Hawaii to Cali¬ fornia. In 1937 she set out with a navigator, Fred Noonan, to fly around the world; they had completed over two-thirds of the distance when her plane disappeared without a trace in the central Pacific Ocean. Specula¬ tion about her fate has continued to the present.

earl See count

Early, Jubal A(nderson) (b. Nov. 3, 1816, Franklin county, Va., U.S.—d. March 2, 1894, Lynchburg, Va.) U.S. and Confederate military leader. He graduated from West Point and served in the second of the Seminole Wars and the Mexican War. He opposed secession but supported his home state of Virginia when it joined the Confederacy. He fought at the Battle of Bull Run and in Virginia. In 1864 he led Confederate forces down the Shenandoah Valley and threatened Washington, D.C., but was defeated by Union troops under Philip Sheridan. Relieved of his command, he fled to Mexico and then Canada, returning to Virginia in 1869.

© MARY PIAGE/BRUCE COLEMAN LTD.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Early American furniture ► Earth-crossing asteroid I 587

outer ear middle ear inner ear

canal membrane)

Structures of the human ear. The cartilaginous auricle and the auditory canal of the outer ear direct sound waves to the middle ear. The eardrum, stretched across the end of the canal, vibrates as sound waves reach it. Vibrations are transmitted via three small bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) to the membranous oval window, which links the middle ear to the inner ear. The cochlea is a coiled, fluid-filled tube lined with sensory hairs. Vibrations in the oval window cause movement of the cochlear fluid, stimulating the hairs to initiate impulses that travel along a branch of the audi¬ tory nerve to the brain. The eustachian tube, running from the middle ear to the nasopharynx, equalizes pressure between the middle and outer ear. The fluid-filled semicircular canals play a role in balance, as hairs in the canals respond to movement-induced changes in the fluid by initiating impulses that travel to the brain.

© MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

Early American furniture Furniture made in the second half of the 17th century by American colonists. The earliest pieces were massive and based on English Jacobean styles. Decoration consisted of carved flower motifs or lunettes and carved scrolls and leaves, sometimes highlighted by painting; oak and pine were the most common woods. Produced in the Connecticut River valley and Massachusetts coastal settlements, it con¬ sisted mainly of chests, cupboards, tables, stools, chairs, and beds.

Early Netherlandish art Architecture, painting, sculpture, and other visual arts produced in Flanders in the late 14th and 15th century under the rule of the dukes of Burgundy. In 1384 Philip II the Bold acquired the countship of Flanders by marriage, and the Flemish-Burgundian political alliance remained intact until 1482. Philip embellished the churches and monasteries of his capital, Dijon, with sculpture, especially that of Claus Sluter, and paintings. His grandson, Phiup III the Good, patronized the arts on a grander scale, hiring Jan van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden. Among the masters active until the end of the alliance were Robert Campin, Petrus Christus, Dirck Bouts, Hugo van der Goes, and Hans Memling.

Earnhardt, (Ralph) Dale (b. April 29, 1951, Kannapolis, N.C., U.S.—d. Feb. 18, 2001, Daytona, Fla.) U.S. automobile racer. He earned Rookie of the Year honours on the National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing’s Winston Cup series in 1979. In his career he drove to seven Winston Cup titles (1980, 1986-87, 1990-91, 1993-94), equaling the mark of Richard Petty. Earnhardt gained a reputation as an aggressive driver and became known as “the Intimidator.” He died from injuries suf¬ fered in a crash during the final lap of the 2001 Daytona 500.

Earp \'orp\, Wyatt (Berry Stapp) (b. March 19, 1848, Monmouth, Ill., U.S.—d. Jan. 13, 1929, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. frontiersman. He worked in the 1870s as a police officer in Wichita and Dodge City, Kan., where he befriended the gunmen Doc Holliday and Bat Masterson. He later worked as a guard for Wells, Fargo & Company. By 1881 he had moved to Tombstone, Ariz., living as a gambler and a saloon guard. His brother Virgil became town marshal, and his other brothers (James, Morgan, and Warren) bought real estate and businesses. A feud with the Clanton gang ended in a shootout at the O.K. Corral in which three of the Clanton gang were killed. In 1882 Morgan was murdered, and in retaliation Wyatt, Warren, and some friends killed two men they suspected of the crime. Accused of murder, Wyatt fled to Colorado and later settled in Califor¬ nia. Stuart Lake’s Wyatt Earp, Frontier Marshal (1931), written with Earp’s collaboration, portrayed him as a fearless lawman.

Earth Third planet in distance outward from the Sun. Believed to be about 4.6 billion years old, it is some 92,960,000 mi (149,600,000 km) from the Sun. It orbits the Sun at a speed of 18.5 mi (29.8 km) per second, mak¬ ing one complete revolution in 365.25 days. As it revolves, it rotates on its axis once every 23 hours 56 minutes 4 seconds. The fifth largest planet of the solar system, it has an equatorial circumference of 24,902 mi (40,076 km). Its total surface area is roughly 197,000,000 sq mi (509,600,000 sq km), of which about 29% is land. Earth’s atmosphere consists of a mix¬ ture of gases, chiefly nitrogen and oxygen. Its only natural satellite, the Moon, orbits the planet at a distance of about 238,860 mi (384,400 km). Earth’s surface is traditionally subdivided into seven continental masses: Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, and South America. These continents are surrounded by four major bodies of water: the Arctic, Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans. Broadly speaking. Earth’s interior consists of two regions: a core composed largely of molten, iron- rich metallic alloy; and a rocky shell of silicate minerals comprising both the mantle and crust (see also Moho; uthosphere). Fluid motions in the electrically conductive outer core generate a magnetic field around Earth that is responsible for the Van Allen radiation belts. According to the theory of plate tectonics, the crust and upper mantle are divided into a number of large and small plates that float on and travel independently of the lower mantle. Plate motions are responsible for continental drift and seafloor spreading and for most volcanic and seismic activity on Earth.

ocean asthenosphere

Earth's interior may be identified in two distinct ways. In chemical terms, it has three basic layers (left): the crust consists of granitic and basaltic rock, the mantle of silicate materials, and the core primarily of nickel and iron. Measured by physical properties, it has five principal layers (right): the lithosphere is a rigid outer layer, the asthenosphere is a thin layer of plastically deforming material that flows under stress, the mesosphere is a rigid layer that extends down to the core, the outer core is a viscous liquid in which Earth's magnetic field is believed to originate, and the inner core is solid. The layers are not drawn to scale.

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Earth-crossing asteroid Asteroid whose path around the Sun crosses Earth’s orbit. Three groups of such asteroids—Aten, Apollo, and Amor asteroids—are distinguished by the size of their orbits and how closely they approach the Sun. The Atens and Apollos cross Earth’s orbit on an almost continuous basis, whereas only about half the Amors are Earth crossers and then only part of the time. Astronomers have mounted searches for objects that closely approach Earth, partly to determine whether they may collide with the planet, since early detection might make it possible to avert a catastrophe. According to some estimates.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

588 i Earth impact hazard ► East

1,000 Earth-crossing asteroids larger than 0.6 mi (1 km) may exist. Impacts of 0.6-mi-size asteroids are believed to occur a few times every million years. Such a collision would deliver the explosive force of sev¬ eral hydrogen bombs, possibly resulting in global climate disturbances or huge tidal waves. The impact of an object about 6 mi (10 km) in diam¬ eter is thought to have caused a massive extinction of species, including the dinosaurs, at the end of the Cretaceous Period.

Earth impact hazard The danger of collision with asteroids and com¬ ets whose orbits carry them near Earth. Space around Earth contains vast numbers of objects in a range of sizes, but only the largest, which strike very rarely on average, are thought to pose a great danger. Scientists believe such an impact caused the mass extinction of dinosaurs and other species at the end of the Cretaceous Period 65 million years ago. In addi¬ tion to creating tremendous immediate destruction, a large impact could throw great clouds of debris into the atmosphere, cutting off sunlight and causing a prolonged temperature drop—an “impact winter” (similar to a nuclear winter) that would kill plant life and bring on worldwide famine. The amount of damage depends primarily on the colliding object’s mass and relative velocity. The energy released, expressed in millions of tons (megatons) of TNT, falls between about 10 megatons and 1 billion mega¬ tons, corresponding to objects roughly 160 ft (50 m) to 12 mi (20 km) across. The last destructive impact known, the Tunguska event, occurred over Siberia in 1908. Since the 1990s, search programs have scanned for objects on possible collision courses. Should a collision appear likely, nonexplosive projectiles or, in extreme cases, nuclear weapons might suc¬ ceed in redirecting the object away from Earth.

Earth Summit officially United Nations Conference on Envi¬ ronment and Development Conference held in Rio de Janeiro (June 3-14, 1992) to reconcile worldwide economic development with environmental protection. It was the largest gathering of world leaders in history, with 117 heads of state and representatives of 178 countries. Biodiversity, global warming, sustainable development, and preservation of tropical rain forests were among the topics discussed. Five international agreements were signed amid tensions between the industrialized coun¬ tries of the North and the poorer developing states of the South, who were reluctant to accept environmental restrictions without increased Northern economic aid. Follow-up meetings were held in 1997 at the UN General Assembly in New York and in 2002 in Johannesburg, S.Af. See also Rio Treaty.

earthenware Pottery that has been fired at low heat and is slightly more porous and coarser than stone¬ ware and porcelain. For practical and decorative purposes, it is usually glazed. The earliest known pottery, a soft earthenware excavated at a Neolithic settlement in Turkey, is thought to be about 9,000 years old.

Earthenware is still widely used for cooking, freezing, and serving. See also CREAMWARE.

earthquake Sudden shaking of the ground caused by a disturbance deeper within the crust of the Earth.

Most earthquakes occur when masses of rock straining against one another along fault lines suddenly fracture and slip. The Earth’s major earthquakes occur mainly in belts coinciding with the margins of tec¬ tonic plates. These include the Circum-Pacific Belt, which affects New Zealand, New Guinea, Japan, the Aleutian Islands, Alaska, and the western coasts of North and South America; the Alpide Belt, which passes through the Mediterranean region eastward through Asia; oceanic ridges in the Arctic, Atlantic, and western Indian oceans; and the rift valleys of East Africa. The “size,” or magnitude, of earthquakes is usually expressed in terms of the Richter scale, which assigns levels from 1.0 or lower to 8.0 or higher. The largest quake ever recorded (Richter magnitude 9.5) occurred off the coast of Chile in 1960. The “strength” of an earthquake is rated in intensity scales such as the Mercalli scale, which assigns quali¬ tative measures of damage to terrain and structures that range from “not

felt” to “damage nearly total.” The most destructive quake of modem times occurred in 1976, when the city of Tangshan, China, was leveled and more than 250,000 people killed. See also seismic wave; seismology.

earthquake-resistant structure Building designed to prevent total collapse, preserve life, and minimize damage in case of an earthquake or tremor. Earthquakes exert lateral as well as vertical forces, and a struc¬ ture’s response to their random, often sudden motions is a complex task that is just beginning to be understood. Earthquake-resistant structures absorb and dissipate seismically induced motion through a combination of means: damping decreases the amplitude of oscillations of a vibrating structure, while ductile materials (e.g., steel) can withstand considerable inelastic deformation. If a skyscraper has too flexible a structure, then tre¬ mendous swaying in its upper floors can develop during an earthquake. Care must be taken to provide built-in tolerance for some structural dam¬ age, resist lateral loading through stiffeners (diagonal sway bracing), and allow areas of the building to move somewhat independently.

earthshine Sunlight reflected from Earth, especially that reflected onto the dark side of the Moon. For a few days before and after each new moon, this doubly reflected light is powerful enough to make the whole Moon vis¬ ible, producing the effect, in the case of the new moon, of “the new moon holding the old moon in her arms.”

earthworm Any of more than 1,800 species of terrestrial worms, particularly members of the genus Lumbricus (class Oligochaeta of the annelid order). Earthworms exist in all soils of the world that have suf¬ ficient moisture and organic content.

The most common U.S. species, L. terrestris, grows to about 10 in. (25 cm), but an Australian species can grow as long as 11 ft (3.3 m). The segmented body is tapered at both ends. Earthworms eat decaying organisms and, in the process, ingest soil, sand, and pebbles, which aer¬ ates the soil, promotes drainage, and improves the soil’s nutrient content for plants. Earthworms are eaten by many animals.

earwig Any of about 1,100 insect species (order Dermaptera) charac¬ terized by large membranous hind wings that lie hidden under short, leathery forewings. Species vary from 0.2 to 2 in. (5 to 50 mm) long, and all are flat, slender, and dark, with a shiny outer covering and simple biting mouthparts. Several spe¬ cies can shoot a foul-smelling liquid, formed in abdominal glands, as far as 4 in. (10 cm). Earwigs have a pair of forceps-like tail pincers (cerci) at the back end of the abdomen that may function in defense, capturing prey, folding wings, or fighting courtship battles.

easement In Anglo-American property law, an interest in land owned by another that entitles its holder to a specific limited use or enjoyment, such as the right to cross the land or have a view over it continue unob¬ structed. It may be created expressly by a written deed of grant convey¬ ing the specific usage right, or it may be created by implication, as when an owner divides property into two parcels in such a way that an already existing, obvious, and continuous use of one parcel (e.g., for access) is necessary for the reasonable enjoyment of the other. Some U.S. states permit the creation of an easement by prescription (acquisition of an interest), as when one person makes continuous use of another’s land for some specified period of time (e.g., 20 years). Utility companies often own easements in gross; these are not dependent on ownership of the sur¬ rounding estate. Numerous other kinds of easements have been important in Anglo-American law. See also real and personal property.

East, Edward Murray (b. Oct. 4, 1879, Du Quoin, Ill., U.S.—d. Nov. 9, 1938, Boston, Mass.) U.S. plant geneticist, agronomist, and chemist.

Lead-glazed earthenware water pot, Paris, 15th century, in the National Museum of Ceramics, Sevres, France.

COURTESY OF THE MUSEE NATIONAL DE LA CERAMIQUE, SEVRES

Earthshine on the moon.

COURTESY OF YERKES OBSERVATORY, WISCONSIN

Earthworm (Lumbricus terrestris).

JOHN MARKHAM

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

East African Rift ► East Sussex I 589

He finished high school at age 15 and received an M.S. in 1904. He was particularly interested in determining and controlling the protein and fat content of corn, both of which significantly influence its value as animal feed. His research, with that of George Harrison Shull, led to the devel¬ opment of modem-day hybrid corn. Commercial production of hybrid seed corn was made possible by the work of his student Donald F. Jones (1890-1963). East’s work helped make possible studies in the field of population genetics.

East African Rift System See Great Rift Valley

East Anglia Traditional region of England. It consists of the historic counties of Norfolk and Suffolk and parts of Cambridgeshire and Essex, and its traditional centre is the city of Norwich. The easternmost area in England, it has been settled for thousands of years. Colchester, the oldest recorded town in England, was important in pre-Roman and Roman times. East Anglia was one of the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England, and it was ruled by Danes in the 9th century. During the medieval period it was known for its woolen products, but the region’s modern economy is pre¬ dominantly agricultural. Along the coast are many important fishing ports and holiday resorts.

East Asian arts Visual, literary, and performing arts of China, Korea, and Japan. Painting and calligraphy are considered the only true fine arts in China because they alone require no physical labour and have no physi¬ cal function. Sculpture is considered to be a craft, as are bronze casting, carving, and the making of pottery, textiles, metalwork, and lacquerware. Chinese architecture is characterized by timber buildings, and a building typically consists of a platform, a post-and-lintel frame, a system of roof¬ supporting brackets, and a heavy, sloping roof. Japanese visual arts have been strongly influenced by three elements: Chinese visual arts, indig¬ enous themes and traditions, and Buddhist iconography. The Horyu Temple (7th century) initiated the distinctive Japanese architectural approach: asymmetrical layouts following the contours of the land. Japa¬ nese artists’ fascination with abstraction from nature is most notable in screen and panel paintings of the 16th-18th centuries and the polychrome woodcut, which evolved into the popular ukiyo-e print. Among the remarkable features of Korean art might be noted the use of stone in architecture and sculpture and the development of an outstanding celadon glaze. Chinese literature has the longest continuous history of any litera¬ ture in the world (more than 3,000 years). It is inextricably bound to the development of the characters of the written language it has shared with both Korea and Japan. Korean literature includes an oral tradition of bal¬ lads, legends, mask plays, puppet-show texts, and p'ansori (“story sing¬ ing”) texts and a strong written tradition of poetry (notably hyangga and sijo forms). Like Korean literature, Japanese literature owes a debt to Chinese, since neither country had its own written language (though Japa¬ nese syllabary systems emerged about 1000, and Korean Hangul was developed in the 15th century). The earliest Japanese literature dates to the 7th century; in addition to its several literary monuments such as The Tale of Genji, Japanese poetry (particularly in the haiku form) is known throughout the world for its exquisite delicacy. Despite a different basis for its establishment, the East Asian music system, like Western music, developed a pentatonic scale based on a 12-tone vocabulary. The preferred size of the East Asian ensemble is small, and compositions emphasize melody and rhythm over harmonics. In the related categories of East Asian dance and theatre, it is noteworthy that in the East Asian countries, music, dance, and drama are typically linked, and there is little evidence of sepa¬ rate evolution of form. The several forms of East Asian performing arts include both masked and unmasked dances, masked dance theatre (as in Japanese no and Korean sandae ), danced processionals, dance opera ( jingxi , or “Peking,” and other forms of Chinese opera), shadow theatre, puppet theatre, and dialogue plays with music and dance (e.g., Japanese kabuki). See also Fujiwara style; ikebana; Jogan style paper folding; scroll painting; shinden-zukuri; shoin-zukuri; sukiya style; Tempyo style; Tori style; as well as individual artists such as Basho; Bo Juyi; Du Fu; Hiroshige Ando; Lu Xun; Murasaki Shikibu.

East China Sea See China Sea

East India Co. or English East India Co. English chartered com¬ pany formed for trade with East and Southeast Asia and India, incorpo¬ rated in 1600. It began as a monopolistic trading body, establishing early trading stations at Surat, Madras (now Chennai), Bombay (Mumbai), and Calcutta (Kolkata). Trade in spices was its original focus; this broadened to include cotton, silk, and other goods. In 1708 it merged with a rival

and was renamed the United Co. of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies. Becoming involved in politics, it acted as the chief agent of British imperialism in India in the 18th—19th century, exercising substan¬ tial power over much of the subcontinent. The company’s activities in China in the 19th century served as a catalyst for the expansion of Brit¬ ish influence there; its financing of the tea trade with illegal opium exports led to the first Opium War (1839—42). From the late 18th century it gradu¬ ally lost both commercial and political control; its autonomy diminished after two acts of Parliament (1773, 1774) established a regulatory board responsible to Parliament, though the act gave the company supreme authority in its domains. It ceased to exist as a legal entity in 1873. See also Dutch East India Co., French East India Co.

East India Co., Dutch Trading company founded by the Dutch in 1602 to protect their trade in the Indian Ocean and to assist in their war of inde¬ pendence from Spain. The Dutch government granted it a trade monopoly in the waters between the Cape of Good Hope and the Straits of Magel¬ lan. Under the administration of forceful govemors-general, it was able to defeat the British fleet and largely displace the Portuguese in the East Indies. It prospered through most of the 17th century but then began to decline as a trading and sea power; it was dissolved in 1799. See also East India Co., French East India Co.

East India Co., French Trading company founded by Jean-Baptiste Colbert in 1664, and its successors, established to oversee French com¬ merce with India, East Africa, and other territories of the Indian Ocean and the East Indies. In constant competition with the already-established Dutch East India Co., it mounted expensive expeditions that were often harassed by the Dutch. It also suffered in the French economic crash of 1720, and by 1740 the value of its trade with India was half that of the English East India Co. Its monopoly over French trade with India was ended in 1769, and it languished until its disappearance in the French Revolution.

East Pacific Rise Submarine linear mountain range on the floor of the South Pacific Ocean, roughly paralleling the western coast of South America. The main portion of the rise lies generally about 2,000 mi (3,200 km) off the coast, and it lies about 6,000-9,000 ft (1,800-2,700 m) above the surrounding seafloor. The East Pacific Rise has a generally smooth and flatfish surface, and it drops sharply away at the sides. It is composed largely of basic igneous crust, overlain or abutted by more or less flat- lying sediments.

East Prussia German Ostpreussen \'6st-,pr6is- 3 n\ Historical region and former Prussian province, east of Pomerania. From 1815 it was known as East Prussia, part of the kingdom of Prussia, and in the 19th century it was a stronghold of Prussian Junkers, a military aristocracy. It was the scene of successful resistance against the Russians in World War I. Fol¬ lowing the war, it was separated from the rest of Germany by the Polish Corridor (1919); it was reunited with the Reich by the German conquest of Poland in 1939. Between World War I and World War II, it was bounded to the north by the Baltic Sea, east by Lithuania, and south and west by Poland and the free city of Danzig (now Gdansk, Pol.). Overrun by Soviet armies at the end of World War II, in 1945 it was divided between the Soviet Union and Poland.

East River Navigable tidal strait in the U.S. linking Upper New York Bay with Long Island Sound in New York City. It separates Manhattan and the Bronx from Brooklyn and Queens. About 16 mi (26 km) long and 600-4,000 ft (200-1200 m) wide, it connects with the Hudson River via the Harlem River and Spuyten Duyvil Creek at the northern end of Man¬ hattan Island. Roosevelt (formerly Welfare), Wards, Randalls, and Rikers islands are in the East River, which has numerous port facilities.

East Saint Louis Race Riot (July 1917) Outbreak of violence in East St. Louis, Ill., sparked by the employment of African Americans in a fac¬ tory holding government contracts. It was the worst of several attacks during World War I on African Americans newly employed in war indus¬ tries. Some 6,000 African Americans were driven from their homes and 40 were killed; 8 whites were killed.

East Sussex Administrative and geographic county (pop., 2001: 492,324), southeastern England. It is located on the English Channel; the county’s administrative centre is in Lewes. A ridge of chalk hills, the South Downs, crosses the county along the coast; in the southeast the reclaimed marshes of Pevensey Levels have historically been an important entry point for invaders. Neolithic remains and an Iron Age hill fort have been

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590 i East Timor ► Eastern Woodlands Indian

found, as well as evidence of Roman occupation. The South Saxons came to dominate the area, and they were in turn subjugated by Wessex. In 1066 William of Normandy (see William I) landed at Pevensey and fought the Battle of Hastings. Along the coast, Hove, Brighton, Peacehaven, Seaford, Eastbourne, Bexhill, and Hastings form an ever-lengthening line of resorts.

East Timor officially Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste

Country occupying the eastern half of the island of Timor, Southeast Asia. Bounded by the Timor Sea and by the western half of Timor, it also

1260

ATAURO I.

EAST TIMOR

(TIMOR-LESTE)

Dili

Manatuto •

Baucai

.Ermera EAST TIMOR

Tatamailau \ ( \y ^ 2963 m ( V •Viqueque IAinaro) ‘Sames "A/

Suai

TIMOR ISLAND

TIMOR SEA

® 2002 Encyclopedia Britannic;

includes the enclave of Ambeno (surround¬ ing the town of Pante Makasar on the north¬ western coast of Timor) and the islands of Atauro (Kambing) and Jaco. Area: 5,639 square miles (14,604 square km). Population