Britannica Concise 2005

amide \'a-,mld\ Any member of either of two classes of nitrogen- containing organic compounds related to ammonia and amines and contain¬ ing a carbonyl group (—C=0; see functional group). The first class, covalent amides are formed by replacing the hydroxyl group (—OH) of an acid with an amino group (—NR 2 , in which R may represent a hydro¬ gen atom or an organic combining group, such as methyl). Amides formed from carboxylic acids, called carboxamides, are solids except for the sim¬ plest, formamide, a liquid. They do not conduct electricity, have high boiling points, and (when liquid) are good solvents. There are no practical natural sources of simple covalent amides, but the peptides and proteins in living systems are long chains (poly¬ mers) with peptide bonds (see cova¬ lent bond), which are amide linkages. Urea is an amide with two amino groups. Commercially important covalent amides include several used as solvents; others are the sulfa drugs and nylon. The second class, ionic (salt-like) amides (see ionic bond), are made by treating a covalent amide, an amine, or ammonia with a reactive metal (e.g., sodium) and are strongly alkaline.

Amiens \am-'ye n \ ancient Samarobriva later Ambianum City (pop., 1999: 135,801), northern France. Located on the Somme River, it became a Roman stronghold. The chief city of a medieval county, it passed to Burgundy in 1435 and was captured by the Spanish in 1597. Recovered by Henry IV, it served as the capital of Picardy until 1790. The Prussians captured the city in 1870, and the Germans held it briefly in 1914; it gave its name to a successful Allied counteroffensive against Germany in 1918. The Germans occupied it during World War II. It has been a major cen¬ tre of the French textile industry since the 16th century and is the site of the Gothic cathedral of Notre-Dame, the largest church in France.

Amiens \am-'ya n . Treaty of (March 27, 1802) Agreement signed at Amiens, France, by Britain, France, Spain, and the Batavian Republic (The Netherlands). By the treaty, France and its allies recovered most of their colonies, despite their military reverses overseas. The treaty ignored continuing trade differences between Britain and France, but it achieved a peace in Europe for 14 months during the Napoleonic Wars.

Amin \a-'men\ (Dada Oumee), Idi (b. 1924/25, Koboko, Ugan.—d. Aug. 16, 2003, Jiddah, Saud.Ar.)

Military officer and president (1971—

79) of Uganda. A member of the small Kakwa ethnic group and a Muslim, he was closely associated during his military career with Mil- ton Obote, Uganda’s first prime min¬ ister and president. In 1971 he staged a coup against Obote. He expelled all Asians from Uganda in 1972, reversed Uganda’s amicable rela¬ tions with Israel, was personally involved in the Palestinian hijacking of a French airliner to Entebbe (see Entebbe raid), and ordered the torture and murder of 100,000-300,000 Ugandans. In 1978 he ordered an attack on Tanzania, but Tanzanian troops, aided by Ugandan nationalists, were able to overpower the invaders. As the Tanzanian-led forces neared Kampala, Uganda’s capital, Amin fled to Libya and eventually settled in Saudi Arabia.

amine \o-'men\ Any of a class of NiTROGEN-containing organic com¬ pounds derived, either in principle or in practice, from ammonia (NH 3 ). Almost all their chemical names end in -ine. Replacement of one, two, or all three of the hydrogen atoms in ammonia with organic groups yields primary, secondary, or tertiary amines, respectively. Addition of a fourth hydrogen with an accompanying positive charge on the nitrogen atom results in a quaternary amine. Naturally occurring amines include alka¬ loids, present in certain plants; some neurotransmitters, including dopam¬ ine and epinephrine; and histamine. Industrially important amines include aniline, ethanolamine, and others, used in making rubber, dyes, pharma¬ ceuticals, and synthetic resins and fibres and in a host of other applica¬ tions. A nitrogen atom with one or two hydrogens is often referred to as an amino group.

amino acid \3-'me-no\ Any of a class of organic compounds in which a carbon atom has bonds to an amino group (—NH 2 ), a carboxyl group (—COOH), a hydrogen atom (—H), and an organic side group (called —R). They are therefore both carboxylic acids and amines. The physical and chemical properties unique to each result from the properties of the R group, particularly its tendency to interact with water and its charge (if any). Amino acids joined linearly by peptide bonds (see covalent bond) in a particular order make up peptides and proteins. Of over 100 natural amino acids, each with a different R group, only 20 make up the proteins of all living organisms. Humans can synthesize 10 of them (by intercon¬ versions) from each other or from other molecules of intermediary metabo¬ lism, but the other 10 (essential amino acids: arginine, histidine, isoleucine,

LEUCINE, LYSINE, METHIONINE, PHENYLALANINE, THREONINE, TRYPTOPHAN, and VALINE) must be consumed in the diet.

Amis \'a-mis\, Martin (b. Aug. 25, 1949, Oxford, Oxfordshire, Eng.) British writer and critic. The son of writer Kingsley Amis, he graduated from Oxford University in 1971. He worked for the Times Literary Supplement and the New Statesman before becoming a full-time writer. His works—including the novels Money (1984), London Fields (1989), and Night Train (1998) as well as the short-story collection Heavy Water

White-tipped amethyst from Guerrero, Mexico

LEE BOLTIN

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

62 I Amis ► amniocentesis

(1999)— feature inventive word play and often scabrous humour as they satirize the horrors of modem urban life. Amis also published an acclaimed autobiography. Experience (2000), and an idiosyncratic volume centred on Joseph Stalin, Koba the Dread (2002).

Amis, Sir Kingsley (William) (b. April 16, 1922, London, Eng.—d. Oct. 22, 1995, London) British novelist, poet, critic, and teacher. His first novel, Lucky Jim (1954; film, 1957), was a hugely successful comic mas¬ terpiece. He was often characterized as an Angry Young Man, a label he rejected. Notable among his more than 40 books (including four volumes of poetry) are the mordantly humorous novels That Uncertain Feeling (1955; film. Only Two Can Play , 1962), The Green Man (1959; film, 1957), Jake’s Thing (1978), and The Old Devils (1986, Booker Prize). He was the father of Martin Amis.

Amish Ya-mish\ Member of a conservative Christian group in North America known as the Old Order Amish Mennonite Church. The Amish originated in 1693-97 as followers of the Mennonite elder Jakob Ammann (1644?-c. 1730) in Switzerland, Alsace, and Germany. He taught that lying was grounds for excommunication (which meant being shunned by all other Mennonites), that clothing should be uniform and beards untrimmed, and that the state church should be avoided. Migration to North America and assimilation eliminated the Amish in Europe. They settled in Pennsylvania in the 18th century. After 1850 they split into “Old Order” (traditional) and “New Order” (now the Mennonite churches). Old Order Amish now live in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, Illinois, and Kansas. Adults are baptized and admitted to formal church membership at age 17 to 20. Services are in Pennsylvania Dutch (a German dialect) and some English. Though similar in theology to Mennonites, Amish wear modest, old-fashioned clothing and generally reject modern technology, including automobiles and telephones.

Amistad mutiny (July 2, 1839) Slave rebellion aboard the schooner Amistad. The revolt took place off the coast of Cuba when 53 Africans who had been abducted from Sierra Leone for the slave trade, seized con¬ trol of the ship, killed the captain and cook, and ordered the navigator to sail for Africa. Pretending to do so, he sailed generally northward instead, and the ship was intercepted two months later off New York. Despite attempts by Pres. Martin Van Buren to send the Africans to Cuba, aboli¬ tionists demanded a trial, contending the men were free under interna¬ tional law. A federal judge agreed, and the government appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court, where in 1841 defending counsel John Quincy Adams successfully argued that the men should be freed. Donations helped the 35 survivors to return to Sierra Leone in 1842.

Amitabha \,am-i-'ta-b9\ Japanese Amida Saviour deity worshiped by followers of Pure Land Buddhism in Japan. According to the Sukhavati- vyuha-sutra (Pure Land SUTRA), the monk Dharmakara vowed many ages ago that once he attained buddha- hood, all who believed in him and called upon his name would be born into his paradise (the Pure Land) and reside there until achieving nirvana.

The cult of Amitabha came to the forefront in China c. 650 and then spread to Japan, where it led to the formation of the Pure Land and True Pure Land sects. In Tibet and Nepal,

Amitabha is regarded as one of the five eternal buddhas (rather than as a saviour), who manifested himself as the earthly Buddha Gautama and as the BODHISATTVA AVALOKITESVARA.

Amman \a-'man\ City (pop., 2000 est.: 1,147,447), capital of Jordan. It lies 25 mi (40 km) northeast of the Dead Sea. Amman is by far the largest city of Jordan. Fortified settlements have existed in the area from remote antiquity; the earliest date from the Chalcolithic Period (c. 4000-3000 bc). As Rabbah, it became the capital of the Ammonites. It was conquered by Egypt’s Ptolemy II (Ptolemy Phil- adelphus), who renamed it Philadelphia, a name it retained through Roman times. Taken by the Arabs in ad 635, it later went into decline and subsequently disappeared. In 1878 the Ottoman Empire resettled it. When the British established the country of Transjordan in 1921, Amman

became its capital. Its modem development was furthered by the inde¬ pendence of Transjordan in 1946. Along with the rest of Jordan (the country’s name from 1949), Amman has had to absorb a large number of Arab refugees that fled Palestine during the Arab-Israeli wars.

Ammannati \,am-an-'na-te\ / Bartolommeo or Bartolommeo Ammanati (b. June 18, 1511, Settignano, near Florence—d. April 22, 1592, Florence ) Italian sculptor and architect active chiefly in Florence. He trained under Baccio Bandinelli in Florence and Jacopo Sansovino in Venice. In 1550 he went to Rome, where he collaborated with Giorgio Vasari and Giacomo da Vignola on the Villa Giulia. In 1555 he returned to Florence, where he spent the rest of his career working for the Medicis. He finished the Laurentian Library, begun by Michelangelo, but is best known for the Bridge of Santa Trinita and his additions to Filippo Brunelle¬ schi’s Pitti Palace, including the courtyard. His buildings mark the tran¬ sition from the Classicizing Renaissance to the more exuberant Baroque style.

ammonia Vo-'mo-nysX Colourless, pungent gas composed of nitrogen and hydrogen, chemical formula NH 3 . Easily liquefied by compression or cooling for use in refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment, it is manu¬ factured in huge quantities. Ammonia is made by the Haber-Bosch process (see Fritz Haber). Its major use is as a fertilizer, applied directly to soil from tanks of the liquefied gas. Also employed as fertilizers are salts of ammo¬ nia, including ammonium phosphate and ammonium nitrate (the latter used in high explosives as well). Ammonia has many other industrial uses as a raw material, catalyst, and alkali. It dissolves readily in water to form ammonium hydroxide, an alkaline solution (see base) familiar as a house¬ hold cleaner.

ammonia-soda process See Solvay process

ammonoid Vam-o-.nokL Any of a group of extinct shelled cephalopods, related to the modern pearly nautilus, that are commonly found as fossils in marine rocks of the Devonian through Cretaceous periods (410-65 mil¬ lion years ago). Most ammonoids were predators. The shells, either straight or coiled, served as protective and supportive structures and enabled the animals to compensate for varying water depths. Ammonoids are important index fossils because of their wide geographic distribution in shallow marine waters, rapid evolution, and easily recognizable fea¬ tures. See also belemnoid.

amnesia \am-'ne-zh9\ Loss of memory as a result of brain injury or deterioration, shock, fatigue, senility, drug use, alcoholism, anesthesia, illness, or neurotic reaction. Amnesia may be anterograde (in which events following the causative trauma or disease are forgotten) or retrograde (in which events preceding the trauma or disease are forgotten). It can often be traced to a severe emotional shock, in which case personal memories (in effect, identity) rather than such abilities as language skills are affected. Such amnesia seems to represent an escape from disturbing memories and is thus an example of repression; these memories can generally be recov¬ ered through psychotherapy or after the amnesic state has ended. Amnesia may occasionally last for weeks, months, or even years, a condition known as fugue.

amnesty In criminal law, a sovereign act of oblivion or forgetfulness (from Greek amnestia, “forgetfulness”) granted by a government, espe¬ cially to a group of persons who are guilty of (usually political) crimes in the past. It is often conditional upon the group’s return to obedience and duty within a prescribed period. See also pardon.

Amnesty International (Al) International human-rights organiza¬ tion. It was founded in 1961 by Peter Benenson, a London lawyer who organized a letter-writing campaign calling for amnesty for “prisoners of conscience.” AI seeks to inform the public about violations of human rights, especially abridgments of freedom of speech and religion and the imprisonment and torture of political dissidents. It actively seeks the release of political prisoners and support of their families when neces¬ sary. Its members and supporters are said to number one million people in some 140 countries. Its first director, Sean MacBride, won the 1974 Nobel Prize for Peace; AI itself won the award in 1977.

amniocentesis V.am-ne-o-sen-'te-sosN Surgical insertion of a hollow needle through the abdominal wall into the uterus of a pregnant female to extract fluid from the amniotic sac for analysis of fluid and fetal cells. This can reveal the fetus’s sex (important when sex-linked genetic dis¬ ease is possible), chromosomal disorders, and other problems. First per-

Great bronze Amida (Daibutsu) at Kamakura, Japan, 1252.

GAVIN HELUER—ROBERT HARDING PICTURE UBRARY/GETTY IMAGES

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

amoeba ► Amphion and Zethus I 63

formed in the 1930s, amniocentesis is generally done under local anesthesia in the 15th—17th week of gestation.

amoeba Vo-'me-boN One-celled protozoan that can form temporary extensions of cytoplasm (pseudopo¬ dia) in order to move about. Some amoebas are found on the bottom of freshwater streams and ponds. Oth¬ ers live in the human digestive sys¬ tem; one type causes amebic dysentery in humans. Each amoeba contains a small mass of jellylike cytoplasm with vacuoles and a nucleus. Food is taken in and mate¬ rial is excreted at any point on the cell surface. Amoebas are used extensively in cell research for deter¬ mining the relative functions and interactions of the nucleus and the cyto¬ plasm.

Amon \'a-,man\ or Amen Egyptian deity revered as king of the gods. Amon may have originated as a local deity at Khmun in Middle Egypt. His cult spread to Thebes, where he became patron of the pharaohs by Mentuhotep I’s reign (2008-1957 bc) and was identified with the sun god Re. Represented as a human, a ram, or both, Amon-Re was worshiped with the goddess Mut and the youthful god Khons. Akhenaton directed his reforms against the cult of Amon, but with little success, and Amon’s status was restored in the 14th—13th century bc. In the New Kingdom, Amon came to be seen as one of a triad with Ptah and Re, and in the 11th-10th century bc as a universal god who intervened in affairs of state by speaking through oracles.

amortization V.am-or-ti-'za-shonV In finance, the systematic repayment of a debt; in accounting, the systematic writing off of some account over a period of years. An example of the first meaning is a home mortgage, which may be repaid in monthly installments that include interest and a gradual reduction of the principal. Such systematic reduction is safer for the lender, since it is easier for the borrower to repay a series of small amounts than a single lump sum. In the second sense, a firm may gradu¬ ally reduce the balance-sheet valuation of a depreciable asset such as a building, machine, or mine. The U.S. government has sometimes permit¬ ted accelerated amortization of assets, which encourages industrial devel¬ opment by decreasing a company’s tax burden in the years immediately after a purchase.

Amos (fl. 8th century bc) Earliest Hebrew prophet (one of the 12 Minor Prophets) to have a biblical book named for him. Born in Tekoa in Judah, he was a shepherd. According to the book of Amos, he traveled to the richer and more powerful northern kingdom of Israel to preach his visions of divine destruction and the message that God’s absolute sovereignty required justice for rich and poor alike and that God’s chosen people were not exempt from the moral order. He foretold the destruction of the north¬ ern kingdom and Judah and anticipated the predictions of doom by later biblical prophets.

Amos ' n ' Andy See Freeman and Charles Correll Gosden

a mo site Va-ms-.sfiA Variety of the silicate mineral cummingtonite, which is a source of asbestos. Cummingtonite is an amphibole mineral, an iron and magnesium silicate that occurs in metamorphic rocks in the form of long needlelike, fibrous crystals.

Ampere \a n -'per\, Andre Marie (b. Jan. 22, 1775, Lyon, France—d. June 10, 1836, Marseille) French physicist, founder of the science of electromagnetism. A prodigy who mastered the entire known field of mathematics by age 12, he became a professor of physics, chemistry, and mathematics. He formulated a law of electromagnetism, called Ampere's law, that describes the magnetic force between two electric currents. An instrument he devised to measure the flow of electricity was later refined as the galvanometer. His chief published work was Memoir on the Math¬ ematical Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena (1827). The ampere (A) unit of electric current was named for him.

Ampere's law Law of electromagnetism that describes mathematically the magnetic force between two electric currents. It was named after A.-M. Ampere, who discovered that such forces exist. If two currents flow in the same direction, the force between the two wires is attractive; if they flow

in opposite directions, the force is repulsive. In each case, the force is directly proportional to the currents.

amphetamine Vam-'fe-to-.menX Organic compound, prototype of a class of synthetic amphetamine drugs (e.g., Benzedrine, Dexedrine, meth- amphetamine), that stimulates the central nervous system. It was first syn¬ thesized in 1887. Amphetamines cause wakefulness, euphoria, decreased fatigue, and increased ability to concentrate. Since they dull the appetite, they have been used for weight reduction. Often called “speed,” they are used (often illicitly) to stay awake. In children with attention deficit (hyperactivity) disorder, they have a calming effect, helping them con¬ centrate. Undesirable effects include overstimulation, with paranoia, rest¬ lessness, insomnia, tremor, and irritability, and a deep depression when the drug wears off. This, along with rapid development of tolerance requir¬ ing increased doses, can lead to drug addiction.

amphibian Any member of a class (Amphibia) of cold-blooded verte¬ brate animals that includes more than 4,400 species in three groups: frogs and toads (order Anura), salamanders (order Caudata), and caecilians (order Apoda). Probably evolved from certain fish species of the Early Devonian period (417-391 million years ago), amphibians were the first vertebrates to move from an aquatic environment to land. Most species have an aquatic larval, or tadpole, stage that metamorphoses into a terrestrial adult, but a few species spend their entire life in water. Amphibians are found worldwide, the majority in the tropics.

amphibious warfare Military operations directed against hostile shores and characterized by attacks launched from the sea by naval and landing forces. It has been conducted since ancient times. The Greeks attacking Troy (1200 bc) had to make a shore landing, as did the Persian invaders of Greece prior to the Battle of Marathon (490 bc). The British- led landings at Gallipoli (1915) were the main amphibious assault in World War I. The Allies of World War II found amphibious tactics essential in the island-hopping Pacific campaign and in the famous D-Day of the Normandy campaign, which still ranks as the greatest amphibious assault in history. Amphibious warfare’s greatest advantage is its mobility and flexibility; its greatest limitation is that the attacker must start from noth¬ ing to build up strength ashore. Modern amphibious forces attempt to overcome this by fielding larger and more efficient landing vessels and also by using helicopters and short-takeoff and -landing airplanes to deploy troops beyond the hostile shore.

amphibole Vam-fs-.boL Any of a group of common rock-forming hydrous silicate minerals. Amphiboles occur in many igneous rocks as minor and major constituents and form the major component in many gneisses and schists. Some highly fibrous forms are collectively called ASBESTOS.

amphibole asbestos Collective term for three highly fibrous (asbestiform) varieties of amphibole: crocidolite, amosite, and actinolite. All have long, silky to splintery fibres with appreciable tensile strength and are of economic importance as asbestos.

amphibolite Vam-'fi-bo-.llA Igneous or metamorphic rock composed largely or dominantly of amphibole minerals. For igneous rocks, the term homblendite is usually used and is more restrictive; hornblende is the most common amphibole. Metamorphic amphibolites are more widespread and variable than igneous ones. Typically, they are medium- to coarse-grained and are composed of hornblende and plagioclase. Basic igneous rocks such as basalts and gabbros (see acid and basic rocks) can be the parent rocks of amphibolite.

amphibolite facies \'fa-shez\ One of the major divisions of the min¬ eral facies classification of metamorphic rocks, encompassing rocks that formed under conditions of moderate to high temperatures (950°F, or 500°C, maximum) and pressures. Less-intense temperatures and pressures form rocks of the epidote-amphiboute facies, and more-intense temperatures and pressures form rocks of the granulite facies. Amphibole, diopside, epi- dote, plagioclase, certain types of garnet, and wollastonite are minerals typically found in amphibolite facies rocks. They are widely distributed in Precambrian gneisses and probably formed in the deeper parts of folded mountain belts.

Amphion and Zethus \'am-fe-9n... , ze-th3s\ In Greek mythology, twin sons of Zeus by the mortal Antiope. As infants the two were left to die on Mount Cithaeron, but were found and raised by a shepherd. Amphion grew up to become a great musician and singer, while Zethus became a hunter and herdsman. According to legend, they built the city of Thebes

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

64 I amphioxus ► amygdule

after the stone blocks arranged themselves into walls at the sound of Amphion’s lyre. Amphion became king of Thebes, and he married Niobe, with whom he had six sons and six daughters. When their children were killed by the gods, he committed suicide.

amphioxus \,am-fe-'ak-s3s\ or lancelet Vlan-sldtX Any of certain small marine chordates (invertebrate subphylum Cephalochordata) found widely on tropical and subtropical coasts and less commonly in temper¬ ate waters. Seldom more than 3 in. (8 cm) long, they resemble small, slender fishes without eyes or a definite head. They are grouped in sev¬ eral species in two genera (Branchiostoma or Amphioxus, and Epigon- ichthyes or Asymmetron). They spend much of their time buried in gravel or mud on the ocean bottom, though they are able to swim, and feed by filtering food particles from water passing through their gill slits. They have no brain or distinct heart.

Amphipolis \am-'fi-p3-l3s\ Ancient city, eastern Macedonia, near the mouth of the Struma River. Amphipolis was a strategic transportation cen¬ tre, controlling the bridge over the river and the route from northern Greece to the Dardanelles. Colonized by Athens in 437 bc, it was taken by Sparta in 424 bc. It soon received its independence, only to be taken by Philip II of Macedon in 358 bc. Later, under Roman rule, it was the headquarters of the Roman governor of Macedonia.

amphitheater Freestanding, open-air round or oval structure with a central arena and tiers of concentric seats. The amphitheater originated in ancient Italy (Etruria and Campania) and reflects the entertainment forms popular there, including gladiatorial games and contests of animals with one another or of men with animals. The earliest extant amphitheater is one built at Pompeii (c. 80 bc). Examples survive throughout the former prov¬ inces of the Roman empire, the most famous being Rome’s Colosseum.

amplifier Device that responds to a small input signal (voltage, current, or power) and delivers a larger output signal with the same waveform features. Amplifiers are used in radio and television receivers, high- fidelity audio equipment, and computers. Amplification can be provided by electromechanical devices (e.g., transformers and generators) and vacuum tubes, but most electronic systems now employ solid-state micro- circuits. One amplifier is usually insufficient, so its output is fed into a second, whose output is fed to a third, and so on, until the output level is satisfactory.

amplitude modulation See AM

amputation Removal of any part of the body, usually surgical removal of part or all of a limb. Congenital amputation means lack of a limb at birth (see agenesis). Surgical amputation may be a lifesaving measure to prevent excessive blood loss from injury or to check the spread of infection, gan¬ grene, or malignant soft-tissue or bone tumours. Reconstructive surgery, prompt treatment with blood and plasma, and rehabilitation have made amputation rarer than in the past. Prostheses reduce handicaps for ampu¬ tees, whose surgery may have been designed with a prosthesis in mind.

‘Amr ibn al-'As Vam-or-.ib-on-ol-'asV (d. 663, Al-Fustat, Egypt) Arab conqueror of Egypt. After accepting Islam (c. 630), he led a force to Oman, where he converted the region’s rulers. He was a leader in the Muslim force that conquered southwestern Palestine in the 630s but gained fame when, on his own initiative, he set out to conquer Egypt, succeeding (642) after a two-year campaign. A good administrator and politician, late in his career he aided the governor of Syria, Mu'awiyah I, against c Al 1, Islam’s fourth caliph. He was rewarded with the governor¬ ship of Egypt at the beginning of the Umayyad dynasty (661).

Amritsar X.om-'rit-sorV Massacre of (1919) Incident in which Brit¬ ish troops fired on a crowd of Indian protesters. In 1919 the British gov¬ ernment of India enacted the Rowlatt Acts, extending its World War I emergency powers to combat subversive activities. On April 13 a large crowd gathered at Amritsar in the Punjab to protest the measures; troops opened fire, killing about 379 and wounding some 1,200. The massacre permanently scarred relations between India and Britain and was the pre¬ lude to Mohandas K. Gandhi’s noncooperation movement of 1920-22.

Amsterdam City (pop., 2005 est.: city, 739,295; metro, area, 1,017,332), western Netherlands. It lies at the head of the IJsselmeer. It is the nominal capital of The Netherlands, whose seat of government is at The Hague. Originally a fishing village, it received its charter as a town in 1306. It joined the Hanseatic League in 1369 and grew steadily in the 14th and 15th centuries. After the decline of Antwerp at the end of the 16th

century, Amsterdam became the source of growing Dutch commercial and naval power. It was the centre for the Dutch East India and West India companies and became the leading trade metropolis of Europe. It became part of the Kingdom of Holland, which entered the Kingdom of the Neth¬ erlands in 1815. After suffering a partial decline in the 18th century, its prosperity increased when it became connected by canal to the North Sea in the late 19th century. It was occupied by Germany in World War II. After the war Amsterdam became known as a place of tolerance and lib¬ eralism. The city is now a major European port and a hub for interna¬ tional finance and trade.

Amtrak formally National Railroad Passenger Corp. Feder¬ ally supported corporation that operates nearly all intercity passenger trains in the U.S. It was established by Congress in 1970 in the face of private railroads’ heavy financial losses. Routes were cut back severely, with service maintained only in highly populated areas and between the largest cities. Amtrak pays the railroads to run passenger trains and com¬ pensates them for the use of tracks and terminals. Amtrak bears all admin¬ istrative costs and manages scheduling, route planning, and ticket sales. Despite income from tickets and mail-carrying services, Amtrak requires federal support to cover its operating costs. See also Conrail; Railway Express Agency.

Amu Darya Va-mii-'dar-yoN ancient Oxus River River, Central Asia. It is one of the longest rivers in Central Asia, 1,578 mi (2,540 km) long measured from the remotest sources of the Panj River; its other head- stream is the Vakhsh. It flows west-northwest to its mouth on the Aral Sea. It forms part of Afghanistan’s borders with Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan and part of Uzbekistan’s border with Turkmenistan.

Amundsen Va-mun-sonV, Roald (Engelbregt Gravning) (b. July 16, 1872, Borge, near Oslo, Nor.— disappeared June 18, 1928?, Arctic Ocean) Norwegian explorer, leader of the first group to reach the South Pole. In 1897 he took part in a Bel¬ gian expedition that was the first to winter in the Antarctic. In 1903-05 he was the first to navigate the Northwest Passage. He planned an expedition to the North Pole, but, after learning that Robert E. Peary had reached that goal, he set off for the South Pole in 1910. He prepared his trip carefully and in October 1911 set out with four men, 52 dogs, and four sledges. He reached the South Pole in December 1911, one month before Robert Falcon Scon’s ill-fated attempt. He returned to Norway and established a successful shipping business. In 1926 he and Umberto Nobile (1885-1978) passed over the North Pole in a dirigible. Amundsen disappeared in 1928 while flying to rescue Nobile from a dirigible crash.

Amundsen Va-mon-sonV Gulf Southeastern extension of the Beaufort Sea of the Arctic Ocean. Extending about 250 mi (400 km), the gulf is bordered by Victoria Island on the east and separates Banks Island (north) from the Canadian mainland (south). In 1850 the gulf was entered from the west by the British explorer Robert McClure. It is named for Roald Amundsen.

Amur \a-'mur\ River Chinese Heilong Vha-Tung\ Jiang or Hei-

lung Chiang River, northeastern Asia. The Amur proper begins at the confluence of the Shilka and Argun rivers and is 1,755 mi (2,824 km) long. It flows east-southeast along the Russian-Chinese border to Kha¬ barovsk, Siberia, then northeast across Russian territory to empty into the Tatar Strait. Among its tributaries are the Zeya, Bureya, and Ussuri rivers. From the 18th century, Russians have settled to the north of the river and Chinese to the south, a situation which at times has provoked border clashes.

amygdule \9- , mig- l dyiil\ Secondary deposit of minerals found in a rounded, elongated, or almond-shaped cavity in volcanic rock. The cavi¬ ties (vesicles) were created by the expansion of gas bubbles or steam within lava. Because gas bubbles tend to rise through the lava, amyg-

Roald Amundsen, 1923.

UPI/BETTMANN

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

amyotrophic lateral sclerosis ► analog computer I 65

dules are most common near the tops of flows. Many minerals have been found as amygdules, including some spectacular museum specimens of ZEOLITES.

amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) \ 1 a- I mI-3-'tr6-fik...skb- , ro- sos\ or Lou Gehrig disease Degenerative nervous-system disorder causing muscle wasting and paralysis. The disease usually occurs after age 40, more often in men. Most victims die within two to five years from respiratory muscle atrophy. ALS affects motor neurons; the muscles they control become weak and atrophied, with debility usually beginning in the hands and creeping slowly up to the shoulders. The lower limbs become weak and spastic. Variants include progressive muscular atrophy and progressive bulbar palsy. In 1993 the defective gene that accounts for 5-10% of cases was discovered; it produces an ineffective version of an enzyme that neutralizes free radicals, which destroy motor neurons.

An Hyang See An Yu

An Lushan Van-'lii-'shanV Rebellion Rebellion beginning in 755 in China led by An Lushan (703-757), a general of non-Chinese origin. An Lushan rose through the ranks of the Tang-dynasty army in the 740s, becoming a military governor and a favourite of the emperor, Xuanzong. In 755 he turned his troops on the eastern capital city, Luoyang, and after taking it he proclaimed himself emperor. Six months later his forces took Chang 7 an, the western capital. He was murdered in 757, and the rebel¬ lion was put down in 763. The Tang government was much weakened, however, and the second half of the Tang dynasty and the subsequent Five Dynasties period were troubled by chronic warlordism.

An Yu \'an-'yu\ or An Hyang \'an-'hyaq\ (b. 1243—d. 1306) Korean Neo-Confucian scholar and educator. In 1287 he accompanied King Chungnyol to the Mongol court in Beijing (Peking), where he encoun¬ tered the texts of Zhu Xi. Returning to Korea, An Yu used Neo-Confucian thought as the basis for promoting education. He helped reconstitute the National Academy and established a state treasury for national education. Eventually he became director of the Munmyo, the Korean national shrine to culture. Known as an opponent of Son (Zen) Buddhism in Korea, he was the most famous Confucian scholar of his era. See also Neo- Confucianism.

Anabaena \ l an-3- , be-no\ Genus of blue-green algae (cyanobacteria). Found as piankton in shallow water and on moist soil, they occur in both solitary and colonial forms and are capable of nitrogen fixation. In north¬ ern latitudes in summer, extensive growth of Anabaena may form water blooms that remain suspended instead of forming a surface scum. A toxic substance produced is fatal to cattle and other animals if present in drink¬ ing water in sufficient concentration.

Anabaptist Member of a movement of the Protestant Reformation char¬ acterized by adult baptism. Anabaptists held that infants were not punish¬ able for sin because they had no awareness of good and evil and thus could not yet exercise free will, repent, and accept baptism. Denying the valid¬ ity of infant baptism, they accepted adult baptism, which was regarded as a second baptism by those outside the group who identified them as Anabaptists (from the Greek for rebaptizers). Confident of living at the end of time, early Anabaptists sought to restore the institutions and spirit of the primitive church. The first adult baptisms took place outside Zurich in early 1525. Most Anabaptists were pacifists and refused to swear civil oaths. Thomas MOntzer advocated a more violent eschatology that called for the overthrow of the rich by the poor and was executed after leading the Thuringian peasant revolt (1525). Another group of Anabaptists, led by John of Leiden, took control of the city of Munster and sought to establish the millennial kingdom. Their excesses led to their violent sup¬ pression in 1535 and further persecution and martyrdom of the Anabap¬ tists. Many Anabaptists settled in Moravia, where they stressed the community of goods modeled on the primitive church at Jerusalem. This branch continues as the Hutterite movement, primarily in the western U.S. and Canada. Increasingly persecuted throughout Europe, Anabaptists in the Netherlands and northern Germany rallied under the leadership of Menno Simonsz. and survive as the Mennonites.

anabolic \,a-n9-'ba-lik\ steroid Steroid hormone that increases tissue growth. Anabolic steriods are given to elderly or postoperative patients to promote muscle growth and tissue regeneration. Unsupervised use by athletes to build muscle and improve strength can have serious harmful effects, including coronary heart disease, sexual and reproductive disor¬

ders, immunodeficiencies, liver damage, stunted growth, aggressive behaviour, susceptibility to connective-tissue injury, and (in females) irre¬ versible masculinization.

Anacletus \,an-3-'klet-9s\ II orig. Pietro Pierleoni (b. Rome—d. Jan. 25, 1138, Rome) Antipope (1130-38). Named a cardinal at Rome in 1116, he was elected pope by a majority of cardinals in 1130, while a minority created a schism by choosing Innocent II. Anacletus forced the rival pope to flee to France, where Innocent was supported by a church council and, especially, by Bernard of Clairvaux. Innocent’s supporters, including the Holy Roman and Byzantine emperors, invaded Italy in an unsuccessful effort to restore him. A second expedition in 1136 eroded support for Anacletus, who died before the issue was resolved by the sub¬ mission of his successor to Innocent.

anaconda Either of two South American snake species in the genus Eunectes (family Boidae) that con¬ strict their prey. The heavily built giant anaconda, or great water boa, is usually not more than 16 ft (5 m) long but can be longer than 24 ft (7.5 m), rivaling the largest pythons in length. The yellow anaconda is much smaller. Typically dark green with alternating oval black spots, the giant anaconda lives along tropical rivers east of the Andes and in Trinidad. It kills at night by lying in wait in water; it constricts prey as large as young pigs or caimans and occasionally forages in trees for birds. It may bear 75 live young at a time.

Anacreon or Anakreon \3-'nak-re-3n\ (b. c. 582 bc, Teos, Ionia—d. c. 485) Last great lyric poet of Asian Greece. Only fragments of his poetry have survived. Though he may have written serious poems, the poems quoted by later writers are chiefly in praise of love, wine, and revelry. His sentiments and style were widely imitated, and the anacreontic metre in poetry was named for him.

Anadolu See Anatolia

Anaheim City (pop., 2000: 328,014), southwestern California, U.S. Lying on the plain of the Santa Ana River 25 mi (40 km) southeast of Los Angeles, it was founded by German immigrants in 1857 as a cooperative agricultural community. After 1950 its citrus groves and vineyards had all but disappeared in the Los Angeles-Orange Co. urban-industrial expan¬ sion. Walt Disney’s first amusement park, Disneyland, opened there in 1955. Today it is a prominent convention site.

anal canal End portion of the alimentary canal, distinguished from the rectum by the transition from an internal mucous membrane layer to one of skinlike tissue and by its narrower diameter. Waste products move from the rectum to the anal canal. The human anal canal is 1-1.5 in. (2.5^4 cm) long and has three parts: upper, with longitudinal folds (rectal columns); lower, with involuntary and voluntary constrictive muscles (sphincters) to control discharge of feces; and the anal opening itself. Enlargements of the ends of rectal and anal veins are called hemorrhoids.

Analects See Lunyu

analgesic \,an-9l-'je-zik\ Drug that relieves pain without blocking nerve impulse conduction or markedly altering sensory function (see nervous system). Two classes are defined by the type of pain-relieving action. Opi¬ oids (opiates and synthetic narcotics; see opium) act on brain receptors to inhibit pain impulses. They may be used for short- or long-term pain relief, usually by prescription, but carry a risk of drug addiction. Non¬ opioids, used mostly for short-term relief and modest pain, are available without prescription. They include NSAIDs (including aspirin and ibupro- fen) and acetaminophen; all act by inhibiting synthesis of prostaglandins, molecules involved in the peripheral perception of pain.

analog computer Computer in which continuously variable physical quantities, such as electrical potential, fluid pressure, or mechanical motion, are used to represent (analogously) the quantities in the problem to be solved. The analog system is set up according to initial conditions and then allowed to change freely. Answers to the problem are obtained by measuring the variables in the analog model. Analog computers are especially well suited to simulating dynamic systems; such simulations

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66 I analysis ► Anasazi

may be conducted in real time or at greatly accelerated rates, allowing experimentation by performing many runs with different variables. They have been widely used in simulating the operation of aircraft, nuclear power plants, and industrial chemical processes. See also digital computer.

analysis In chemistry, the determination of the properties and compo¬ sition of samples of materials; qualitative analysis establishes what is there, and quantitative analysis measures how much. A large body of sys¬ tematic procedures (analytical chemistry) has evolved in close associa¬ tion with other branches of the physical sciences since their beginnings. A sample of a single compound may be analyzed to establish its elemen¬ tal composition (see element, molecular weight) or molecular structure; many measurements use spectroscopy and spectrophotometry. A mixed sample is usually analyzed by separating, detecting, and identifying its components by methods that depend on differences in their properties (e.g., volatility, mobility in an electric or gravitational field, distribution between liquids that do not mix). The many types of chromatography are increasingly useful, particularly with biological and biochemical samples.

analysis Field of mathematics that incorporates the methods of algebra and calculus —specifically of limits, continuity, and infinite series —to ana¬ lyze classes of functions and equations having general properties (e.g., differentiability). Analysis builds on the work of G.W. Leibniz and Isaac Newton by exploring the applications of the derivative and the integral. Several distinct but related subfields have developed, including the cal¬ culus of variations, differential equations, Fourier analysis (see Fourier transform), complex analysis, vector and tensor analysis, real analysis, and FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS. See also NUMERICAL ANALYSIS.

analytic geometry Investigation of geometric objects using coordi¬ nate systems. Because Rene Descartes was the first to apply algebra to geometry, it is also known as Cartesian geometry. It springs from the idea that any point in two-dimensional space can be represented by two num¬ bers and any point in three-dimensional space by three. Because lines, circles, spheres, and other figures can be thought of as collections of points in space that satisfy certain equations, they can be explored via equations and formulas rather than graphs. Most of analytic geometry deals with the conic sections. Because these are defined using the notion of fixed dis¬ tance, each section can be represented by a general equation derived from the DISTANCE FORMULA.

analytic philosophy Philosophical tradition that emphasizes the logi¬ cal analysis of concepts and the study of the language in which they are expressed. It has been the dominant approach in philosophy in the English-speaking world from the early 20th century. With respect to its problems, methods, and style, it is often contrasted with Continental phi¬ losophy, though the significance of the opposition has been widely chal¬ lenged. Analytic philosophers have differed regarding the nature of so-called “ordinary” language and the methodological value of appeals to ordinary usage in the logical analysis of concepts. Those known as for¬ malists hold that, because ordinary language is potentially a source of conceptual confusion, philosophy and science should be conducted in a logically transparent formal language based on modern mathematical, or symbolic, logic. Those known as informalists reject this view, arguing that attempts to “improve” ordinary language in this way inevitably oversim¬ plify or falsify it, thereby creating conceptual confusion of just the sort that the formalists are concerned to avoid. Three figures conventionally recognized as founders of the tradition are Gottlob Frege, G.E. Moore, and Bertrand Russell. Other major figures include Ludwig Wittgenstein, A.J. Ayer, Rudolf Carnap, J.L. Austin, W.V.O. Quine, and David Lewis (1941— 2001). See also logical positivism; Vienna Circle.

analytic psychology Psychoanalytic method of Carl Jung as he dis¬ tinguished it from that of Sigmund Freud. Jung attached less importance than did Freud to the role of childhood sexual conflicts in the develop¬ ment of neurosis. Moreover, he defined the unconscious to include both the individual’s own unconscious and that inherited, partly in the form of archetypes, from his or her ancestors (the “collective unconscious”). He classified people into introvert and extravert types and further distin¬ guished them according to four primary functions of the mind—thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition—one or more of which predominated in any given person.

analytic-synthetic distinction In both logic and epistemology, the distinction (derived from Immanuel Kant) between statements whose predi¬ cate is included in the subject (analytic statements) and statements whose predicate is not included in the subject (synthetic statements). Some phi¬

losophers prefer to define as analytic all statements whose denial would be self-contradictory, and to define the term synthetic as meaning “not analytic.” The distinction, introduced by Kant in The Critique of Pure Reason , aroused extensive debate in the mid-20th century, particularly in view of objections raised by W.V.O. Quine.

anamorphosis \ l an-9-mor- , fo-sis\ Drawing or painting technique that gives a distorted image of the subject when seen from the usual view¬ point, but when viewed from a particular angle or reflected in a curved mirror shows it in true proportion. Its purpose is to amuse or mystify. It was a curious by-product of the discovery of perspective in the 14th-15th century and was regarded as a display of technical virtuosity. The first examples appear in Leonardo da Vinci’s notebooks.

Ananda Va-non-doV (fl. 6th century bc, India) First cousin and disciple of the Buddha. A monk who served as the Buddha’s personal attendant, he became known as the “beloved disciple.” It was Ananda who persuaded the Buddha to allow women to become nuns. By tradition, he was the only intimate disciple of the Buddha who had not attained enlightenment before his master’s death; he attained that state just before the first Bud¬ dhist Council (c. 544 or 480 bc), when he recited from memory the Sutta Pitaka. He is represented as the author of several Buddhist discourses.

anaphylaxis \,an-9-fi-'lak-sis\ Severe, immediate, potentially fatal bodily reaction to contact with a substance (antigen) to which the indi¬ vidual has previously been exposed. Often triggered by antiserum, anti¬ biotics, or insect stings, the reaction’s symptoms include skin flushing, bronchial swelling (with difficulty breathing), and loss of consciousness. Shock may follow. Milder cases may involve hives and severe headache. Treatment, consisting of injection of epinephrine, followed by antihistamines, cortisone, or similar drugs, must begin within minutes. Anaphylaxis may be caused by extremely small amounts of antigen.

anarchism Van-or-.kiz-omV Political theory holding all forms of govern¬ ment authority to be unnecessary and undesirable and advocating a society based on voluntary cooperation and free association of individuals and groups. The word was used only pejoratively until Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, now regarded as the founder of anarchism, adopted it in What is Property? (1840). The anarchist Mikhail Bakunin clashed with Karl Marx at the First International; when it was dissolved in 1872, Bakunin’s followers retained control of workers’ organizations in Latin countries such as Spain and Italy. Even anarchists who believed that the transition to a government-free soci¬ ety required violent revolution disagreed on the nature of the transition. Anarcho-SYNDICAUSM, which developed in the late 1880s, emphasized labour unions ( syndicats ) and called for general strikes to paralyze the state. In the 19th and 20th centuries, anarchism also inspired experimental communities, including New Lanark in Britain and Brook Farm in the U.S. During the early months of the Spanish Civil War, anarchist militias were in virtual control of much of eastern Spain, where they established hundreds of anarchist collectives. Suppressed as an organized movement by fascism in the 1930s, anarchism reemerged in the 1950s and ’60s through its influ¬ ence on the civil rights movement and the student movements in the U.S. and Europe. The radical ECOLOGY movement in the 1970s also was inspired by anarchist ideas. Beginning in 1999, anarchist-led street demonstrations against the World Bank and International Monetary Fund received unprec¬ edented publicity and inspired new anarchist groups, periodicals, and Inter¬ net sites. Anarchist themes are reflected in the work of many 20th-century artists, writers, and musicians, including Pablo Picasso, the American poets of the Beat movement, the Spanish Surrealist filmmaker Luis Bunuel, and the American composer John Cage.

Anasazi \,a-n3-'sa-ze\ culture North American Indian civilization that developed from c. ad 100 to historic times, centring on the area where the present-day boundaries of the U.S. states of Arizona, New Mexico, Colo¬ rado, and Utah intersect. Anasazi is the Navajo word for “Ancient Enemy”; the Hopi prefer the term Hisatsinom, meaning “Ancient People.” Anasazi is the term most commonly used to refer to the ancestors of con¬ temporary Pueblo Indian peoples. Anasazi civilization is customarily divided into several periods: Basket Maker (ad 100-500), Modified Bas¬ ket Maker (500-700), Developmental Pueblo (700-1050), Classic Pueblo (1050-1300), Regressive Pueblo (1300-1700), and Modern Pueblo (1700-the present). As among present-day Pueblo peoples, religion in the Anasazi culture was highly developed and centred on rites partly con¬ ducted in underground circular chambers called kivas. The best-known Anasazi ruins are the cliff dwellings at Mesa Verde (Colo.) and Chaco Canyon (N.M.).

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Anastasia ► anchovy I 67

Anastasia Russian Anastasiya Nikolayevna (b. June 18, 1901, Peterhof, Russia—d. July 16/17, 1918, Yekaterinburg) Grand duchess of Russia and youngest daughter of Tsar Nicholas II. She was executed at age 17 with the other members of her immediate family by the Bolshe¬ viks in the Russian Revolution of 1917. After the executions several women outside Russia claimed her identity, making her the subject of periodic popular conjecture and publicity. Some also claimed to be heir to the Romanov fortune held in Swiss banks. The most famous was Anna Anderson (d. 1984), a Pole married to a U.S. history professor; her claim was finally rejected in 1970, and later genetic tests proved there was no connection between Anderson and the Romanovs.

Anastasius \,an-3-'sta-zh3s\ I (b. 430?, Dyrrhachium, Epirus Vetus—d. July 9, 518, Constantinople) Byzantine emperor (491-518). Originally a bodyguard to Zeno, he succeeded Zeno as emperor and married his widow. Anastasius reformed the monetary and taxation systems and expelled rebel tribes from Constantinople, building a wall to protect the capital against raiders. He recognized Theodoric’s rule in Italy (497) but later sent a fleet to ravage the Italian coast. War with Persia (502-5) ended when he agreed to pay tribute to the Persian king. Anastasius accepted the Monophysite doctrine, a stand that caused unrest in Byzantium but fos¬ tered peace with Egypt and Syria.

Anath \'an-ath\ Chief western Semitic goddess of love and war, sister and helpmate to Baal, whom she retrieved from the land of the dead. One of the best-known of Canaanite deities, she was famous for her youthful vigour and ferocity in battle. In Egypt she was depicted nude, holding flowers and standing on a lion. During the Hellenistic Age, Anath and Astarte were merged into Atargatis.

Anatolia or Asia Minor Turkish Anadolu X.a-na-'do-liiN Peninsula forming the western extremity of Asia. It is bounded by the Black Sea to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and the Aegean Sea to the west. Its eastern boundary is generally marked by the Anti-Taurus Moun¬ tains. Anatolia is roughly contiguous with the Asian portion of the mod¬ ern Republic of Turkey. Because of its location at the point where Asia and Europe meet, it has long been the scene of numerous migrations and con¬ quests. It was the original location of the kingdom of Hittites (c. 1700- 1180 bc). Later, Indo-European peoples, possibly Thracian, established the Phrygian kingdom. In the 6th century bc the Persian Achaemenian dynasty came to rule the area; it was conquered by Alexander the Great in 334 bc. Beginning in the 1st century bc, the area was absorbed into the Roman Republic and Empire. When the empire split in ad 395, Anatolia became part of the Byzantine Empire. The area endured invasions by Arabs, Turks, Crusaders, Mongols, and the Turkic army of Timur before the Otto¬ man Empire established full control in the 15th century. From 1923 its his¬ tory was that of modern Turkey.

Anatolian languages Branch of the Indo-European language family spoken in Anatolia in the 2nd-lst millennia bc. The attested Anatolian languages are Hittite, Palaic, Luwian (Luvian), Hieroglyphic Luwian, Lycian, and Lydian. Hittite, by far the most copiously attested of the group, is known chiefly from a vast archive of cuneiform tablets found in 1905 at Hattusas (now Bogazkoy, in north-central Turkey), the capital of the Hittite empire; Hittite texts date from the 16th to 13th century bc. By the late Roman or early Byzantine period at the latest, Anatolian languages had all become extinct. Several non-Indo-European languages of ancient Anatolia, all known from cuneiform texts, are also sometimes considered Anatolian languages: Hattie, spoken in central Anatolia before the com¬ ing of the Hittites and known solely from words and texts preserved by Hittite scribes; Hurrian, spoken in the 2nd millennium bc in northern Mesopotamia and southeastern Anatolia; and Urartian (Urartean), known from northwestern Anatolian texts of the 9th-7th centuries bc.

anatomy Biological field that deals with bodily structures as revealed by dissection. Herophilus first laid the factual groundwork for gross anatomy, the study of structures large enough to see without a microscope. Galen’s ideas were the authority for anatomy in Europe until Andreas Vesauus’s methods placed it on a firm foundation of observed fact. The microscope permitted the discovery of tiny structures (e.g., capillaries and cells), the subject of microscopic anatomy. Crucial advances in this area— including the microtome, which slices specimens into extremely thin sec¬ tions, and staining—led to the new fields of cytology and histology. Electron microscopy opened up the study of subcellular structures, and X-ray diffraction gave rise to the new subspecialty of molecular anatomy.

Comparative anatomy compares similar structures in different animals to see how they have changed with evolution.

Anaxagoras \,an-ak-'sag-3-r3s\ (b. c. 500, Clazomenae, Anatolia—d. c. 428 bc, Lampsacus) Greek philosopher. Though only a few fragments of his writings have survived, he is remembered for his cosmology and for his discovery of the true cause of eclipses. His cosmology grew out of the efforts of earlier pre-Socratics to explain the physical universe in terms of a single element. The most original aspect of his system was his doctrine of nous (“mind,” or “reason”), according to which the cosmos, including all living things, was created by mind in a process of attraction of “like to like”; mind also accounts for the power of living things to extract nourishment from surrounding substances.

Anaximander Xo-'nak-so-.man-doA (b. 610 bc, Miletus—d. 546/545 bc) Greek philosopher, often called the founder of astronomy. He appar¬ ently wrote treatises on geography, astronomy, and cosmology that sur¬ vived for several centuries and made a map of the known world. He was the first thinker to develop a cosmol¬ ogy. A rationalist, he prized symme¬ try and used geometry and mathematical proportions to help map the heavens; his theories thus departed from earlier, more mystical conceptions and foreshadowed the achievements of later astronomers.

Whereas earlier theories had sug¬ gested Earth was suspended or sup¬ ported from elsewhere in the heavens, Anaximander asserted that Earth remained unsupported at the centre of the universe because it had no reason to move in any direction.

Anaximenes X.an-ak-'sim-o-.nezX (fl. c. 545 bc) Greek philosopher of nature. With Thales and Anaximander, he is one of three Milesian thinkers (see Miletus) traditionally considered the first philosophers of the West¬ ern world. He defined the essence of matter as aer (“air”) and explained the densities of various types of matter in terms of varying degrees of condensation of moisture. His writings no longer exist except as quoted by later authors.

ANC See African National Congress

ancestor worship Religious beliefs or practices that involve address¬ ing prayers or offerings to the spirits of dead relatives. It existed among the ancient Greeks, other Mediterranean peoples, and the ancient Euro¬ peans; it also plays a major role in traditional African religions. The dead are related to the family, clan, tribe, or village; mythical ancestors may be included. They may be friendly, or they may be displeased and require propitiation. Commemorative ceremonies are sometimes held at graves or monuments and may include prayers, offerings, sacrifices, and festi¬ vals of honor. Worship of individual ancestors is common; it may be combined with communal forms of worship, as in the case of the Roman emperor cult. An ancestor whose deeds are heroic may attain the status of a god. In China and Japan, ancestor worship (more accurately, ances¬ tor reverence) has declined with the decline in the size and importance of kinship groups.

Anchorage Seaport, largest city (pop., 2000: 260,283), and chief com¬ mercial centre of Alaska, U.S. It lies at the head of Cook Inlet near the base of the Kenai Peninsula. It was founded in 1914 as a construction camp for the building of a railroad to Fairbanks. It became a key aviation and defense centre in World War II and is now a regular stop on air routes from the U.S. to East Asia. Anchorage experienced rapid population growth in the late 20th century. In 1964 a severe earthquake caused a number of deaths and extensive property damage.

anchovy Any of more than 100 species of schooling saltwater fishes (family Engraulidae) related to the herring. Anchovies are distinguished by a large mouth, almost always extending behind the eye, and by a pointed snout. Most species live in shallow tropical or warm temperate seas, where they often enter brackish water around river mouths. Adults are 4-10 in. (10-25 cm) long. Temperate species such as the northern and

Anaximander, represented with a sun¬ dial, mosaic, 3rd century ad; in the Rhineland Museum, Trier, Ger.

BY COURTESY OF THE LANDESMUSEUM, TRIER, GER.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

68 I ancien regime ► Anderson

European anchovies are important food fishes; tropical species such as the tropical anchovy, or anchoveta, are important bait fishes. See also SCHOOLING BEHAVIOUR.

ancien regime \a n s-ya n -ra-'zhem\

(French: “old order”) Political and social system of France prior to the French Revolution. Under the regime, everyone was a subject of the king of France as well as a member of an estate and province. All rights and status flowed from the social institu¬ tions, divided into three orders: clergy, nobility, and others (the Third Estate). There was no national citizenship.

Ancona Seaport (pop., 2001: 100,402), capital of the Marche region, central Italy. Founded by colonists from Syracuse c. 390 bc, it was taken by Rome in the 2nd century bc. It became a flourishing port particularly favoured by Trajan, who enlarged the harbour. It was attached to the Holy Roman Empire in the 12th century; in the 16th century it came under papal protection, which was largely maintained until Ancona became part of Italy in 1861. It underwent severe bombing in World War II, but many notable Roman and medieval landmarks survive.

Anda See Altan

Andalusia X.an-do-lii-'se-oV Spanish Andalucia Autonomous com¬ munity (pop., 2001: 7,357,558) and historic region, southern Spain. It occupies an area of 33,821 sq mi (87,597 sq km); the capital is Sevilla. It is traversed by mountain ranges, including the Sierra Morena and Sierra Nevada; its main river is the Guadalquivir. Andalusia has a long history of inhabitation: by the Phoenicians (9th century bc), the Carthaginians (5th century bc), and the Romans (3rd century bc). The Arabic name Al-Andalus was originally applied by the Moors to the whole Iberian Peninsula. When the Umayyad dynasty established its court at Cordoba, this area became the peninsula’s intellectual and political centre. It returned to Spanish Christian rule in 1492 and remained a province until divided in 1833 into the eight modern provinces. A mining and agricul¬ tural region, Andalusia also features beaches along the Costa del Sol that attract the tourist trade.

Andaman and Nicobar \'an-d3-m3n... , nik-6- 1 bar\ Islands Union territory (pop., 2001: 356,152), India. It consists of two groups of islands in the Bay of Bengal about 800 mi (1,300 km) east of the Indian subcon¬ tinent and Sri Lanka; the total area is 3,185 sq mi (8,249 sq km). The chief islands are North Andaman, Middle Andaman, and South Andaman (known collectively as Great Andaman), and Little Andaman. The Nico¬ bar group includes Car Nicobar, Camorta (Kamorta) and Nancowry, and Great Nicobar. Most of the population lives in the Andaman group. Port Blair on South Andaman, established by the British in 1858, is the terri¬ torial capital.

Andaman Sea Sea, eastern extension of the Bay of Bengal. Bounded by the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Myanmar, the Malay Peninsula, and the Strait of Malacca and Sumatra, it covers some 308,000 sq mi (798,000 sq km). Trading vessels have plied the sea since ancient times. Part of the early coastal trade route between India and China, from the 8th century it formed a route between India (and Sri Lanka) and Myanmar. Its larg¬ est modem ports are George Town (Malaysia) and Yangon (Myanmar). A large earthquake-generated tsunami in 2004 inundated many of the sea’s coastal areas.

Andania mysteries Ancient Greek mystery cult, held in honor of the goddess Demeter and her daughter Kore (Persephone) at Andania in Mes- senia. It was performed by “holy ones” of both sexes from various tribes. Initiation was open to all. Costumes were plain and inexpensive, except for those costumed as deities. There was a procession, and a pageant or drama may have been performed; sacrifices were made to several deities before the main ceremony.

Andean bear See spectacled bear

Andean civilization Complex of aboriginal cultures that evolved in the Andean region (see Andes Mountains) of western South America before the arrival of the Spanish coNQUiSTADORes in the 16th century. Unlike the peoples of the Mesoamerican civilization to the north, none of the aboriginal Andean peoples developed a system of writing, though the

Inca devised a sophisticated system of recording numbers. In its level of cultural development and technical expertise in the arts and crafts, how¬ ever, this civilization constitutes a New World counterpart to those of ancient Egypt, China, and Mesopotamia. See also Chibcha; Chimu; Moche; Tiahuanaco.

Andean Geosyncline Linear trough in the Earth’s crust in which rocks were deposited in South America in the Mesozoic Era (248-65 mil¬ lion years ago) and Cenozoic Era (65 million years ago to the present). A complex history of volcanism, uplift, block faulting, and erosion led even¬ tually to the present configuration of the Andes Mountains.

Andersen, Hans Christian (b. April 2, 1805, Odense, near Copen¬ hagen, Den.—d. Aug. 4, 1875, Copenhagen) Danish writer of fairy tales. Though reared in poverty, he received a university education. In his many collections of tales, published 1835-72, he broke with literary tradition and employed the idioms and constructions of spoken language. His sto¬ ries are imaginative combinations of universal elements from folk legend and include such favourites as “The Ugly Duckling” and “The Emperor’s New Clothes.” While some reveal an optimistic belief in the ultimate tri¬ umph of goodness and beauty (e.g., “The Snow Queen”), others are deeply pessimistic. Part of what makes his tales compelling is the way they iden¬ tify with the unfortunate and outcast. He also wrote plays, novels, poems, travel books, and several autobiographies.

Anderson, Dame Judith orig. Frances Margaret Anderson

(b. Feb. 10, 1898, Adelaide, S.Aus., Australia—d. Jan. 3, 1992, Santa Barbara, Calif., U.S.) Australian-born U.S. actress. She made her stage debut in Sydney in 1915 and first appeared in New York City in 1918. She was noted for roles such as Lavinia in Mourning Becomes Electra (1932), Gertrude in Hamlet (1936), Lady Macbeth in Macbeth (1937, 1941), and the title role in Medea (1947). She appeared in over 25 films, usually playing an evil or sinister figure, including Mrs. Danvers in Rebecca (1940) and Ann Treadwell in Laura (1944).

Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett (b. June 9, 1836, Aldeburgh, Suffolk, Eng.—d. Dec. 17, 1917, Aldeburgh) British physician. Denied admission to medical schools, she studied privately with physicians and in London hospitals and was the first woman licensed as a physician in Britain (1865). Appointed general medical attendant to St. Mary’s Dispensary (1866), later the New Hospital for Women, she created a medical school for women, and in 1918 the hospital was named for her.

Anderson, Laurie (b. June 5, 1947, Wayne, Ill., U.S.) U.S. perfor¬ mance artist. After studying at Barnard College and Columbia University, she began giving performances in New York City in 1973 while teaching art history at the City University of New York. Combining elements of music, theatre (dance, mime), film, technology, and speech, she satirized media and mass culture, using the tools they themselves provide. The pop-music success of her song “O Superman” (1980) led her to record two albums, Big Science (1982) and Mister Heartbreak (1984). Her major 1980s piece was the multimedia extravaganza United States. Other works include Stories from the Nerve Bible (1993) and a multimedia work (1999) based on Moby Dick.

Anderson, Leroy (b. June 29, 1908, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.—d. May 18, 1975, Woodbury, Conn.) U.S. composer of light orchestral music. He studied composition and German and Scandinavian languages at Harvard; fluent in nine languages, he was an army interpreter in two wars. In 1936 he began a long association with Arthur Fiedler and the Boston Pops Orchestra, and pieces such as “Syncopated Clock,” “Sleigh Ride,” “Bugler’s Holiday,” and the Irish Suite became standards.

Anderson, Lindsay (b. April 17, 1923, Bangalore, India—d. Aug. 30, 1994, near Angouleme, Fr.) English critic and director. He was a found¬ ing editor of the film magazine Sequence , and from 1948 he directed a series of documentaries, including Thursday’s Children (1955, Academy Award). He coined the term “Free Cinema” for the British cinematic movement inspired by John Osborne’s play Look Back in Anger. His first feature film, This Sporting Life (1963), is a classic of the British social realist cinema. He directed several theatrical productions before making his next film, If... (1968). After directing the premieres of David Storey’s plays, he went on to make such films as O Lucky Man! (1973) and The Whales of August (1987).

Anderson, Marian (b. Feb. 27, 1897, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—d. April 8, 1993, Portland, Ore.) U.S. singer. She was immediately recog¬ nized for the beauty of her voice and her artistry at her New York City

Anchovies (Engraulis mordax)

TOM MCHUGH-PHOTO RESEARCHERS

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Anderson ► Andorra I 69

debut in 1924, but the fact that she was black made a concert or opera career in the U.S. impossible. Her London debut in 1930 and tours of Scandinavia established her in Europe, where she worked exclu¬ sively until 1935. When she was denied use of Constitution Hall in Washington, D.C., by the Daughters of the American Revolution in 1939,

Eleanor Roosevelt arranged for her to sing at the Lincoln Memorial, and the concert was broadcast to great acclaim. Her debut at the Metropoli¬ tan Opera, the first performance there by a black singer, took place in 1955, when she was in her late 50s.

. . _ ... Marian Anderson.

Anderson, (James) Maxwell courtesy of rca records (b. Dec. 15, 1888, Atlantic, Pa.,

U.S.—d. Feb. 28, 1959, Stamford, Conn.) U.S. playwright. He worked as a journalist before cowriting his first successful play. What Price Glory? (1924), which was followed by Saturday’s Children (1927). His verse dra¬ mas Elizabeth the Queen (1930) and Mary of Scotland (1933) were later adapted for film. He returned to prose for the satire Both Your Houses (1933, Pulitzer Prize) and the tragedy Winterset (1935), then turned to verse again for High Tor ( 1936), a romantic comedy. He collaborated with Kurt Weill on the musicals Knickerbocker Holiday (1938) and Lost in the Stars (1949). His last play. The Bad Seed (1954), became a successful film.

Anderson, Sherwood (b. Sept. 13, 1876, Camden, Ohio, U.S.—d. March 8, 1941, Colon, Pan.) U.S. author. Anderson was irregularly schooled. Having married, he abruptly left his family and business career to become a writer in Chicago. Winesburg, Ohio (1919), a collection of interrelated sketches and tales about the obscure lives of the citizens of a small town, was his first mature book and made his reputation. His short stories were collected in The Triumph of the Egg (1921), Horses and Men (1923), and Death in the Woods (1933). His prose style, based on every¬ day speech and influenced by the experimental writing of Gertrude Stein, in turn influenced such writers as Ernest Hemingway and William Faulkner.

Andersonville Village, southwest-central Georgia, U.S. It was the site of a Confederate military prison in 1 864-65 during the American Civil War. Notorious for its dreadful conditions, it provided only makeshift shelter for the Union prisoners, more than one-fourth of whom died. The Anderson¬ ville National Cemetery, which includes the prison site, contains the graves of 12,920 Union prisoners who perished there. In 1865 Capt. Henry Wirz, commander of the prison, was tried by a military commission and hanged. Andersonville is also the site of the National Prisoner of War Museum.

Andes Mountains Mountain system, western South America. One of the great natural features of the globe, the Andes extend north-south about 5,500 mi (8,900 km). They run parallel to the Caribbean Sea coast in Ven¬ ezuela before turning southwest and entering Colombia. There they form three distinct massifs: the Cordilleras Oriental, Central, and Occidental. In Ecuador they form two parallel cordilleras, one facing the Pacific and the other descending toward the Amazon River basin. These ranges con¬ tinue southward into Peru; the highest Peruvian peak is Mount Huascaran (22,205 ft [6,768 m]) in the Cordillera Blanca. In Bolivia the Andes again form two distinct regions; between them lies the Altiplano. Along the bor¬ der of Chile and Argentina, they form a complex chain that includes their highest peak, Mount Aconcagua, which reaches an elevation of 22,834 ft (6,960 m). In southern Chile part of the cordillera descends beneath the sea and forms numerous islands. The Andes are studded with a number of volcanoes that form part of the Circum-Pacific chain known as the Ring of Fire. The Andes mountain system is the source of many rivers, includ¬ ing the Amazon and Pilcomayo.

andesite Van-do-.ziA Any member of a large family of rocks that occur in most of the world’s volcanic areas, mainly as surface deposits and to a lesser extent as dikes and small plugs. The Andes, where the name was first applied, and most of the cordillera (parallel mountain chains) of Cen¬ tral and North America consist largely of andesites. They also occur in abundance in volcanoes along practically the entire margin of the Pacific basin. Andesites are most often porphyritic (having distinct crystals in a fine-grained base) rocks.

Andhra Pradesh X.an-dro-pro-'deshX State (pop., 2001: 76,210,007), southeastern India. Located on the Bay of Bengal, it is bordered by Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, and Orissa states. Covering 106,204 sq mi (275,068 sq km), it was created in 1953 and achieved its present-day form in 1960; its capital is Hyderabad. Its name derives from the Telugu-speaking Andhra people, who have long inhabited the area. Many dynasties have flourished here, dating to the 3rd century bc. The area came under British influence in the 17th century; in the 19th century the Andhras played a decisive role in the rise of Indian nationalism. The state’s economy, once primarily agricultural, has become one of the most industrialized in India.

Andijon \,an-di-'jan\ or Andizhan \,an-di-'zhan\ City (pop., 1998 est.: 288,000), eastern Uzbekistan. Dating to at least the 9th century ad, it was an important trading centre in the 15th century because of its location on the Silk Road. Part of the khanate of Kokand (see Qo'qon) in the 18th century, it was captured by the Russians in 1876. The surrounding area is the most densely populated part of Uzbekistan and the country’s main petroleum-producing region.

Andocides \an-'da-si-,dez\ (b. c. 440—d. c. 390 bc) Athenian orator and politician. He went into exile (415-403 bc) after being implicated in and having informed on those responsible for the mutilation of the sacred busts of Hermes just before the Athenian expedition to Sicily. He returned after the restoration of Athenian democracy. He helped arrange a treaty with Sparta in the Corinthian War (392), but Athens rejected it and exiled him and the other ambassadors.

Andorra officially Principality of Andorra Independent coprinci¬ pality, southwestern Europe. Area: 179 sq mi (464 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 74,800. Capital: Andorra la Vella. Lying on the southern

is Spanish or Andorran. Language: Cata¬ lan (official). Religion: Christianity (predominantly Roman Catholic; also other Christians). Currency: euro. Andorra’s independence is traditionally ascribed to Charlemagne, who recovered the region from the Muslims in ad 803. It was placed under the joint suzerainty of the French counts of Foix and the Spanish bishops of Urgel in 1278, and it was subsequently governed jointly by the Spanish bishop of Urgel and the French head of state. This feudal system of government, the last in Europe, continued until 1993, when a constitution was adopted that transferred most of the coprinces’ powers to the Andorran General Council, which is elected by universal suffrage. Andorra has long had a strong affinity with Catalonia;

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

70 I Andorra la Vella ► Andric

its institutions are based in Catalonian law, and it is part of the diocese of Urgel (Spain). The traditional economy was based on sheep raising, but tourism grew in importance since the 1950s and became central to Andorra’s economy by the early 21st century.

Andorra la Vella \an-'d6r-3-la-'vel-ya\ Town (pop., 2001 est.: 20,800), capital of Andorra. It lies near the confluence of the Valira and Valira del Norte rivers. The town long remained relatively isolated from the outside world, but its population began to grow after World War II as tourists began arriving at the nearby sports areas. Because of its country’s duty-free status, the town has become a retail shopping centre for other Europeans.

Andrada e Silva \a n -'dra-tha-e-'sil-va\, Jose Bonifacio de known as Jose Bonifacio \zhu-'ze- l bo-ni- , fa-se-o\ (b. c. 1763, Santos, Braz.—d. April 6, 1838, Niteroi) Chief architect of Brazil’s independence from Portugal. Andrada was bom in Brazil but educated in Portugal, where he became a distinguished scholar. On returning to Brazil in 1819, he functioned as chief minister of the Portuguese prince regent (later the emperor Pedro I), who had fled Portugal with the rest of the royal family to escape Napoleon. Andrada was the leading intellectual advocate of independence. After Pedro I declared Brazil independent in 1822, he served as prime minister and as tutor to the child emperor Pedro II, who became an effective and enlightened monarch.

Andrassy \'an-,dra-se\ Gyula, Count (b. March 3, 1823, Kassa, Hung., Austrian Empire—d. Feb. 18, 1890, Volosco, Istria, Austria- Hungary) Hungarian politician. A follower of Kossuth Lajos, Andrassy helped lead the unsuccessful revolt of 1848—49, then fled into exile until 1857. He supported the creation of the Dual Monarchy of Austria- Hungary and played a major role in negotiating the Compromise of 1867. He served as Hungary’s first prime minister (1867-71) and later as for¬ eign minister (1871-79), in which he helped strengthen Austria- Hungary’s international position. Just before resigning, he signed the fateful Austro-German Alliance (1879) that linked those two powers until the end of World War I.

Andre, Carl (b. Sept. 16, 1935, Quincy, Mass., U.S.) U.S. sculptor. The son of a draftsman for a shipbuilding firm, he attended Phillips Andover Academy and Northeastern University. He moved to New York City in 1957 and soon was producing large-scale horizontal sculptures out of steel plates, slabs of granite, styrofoam planks, bricks, and cement blocks, using a grid system based on simple mathematical principles. His work from this period was often intended to be placed directly on the gallery or museum floor; its monumental austerity was central to the Minimalist movement. Beginning in the 1970s he also experimented with large-scale wood sculpture.

Andre \'an-dre\, John (b. May 2, 1750, London, Eng.—d. Oct. 2, 1780, Tappan, N.Y., U.S.) British army officer and spy. From 1774 he was the chief intelligence officer of the British commander Henry Clinton at New York. In 1779 Andre began corresponding with Gen. Benedict Arnold, who had become disillusioned with the American cause. In 1780 he obtained Arnold’s agreement to surrender the West Point fort. Andre was captured while returning to New York, and incriminating papers were found in his boot; he was found guilty of espionage and hanged.

Andrea del Sarto \an-'dra-3-del-'sar-to\ orig. Andrea d'Agnolo

(b. July 16, 1486, Florence—d. Sept. 28, 1530, Florence) Italian painter active in Florence. After an apprenticeship with Piero di Cosimo, he became established as one of the outstanding painters of Florence, most notably as a fresco decorator and painter of altarpieces in the style of the High Renaissance. His feeling for colour and atmosphere was unrivaled among Florentine painters. One of his most striking achievements was the series of grisaille frescoes on the life of St. John the Baptist (1511-26) in the Chiostro dello Scalzo. His work is noted particularly for its technical per¬ fection. See photograph above.

Andreanof \,an-dre-'a-n6f\ Islands Group of the Aleutian Islands, southwestern Alaska, U.S. Lying between the Pacific Ocean and the Ber¬ ing Sea, the islands extend east to west about 270 mi (430 km) between the Fox and Rat island groups. They were strategically important in World War II, when U.S. military bases were developed, especially on Adak Island. Other islands in the group include Atka, Tanaga, and Kanaga.

Andreini \,an-dra-'e-ne\ family Italian actors. After their marriage, Francesco Andreini (1548-1624) and Isabella Canali Andreini (1562— 1604) founded the Compagnia dei Gelosi, one of the earliest and most

famous of the commedia dell'arte troupes. Their son Giovambattista Andreini (15797-1654) acted in his parents’ company until c. 1601, when he formed his own troupe, the Compagnia dei Fedeli. This troupe was invited to the French court in Paris, where Giovambattista Andreini wrote the play Adamo (1613), supposedly the inspiration for English poet John Milton’s Para¬ dise Lost.

Andretti, Mario (Gabriel) (b.

Feb. 28, 1940, Montona, Italy) Italian-born U.S. automobile-racing driver. He became interested in rac¬ ing in Italy before moving to the U.S. in 1955. His notable wins include the United States Automobile Club (USAC) championship (1965-66, 1969), the Daytona Beach 500 stock- car race (1967), the Sebring Grand Prix (1967, 1970), the Indianapolis 500 (1969), and the Formula I world driving championship (1978). He retired from competition in 1994.

Andrew, Saint (d. ad 60/70, Patras, Achaia; feast day November 30) One of the Twelve Apostles, brother of St. Peter, and patron saint of Scot¬ land and Russia. According to the Gospels, he was a fisherman and a dis¬ ciple of John the Baptist. Early Byzantine tradition calls Andrew protokletos, “first called.” He and Peter were called from their fishing by Jesus, who promised to make them fishers of men. Early church legends tell of Andrew’s missionary work around the Black Sea. A 4th-century tradition says he was crucified; 13th-century tradition states that the cross was X-shaped. His relics were moved several times after his death; his head was kept in St. Peter’s in Rome from the 15th century until 1964, when the pope returned it to Greece as a gesture of goodwill.

Andrew II Hungarian Endre (b. 1175—d. Oct. 26, 1235) King of Hungary (1205-35). His reign was marked by controversy with the landed nobility, who drained royal funds and reduced Hungary to a state of near anarchy. Rebellious nobles murdered his first wife, Gertrude of Meran, in 1213. Andrew led a Crusade to the Holy Land in 1217. On his return he agreed to the Golden Bull of 1222, limiting royal rights, guaranteeing jus¬ tice, promising improved coinage, and giving nobles the right to resist royal decrees. His daughter was St. Elizabeth of Hungary.

Andrews, Dame Julie orig. Julia Elizabeth Wells (b. Oct. 1, 1935, Walton-on-Thames, Surrey, Eng.) British-U.S. actress and singer. She made her London debut at 12 in a revue and her New York City stage debut in The Boy Friend (1954). A major star of the Broadway musical, she originated the roles of Eliza Doolittle in My Fair Lady (1956) and Guinevere in Camelot (1960). She also starred in films such as Mary Poppins (1964, Academy Award), and VictorAdctoria (1982), one of sev¬ eral films she made with her husband, director Blake Edwards. In 2000 she was made a Dame of the British Empire.

Andrews, Roy Chapman (b. Jan. 26, 1884, Beloit, Wis., U.S.—d. March 11, 1960, Carmel, Calif.) U.S. naturalist, explorer, and author. In 1906 he joined the staff of the American Museum of Natural History, where he would spend much of his working life. There he assembled one of the best collections of cetaceans in the world before turning his atten¬ tion to Asiatic exploration. He led expeditions to Tibet, southwestern China, and Burma (1916—17); northern China and Outer Mongolia (1919); and Central Asia. Important discoveries included the first known dinosaur eggs, skeleton parts of Baluchitherium (the largest known land mammal), and evidence of prehistoric human life. His many books for the general public include Across Mongolian Plains (1921) and This Amazing Planet

(1940).

Andric Van-drich\, Ivo (b. Oct. 10, 1892, Dolac, near Travnik, Bosnia—d. March 13, 1975, Belgrade, Yugos.) Bosnian writer. He estab¬ lished his reputation with Ex Ponto (1918), which he wrote while interned for nationalist political activities in World War I. He later served as a Yugoslavian diplomat. Collections of his short stories were published from 1920 onward. Of his three novels, written during World War II,

Marriage of St. Catherine, oil on panel by Andrea del Sarto, 1512-13; in the Gemaldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden, Ger.

SACHSISCHE LANDESBIBLIOTHEK/ABTEILUNG DEUTSCHE FOTOTHEK/A. ROUS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

androgen ► aneurysm I 71

two —The Bridge on the Drina (1945) and Bosnian Story (1945)—are about the history of Bosnia. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Litera¬ ture in 1961.

androgen Van-dro-joM Any of a group of hormones that mainly influ¬ ence the development of the male reproductive system. The main and most active androgen is testosterone, produced by cells in the testes. Androgens produced in smaller quantities, mainly by the adrenal gland but also by the testes, support the functions of testosterone. Androgens cause the nor¬ mal changes of puberty in boys’ bodies and then influence sperm-cell for¬ mation, sexual interest and behaviour, and male pattern baldness. Females produce trace quantities of androgens, mostly in the adrenal glands, as well as in the ovaries.

Andromeda \an-'dra-m3-do\ In Greek mythology, the wife of Perseus. She was the daughter of King Cepheus and Queen Cassiope of Joppa in Palestine (called Ethiopia). Her mother boasted that Andromeda was more beautiful than the Nereids, and Poseidon punished her by sending a sea monster to devastate Joppa. To appease the gods, Andromeda was chained to a rock and left to be devoured by the monster. Perseus flew by on Pegasus, fell in love with Andromeda, and slew the monster. She married him and bore him six sons and a daughter. After her death she became a constellation.

Andromeda \an-'dro-m3-d3\ Galaxy or M31 Great spiral galaxy in the constellation Andromeda. It is the nearest spiral galaxy outside the Milky Way Galaxy and one of the few visible to the unaided eye, appear¬ ing as a milky blur. About 2 million light-years from Earth, it has a diam¬ eter of about 200,000 light-years, which makes it the largest galaxy in the Local Group. For centuries astronomers considered it part of the Milky Way; only in the 1920s did Edwin Hubble determine conclusively that it was a separate galaxy.

Andronicus I Comnenus \ I an-dr3- , nI-k9s...kam-'ne-n3s\ (b. 1118, Constantinople—d. Sept. 1185, Constantinople) Byzantine emperor (1183-85), the last of the Comnenus dynasty. A cousin of Manuel I Com¬ nenus, he raised an army and seized power in 1182, causing a massacre of Westerners in Constantinople. He was crowned coemperor with Alexius II in 1183; two months later he had Alexius strangled and married his 13-year-old widow. Andronicus reformed the Byzantine government and asserted the independence of the Eastern church, provoking a Sicilian Nor¬ man invasion. News of the Normans’ approach led to a revolt, in which Andronicus was killed by a mob and Isaac II Angelus was declared emperor.

Andronicus II Palaeologus \,pa-le-'al-3-g3s\ (b. c. 1260, Constantinople—d. Feb. 13, 1332, Constantinople) Byzantine emperor (1282-1328). The son of Michael VIII Palaeologus, he was an intellectual and theologian rather than a soldier and statesman, and during his reign the Byzantine Empire declined to the status of a minor state. Ottoman Turks controlled Anatolia by 1300, and Serbs dominated the Balkans. By sid¬ ing with Genoa in the war between Genoa and Venice, Andronicus pro¬ voked an attack by the Venetian navy. Despite the rising political disorder, he promoted Byzantine art and the independence of the Eastern Ortho¬ dox church. Deposed by his grandson Andronicus III Palaeologus, he entered a monastery.

Andronicus III Palaeologus (b. March 25, 1297, Constanti¬ nople—d. June 15, 1341, Constantinople) Byzantine emperor (1328-41). He forced his grandfather Andronicus II Palaeologus to make him coem¬ peror (1325) and then to abdicate (1328). He relied on John VI Cantacuze- nus to reform the courts and rebuild the imperial navy. He ceded control of Macedonia to Serbia (1334) and lost land to the Ottoman Turks in Ana¬ tolia, but he regained some Aegean islands from the Genoese and reas¬ serted control of Epirus and Thessaly.

Andropov Van-'dro-.pofV Yury (Vladimirovich) (b. June 15, 1914, Nagutskoye, Russia—d. Feb 9, 1984, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Soviet leader. He joined the Communist Party in 1939 and rose rapidly in the party hierarchy. His tenure as head of the KGB (1967-82) was noted for its suppression of political dissidents. In 1982 he succeeded Leonid Brezh¬ nev as general secretary of the party’s Central Committee, but ill health quickly overtook him, and he accomplished little else before his death 15 months later.

Andros \,an-dr3s\ Island (pop., 2000: 7,686), The Bahamas. The Baha¬ mas’ largest island, it extends about 100 mi (160 km) north to south and about 45 mi (72 km) east to west; its area is 2,300 sq mi (6,000 sq km). Just off its eastern coast is the third largest barrier reef in the world.

Andros Van-drssV, Sir Edmund (b. Dec. 6, 1637, London, Eng.—d. Feb. 24, 1714, London) English colonial administrator in North America. Appointed governor of New York and New Jersey in 1674, he was recalled in 1681 following complaints from colonists. He returned in 1686 as gov¬ ernor of the Dominion of New England, a kind of supercolony imposed by Britain. His interference in local government aroused sharp resentment among the colonists, and in 1688 they revolted and imprisoned him. Andros was recalled to England but returned as governor of Virginia (1692) and Maryland (1693-94).

anemia Condition in which erythrocytes are reduced in number or vol¬ ume or are deficient in hemoglobin. The patient is usually noticeably pale. Close to 100 varieties exist (including aplastic anemia, pernicious anemia, and sickle-cell anemia), distinguished by cause; erythrocyte size, shape, and hemoglobin content; and symptoms. Anemia may result from blood loss; increased destruction, reduced production, or inhibited formation of red cells; or hormone deficiency. Treatment may involve nutrition, toxin removal, drugs, surgery, or transfusion. See also folic-acid-deficiency ane¬ mia, IRON-DEFICIENCY ANEMIA.

anemometer V.an-s-'ma-ms-tsiA Instrument for measuring the speed of airflow. The most familiar instruments for measuring wind speeds are the revolving cups that drive an electric generator (useful range approxi¬ mately 5-100 knots). For very low airspeeds, a unit in which revolving vanes operate a counter measures the airspeed. For strong, steady wind speeds (in wind tunnels and aboard aircraft in flight), a pitot-tube anemom¬ eter is often used; the pressure difference between the interior of the tube and the surrounding air can be measured and converted to airspeed.

anemone \3-'ne-m3-ne\ Any of about 120 species of perennial plants that make up the genus Anemone , in the buttercup family, many of which are cultivated for their colourful flowers. Though found throughout the world, anemones are most common in woodlands and meadows of the northern temperate zone. Many varieties of the tuberous poppylike anemone A. coronaria are grown for the garden and florist trade. Popular spring-flowering species include A. apennina, A. blanda, and A. pavon- ina. Other species, such as the Japanese anemone (A. hupehensis), are favourite border plants for autumn flowering. The European wood anemone, A. nemorosa , causes blistering of the skin and was once used as an ingredient in medicines. Anemones are also known colloquially as pasqueflowers or windflowers.

anesthesiology X.a-nss-.the-ze-'al-s-jeN Medical specialty dealing with anesthesia and related matters, including resuscitation and pain. Originally concerned only with general anesthesia in the operating room, anesthesiology now includes epidural anesthesia (injection of local anes¬ thetics into the spinal fluid, cutting off feeling below the point of injec¬ tion); artificial respiratory support during operations requiring paralyzing drugs that render patients unable to breathe; clinical management of all unconscious patients; management of pain relief and cardiac and respi¬ ratory resuscitation problems; respiratory therapy; and treatment of fluid, electrolyte, and metabolic disturbances. Progress in anesthesiology has made possible more complex operations and surgery for more critically ill patients. The anesthesiologist’s role has become increasingly impor¬ tant and complex.

anesthetic \,an-es-'thet-ik\ Agent that produces a local or general loss of sensation, including pain, and therefore is useful in surgery and den¬ tistry. General anesthesia induces loss of consciousness, most often using hydrocarbons (e.g., cyclopropane, ethylene); halogenated (see halogen) hydrocarbons (e.g., chloroform, ethyl chloride, trichloroethylene); ethers (e.g., ethyl ether or vinyl ether); or other compounds, such as tribromo- ethanol, nitrous oxide, or barbiturates. Local anesthesia induces loss of sen¬ sation in one area of the body by blocking nerve conduction (see nervous system, neuron), usually with alkaloids such as cocaine or synthetic sub¬ stitutes (e.g., lidocaine). See also anesthesiology.

aneuploidy See ploidy

aneurysm Van-ys-.riz-smV Blood-filled protrusion in the wall of a blood vessel (usually an artery, and particularly the aorta). Disease or injury weakens the wall so that normal blood pressure makes it balloon out. Typically, the two inner layers rupture and the outer layer bulges. In a false aneurysm, all three layers rupture and surrounding tissues hold the blood in place. Symptoms vary with size and location. Aneurysms tend to enlarge over time, and blood-vessel walls weaken with age. Many aneurysms eventually burst, causing serious, even massive, internal bleed-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

72 I Angora ► Angkor

ing; aortic aneurysm rupture causes severe pain and immediate collapse. Rupture of an aneurysm in the brain is a major cause of strokes. Treat¬ ment can consist of simply tying off a small vessel; more serious aneu¬ rysms require surgery to replace the diseased section of artery with a plastic graft.

Angara \3n-,g3-'ra\ River River, southeast-central Russia. The outlet for Lake Baikal, it is a major tributary of the Yenisey River, which it joins near Yeniseysk. It is about 1,105 mi (1,779 km) long, and with its many rapids, it provides great potential for hydroelectric power. Some existing dams and power stations provide power in the Irkutsk industrial area.

angel Primarily in Western religions, any of numerous benevolent spiri¬ tual beings who mediate between heaven and earth. They often serve as messengers or servants of God or as guardians of an individual or nation. In Zoroastrianism the amesha spenta are arranged in a hierarchy of seven. Judaism and Christianity base their notion of angels on references in the Hebrew scriptures to divine servants and to the heavenly hosts. Two arch¬ angels (Michael and Gabriel) are mentioned in the Old Testament and two others (Raphael and Uriel) in the Apocrypha. Angels are mentioned throughout the Christian scriptures, and Christian tradition identifies nine orders of angels. Islam’s hierarchy of angels descends from the four throne bearers of God to the cherubim who praise God, the four archangels, and lesser angels such as the hafazah (guardian angels). See also cherub; ser¬ aph.

Angel Falls Waterfall, southeastern Venezuela. It lies on the Churun River, a tributary of the Carom, southeast of Ciudad Bolivar. The highest waterfall in the world, the cataract drops 3,212 ft (979 m) and is 500 ft (150 m) wide at its base. It was named for James Angel, an American who crash-landed his plane nearby in 1937.

angelfish Any of various fishes of the order Perciformes. The best- known angelfishes are freshwater cichlids (genus Pterophyllum ) popu¬ lar in home aquariums. These are thin and deep-bodied fishes that usu¬ ally are silver with vertical dark markings but may be solid or par¬ tially black; they may grow to 6 in.

(15 cm) in length. Brightly coloured marine angelfishes are in the family Pomacanthidae. They are found among tropical reefs in the Atlantic and the Indo-Pacific, where they eat algae and marine invertebrates and reach a maximum length of 18 in.

(46 cm).

Angelico Xan-'jel-i-koV Fra orig.

Guido di Pietro (b. c. 1400, Vic- chio, Florence [Italy]—d. Feb. 18,

1455, Rome) Italian painter and Dominican friar active in Florence.

He entered the convent of San Domenico at Fiesole sometime between 1417 and 1425 and began his artistic career by painting illumi¬ nated manuscripts and altarpieces.

He was influenced by Masaccio’s use of architectural perspective.

Among his earliest masterpieces is a large triptych, the Linaiuoli Altar- piece (1433-36), executed for the linen merchants’ guild; it is enclosed in a marble shrine designed by Lorenzo Ghiberti. His most notable works are frescoes at the convent of San Marco, Florence (c. 1440-45), and in the chapel of Pope Nicholas V in the Vatican (c. 1448-49). One of the outstanding fresco painters of the 15th century, he influenced such mas¬ ters as Fra Filippo Lippi; Benozzo Gozzou was among his students.

Angelou Van-ja-JoN, Maya orig. Marguerite Johnson (b. April 4, 1928, St. Louis, Mo., U.S.) U.S. poet. She was raped at age eight and

went through a period of muteness. Her autobiographical works, which explore themes of economic, racial, and sexual oppression, include I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (1970), The Heart of a Woman (1981), and All God’s Children Need Traveling Shoes (1986). Her poetry collec¬ tions include Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water fore I Diiie (1971), And Still I Rise (1978), and I Shall Not Be Moved (1990). Her recitation of a poem she wrote for Bill Clinton’s first inauguration (1993) brought her widespread fame. In 2002 she published her sixth volume of mem¬ oirs, A Song Flung Up to Heaven.

Angevin \'an-ja-van\ dynasty Descendants of a 10th-century count of Anjou (the source of the adjective Angevin). The Angevin dynasty over¬ laps with the house of Plantagenet but is usually said to consist of only the English kings Henry II, Richard I, and John. Henry established the Angevin empire in the 1150s when he took control of Normandy, Anjou, Maine, and, through his marriage to Eleanor, Aquitaine. When he became the king of England in 1154, Henry extended the Angevin holdings from Scotland to the Pyrenees. English claims to French territory led to the Hundred Years' War; by 1558 the English had lost all their former French lands.

Angilbert Vaq-gsl-.bsrtV Saint (b. c. 740, Aachen, kingdom of the Franks—d. Feb. 18, 814, Centula, Picardy) Frankish poet and prelate at the court of Charlemagne. Of a noble family, he was educated at the pal¬ ace school at Aachen and was a student of Alcuin. In 800 he accompa¬ nied Charlemagne to Rome. He was made lay abbot of Centula (St.- Riquier), Picardy, in 794. His graceful and sophisticated Latin poems offer a picture of life in the imperial circle. Charlemagne’s daughter Bertha and Angilbert were the parents of the historian Nithard.

angina pectoris Van-'jl-ns-'pek-ts-rssV Spasm of chest pain, caused when the heart’s oxygen demand temporarily outpaces its blood supply, usually because of coronary heart disease. A deep, viselike pain in the heart and stomach area commonly spreads to the left arm. Exertion or emo¬ tional stress can bring on angina, obliging the victim to rest until the pain subsides. If rest does not help, drugs can dilate the blood vessels. As heart disease worsens, angina recurs with less exertion.

angiocardiography \ 1 an-je-o- 1 kar-de- , ag-r3-fe\ Method of diagnostic imaging that shows the flow of blood through the heart and great vessels. It is used to evaluate patients for surgery on the cardiovascular system. A contrast medium is introduced through a catheter into a heart chamber. A series of X-ray images shows where the flow narrows, signaling block¬ age of a blood vessel by atherosclerosis.

angiography \,an-je-'ag-r3-fe\ or arteriography \ar-,tir-e-'ag-ra- fe\ X-ray examination of arteries and veins with a contrast medium to dif¬ ferentiate them from surrounding organs. The contrast medium is intro¬ duced through a catheter to show the blood vessels and the structures they supply, including organs. Angiography of diseased leg, brain, or heart arteries is necessary before corrective surgery. See also angiocardiography.

Angiolini V.an-ja-'le-neV, Gasparo or Angelo Gasparini (b. Feb. 9, 1731, Florence—d. Feb. 6, 1803, Milan) Italian choreographer. In 1757 he became ballet master of the Vienna court opera house; in 1761 he col¬ laborated with the composer Christoph Willibald Gluck to produce Don Juan, and he later choreographed other ballets to Gluck’s music. In 1765 Angiolini became ballet master of the Imperial Theatre in St. Petersburg. He was among the first to integrate dance, music, and plot in dramatic ballets, developing the form known as ballet d’action. He maintained a rivalry with Jean-Georges Noverre and disagreed with his interpretation of the ballet d’action.

angioplasty \'an-je-3-,plas-te\ Therapeutic opening of a blocked blood vessel. Usually a balloon is inflated near the end of a catheter (see cath¬ eterization) to flatten plaques (see atherosclerosis) against an artery’s wall. Performed on a coronary artery, angioplasty is a less invasive alternative to coronary bypass surgery in the treatment of coronary heart disease. Com¬ plications, including embolisms and tearing, are rare and results are excel¬ lent, but plaques tend to build up again after the procedure. Angioplasty is also used to expand a severely obstructed heart valve.

angiosperm See flowering plant

Angkor Archaeological site, northwestern Cambodia. Located 4 mi (6 km) north of the modem town of Siem Reap, it was the capital of the Khmer (Cambodian) empire from the 9th to the 15th century. Its most imposing monuments are Angkor Wat, a temple complex built in the 12th century by King Suryavarman II, and Angkor Thom, a temple complex

Angel Falls (Salto Angel), La Gran Sabana region of Bolivar state, Ven¬ ezuela.

G. DE STEINHEIL/SHOSTAL ASSOCIATES

An aquarium angelfish ( Pterophyllum )

JANE BURTON-BRUCE COLEMAN LTD.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Angkor Wat ► Angola I 73

built c. 1200 by King Jayavarman VII. During the period of great construc¬ tion that lasted more than 300 years, there were many changes in archi¬ tecture as the religious focus changed from Hindu to Buddhist cults. After the Siamese conquest of the Khmer in the 15th century, the ruined city and its temples were buried in the jungle. When the French colonial regime was established in 1863, the entire site became the focus of schol¬ arly interest. During Cambodia’s political upheavals of the late 20th cen¬ tury there was some war damage, but the major problem was one of neglect. Angkor was added to the World Heritage site list in 1992.

Angkor Wat Vaq-kor-'watX Temple complex in Angkor (now in north¬ western Cambodia), the crowning work of Khmer architecture. About 1,700 yards (1,550 m) long by 1,500 yards (1,400 m) wide, it is the world’s largest religious structure. Dedicated to Vishnu, it was built in the 12th cen¬ tury by Suryavarman II. The Wat, an artificial mountain originally sur¬ rounded by a vast external wall and moat, rises in three enclosures toward a flat summit. The five remaining towers (shrines) at the summit are com¬ posed of the repetitive diminishing tiers typical of Asian architecture.

Angle Any member of a Germanic people who, with the Jutes and Sax¬ ons, invaded England in the 5th century ad. According to Bede, their homeland was Angulus, traditionally identified as the Angeln district in Schleswig. They abandoned this area when they invaded Britain, where they settled in the kingdoms of Mercia, Northumbria, East Anglia, and Middle Anglia. Their language was known, even then, as Englisc, and they gave their name to England.

angle In geometry, a pair of rays (see line) sharing a common endpoint (the vertex). An angle may be thought of as the rotation of a single ray from an initial to a terminal position. Clockwise rotation is considered negative and counterclockwise rotation positive. Either may be measured in degrees (one full rotation = 360°) or radians (one full rotation = 2k rad). A 90° angle is called a right angle. Any angle less than 90° is an acute angle. Any angle more than 90° but less than 180° is an obtuse angle.

anglerfish Any of about 210 species of marine fishes (order Lophii- formes) named for their method of “fishing” for prey. The foremost spine of the dorsal fin is located on the head and is modified into a “fishing rod” tipped with a fleshy “bait.” Prey fishes attracted to this lure stray close enough for the anglerfish to swallow them. Often bizarre in form, angler¬ fishes are also characterized by small gill openings and by limblike pec¬ toral and (in some species) pelvic fins. Most species inhabit the sea bottom. In some species the small male bites into the larger female’s body, his mouth fuses with the skin, and the bloodstreams of the two become permanently connected.

Anglesey Vaq-gal-seV Isle of ancient Mona County (pop., 2001: 66,828), Wales. It encompasses Anglesey island, the largest island in England and Wales (276 sq mi [715 sq kmj), and Holy Island. Anglesey island is known for its ancient history and its prehistoric and Celtic remains. By 100 bc the Celts had colonized the island, which became a famous Druid centre and later a stronghold of resistance to the Romans. It finally fell to Agricola in ad 78. It was ruled by the princes of Wales in the 7th-13th centuries, until it was taken by Edward I. Tourism is now an important part of the county’s economy.

Anglia See England

Anglican Communion See Church of England

Anglo-Afghan Wars See Afghan wars

Anglo-Burmese Wars (1824-26, 1852, 1885) Conflicts between the British and the Burmans (Burmese) in present-day Myanmar. King Bodawpaya’s conquest of Arakan, which bordered on British-controlled territory in India, led to border conflicts between Arakan freedom fight¬ ers and the Burmans. When the Burmans crossed the border into Bengal, the British responded in force, taking Rangoon (now Yangon). The result¬ ing two-year conflict ended with a treaty that gave Britain Arakan and Assam and required the Burmans to pay an indemnity. Another war erupted 25 years later when a British naval officer seized a ship that belonged to the Burman king; the British advanced into and soon occu¬ pied all of Lower Burma. A third war was sparked by threats to the Brit¬ ish teak monopolies in Lower Burma and Burman overtures to the French; as a result, the British annexed Upper Burma (formalized in 1886), thus ending Burman independence.

Anglo-Dutch Wars or Dutch Wars Four naval conflicts between England and the Dutch Republic in the 17th—18th century. The First

(1652-54), Second (1665-67), and Third (1672-74) Anglo-Dutch Wars all arose from commercial rivalry between the two nations, and victories by England established its naval might. The two countries had been allied for a century when the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War (1780-84) broke out over Dutch interference in the American Revolution. By 1784 the Dutch Repub¬ lic had declined dramatically in power and prestige.

Anglo-French Entente See Entente Cordiale Anglo-French War See Opium Wars

Anglo-German Naval Agreement (1935) Bilateral concord between Britain and Germany countenancing a German navy but limit¬ ing it to 35% of the size of the British navy. Part of the process of appease¬ ment before World War II, the agreement allowed Germany to violate restrictions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles, prompting international criticism and driving a wedge between the French and the British.

Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902-23) Alliance between Britain and Japan to protect their respective interests in China and Korea. Directed against Russian expansionism, the alliance helped Japan in the Russo- Japanese War by discouraging France from entering the war on the Rus¬ sian side. The alliance later prompted Japan to enter World War I on the side of the Allies. Britain allowed the alliance to lapse after the war, when it no longer feared Russian encroachment in China.

Anglo-Russian Entente \an-'tant\ (1907) Pact in which Britain and Russia settled their colonial disputes in Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet. It delineated spheres of influence in Persia, stipulated that neither country would interfere in Tibet’s internal affairs, and recognized Britain’s influ¬ ence over Afghanistan. The agreement led to the formation of the Triple Entente.

Anglo-Saxon See Old English

Anglo-Saxon art Painting, sculpture, and architecture produced in Britain from the late 5th century to the Norman Conquest. Before the 9th century, manuscript illumination was the predominant art form, with two schools: Canterbury produced works in the Classical tradition brought by Roman missionaries; a more influential school in Northumbria produced works inspired by the revival of learning encouraged by Irish missionar¬ ies. The curvilinear forms, spirals, and interlaced patterns of the Celtic tradition brought by Irish monks were integrated with the abstract orna¬ mentation and bright colors of the Anglo-Saxon metalwork tradition. After the destructive effects of the 9th-century Danish invasions, the monaster¬ ies were revived and interest in architecture developed. Building activity consisted of small churches influenced by continental types, notably from Norman France (e.g., the original Westminster Abbey, c. 1045-50, rebuilt 1245). The monastic revival resulted in the production of many books and the formation of the Winchester school of illumination (late 10th cen¬ tury). See also Hiberno-Saxon style.

Anglo-Saxon law Body of legal principles that prevailed in England from the 6th century until the Norman Conquest (1066). It was directly influenced by early Scandinavian law as a result of the Viking invasions of the 8th and 9th centuries and indirectly influenced (primarily through the church) by Roman law. Anglo-Saxon law had three components: laws promulgated by the king, customary practices such as those regulating kinship relations, and private compilations. The primary emphasis was on criminal law, though certain material dealt with problems of public admin¬ istration, public order, and ecclesiastical matters.

Anglo-Saxon literature Literature written in Old English c. 650-c. 1100. Anglo-Saxon poetry survives almost entirely in four manuscripts. Beowulf is the oldest surviving Germanic epic and the longest Old English poem; other great works include The Wanderer, The Seafarer, The Battle of Maldon, and the Dream of the Rood. The poetry is alliterative; one of its features is the kenning, a metaphorical phrase used in place of a com¬ mon noun (e.g., “swan road” for “sea”). Notable prose includes the Anglo- Saxon Chronicle, a historical record begun about the time of King Alfred’s reign (871-899) and continuing for more than three centuries. See also Caedmon; Cynewulf.

Angola officially Republic of Angola formerly Portuguese West Africa Country, southern Africa. Its northernmost section of coastland, the Cabinda exclave, is separated from Angola proper by a nar¬ row corridor of Congo territory. Area: 481,354 sq mi (1,246,700 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 11,827,000. Capital: Luanda. The population is made up of mostly BANTU-speaking peoples; the main ethnic groups are

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

74 I Angora ► Anheuser

the Ovimbundu and the Mbundu, while the Khoisan-speaking San (Bushmen) inhabit southeastern Angola. Languages: Portu¬ guese (official), indigenous languages.

Religions: Christianity (mostly Roman Catholic; also Protestant); also traditional beliefs. Currency: kwanza. The country contains several plateau regions, which separate it into three dis¬ tinct drainage systems. One in the northeast drains into the Congo River basin, and another in the southeastern sector drains into the Zambezi sys¬ tem; the remaining drainage, westward into the Atlantic, provides most of Angola’s hydroelectric power. About half of the land area is forest; less than 10% is arable. Despite substantial petroleum reserves, Angola’s economy has been unable to take advantage of its resources, because of the devastation caused by protracted civil war. Angola is nominally a republic with one legislative house; its head of state and government is the president. An influx of Bantu-speaking peoples in the 1st millennium ad led to their dominance in the area by c. 1500. The most important Bantu kingdom was the Kongo; south of the Kongo was the Ndongo kingdom of the Mbundu people. Portuguese explorers arrived in the early 1480s and over time gradually extended their rule. Angola’s frontiers were largely determined by other European powers in the 19th century but not without strong resistance by the indigenous peoples. Resistance to colo¬ nial rule led to the outbreak of fighting in 1961, which led ultimately to independence in 1975. Rival factions continued fighting after indepen¬ dence. Although a peace accord was reached in 1994, forces led by Jonas M. Savimbi continued to resist government control until his death in 2002, after which a peace accord was signed.

Angora See Ankara

Angora cat See Turkish Angora cat

Angora goat Breed of domestic goat that originated in ancient times in the district of Angora in Asia Minor. Its silky coat yields commer¬ cial mohair. Angora goats are gener¬ ally smaller than other domestic goats and sheep and have long, drooping ears. Both sexes are homed. The Western mohair indus¬ try developed after the animal was established in South Africa in the mid-19th century. Importation to the U.S. followed shortly, and breeding there has centred in the Southwest.

The coat, with its strong elastic fibres, differs from wool primarily in its smoothness and lustre.

Angouleme \,a n -gu-'lam\ City (pop., 1999: 43,171), southwestern France, on the Charente River. Clovis captured the town from the Visigoths in 507, and from the 9th century it was the centre of a countship. Fought over by the French and English in the Hundred Years' War, it was ceded to England in 1360 but restored to France in 1373. It passed to the house of Orleans in 1394. The city is noted for papermaking and is the site of the 12th-century cathedral of Saint-Pierre.

Angry Young Men Group of mid-20th-century young British writers. Their works express the bitterness of the lower classes toward the estab¬ lished sociopolitical system and the mediocrity and hypocrisy of the middle and upper classes. The label came from a press agent’s description of John Osborne, whose play Look Back in Anger (1956) is the move¬ ment’s representative work. The group includes John Wain (1925-1994), Kingsley Amis, Alan Sillitoe, and Bernard Kops (b. 1926). A dominant lit¬ erary force in the 1950s, the movement had faded by the early 1960s.

Angstrom Vaq-strcemX, Anders Jonas (b. Aug. 13, 1814, Logdo, Swed.—d. June 21, 1874, Uppsala) Swedish physicist. From 1839 he taught at the University of Uppsala. He devised a method of measuring thermal conductivity, showing it to be proportional to electrical conduc¬ tivity, and deduced that an incandescent gas emits rays of the same refran- gibility as those it can absorb. A founder of spectroscopy, he discovered that hydrogen is present in the Sun’s atmosphere, published a map of the normal solar spectrum, and was the first to examine the spectrum of the aurora borealis and to detect and measure the characteristic bright line in its yellow-green region. The angstrom (1CT 10 m), a unit of length, was named in his honour.

Anguilla \aq-'gwi-b\ Island (pop., 2001: 11,300), Leeward Islands, West Indies. A dependent territory of the United Kingdom, it is the most north¬ erly of the Leeward Islands and covers about 35 sq mi (90 sq km). Its territory includes nearby Scrub, Seal, Dog, and Sombrero islands and Prickly Pear Cays. Most of its people are descendants of African slaves. The official language is English, and most of the population is Protestant. First colonized in 1650 by settlers from Saint Kitts, it was administered by the British. From 1825 it was closely associated with Saint Kitts, a situation Anguilla protested. It was united with Saint Kitts and Nevis in 1882. When a nation consisting of the three was formed in 1967, Anguilla proclaimed its independence. The British intervened, and Anguilla was separated in 1980; while retaining some autonomy, it consented to remain under British rule.

angular momentum Property that describes the rotary inertia of a system in motion about an axis. It is a VECTOR quantity, having both mag¬ nitude and direction. The magnitude of the angular momentum of an object is the product of its linear momentum (mass m x velocity v) and the perpendicular distance r from the centre of rotation, or mvr. The direc¬ tion is that of the axis of rotation. The angular momentum of an isolated system is constant. This means that a rigid spinning object continues to spin at a constant rate unless acted upon by an external torque. A spin¬ ning gyroscope in an airplane remains fixed in its orientation, independent of the airplane’s motion, because of the conservation of direction as well as magnitude.

Angus Breed of black, hornless beef cattle. Formerly known as Aber¬ deen Angus, it originated in northeastern Scotland, but its ancestry is obscure. Angus have a compact and low-set body. The fine quality of the flesh and the high dressing percentage make it a beef breed of the high¬ est rank. Introduced into the U.S. in 1873, its influence there and in other countries spread widely thereafter.

Anhalt \'an-,halt\ Former German state in what is now central Germany. The area around the upper Elbe River from which Anhalt was constituted was, in the 11th century, still part of the duchy of Saxony. It achieved separate territorial status in 1212. Subdivided and reunited frequently, it was finally reconstituted as the duchy of Anhalt by Leopold IV in 1863. It became part of the German Empire in 1871. Reconstituted after World War II as Saxony-Anhalt, it subsequently became part of East Germany and, in 1990, part of reunified Germany.

Anheuser Van-hoi-zorV -Busch Co., Inc. One of the largest produc¬ ers of beer in the world. Headquarters are in St. Louis, Mo., U.S. Its ori¬ gins can be traced to a small brewery founded in 1852 and bought in 1860 by soap manufacturer Eberhard Anheuser. In 1861 his daughter married

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

anhinga ► animals I 75

Adolphus Busch, a brewery supplier. Busch pioneered the use of refrig¬ erated railcars and of pasteurization in the brewing industry. In 1876 the company introduced a light-coloured beer called Budweiser; under August Anheuser Busch, Jr. (president 1946-75), and August A. Busch III (1975— 2002), it became the best-selling U.S. beer brand. The company also pro¬ duces the Michelob brand. Among its other holdings are beverage- container manufacturing and recycling plants, media and advertising groups, and amusement parks, including the SeaWorld theme parks and Busch Gardens (Tampa, Fla.).

anhinga or snakebird Any fish-eating bird of the family Anhingidae (order Pelecaniformes), sometimes considered a single species (Anhinga anhinga) with geographical variants. Anhingas are about 35 in. (90 cm) long, slender, and long-necked. They are mostly black, with silvery wing markings. Males, glossed with green, develop pale head plumes and a dark “mane” in breeding season. Anhingas live in small colonies along lakes and rivers in tropical to warm temperate regions except in Europe. They swim nearly submerged; the head and neck show above water, darting snakelike from side to side.

Anhui or An-hui conventional Anhwei \'an-'hwa\ Province (pop., 2002 est.: 63,380,000), east-central China. It is bounded by Jiangsu, Zhe¬ jiang, Jiangxi, Hubei, Shandong, and Henan provinces. With an area of 54,000 sq mi (139,900 sq km), it is one of China’s smallest provinces; its capital is Hefei. Anhui was the first part of southern China to be settled by the Han dynasty, from c. 205 bc. Well-watered by the Huai and Yangtze (Chang) rivers, it was the empire’s major agricultural area for several centuries. Anhui was ruled by the Ming dynasty in the 14th-17th centu¬ ries. It was occupied by the Japanese in World War II; after the war the Nationalists held it briefly before the communists took over. It remains a notable agricultural producer.

anhydride \,an- , hl- l drid\ Any chemical compound obtained, either in practice or in principle, by eliminating water (H 2 0) from another com¬ pound. Examples of inorganic anhydrides are sulfur trioxide, S0 3 , which is derived from sulfuric acid, H 2 S0 4 , and calcium oxide, CaO, which is derived from calcium hydroxide Ca(OH) 2 . The most important organic anhydride is acetic anhydride, (CH 3 C0) 2 0, a raw material for making cellulose acetate (used for films, fibres, and plastic goods) and aspirin. It can be thought of as acetic acid minus water. Organic anhydrides are very important starting materials for organic synthesis, as they can give rise to carboxylic acids, esters, or amides under the proper conditions.

anhydrite Rock-forming mineral, anhydrous calcium sulfate (CaS0 4 ), which differs chemically from gypsum (to which it changes in humid conditions) by having no water of crystallization. Anhydrite occurs most often with salt deposits in association with gypsum, as in the cap rock of the Texas-Louisiana salt domes. Anhydrite is one of the major minerals in evaporite deposits; it is also present in dolomites and limestones, and in ore veins. It is used in plasters and cement as a drying agent.

Aniakchak \,an-e-'ak-chak\ National Monument and Pre¬ serve Park, southern shore of the Alaska Peninsula, U.S. Situated in the volcanically active Aleutian Range, it consists primarily of a great dry caldera, which last erupted in 1931. The crater has an average diameter of 6 mi (10 km). Declared a national monument in 1978, it covers 942 sq mi (2,440 sq km).

Aniene River \an-'ya-na\ River, central Italy. It rises in the Simbruini Mountains southeast of Rome and meanders 67 mi (108 km) to join the Tiber River north of Rome. Nero created a group of artificial lakes in its upper course and built a villa there, the remains of which survive.

aniline Va-no-.lInN One of the most important organic bases, parent sub¬ stance for many dyes and drugs. Pure aniline is a highly poisonous, oily, colourless liquid with a distinctive odour. First obtained (1826) from indigo, it is now prepared synthetically. It is a weakly basic primary aro¬ matic amine and participates in many reactions with other compounds. It is used to make chemicals used in producing rubber, dyes and interme¬ diates, photographic chemicals, urethane foams, pharmaceuticals, explo¬ sives, herbicides, and fungicides as well as to make chemicals used in petroleum refining.

animal Any member of the kingdom Animalia (see taxonomy), a group of many-celled organisms that differ from members of the two other many-celled kingdoms, the plants and the fungi (see fungus), in several ways. Animals have developed muscles, making them capable of spon¬ taneous movement (see locomotion), more elaborate sensory and nervous

systems, and greater levels of general complexity. Unlike plants, animals cannot manufacture their own food, and thus are adapted for securing and digesting food. In animals, the cell wall is either absent or composed of material different from that of the plant cell wall. Animals account for about three-quarters of living species. Some one-celled organisms display both plant and animal characteristics. See also algae, arthropod, bacteria, CHORDATE, INVERTEBRATE, PROTIST, PROTOZOAN, VERTEBRATE.

animal communication Transmission of information from one ani¬ mal to another by means of sound, visible sign or behaviour, taste or odour, electrical impulse, touch, or a combination of these. Most animal communication uses sound (e.g., birds calling, crickets chirping). Visual communication usually indicates an animal’s identity (species, sex, age, etc.) or other information through specific characteristics (e.g., horns, patches of colour) or behaviour (e.g., the bee’s “dance” describing a source of food). Chemical communication involves pheromones (chemi¬ cal signals) produced by the animal’s endocrine system. Eels and some other fishes use electrical impulses to communicate.

animal husbandry Controlled cultivation, management, and produc¬ tion of domestic animals, including improvement of the qualities consid¬ ered desirable by humans by means of breeding. Animals are bred and raised for utility (e.g., food, fur), sport, pleasure, and research. See also BEEKEEPING, DAIRY FARMING.

animal rights rights, primarily against being killed and being treated cruelly, that are thought to be possessed by higher nonhuman animals (e.g., chimpanzees) and many lower ones by virtue of their sentience. Respect for the welfare of animals is a precept of some ancient Eastern religions, including Jainism, which enjoins ahimsa (“noninjury”) toward all living things, and Buddhism, which forbids the needless killing of ani¬ mals, especially (in India) of cows. In the West, traditional Judaism and Christianity taught that animals were created by God for human use, including as food, and many Christian thinkers argued that humans had no moral duties of any kind to animals, even the duty not to treat them cruelly, because they lacked rationality or because they were not, like Man, made in the image of God. This view prevailed until the late 18th century, when ethical philosophers such as Jeremy Bentham applied the principles of utilitarianism to infer a moral duty not to inflict needless suf¬ fering on animals. In the latter half of the 20th century, the ethical phi¬ losopher Peter Singer and others attempted to show that a duty not to harm animals follows straightforwardly from simple and widely accepted moral principles, such as “It is wrong to cause unnecessary suffering.” They also argued that there is no “morally relevant difference” between humans and animals that would justify raising animals, but not humans, for food on “factory farms” or using them in scientific experiments or for product testing (e.g., of cosmetics). An opposing view held that humans have no moral duties to animals because animals are incapable of entering into a hypothetical “moral contract” to respect the interests of other rational beings. The modern animal-rights movement was inspired in part by Sing¬ er’s work. At the end of the 20th century, it had spawned a large number of groups dedicated to a variety of related causes, including protecting endangered species, protesting against painful or brutal methods of trap¬ ping and killing animals (e.g., for furs), preventing the use of animals in laboratory research, and promoting what adherents considered the health benefits and moral virtues of vegetarianism.

animals, cruelty to Willful or wanton infliction of pain, suffering, or death upon an animal or the intentional or malicious neglect of an ani¬ mal. Perhaps the world’s first anticruelty law, which addressed the treat¬ ment of domesticated animals, was included in the legal code of the Massachusetts Bay Colony (1641); similar legislation was passed in Brit¬ ain in 1822. The world’s first animal welfare society, the Society for the Protection of Animals, was established in England in 1824; the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals was chartered in 1866. In varying degrees, cruelty to animals is illegal in most countries, and interest in endangered species gave further impetus to the anticruelty move¬ ment in the late 20th century. Reflecting such interest, many laws have been passed, though they are seldom enforced unless public pressure is brought to bear. Acts targeted by the movement have ranged from the mistreatment of domesticated animals to bullfighting and vivisection. Fac¬ tory farming, which involves various evidently cruel practices, has remained largely exempt from legal scrutiny. See also animal rights.

animals, master of the Supernatural figure regarded as the protec¬ tor of game animals in the traditions of hunting peoples. In some tradi-

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76 I animation ► Annam

tions he is the ruler of the forest and guardian of all species; in others, he is the guardian of a single species—usually a large and valuable animal— and may have both human and animal characteristics. He requires that hunters treat slain animals with respect; if they fail to do so, he may with¬ hold game until he is placated through a ceremony or by a shaman.

animation Process of giving the illusion of movement to drawings, models, or inanimate objects. From the mid-1850s, such optical devices as the zoetrope produced the illusion of animation. Stop-action photog¬ raphy enabled the production of cartoon films. The innovative design and assembly techniques of Walt Disney soon moved him to the forefront of the animation industry, and he produced a series of classic animated films, beginning with Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937). The Fleischer brothers and the animators at Warner Brothers offered more irreverent cartoons that often appealed to adult audiences. In Europe new animation alternatives to line drawing were developed, including animation using puppets (sometimes made from clay). In the late 20th century computer animation, as seen in the first fully computer-generated animated feature, Toy Story (1995), moved the art to a new level.

anime Style of animation popular in Japanese films. Anime films are meant primarily for the Japanese market and, as such, employ many cul¬ tural references unique to Japan. For example, the large eyes of anime characters are commonly perceived in Japan as multifaceted “windows to the soul.” Much of the genre is aimed at the children’s market, but anime films are sometimes marked by adult themes and subject matter. Modern anime began in 1956 and found lasting success in 1961 with the estab¬ lishment of Mushi Productions by Osamu Tezuka, a leading figure in modern manga (Japanese comics). Such anime as Akira (1988), Princess Mononoke (1997), and the Pokemon series of films have attained inter¬ national popularity.

animism Belief in the existence of spirits separable from bodies. Such beliefs are traditionally identified with small-scale (“primitive”) societies, though they also occur in major world religions. They were first compe¬ tently surveyed by Edward Burnett Tylor in Primitive Culture (1871). Clas¬ sic animism, according to Tylor, consists of attributing conscious life to natural objects or phenomena, a practice that eventually gave rise to the notion of a soul. See also shaman.

anion \ , a-,nl-9n\ Atom or group of atoms carrying a negative electric charge, indicated by a superscript minus sign after the chemical symbol. Anions in a liquid subjected to an electric field migrate toward the posi¬ tive electrode (anode). Examples include hydroxyl (—OH - ; see hydrox¬ ide), carbonate (—C0 3 2- ), and phosphate (—P0 4 3- ). See also ion; compare

CATION.

anise Annual herb ( Pimpinella anisum) of the parsley family, cultivated chiefly for its fruit, called aniseed, which tastes like licorice. Native to Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean region, anise is cultivated through¬ out the world. Aniseed is used as a flavouring and as a soothing herbal tea. Star anise is the dried fruit of the evergreen tree Illicium verum (mag¬ nolia family), native to southeastern China and Vietnam. Its flavour and uses are similar to those of anise.

Anjou \'an-jii\ Historical region, lower Loire valley, northwestern France. Organized in the Gallo-Roman period as the Civitas Andegavensis, it later became the countship, and from 1360 the duchy, of Anjou. Its capital was Angers. Under the Carolingian dynasty, it was nominally administered by a count representing the French king. The area came under the English king Henry II when he married Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1152, thus found¬ ing the Anglo-Angevin empire of the Plantagenet dynasty. The French recovered Anjou in 1259, and it was united with France in 1487. It ceased to exist as a department in 1790.

Anjou, House of See House of Plantagenet

Ankara Vaq-ko-roV formerly Angora City (pop., 1997: 2,984,099), capital of Turkey. Located about 125 mi (200 km) south of the Black Sea, it has been inhabited at least since the Stone Age. Conquered by Alex¬ ander the Great in 334 bc, it was incorporated into the Roman Empire by Augustus. As a city of the Byzantine Empire, Ankara fell to the Turks in 1073, but the Crusader Raymond IV of Toulouse drove them out in 1101. In 1403 it came under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. After World War I (1914-18) Mustafa Kemal AtatOrk made Ankara the centre of resistance to both the Ottomans and the invading Greeks, and it became the capital of the Republic of Turkey in 1923. The modern city is the country’s chief

industrial centre after Istanbul. Its history is displayed in its Roman,

Byzantine, and Ottoman architecture and ruins and in its important histori¬ cal museums.

ankh \'aqk\ Ancient Egyptian hieroglyph signifying life, consisting of a cross surmounted by a loop. In tomb inscriptions, gods and pha¬ raohs are often pictured holding the ankh, which forms part of the hiero¬ glyph for concepts such as health and happiness. It is used as a cross in the Coptic Orthodox Church.

Ankobra River River, southern Ghana. It rises northeast of Wiawso and flows about 130 mi (209 km) south to the Gulf of Guinea, just west of Axim. Its chief tributaries are the Mansi and Bonsa rivers; much of its basin is shared with the Tano River to the west.

Ann, Cape Cape northeast of Boston, Mass., U.S. Sheltering Ipswich Bay, it includes Annisquam Harbor on the north and Gloucester Harbor on the south. The rocky, picturesque promontory, named for Queen Anne (wife of James I), is noted for its old fishing villages and artists’ colonies. Gloucester and Rockport are its main towns.

Ann Arbor City (pop., 2000: 114,024), southeastern Michigan, U.S. Founded in 1824, it became an agricultural centre with the coming of the railroad in 1839. The University of Michigan, which moved there from Detroit in 1837, has played a major role in Ann Arbor’s growth. Private industrial research and the university’s institutes of science and technol¬ ogy make the city a major Midwest centre for space and nuclear research.

Anna (Ivanovna) (b. Jan. 28, 1693, Moscow, Russia—d. Oct. 17, 1740, St. Petersburg) Empress of Russia (1730^40). After the death of Peter II, the Supreme Privy Council, Russia’s actual ruling body, offered Anna the throne (as the daughter of Ivan V) if she agreed to conditions placing the real power in the council’s hands. She initially agreed but later tore up the conditions, abolished the council, and reestablished the autoc¬ racy, countenancing a severely repressive regime. She occupied herself primarily with extravagant amusements and relied on her lover, Ernst Johann Biron (1690-1772), and a group of German advisers to manage the state. Shortly before her death, Anna named as her successor her grand-nephew Ivan (later Ivan VI).

Anna Comnena \kam-'ne-n9\ (b. Dec. 2, 1083—d. c. 1153) Byzan¬ tine historian. Daughter of the emperor Alexius I Comnenus, she conspired with her mother against her brother John II Comnenus; when the plot was discovered, she was forced to enter a convent. There she wrote the Alex- iad, a biography of her father and a pro-Byzantine account of the early Crusades.

Annaba \a-'na-bs\ formerly Bone \'bon\ Seaport (pop., 2004 est.: 410,700), northeastern Algeria. Identified with the port of ancient Hippo (or Hippo Regius), it was a rich city of Roman Africa. It was home to St. Augustine 396-430. Severely damaged by the Vandals in 431, it passed to the Byzantine Empire in 533 before being overrun by the Arabs in the 7th century and named Bona. It was occupied by the French in 1832 when they conquered Algeria. Modern Annaba is Algeria’s chief exporter of minerals; it also serves as a trading port and port of call.

Annales \a-'nal\ school School of history. Established by Lucien Feb- vre (1878-1956) and Marc Bloch (1886-1944), its roots were in the jour¬ nal Annales: economies, societes, civilisations, Febvre’s reconstituted version of a journal he had earlier formed with Marc Bloch. Under Fernand Braudel’s direction the Annales school promoted a new form of history, replacing the study of leaders with the lives of ordinary people and replacing examination of politics, diplomacy, and wars with inquir¬ ies into climate, demography, agriculture, commerce, technology, trans¬ portation, and communication, as well as social groups and mentalities. While aiming at a “total history,” it also yielded dazzling microstudies of villages and regions. Its international influence on historiography has been enormous.

Annam \a-'nam\ Historic kingdom, central Vietnam. The area was con¬ quered c. 200 bc by the Chinese, who gave it its name (which has never

The Ataturk Mausoleum, Ankara, Tur¬ key.

ROBERT HARDING PICTURE LIBRARY

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Annan ► annuity I 77

been used by the indigenous inhabitants). It became independent in the 15th century ad, opening the way for steady Vietnamese movement toward the Mekong River delta. When Vietnam was united in 1802, the city of Hue became the capital, and the area was ruled by the emperor of Annam. Central Vietnam gradually came under French control in the 19th century; it became a protectorate in 1883-85, leaving the court at Hue with only nominal power. The area was partitioned between North and South Vietnam in 1954; Annam’s last emperor had abdicated in 1945 but served as Vietnam’s chief of state from 1949 until shortly after partition.

Annan \a-'nan\, Kofi (Atta) (b. April 8, 1938, Kumasi, Gold Coast) Seventh secretary-general of the United Nations (from 1997), who shared, with the UN, the 2001 Nobel Prize for Peace. He was the son of a pro¬ vincial governor and hereditary paramount chief of the Fante people. He did graduate work at Geneva’s Institute for Advanced International Stud¬ ies and at MIT. He has spent almost his entire career within the UN, beginning at the World Health Organization (1962). As undersecretary- general for peacekeeping (from 1993), he transferred peacekeeping opera¬ tions in Bosnia from the UN to NATO. Elected in Decemberl996, he became the first UN secretary-general from sub-Saharan Africa, and he enjoyed a mandate to reform the UN bureaucracy. He criticized the UN’s failure to prevent or minimize genocide in Rwanda (1994) and unsettled many by declaring that the UN should address human-rights violations perpetrated by governments against their own people. His priorities included reforming the UN, restoring public confidence in the organiza¬ tion, and strengthening the UN’s activities for peace and development. Annan was appointed to a second term in 2001.

Annapolis \3-'na-p3-l9s\ City (pop., 2000: 35,838), capital of Mary¬ land, U.S. It lies along the Severn River on Chesapeake Bay. Settled in 1649 as Providence by Virginia Puritans, it was later known as Town Land at Proctor’s and Ann Arundel Town. It became the colonial capital in 1694 and was later renamed to honour Princess (later Queen) Anne. Its economy is tied to government services, and it is home to the U.S. Naval Academy.

Annapolis Convention (September 1786) Meeting in Annapolis, Md., U.S., that caused the convening of the Constitutional Convention. Delegates from five states gathered to discuss problems in maritime com¬ merce but found they could not solve them without making changes to the Articles of Confederation. They issued a call to all states to meet in Philadelphia in 1787 to resolve the difficulties.

Annapurna Mountain range, Nepal. It forms a ridge 30 mi (48 km) long and contains four main summits. Annapurna I (26,545 ft, or 8,091 m) was first scaled in 1950 by a French expedition; it was the first peak of more than 26,000 ft (8,000 m) to be ascended to the summit. In 1970 an all-woman Japanese team climbed Annapurna III (24,786 ft, or 7,555 m).

Anne (b. Feb. 6, 1665, London, Eng.—d. Aug. 1, 1714, London) Queen of Great Britain (1702-14) and the last Stuart monarch. Second daughter of James II, who was overthrown by William III in 1688, Anne became queen on William’s death (1702). Though she wished to rule independently, her intellectual limitations and poor health led her to rely on advisers, includ¬ ing the duke of Marlborough. Her reign was marked by the Act of Union with Scotland (1707) and by bitter rivalries between Whigs and Tories. Because she never gave birth to a successor, the regency passed to the Hanoverian descendants of James I.

Anne Boleyn \bu-'lin\ (b. 1507?—d. May 19, 1536, London, Eng.) British royal consort. After spending part of her childhood in France, Anne lived at the court of Henry VIII, who soon fell in love with her and began secret proceedings to rid himself of his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. For six years Pope Clement VII refused to grant an annulment. In 1533 Henry and Anne were secretly married, and Henry had the archbishop of Canter¬ bury, Thomas Cranmer, annul his previous marriage. Anne gave birth to the future Elizabeth I but failed to produce the male heir Henry wanted. He lost interest in her, and in 1536 he had her imprisoned on questionable charges of adultery and incest. She was convicted and beheaded.

Anne of Austria (b. Sept. 22, 1601, Valladolid, Spain—d. Jan. 20, 1666, Paris, France) Queen consort (1615-43) of Louis XIII of France and regent (1643-51) for her son Louis XIV. Daughter of Philip III of Spain and Margaret of Austria, Anne married the 14-year-old Louis XIII in 1615. He treated her coolly, and the powerful cardinal de Richelieu attempted to limit her influence over her husband. After Louis XIII died and she was declared sole regent, she strove to ensure that her son would succeed to

the absolute power Richelieu had won for Louis XIII. Together with her first minister, Cardinal Mazarin, she faced the series of revolts known as the Fronde. Her regency ended in 1651, when Louis XIV was pro¬ claimed of age to rule.

Anne of Brittany (b. Jan. 25,

1477, Nantes, France—d. Jan. 9,

1514, Blois) Duchess of Brittany and twice queen consort of France. After succeeding to her father’s duchy in 1488, Anne allied herself with Max¬ imilian I of Austria. She was then forced to break with him and in 1491 marry Charles VIII of France, thus beginning the process of the union of Brittany with the French crown.

After Charles’s death (1498), she married his successor, Louis XII.

Throughout her life Anne devoted herself to safeguarding Brittany’s autonomy within the kingdom.

Anne of Cleves (b. Sept. 22, 1515—d. July 16, 1557, London, Eng.) Fourth wife of Henry VIII of England. Henry married Anne, whom he found homely, to form an alliance with her brother William, duke of Cleves, a leader of the Protestants of western Germany. The alliance, arranged by Thomas Cromwell, seemed necessary because it appeared that the major Roman Catholic powers, France and the Holy Roman Empire, intended to attack Protestant England. When that threat dissipated, the marriage became a political embarrassment and was annulled by an Angli¬ can convocation in 1540.

annealing Treatment of a metal, alloy, or other material by heating to a predetermined temperature, holding for a certain time, and then cool¬ ing to room temperature, done to improve ductility and reduce brittleness. Process annealing is carried out intermittently during the working of a piece of metal to restore ductility lost through repeated hammering or other working, if several cold-forming operations are required but the metal is so hardened after the first operation that further cold working would cause cracking (see hardening). Full annealing is done to give workability to such parts as forged blanks destined for use in the machine- tool industry. Annealing is also done for relief of internal stresses in metal and glass. Annealing temperatures and times differ for different materials and with properties desired; steel is usually held for several hours at about 1,260°F (680°C) and then cooled for several hours. See also heat treat¬ ing, SOLID SOLUTION.

annelid Va-no-.lidX Any member of a phylum (Annelida) of invertebrate animals that possess a body cavity (coelom), movable bristles (setae), and a body divided into segments by crosswise rings. Known as segmented worms, annelids are divided into three classes: marine worms (Polycha- eta; see polychaete), earthworms (Oligochaeta), and leeches (Hirudinea). See illustration on following page.

Anne's War, Queen See Queen Anne's War

annihilation In physics, a reaction in which a particle and its antipar¬ ticle (see antimatter) collide and disappear. The annihilation releases energy equal to the original mass m multiplied by the square of the speed of light c, or E = me 2 , in accordance with Albert Einstein’s special theory of relativity. The energy can appear directly as gamma rays or can convert back to particles and antiparticles (see pair production).

annual Any plant that completes its life cycle in a single growing sea¬ son. The dormant seed is the only part of an annual that survives from one growing season to the next. Annuals include many weeds, wildflowers, garden flowers, and vegetables. See also biennial, perennial.

annual ring See growth ring

annuity Payment made at a fixed interval. A common example is the payment received by retirees from their pension plan. There are two main classes of annuities: annuities certain and contingent annuities. Under an annuity certain, a specified number of payments are made, after which the annuity stops. With a contingent annuity, each payment depends on the continuance of a given status; for example, a life annuity continues only

Anne of Austria, detail of a portrait by Peter Paul Rubens; in the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.

ART MEDIA/HERITAGE-IMAGES

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78 I annulment ► Ansgar

hearts esophagus

clitellum

nephridia

anus

dorsal

blood

intestine

cerebral

ganglion

ventral

pharynx / blood Cr ° P ' mouth ventral vessel gizzard nerve cord

\ circular muscle longitudinal muscle

Body plan of an earthworm. Partitions (septa) divide the body cavity (coelom) into more than 100 segments. The circular and longitudinal muscles work with the setae to move the worm forward. Soil is pulled into the mouth by the sucking action of the pharynx; the crop releases food slowly into the gizzard, where the soil is ground to release and break up any organic matter. The cerebral ganglion, or "brain," con¬ trols all body functions and movement via a ventral nerve cord. Contraction of the hearts (aortic arches) and ventral blood vessel forces blood through the body; blood returns via the dorsal blood vessel. Nitrogenous waste is eliminated through the tubules of the nephridia, while digested soil is pushed through the intestine and out the anus. The clitellum secretes mucus for mating and a cocoon in which eggs are deposited.

© MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

as long as the recipient survives. Contingent annuities such as pension plans or life insurance depend on shared risk. Everyone pays in a fixed amount until the annuity begins; some will not live long enough to receive back all the money they have paid, while others will live long enough to collect more than they have paid.

annulment Legal invalidation of a marriage. It announces the invalid¬ ity of a marriage that was void from its inception. It is to be distinguished from dissolution or divorce. To justify annulment, the marriage contract must have a defect (e.g., incompetence of one party because of age, insan¬ ity, or a preexisting marriage). Continued absence of one party may also justify annulment. Generally, annulment is easier if the marriage is uncon¬ summated. Both secular law and Christian canon law have annulment procedures.

anode Terminal or electrode from which electrons leave a system. In a battery or other source of direct current, the anode is the negative termi¬ nal. In a passive load it is the positive terminal. In an electron tube, elec¬ trons from the cathode travel across the tube toward the anode; in an electroplating cell, negative ions are deposited at the anode.

anodizing Method of coating metal for corrosion resistance, electrical insulation, thermal control, abrasion resistance, sealing, improving paint adhesion, and decorative finishing. Anodizing consists of electrically depositing an oxide film from aqueous solution onto the surface of a metal, often aluminum, which serves as the anode in an electrolytic cell. In the most common type of anodizing, which uses a 15% sulfuric acid bath, dyes can be introduced into the oxidation process to achieve a coloured surface. Aluminum thus anodized and coloured is used widely in giftware, home appliances, and architectural decoration.

anomie Va-no-meX In the social sciences, a condition of social instabil¬ ity or personal unrest resulting from a breakdown of standards and val¬ ues or from a lack of purpose or ideals. The term was introduced in 1897

by Emile Durkheim, who believed that one type of suicide (anomic) resulted from the breakdown of social standards that people need and use to regu¬ late their behavior. Robert K. Merton studied the causes of anomie in the U.S., finding it severest in persons who lack acceptable means of achiev¬ ing their cultural goals. Delinquency, crime, and suicide are often reac¬ tions to anomie. See also alienation.

anorexia nervosa \ l a-n3- , rek-se-o-n3r- , vo-s3\ Eating disorder, mostly in young women, characterized by a failure to maintain body weight at a normal level because of an intense desire to be thin, a fear of gaining weight, or a disturbance in body image. Anorexia nervosa typi¬ cally begins in late adolescence. In women a usual symptom is amenor¬ rhea. A person with anorexia nervosa will often go to great lengths to resist eating in order to lose weight, and medical complications can be life- threatening. Treatment can include psychological and social therapy.

anorthite Feldspar mineral, calcium aluminosilicate (CaAl 2 Si 2 0 8 ), that occurs as white or grayish, brittle, glassy crystals. Primarily a rock¬ forming mineral, it is used in the manufacture of glass and ceramics. Anorthite occurs in basic igneous rocks (see acid and basic rocks).

anorthosite Type of igneous rock composed predominantly of calcium- rich feldspar. It is considerably less abundant than either basalt or granite, but the complexes in which it occurs are often immense. All anorthosites found on the earth consist of coarse crystals, but some from the moon are finely crystalline.

Anouilh \a-'nuy\, Jean (-Marie-Lucien-Pierre) (b. June 23, 1910, Bordeaux, France—d. Oct. 3, 1987, Lausanne, Switz.) French playwright. After studying law, he wrote his first play. The Ermine (1932), followed by the successful Traveler Without Luggage (1937). He is best remembered for Antigone (1944), The Lark{ 1953), and Becket (1959), in which he used techniques such as the play within the play, flashbacks and flash-forwards, and the exchange of roles. A skillful exponent of the well-made play, he rejected naturalism and realism in favour of a return to theatricausm.

Ansar Arabic "Helper" Term originally applied to some of the Com¬ panions of the Prophet. When Muhammad left Mecca for Medina, the Ansar were the Medinese who aided him and who became his devoted follow¬ ers, serving in his army. The term was revived in the 19th century to refer to the followers of the Sudanese al-MAHDi, al-Mahdi’s successor, or his descendants.

Anschluss \'an-,shlus\ (German: “union”) Political union of Austria with Germany, which occurred when Adolf Hitler annexed Austria. In 1938 the Austrian chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg was bullied into can¬ celing a plebiscite on union with Germany, which he expected Austrians to oppose. He resigned his office and ordered the Austrian army not to resist the Germans. The Germans invaded on March 12, and the enthu¬ siasm shown by Austrians persuaded Hitler to annex Austria outright the next day. Though France and Britain protested Hitler’s methods, they and other countries accepted the fait accompli.

Anselm of Canterbury, Saint (b. 1033/34, Aosta, Lombardy—d. April 21, 1109, possibly at Canterbury, Kent, Eng.; feast day April 21) Founder of Scholasticism. Anselm entered the Benedictine monastery at Bee (in Normandy) in 1057 and became abbot in 1078. In 1077 he wrote the Monologium to demonstrate God’s existence and attributes by reason alone. He then wrote Proslogium, which established the ontological argu¬ ment for the existence of God. In 1093, he became archbishop of Canter¬ bury and soon became involved in disputes with William II over the independence of the church and the right to appeal to the pope, arguments that led to Anselm’s exile. Although invited back by Henry I, Anselm again argued with the king over lay investiture (see Investiture Controversy). In 1099 he completed Cur Deus homo? (“Why Did God Become Man?”), which provided a new understanding of Jesus’ redemption of humankind and revealed the increasing focus on the humanity of Jesus. Anselm was declared a Doctor of the Church in 1720.

Ansgar \'ans-,gar. Saint (b. probably 801, near Corbie, Austrasia—d. Feb. 3, 865, Bremen, Saxony; feast day February 3) Missionary, first archbishop of Hamburg, and patron saint of Scandinavia. He was sent by Louis I (the Pious) to help King Harald Christianize Denmark and King Bjorn Christianize Sweden. He initiated a mission to all Scandinavians and Slavs and was appointed archbishop of Hamburg (832). But Sweden and Denmark returned to paganism by 845, and Ansgar had to repeat all his work. He thwarted another pagan rebellion and was recognized as a saint soon after his death.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Anshan ► Antarctica I 79

Anshan \'an-,shan\ City and territory of ancient Elam, north of modern Shiraz, Iran. Anshan came to prominence c. 2350 bc, but its greatest period was in the 13th- 12th centuries bc, when, as kings of Anshan and Susa, Elamite rulers periodically raided the cities of Babylonia. The area appar¬ ently came under the control of the Persians c. 675 bc. Its ruins have yielded major finds, including examples of early Elamite writing.

Anshan Van-'shan\ or An-shan City (pop., 1999 est.: 1,285,849), Liao¬ ning province, northeastern China. Established as a post station in 1387, it was fortified in 1587 as part of the defenses set up by the Ming dynasty against the rising power of the Manchus. It was destroyed by fire during the Boxer Rebellion and badly damaged during the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05). In the 1930s the Japanese occupied Anshan and made it a steel¬ making centre. The city was bombed by U.S. aircraft in 1944 and looted by the Soviets following World War II. The Chinese later redeveloped it into an industrial centre that produces steel, cement, and chemicals.

ant Any member of approximately 8,000 species of the social insect family Formicidae. Ants are found worldwide but are especially com¬ mon in hot climates. They range from 0.1 to 1 in. (2-25 mm) long and are usually yellow, brown, red, or black. Ants eat both plant and animal substances; some even “farm” fungi for food, cultivating them in their nests, or “milk” aphids. Ant colonies consist of three castes (queens, males, and workers, including sol¬ diers) interacting in a highly com¬ plex society paralleling that of the honeybees. Well-known ant species America, the voracious army ants of tropical America, and the stinging FIRE ANT.

antacid Any substance, such as sodium bicarbonate, magnesium hydrox¬ ide, or aluminum hydroxide, used to relieve the discomfort caused by indi¬ gestion, gastritis, and several forms of ulcers. Antacids counteract or neutralize gastric acidity for up to three hours after a single dose. Antacids should be taken when gastric acidity is most likely to be increasing— namely, between one and three hours after each meal and at bedtime.

Antakya See Antioch

Antananarivo X.an-ta-.na-na-'re-voV formerly Tananarive \ta-,na-na-'rev\ City (pop., 2001 est.: 1,403,449), capital of Madagascar. Located in central Madagascar Island, and rising to an elevation of 4,694 ft (1,431 m), the city was founded in the 17th century and was controlled by the Merina from the early 1790s until the end of the 19th century. The French made it the capital of their colony when they took control of the region at the end of the 19th century and renamed it Tananarive. The name became Antananarivo after the 1972 revolution. The University of Mada¬ gascar (1961) is located there, as are tobacco- and food-processing plants. A railway connects it with Toamasina, the island’s chief port.

Antarctic Circle Parallel of latitude approximately 66.5° south of the Equator that circumscribes the southern frigid zone. It marks the northern limit of the area within which, for one day or more each year, the sun does not set or rise. The length of continuous day or night increases southward from the Antarctic Circle, mounting to six months at the South Pole.

Antarctic regions Antarctica and the southern portions of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans. The waters around Antarctica are sometimes called the Southern Ocean; however, the term “Antarctic Ocean” is some¬ times also used, inappropriately. Much of the area is characterized by subpolar conditions, and ice shelves and sea ice extend well beyond the borders of the continent. Water cooled by the coastal ice masses of the Antarctic continent sinks and flows northward along the ocean bottom and is replaced at the surface by warmer water flowing south from the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. The meeting point of these currents is the Antarctic Convergence, an area rich in phytoplankton and krill, which are important to various species of fish as well as to penguins and seabirds.

Antarctica Fifth largest continent on Earth. Antarctica lies concentri¬ cally about the South Pole, its landmass almost wholly covered by a vast ice sheet averaging 6,500 ft (2,000 m) thick. It is divided into two sub¬ continents: East Antarctica, consisting mainly of a high, ice-covered pla¬ teau, and West Antarctica, consisting largely of an archipelago of

Carpenter ant (Camponotus)

GRACE THOMPSON FROM THE NATIONAL AUBUDON SOCIETY COLLECTION-PHOTO RESEARCHERS/EB INC.

are the carpenter ants of North

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■Larsen Ice Shelf

ANTARCTIC ^PENINSULA

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2002 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

mountainous islands covered with ice. Its land area is about 5.5 million sq mi (14.2 million sq km). The southern portions of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans surround it (see Antarctic regions). Antarc¬ tica would be circular except for the outflaring Antarctic Peninsula and two principal bays, the Ross Sea and the Weddell Sea. East and West Ant¬ arctica are separated by the long chain (1,900 mi [3,000 km]) of the Tran- santarctic Mountains. The ice sheet overlaying the continent represents about 90% of the world’s glacial ice. By far the coldest continent, it has the world’s lowest recorded temperature, -128.6 °F (-89.2 °C), measured in 1983. The climate supports only a small community of land plants, but the rich offshore food supply sustains penguins and immense seabird rookeries. There are no permanent human inhabitants. The Russian F.G. von Bellingshausen (b. 1778—d. 1852), the Englishman Edward Brans- field (b. 1795?—d. 1852), and the American Nathaniel Palmer (b. 1799—d. 1877) all claimed first sightings of the continent in 1820. The period to c. 1900 was dominated by the exploration of Antarctic and sub- Antarctic seas. The early 20th century, the “heroic era” of Antarctic explo¬ ration, produced expeditions deep into the interior by Robert Falcon Scott and later Ernest Shackleton. The South Pole was reached by Roald Amund¬ sen in December 1911 and by Scott in January 1912. The first half of the 20th century was also Antarctica’s colonial period. Seven nations claimed sectors of the continent, while many other nations carried out explora¬ tions. In the International Geophysical Year of 1957-58, 12 nations estab¬ lished over 50 stations on the continent for cooperative study. In 1961 the Antarctic Treaty, reserving Antarctica for free and nonpolitical scientific study, entered into full force. A 1991 agreement imposed a ban on min¬ eral exploitation for 50 years.

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80 I anteater ► anthracite

anteater Any of four species of toothless, insect-eating placental mam¬ mals. Found in tropical savannas and forests from Mexico to northern Argentina and Uruguay, anteaters have a long tail, dense fur, a long skull, and a tubular muzzle. Their mouth opening is small, and the tongue is long and wormlike. They live alone or in pairs and feed mainly on ants and termites, which they obtain by inserting their sticky tongue into a nest torn open by the long, sharp, curved claws of their forefeet. The species range in length from 15 in. (37 cm) to 6 ft (1.8 m). Once grouped together, anteaters are now considered as separate from echidnas and pangolins.

Antelami X.an-te-'la-meX, Benedetto (b. c. 1150, probably Lombardy—d. c. 1230, Parma) Italian sculptor and architect. He prob¬ ably belonged to the Magistri Antelami, a civic builders’ guild in the Lake Como region. An early signed marble relief by him, The Descent from the Cross (1178), is in Parma Cathedral; his extensive cycle of sculpture on the baptistery at Parma was begun in 1196. He is credited with the sculp¬ tural decorations of Fidenza Cathedral and Ferrara Cathedral. His last work is believed to have been the decoration and (at least in part) the construction of the church of Sant’Andrea at Vercelli, the architecture of which successfully combined Tuscan Romesque with Gothic characteris¬ tics (such as flying buttresses, rose windows, and ribbed vaulting) and won him lasting renown.

antelope Any of numerous species of Old World grazing or browsing bovids that typically are swift, slender, and graceful plains dwellers. The North American pronghorn is also sometimes referred to as an antelope. Most antelope are African; the others, except for the pronghorn, are Eur¬ asian. They range in shoulder height from 10 to 70 in. (25-175 cm). The male, and sometimes the female, bears distinctive, backwardly curved horns. See also bongo, dik-dik, duiker, eland, gazelle, gnu, hartebeest, impala,

KUDU, NYALA, ORYX, SPRINGBOK, WATERBUCK.

antenna or aerial Component of radio, television, and radar systems that directs incoming and outgoing radio waves. Usually of metal, anten¬ nas range in shape and size from the mastlike devices used for radio and television broadcasting to the large parabolic reflectors used to focus sat¬ ellite signals and the radio waves generated by distant astronomical objects and reflect them toward the centrally located receiver. Antennas were invented in the 1880s by Heinrich Hertz; Guglielmo Marconi made many improvements.

antenna In zoology, one of a pair of slender, segmented sensory organs on the head of insects, myriapods (e.g, centipedes, millipedes), and crusta¬ ceans. Antennae of insects, which are movable, are believed to serve as both tactual and smell receptors; in some species, the development of elaborate antennal plumes and brushlike terminations has led to the sug¬ gestion that they also serve for hearing. Evidence supports this idea only for the mosquito, whose antennae are attached to specialized structures stimulated by vibrations of the antennal shaft. In social insects (e.g., ants), antennae movements may serve as communication.

Antenor \an-'te-nor\ (fl. c. 530-510 bc) Greek sculptor active in Athens. In antiquity he was famous for his bronze group of the Tyrannicides (c. 510 bc) made for the Athenian agora; the statues no longer exist. There were elements of motion and accurate anatomical detail in the work that mark the transition between the Archaic and Classical eras. A large marble kore (c. 520 bc) from the Acropolis, found in 1886, is also attributed to him and is considered one of the finest examples of late Archaic sculpture.

anthem Choral composition with English words used in church ser¬ vices. It developed in the mid-16th century as the Anglican version of the Catholic Latin motet. The full anthem is for unaccompanied chorus throughout; the verse anthem employs one or more soloists and, gener¬ ally, instrumental accompaniment. Both types often employ antiphonal singing, the alternation of two half-choirs (anthem derives from antiphon). William Byrd, Thomas Talus, Henry Purcell, and George Frideric Handel wrote well-known anthems.

Anthesteria V.an-tho-'stir-e-oV Athenian festival in honor of Dionysus, held during the month of Anthesterion (Feb.-Mar.) to celebrate the begin¬ ning of spring and the maturing of the wine stored at the previous vin¬ tage. It lasted three days and included libations to the god from newly opened casks, popular merrymaking, a secret ceremony of marriage between Dionysus and the wife of the king, and underworld rites.

Anthony, Susan B(rownell) (b. Feb. 15, 1820, Adams, Mass., U.S.—d. March 13, 1906, Rochester, N.Y.) U.S. pioneer in the women's suffrage movement. A precocious child, she learned to read and write at the

age of three. After attending a board¬ ing school in Philadelphia, she took a teaching position in a Quaker semi¬ nary in upstate New York. She taught at a female academy (1846-49) and then settled in her family home near Rochester, N.Y. There she met many leading abolitionists, including Fred¬ erick Douglass and William Lloyd Gar¬ rison. The rebuff of her attempt to speak at a temperance meeting in Albany in 1852 prompted her to join Elizabeth Cady Stanton in organizing the Woman’s State Temperance Society of New York. From this time she was a tireless campaigner for abolition and women’s rights. Dur¬ ing the early phase of the Civil War she helped organize the Women’s National Loyal League, which urged the case for emancipation. After the war, she campaigned unsuccessfully to have the language of the Four¬ teenth Amendment altered to allow for woman as well as “Negro” suf¬ frage. In 1868 she represented the Working Women’s Association of New York, which she had recently organized, at the National Labor Union convention. In January 1869 she organized a woman suffrage convention in Washington, D.C., and in May she and Stanton formed the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA). As a test of the legality of the suf¬ frage provision of the Fourteenth Amendment, she cast a vote in the 1872 presidential election in Rochester. She was arrested, convicted (the judge’s directed verdict of guilty had been written before the trial began), and fined; though she refused to pay the fine, the case was carried no further. She served as president of the National American Woman Suf¬ frage Association (1892-1900) and lectured throughout the country for a federal women’s-suffrage amendment.

Anthony of Egypt, Saint (b. 251, Koma, near al-Minya, Heptano- mis, Egypt—d. Jan. 17?, 356, Dayr Mari Antonios hermitage, near the Red Sea; feast day January 17) Egyptian hermit considered the founder of organized Christian monasticism. He began his practice of asceticism at age 20 and lived in solitude on Mount Pispir from 286 to 305. He emerged from his retreat to organize the monastic life of the hermits who had settled nearby. When the Edict of Milan (313) ended the persecution of Christians, Anthony moved to the desert between the Nile and the Red Sea. His monastic rule was compiled from writings and discourses attrib¬ uted to him in Athanasius’s Life of St. Anthony and the Apophthegmata patrum and was still observed in the 20th century by Coptic and Arme¬ nian monks. The hellish temptations he endured as a hermit became a popular subject for artists.

Anthony of Padua, Saint (b. 1195, Lisbon, Port.—d. June 13, 1231, Arcella, Verona; canonized 1232; feast day June 13) Franciscan friar, Doctor of the Church, and patron saint of Portugal. He joined the Augus- tinian order in 1210 and was probably ordained a priest. He joined the Franciscans in 1220 with the goal of seeking martyrdom among the Mus¬ lims but instead became a teacher of theology in Bologna, Italy, and in southern France. The most beloved of the followers of St. Francis, he was known as a great preacher and miracle worker. He was buried in Padua, Italy, and he is the patron of that city. He is also invoked for the return of lost property.

anthophyllite ^an-ths-'fi-llri Amphibole mineral, a magnesium and iron silicate that occurs in altered rocks, such as the crystalline schists of Kongsberg, Norway; southern Greenland; and Pennsylvania. Anthophyl¬ lite is commonly produced by regional metamorphism of ultrabasic rocks (see ACID AND BASIC ROCKS).

anthracite or hard coal Coal containing more fixed carbon than any other form of coal and the lowest amount of volatile (quickly evaporat¬ ing) material, giving it the greatest heat value. The most valuable of the coals, it is also the least plentiful, making up less than 2% of all coal reserves in the U.S., with most of the known deposits occurring in the East. Anthracites are black and have a brilliant, almost metallic lustre. Hard and brittle, they can be polished and used for decorative purposes. They are difficult to ignite but burn with a pale-blue flame and require little attention to sustain combustion. In the past they were used for

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anthracnose ► antiaircraft gun I 81

domestic heating, but today they have given way to other sources of energy (e.g., natural gas and electricity).

anthracnose \an-'thrak-,nos\ Plant disease of warm humid areas, caused by a fungus (usually Colletotrichum or Gloeosporium). It infects various plants, from trees to grasses. Symptoms include sunken spots of various colours in leaves, stems, fruits, or flowers, often leading to wilt¬ ing and dying of tissues. Dogwood anthracnose, caused by the fungus Discula destructivei, thrives in cool climates; in the U.S. it has caused severe losses to natural stands of dogwoods in mountainous regions. It is controlled by destroying diseased tree tissue, using disease-free seed and disease-resistant varieties, applying fungicides, and controlling insects and mites that spread anthracnose fungi from plant to plant.

anthrax \'an-,thraks\ Infectious disease of warm-blooded animals, caused by Bacillus anthracis , a bacterium that, in spore form, can retain its virulence in contaminated soil or other material for many years. A dis¬ ease chiefly of herbivores, the infection may be acquired by persons han¬ dling the wool, hair, hides, bones, or carcasses of affected animals. Infection may lead to death from respiratory or cardiac complications (within 1-2 days if acute), or the animal may recover. In humans, anthrax occurs as a cutaneous, pulmonary, or intestinal infection. The most com¬ mon type, which occurs as an infection of the skin, may lead to fatal sep¬ ticemia (blood poisoning). The pulmonary form of the disease is usually fatal. Sanitary working environments for susceptible workers are critical to preventing anthrax; early diagnosis and treatment are also of great importance. In recent decades, various countries have attempted to develop anthrax as a weapon of biological warfare; many factors, includ¬ ing its extreme potency (vastly greater than any chemical-warfare agent), make it the preferred biological-warfare agent. Concerns about anthrax mounted in 2001 after it was found in letters mailed to members of the U.S. government and news agencies.

anthropology The “study of humanity.” Anthropologists study human beings in aspects ranging from the biology and evolutionary history of Homo sapiens to the features of society and culture that decisively dis¬ tinguish humans from other animal species. Because of the diverse sub¬ ject matter it encompasses, anthropology has become, especially since the middle of the 20th century, a collection of more specialized fields. Physi¬ cal anthropology is the branch that concentrates on the biology and evo¬ lution of humanity. The branches that study the social and cultural constructions of human groups are variously recognized as belonging to cultural anthropology (or ethnology), social anthropology, linguistic anthropology, and psychological anthropology. Archaeology, as the method of investigation of prehistoric cultures, has been an integral part of anthropology since it became a self-conscious discipline in the latter half of the 19th century.

anthroposophy V.an-thro-'pa-so-foV Philosophy based on the view that the human intellect has the ability to contact spiritual worlds. It was for¬ mulated in the early 20th century by Rudolf Steiner and was influenced by theosophy. Steiner wanted to develop a faculty for spiritual perception independent of the senses, which he believed was latent in all human beings, and to this end he founded the Anthroposophical Society in 1912. Now based in Dornach, Switzerland, the society has branches worldwide.

anthurium \an-'thur-e-3m\ Any plant of the genus Anthurium, com¬ prising about 600 tropical herbaceous species in the arum family, many of which are popular foliage plants. A few species are widely grown for the florist trade for their showy, long-lasting blossoms; these include the fla¬ mingo lily {A. andraeanum ), which boasts a salmon-red flower, and the flamingo flower, or pigtail plant (A. scherzeranum), which has a scarlet flower.

Anti-Comintern Pact Agreement concluded first between Germany and Japan (Nov. 25, 1936) and later between Italy, Germany, and Japan (Nov. 6, 1937). The pact, sought by Adolf Hitler, was ostensibly directed against the Comintern but was specifically directed against the Soviet Union. It was one of a series of agreements leading to the formation of the Axis Powers. Japan renounced the pact in 1939 but later acceded to the Tripartite Pact of 1940, which pledged Germany, Japan, and Italy to mutual assistance.

Anti-Corn Law League British organization founded in 1839, devoted to fighting England’s Corn Laws, regulations governing the import and export of grain. It was led by Richard Cobden, who saw the laws as both morally wrong and economically damaging. The league

mobilized the industrial middle classes against the landlords, and Cobden won over the prime minister, Sir Robert Peel. The Corn Laws were repealed in 1846.

Anti-Federalists U.S. leaders who opposed the strong central govern¬ ment envisioned in the Constitution of the United States of 1787. Their agitation led to the creation of the Bill of Rights. While admitting the need for changes in the Articles of Confederation, they feared that a strong fed¬ eral government would infringe on states' rights. The group’s adherents, including George Mason, Patrick Henry, Thomas Paine, Samuel Adams, and George Clinton, were as numerous as the members of the Federalist Party, but their influence was weak in urban areas, and only Rhode Island and North Carolina voted against ratification of the Constitution. Anti- Federalists were powerful during the presidency of Thomas Jefferson, when they formed the nucleus of what later became the Democratic Party.

Anti-Lebanon Mountains Mountain range along the border of Syria and Lebanon. Running parallel to the Lebanon Mountains, the range aver¬ ages 6,500 ft (2,000 m) in elevation. Because of its poor soil and steep slopes, it is sparsely populated.

Anti-Masonic Movement Popular movement in the U.S. in the 1830s opposed to Freemasonry. The movement was ignited in 1826 by the disappearance and presumed murder of a New York bricklayer and former Mason, who had supposedly intended to reveal the order’s secrets. Reac¬ tion against the Masons swept through the northeastern U.S. In 1831 the Anti-Masonic Party became the first U.S. third party and the first party to hold a national convention. It condemned Freemasonry for its secrecy and undemocratic character. Its candidate won Vermont in the 1832 elec¬ tion. By the late 1830s the Anti-Masonic movement had been absorbed into the Whig Party.

anti-Semitism Hostility toward or discrimination against Jews as a religious group or “race.” Although the term anti-Semitism has wide cur¬ rency, it is regarded by some as a misnomer, implying discrimination against all Semites, including Arabs and other peoples who are not the targets of anti-Semitism as it is usually understood. In antiquity, hostility to the Jews emerged because of religious differences, a situation wors¬ ened as a result of the competition with Christianity. By the 4th century, Christians tended to see Jews as an alien people whose repudiation of Christ had condemned them to perpetual migration. Jews were denied citizenship and its rights in much of Europe in the Middle Ages (though some societies were more tolerant) or were forced to wear distinctive clothing, and there were forced expulsions of Jews from several regions in that period. Developed during the Middle Ages were many of the ste¬ reotypes of Jews (e.g., the blood libel, alleged greed, conspiracy against humankind) that have persisted into the modem era. The Enlightenment and the French Revolution brought a new religious freedom to Europe in the 18th century but did not reduce anti-Semitism, because Jews contin¬ ued to be regarded as outsiders. In the 19th century violent discrimina¬ tion intensified (see pogrom), and so-called “scientific racism” emerged, which based hostility to the Jews on their supposed biological character¬ istics and replaced religion as the primary basis for anti-Semitism. In the 20th century the economic and political dislocations caused by World War I intensified anti-Semitism, and racist anti-Semitism flourished in Nazi Germany. Nazi persecution of the Jews led to the Holocaust, in which an estimated six million Jews were exterminated. Despite the defeat of the Nazis in World War II, anti-Semitism remained a problem in many parts of the world into the 21st century.

Anti-Slavery Society, American See American Anti-Slavery Society

antiaircraft gun Artillery piece fired from the ground or shipboard in defense against aerial attack. They were first used in combat in World War I, when field artillery were converted to antiaircraft use by mount¬ ings that enabled them to fire nearly vertically. Range finders and search¬ lights, developed in the 1920s and ’30s, increased their effectiveness. Advances in World War II included rapid-firing and automatic weapons, radar for target tracking, and radio-operated fuses. British and U.S. forces used a 40-mm gun that fired ammunition to a height of 2 mi (3.2 km). Heavier guns, up to 120 mm, were used against high-flying bombers. For most of the war, the most effective was the German 88-mm Fliegerabwe- hrkanone\ its abbreviated name, flak, became a universal term for anti¬ aircraft fire. With the introduction of guided missiles in the 1950s and ’60s, heavy antiaircraft guns were phased out, though lighter radar-guided auto¬ matic guns remained effective against low-flying aircraft and helicopters.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

82 I antiballistic missile ► Antigone

antiballistic missile (ABM) Weapon designed to intercept and destroy ballistic missiles. Effective ABM systems have been sought since the Cold War, when the nuclear arms race raised the spectre of complete destruction by unstoppable ballistic missiles. In the late 1960s both the U.S. and the Soviet Union developed nuclear-armed ABM systems that combined a high-altitude interceptor missile (the U.S. Spartan and Soviet Galosh) with a terminal-phase interceptor (the U.S. Sprint and Soviet Gazelle). Both sides were limited by the 1972 Treaty on Antiballistic Missile Systems to one ABM location each; the U.S. dismantled its sys¬ tem, while the Soviet Union deployed one around Moscow. During the 1980s the U.S. began research on an ambitious Strategic Defense Initiative against an all-out Soviet attack, but this effort proved expensive and tech¬ nically difficult, and it lost urgency with the collapse of the Soviet Union. Attention shifted to “theatre” systems such as the U.S. Patriot missile, which was used with limited effect against conventionally armed Iraqi Scud missiles during the Persian Gulf War (1990-91). In 2002 the U.S. formally withdrew from the ABM treaty in order to develop a defense against limited missile attack by smaller powers or “rogue” states.

Antibes \a n -'teb\ ancient Antipolis Seaport (pop., 1999: 72,412), southeastern France. Located on the Mediterranean coast southwest of Nice, it was a Greek trading post established by Phocaeans c. 340 bc. It became a Roman town and eventually a fief of the Grimaldi family (see Monaco) from 1384 to 1608. It is noted as a winter resort and for its Roman ruins.

antibiotic Chemical substance that in dilute solutions can inhibit the growth of microorganisms or destroy them with little or no harm to the infected host. Early antibiotics were natural microbial products, but chem¬ ists have modified the structures of many to produce semisynthetic and even wholly synthetic ones. Since the discovery of penicillin (1928), anti¬ biotics have revolutionized the treatment of bacterial, fungal, and some other diseases. They are produced by many actinomycetes (e.g., streptomy¬ cin, tetracycline) and other bacteria (e.g., polypeptides such as bacitracin) and by fungi (e.g., penicillin). Antibiotics may be broad-spectrum (active against a wide range of pathogens) or specific (active against one, or one class). Drawbacks include activity against beneficial microorganisms, often causing diarrhea; allergies; and development of drug-resistant strains of the targeted microorganisms.

antibody Molecule in the immune system that circulates in blood and lymph in response to invasion by an antigen. Antibodies are globulins formed in lymphoid tissues by B cells, whose receptors are specialized to bind to a specific antigen. These receptors are copied as antibodies that attack the target antigens by binding to them, either neutralizing them or triggering a complement reaction. Antibodies have widely varying binding sites, providing protection from a wide range of infectious agents and toxic substances. Antibodies derived from the blood serum of infected people or animals are often given in an antiserum for quick immuniza¬ tion against fast-acting toxins or microbes. In 1975 Cesar Milstein and col¬ leagues developed a process for producing specific antibodies in virtually limitless amounts; these monoclonal antibodies can deliver radiation or drugs directly to specific antigens. See also antitoxin; reticuloendothelial SYSTEM.

Antichrist Chief enemy of Christ who would reign at the end of time, first mentioned in the epistles of St. John. The idea of a mighty ruler who will appear at the end of time to fight against the forces of good was adapted from Judaism; the Jewish concept in turn had been influenced by Iranian and Babylonian myths of the battle of God and the devil at the end of time. In the Book of Daniel the evil one is a military leader modeled on Antiochus IV Epiphanes, who persecuted the Jews. In several books of the New Testament, the Antichrist is a tempter who works by signs and wonders and seeks divine honors. It was a potent concept in medieval Christianity that received the attention of many commentators including Adso of Montier-en-Der, whose work became the basic medieval treatise on the Antichrist. During the Middle Ages, popes and emperors strug¬ gling for power often denounced each other as the Antichrist, and during the Reformation, Martin Luther and other Protestant leaders identified the papacy itself as the Antichrist.

anticoagulant Substance that prevents blood from clotting by sup¬ pressing the synthesis or function of various clotting factors (see coagu¬ lation). Anticoagulants are given to prevent thrombosis and used in drawing and storing blood. There are two main types of anticoagulants: heparin and vitamin K antagonists (e.g., warfarin). The latter have longer-

lasting effects, interfering in the liver’s metabolism of vitamin K to cause production of defective clotting factors. Anticoagulant therapy carries a high risk of uncontrollable hemorrhage.

Anticosti Island Island, Gulf of St. Lawrence. Lying at the mouth of the St. Lawrence River in southeastern Quebec, it is 140 mi (225 km) long; its greatest width is 35 mi (56 km). Visited by Jacques Cartier in 1534, it became part of Quebec province in 1774. Port-Menier is its present-day— and only—settlement. It is now primarily a recreation area.

antidepressant Any drug used to treat depression. The three main types inhibit the metabolism of serotonin and norepinephrine in the brain. The aim is to keep these monoamine neurotransmitters from dropping to levels associated with depression. The drugs may take a few weeks to show any effect. Tricyclic antidepressants, which inhibit inactivation of norepinephrine and serotonin, help more than 70% of patients. Monoam¬ ine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors apparently block the action of MAO, an enzyme that helps break down norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine in neurons. They have unpredictable side effects and are usually given only when tricyclic drugs do not help. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) apparently block reabsorption only of serotonin, allowing its lev¬ els to build up in the brain. SSRIs, which include fluoxetine (trade name Prozac), often help with depression unrelieved by tricyclics or MAO inhibitors and have milder side effects.

antidote Remedy to counteract the effects of a poison or toxin. Admin¬ istered by mouth, intravenously, or sometimes on the skin, it may work by directly neutralizing the poison; causing an opposite effect in the body; binding to the poison to prevent its absorption, inactivate it, or keep it from fitting a receptor at its site of action; or binding to a receptor to pre¬ vent the poison’s binding there, blocking its action. Some poisons are not active until converted to a different form in the body; their antidotes inter¬ rupt that conversion.

Antietam \an-'te-t3m. Battle of (Sept. 17, 1862) Decisive and bloody battle of the American Civil War that halted the Confederate advance on Maryland. Following victory in the Second Battle of Bull Run, Gen. Rob¬ ert E. Lee moved his troops into Maryland with an eye to capturing Wash¬ ington, D.C. They were stopped by Union troops under George B. McClellan at Antietam Creek, Md. Confederate casualties numbered some 13,700, and Union losses were about 12,400. McClellan was criticized for allowing Lee’s forces to retreat to Virginia, but the victory encour¬ aged Pres. Abraham Lincoln to issue a preliminary Emancipation Procla¬ mation.

antifreeze Any substance that lowers the freezing point of water, pro¬ tecting a system from the ill effects of ice formation. Antifreezes such as ethylene glycol or propylene glycol commonly added to water in automo¬ bile cooling systems prevent damage to radiators. Additives to prevent freezing of water in gasoline (e.g., Drygas) usually contain methanol or isopropanol. Organisms that must survive freezing temperatures use vari¬ ous chemicals to inhibit ice crystal formation in their cells and tissues: glycerol or dimethyl sulfoxide in insects, glycerol or trehalose in other inver¬ tebrates (nematodes, rotifers), and proteins in Antarctic fishes.

antigen Van-ti-jsnN Foreign substance in the body that induces an immune response. The antigen stimulates lymphocytes to produce antibod¬ ies or to attack the antigen directly (see antibody;immunity). Virtually any large foreign molecule can act as an antigen, including those of bacteria, viruses, parasites, foods, venoms, blood components, and cells and tis¬ sues of various species, including other humans. Sites on the antigen’s surface fit and bind to receptor molecules on the lymphocytes’ surface, stimulating the latter to multiply and initiate an immune response that neutralizes or destroys the antigen.

Antigone \an-'ti-g9-ne\ In Greek legend, the daughter born of the inces¬ tuous relationship between Oedipus and his mother, Jocasta. After Oedi¬ pus had blinded himself in self-punishment, Antigone and her sister Ismene served as his guides, following him into exile. When he died, Antigone returned to Thebes, where her brothers Eteocles and Polyneices were at war. Both were killed, and Creon, the new king, declared that because Polyneices was a traitor, his corpse should remain unburied. Unwilling to let the body be defiled, Antigone buried him; when Creon condemned her to death, she hanged herself. Her story was dramatized by Sophocles and Euripides (in Euripides’ version she escapes and joins her beloved, Haemon).

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Antigonid dynasty ► antinovel I 83

Antigonid dynasty (306-168) Ruling house of ancient Macedonia. Antigonus I was proclaimed king in 306 bc after his son Demetrius con¬ quered Cyprus, thus giving his father control of the Aegean, the eastern Mediterranean, and most of the Middle East. Under Demetrius II (r. 239- 229 bc), Macedonia was weakened by war with the Greek Achaean and Aetolian leagues. Antigonus III (d. 221) reestablished the Hellenic Alli¬ ance, restoring Macedonia to a strong position in Greece. Under Philip V, Macedonia first clashed with Rome, in 215. Philip’s defeat upset the old balance of power, and Rome became the decisive force in the eastern Mediterranean. The defeat of his successor, Perseus, at Pydna in 168 bc marked the end of the dynasty.

Antigonus I Monophthalmus \an- , tig-3-n9s...- I man-3f- , thal-m9s\ or Antigonus I Cyclops Latin "One-Eyed" (b. 382—d. 301 bc,

Phrygia, Asia Minor) Founder of the Macedonian dynasty of the Anti- gonids. He served as a general under Alexander the Great. From the plots, alliances, and wars among Alexander’s successors, he emerged in control of Asia Minor and Syria, though he soon relinquished the lands east of the Euphrates to Seleucus I Nicator. In 307 his son Demetrius I ousted the governor of Athens and conquered Cyprus, giving Antigonus control of the eastern Mediterranean, the Aegean, and Asia Minor. In 306 he was proclaimed king of the empire by the assembled army. In 302 he and his son renewed the Panhellenic League (consisting of all the Hellenic states except Sparta, Messenia, and Thessaly), in order to ensure peace in Hel¬ las and protect Antigonus. His dreams of taking Macedonia itself and Alexander’s entire former empire died with him at the Battle of Ipsus (301), the only battle he ever lost.

Antigonus II Gonatas \'gan-ot-3s\ (b. c. 320—d. 239 bc) King of Macedonia (276-239 bc). The son of Demetrius I Poliorcetes, he defeated the Gauls in Greece (279) and in Asia Minor (277), occupied key cities, and made alliances. He defeated Pyrrhus of Epirus in Greece (272) to solidify his control in Macedonia. In the Chremonidean War (267-261), he achieved lasting victory over Egypt, Sparta, and Athens. He allied with the Aetolian League and local tyrants to stave off incursions of the Achaean League. His defeat of the Egyptian fleet at Andros (244?) assured Mace¬ donian hegemony in the Aegean.