Britannica Concise 2005

margarine Food made from one or more vegetable or animal fats or oils mixed with milk and other ingredients. It is used in cooking and as a spread as a substitute for butter. Margarine was developed by the French chemist Hippolyte Mege-Mouries in the late 1860s. The fats used have varied widely; polyunsaturated oils such as corn, canola, and sunflower oil, considered more healthful than saturated fats, are common today.

Margherita Peak V.mar-ge-'re-toX Highest summit of the Ruwenzori Range in East Africa. It is situated on the border between Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Zaire). The higher of the two peaks on Mount Stanley, the central mountain of the Ruwenzori, it rises to 16,795 ft (5,119 m) between Lake Albert and Lake Edward. First climbed

in 1906 by an Italian expedition, it was named for Queen Margherita of Italy. It is the third-highest mountain in Africa, after Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya.

margin In finance, the amount by which the value of collateral pledged as security for a loan exceeds the amount of the loan. This excess pro¬ vides the lender a “margin” of safety over and above the collateral offered and thus makes extending a loan a more attractive proposition. The size of the margin varies with the type of collateral, the stability of its market price, and the credit standing of the borrower. The term margin is also used in reference to securities transactions. When securities are purchased “on margin,” the buyer supplies a percentage of the purchase price in cash, pledges the security as collateral, and borrows the remainder from the broker. The U.S. Federal Reserve Board (see Federal Reserve System) sets minimum margin requirements on loans made for the purpose of buying securities, so as to prevent excessive use of credit for speculation in stocks, as happened before the stock-market crash of 1929.

marginal-cost pricing In economics, the practice of setting a prod¬ uct’s price equal to the additional (marginal) cost of producing one more unit of output. The producer charges an amount equal to the cost of the additional economic resources. The policy is used to maintain a low sell¬ ing price or to keep a business operating during a period of poor sales. Because fixed costs such as rent and building maintenance must be paid whether a company produces or not, a firm experiencing temporary dif¬ ficulties may decide to remain in production and sell the product at mar¬ ginal cost, since its losses will be no greater than if it ceased production.

marginal productivity theory In economics, the theory that firms will pay a productive agent only what he or she adds to the financial earn¬ ings of the firm. Developed by writers such as John Bates Clark and Philip Henry Wicksteed at the end of the 19th century, marginal productivity theory holds that it is unprofitable to buy, for example, a man-hour of labour if it costs more than it contributes to its buyer’s income. The amount in excess of costs that a productive input yields is the value of its marginal product; the theory posits that every type of input should be paid the value of its marginal product.

marginal utility In economics, the additional satisfaction or benefit (utility) that a consumer derives from buying an additional unit of a com¬ modity or service. The law of diminishing utility implies that utility or benefit is inversely related to the number of units already owned. For example, the marginal utility of one slice of bread offered to a family that has five slices will be great, since the family will be less hungry and the difference between five and six is proportionally significant. An extra slice offered to a family that has 30 slices will have less marginal utility, since the difference between 30 and 31 is proportionally smaller and the fami¬ ly’s appetite may be satisfied by what it already has. The concept grew out of attempts by 19th-century economists to explain the fundamental economic reality of price.

marguerite V.mar-go-'reA Any of several genera of golden daisylike flowers in the composite family. Yellow or white ray flowers and yellow disk flowers are borne in the compact flower heads. Marguerites are cul¬ tivated as garden ornamentals, especially golden marguerite, also called yellow chamomile (Anthemis tinctoria ). See also chamomile, daisy.

Maria Legio Xmo-'re-o-'la-ge-.oV or Legio Maria or Legion of Mary Church Independent African church influenced by Roman Catholicism. It originated in Kenya in 1963 when two Catholics of the Luo group, Simeon Ondeto and Gaundencia Aoko, claimed to have undergone prophetic experiences. The church, which offers healing by prayer and exorcism of evil spirits, adds features of Pentecostalism to Catholic wor¬ ship and hierarchy. In its first year it gained about 90,000 adherents, but membership had dropped to 50,000 by the end of the decade. It rejects Western and traditional medicines, alcohol, tobacco, and dancing but accepts polygamy and is strongly nationalistic.

Maria Theresa \to-'ra-s9\ German Maria Theresia (b. May 13,

1717, Vienna, Austria—d. Nov. 29, 1780, Vienna) Archduchess of Aus¬ tria and queen of Hungary and Bohemia (1740-80). She was the eldest daughter of Emperor Charles VI, who promulgated the Pragmatic Sanction to allow her to succeed to the Habsburg domains. Opposition to her suc¬ cession led in 1740 to the War of the Austrian Succession. After Emperor Charles VII died (1745), she obtained the imperial crown for her husband, who became Francis I. She helped initiate financial and educational reforms, promoted commerce and the development of agriculture, and

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

mariachi ► Mariinsky I 1195

reorganized the army, all of which strengthened Austria’s resources. Con¬ tinued conflict with Prussia led to the Seven Years' War and later to the War of the Bavarian Succession. After her husband’s death (1765), her son became emperor as Joseph II. She criticized many of his actions but agreed to the partition of Poland (1772). A key figure in the power politics of 18th-century Europe, Maria Theresa brought unity to the Habsburg mon¬ archy and was considered one of its most capable rulers. Her 16 children also included Marie-Antoinette and Leopold II.

mariachi \,mar-e-'a-che\ Traditional Mexican street ensemble. In the 19th century, mariachis consisted solely of stringed instruments, includ¬ ing violin, guitar, guitarron, vihuela, mandolin, and double bass; since the 1920s they have generally included trumpets and often other wind instru¬ ments as well. The mariachi repertoire includes songs and lively dance music.

Mariam, Mengistu Haile See Mengistu Haile Mariam

Mariana Islands \ l mar-e- l a-no\ formerly Ladrone Islands

Xlo-'dronX Island group, western Pacific Ocean. Located east of the Phil¬ ippines, it comprises 15 islands and is divided politically into Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands. The population is descended from the pre- Spanish Chamorro people and Spanish, Mexican, German, Philippine, and Japanese settlers. Spanish cultural traditions are strong. After Ferdinand Magellan became the first European to discover them in 1521, they were visited frequently but were not colonized until 1668, at which time Jesuit missionaries changed their name to honor Mariana of Austria, regent of Spain.

Mariana Trench Submarine trench in the floor of the western North Pacific Ocean. It is the deepest known depression on the surface of the Earth, with a maximum depth of 36,201 ft (11,034 m). The trench extends from southeast of Guam to northwest of the Mariana Islands, a distance of more than 1,580 mi (2,550 km), and has a mean width of 43 mi (69 km). See also deep-sea trench.

Mariategui X.ma-re-'a-ta-geX, Jose Carlos (b. June 14, 1895, Lima, Peru—d. April 16, 1930, Lima) Peruvian political leader and essayist. In 1919 he was sent to study in Italy, where he met leading socialists of the day, including Maxim Gorky. At first a strong supporter of APRA, he split with that movement to form the Peruvian Communist Party in 1928. While emphasizing the economic aspects of Marxism in his writings, he recognized the value of religion and myth in his treatment of the Indians and advocated a greater social and political role for them. His influence is seen in the Maoist Shining Path revolutionary movement.

Ma’rib Vmar-ib\ Ancient city ruins, north-central Yemen. The ancient fortified city of Ma’rib was the centre of the pre-Islamic state of Saba’ (950-115 bc). It was located on one of the caravan routes between the Mediterranean Sea and the Arabian Peninsula, and it prospered through its trading monopoly on frankincense and myrrh. The ancient Ma’rib Dam was built c. 7th cent bc to regulate the waters of the Wadi Sadd; some

1,800 ft (550 m) long, it irrigated more than 4,000 acres (1,600 hect¬ ares) and supported a densely settled agricultural region. The dam was destroyed in the 6th century ad.

mariculture See aquaculture

Marie-Antoinette (-Josephe- Jeanne cTAutriche-Lorraine)

(b. Nov. 2,1755, Vienna—d. Oct. 16, 1793, Paris, France) Queen consort of Louis XVI of France. The daughter of Emperor Francis I and Maria Theresa, she was married in 1770 to the French dauphin. After he became king (1774), she was criticized for her extravagance and frivolous circle of court favourites. She was unjustly implicated in the Affair of the Dia¬ mond Necklace (1786), which dis¬ credited the monarchy. After the French Revolution began, she influ¬ enced Louis to resist attempts by the National Assembly to restrict the royal prerogative. She became the

Marie-Antoinette, detail of a portrait by Elisabeth Vigee-Lebrun; in the Cha¬ teau de Versailles.

CUCHE MUSEES NATIONAUX

target of agitators, who attributed to her the celebrated remark, after being told the people had no bread, “Let them eat cake!” She tried to save the crown by negotiating secretly with monarchist factions and with her brother, Emperor Leopold II. News of her intrigues further enraged the French and led to the overthrow of the monarchy (1792). After a year in prison, she was tried and guillotined in 1793.

Marie de France (fl. 12th century) French poet, the earliest known woman poet of France. She wrote verse narratives on romantic and magi¬ cal themes and may have inspired the musical lais of the later trouba¬ dours. She probably wrote in England and may have based her fables on an English source; her verses were dedicated to a “noble” king, either Henry II of England or his son. She also wrote a collection of fables, the Ysopet.

Marie de Medicis Xdo-ma-de-'sesX Italian Maria de' Medici (b.

April 26, 1573, Florence—d. July 3, 1642, Cologne) Queen consort of Henry IV of France. The daughter of Francesco de’ Medici, of the noted Medici family, she was married in 1600 to Henry as his second wife. On his assassination in 1610, she became regent for their son, Louis XIII. Guided by the unscrupulous marquess d’Ancre, she squandered state rev¬ enues and bought the loyalty of rebellious nobles. After Ancre was assas¬ sinated, Louis assumed the throne (1617) and exiled Marie to Blois. She tried to raise a revolt and won favourable peace terms through her adviser, the future cardinal de Richelieu. Restored to the king’s council (1622), she obtained a cardinal’s hat for Richelieu and persuaded Louis to make him chief minister. Richelieu gradually withdrew from Marie’s influence and by 1628 was opposing her policies. She attempted to have him dismissed, but Louis rejected her plot and banished Marie from court. In 1631 she fled to Brussels, where she later died in poverty.

Marie-Louise German Maria- Luise (b. Dec. 12, 1791, Vienna,

Austria—d. Dec. 17, 1847, Parma)

Austrian archduchess and second wife of Napoleon. The eldest daugh¬ ter of Emperor Francis II, she was married to Napoleon (1810) and gave birth to his long-desired heir, the future Napoleon II. in 1811.

When Napoleon abdicated (1814),

Marie-Louise returned to Vienna with their son. She ignored Napo¬ leon’s entreaties to join him in exile and again after his return to France (1815). Made duchess of Parma,

Piacenza, and Guastalla (1816), she ruled in accordance with Austrian prescriptions. After Napoleon’s death (1821), she contracted morga¬ natic marriages with Adam Adalbert, count von Neipperg, who died in 1829, and in 1834 with Charles Rene, count de Bombelles.

marigold Any of about 30 species of annual herbaceous plants that make up the genus Tagetes in the composite family, native to southwest¬ ern North America. The name also refers to the pot marigold (calendula) and unrelated plants of several fami¬ lies. Marigolds include popular gar¬ den ornamentals such as African marigold ( T. erecta ) and French marigold (T. patula), which have solitary or clustered red, orange, and yellow flowers and usually finely cut leaves. Because the strongly scented leaves discourage insect pests, mari¬ golds are often planted among veg¬ etable crops.

Mariinsky \mar-'yin-ske\ The¬ atre or Maryinsky Theatre, formerly Kirov Theatre Russian

Marie-Louise, detail of a portrait by Joseph Franque; in the Chateau de Versailles.

AUNARI/ART RESOURCE, NEW VORK

French marigold (Tagetes patula).

ROBERT BORNEMANN/PHOTO RESEARCHERS

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imperial theatre in St. Petersburg. The theatre opened in 1860 and was named for Maria Aleksandrovna, wife of the reigning tsar. Ballet was not performed there until 1880 and was presented regularly only after 1889, when the Imperial Russian Ballet became its resident company and acquired the Mariinsky name. The theatre’s name was changed to the State Academic Theatre (1917-35) and later to the Kirov (for Sergey Kirov) State Academic Theatre for Opera and Ballet (1935-91); it reverted to its original name in 1991. Its resident ballet company, the celebrated Mari¬ insky (or Kirov) Ballet, tours worldwide.

marijuana V.mar-o-'wa-noX Indian hemp plant (Cannabis sativa ) or the crude drug made of its dried and crushed leaves or flowers. The active ingredient is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Also called pot, grass, and weed, the drug has long been used as a sedative or analgesic; it was in use in China by the 3rd millennium bc and had reached Europe by ad 500. Today it is used worldwide, though it has been generally illegal at least since the International Opium Convention of 1925. Its psychologi¬ cal and physical effects, including mild euphoria and alterations in vision and judgment, vary with strength and amount consumed, the setting, and the user’s experience. Chronic use is not physically habit-forming but may be mildly psychologically habit-forming. Marijuana has been shown to be medically therapeutic for patients with glaucoma, AIDS, and the side effects of chemotherapy; in 2001 Canada became the first country to legal¬ ize the use of marijuana by people with terminal illnesses and chronic conditions. Supporters of legalization claim that it is a more benign drug than alcohol; opponents contend that it is addictive and leads to use of more serious drugs. A resin from the plant is the source of hashish.

marimba Xylophone with resonators under each bar. The original Afri¬ can instrument uses tuned calabash resonators. In Mexico and Central America, where it was brought by African slaves, the wooden bars may be affixed to a frame supported by legs or hung at the player’s waist. The orchestral marimba uses long metal tubes as resonators.

Marin \'mar-3n\, John (b. Dec. 23, 1870, Rutherford, N.J., U.S.—d. Oct. 1, 1953, Cape Split, Maine) U.S. painter and printmaker. He worked as an architectural draftsman before studying painting. After exposure to Cubism and German Expressionism, he developed a personal form of expres¬ sionism, consisting of semiabstract images based on objective reality. While watercolour usually produces delicate, transparent effects, Marin’s command of the medium allowed him to use it to render the monumental power of New York City and the relentless surge of the sea.

"Maine Islands," watercolour by John Marin, 1922; in the Phillips Collection, Washington, D.C.

COURTESY OF THE PHILLIPS COLLECTION, WASHINGTON, D.C.

Marin, Luis Munoz See Luis Munoz Marin

Marina See Espirito Santo

Marina, Saint See Saint Margaret of Antioch

marine Member of a military force trained for service at sea and in land operations related to naval campaigns. They existed as far back as the 5th century bc, when the Greek fleets were manned by epibatai, or heavily armed sea soldiers. In the Middle Ages ordinary soldiers were often assigned to shipboard duty; not until the naval wars of the 17th century was the distinct role of marines rediscovered almost simultaneously by the British and the Dutch, who raised the first two modern marine corps, the Royal Marine (1664) and the Koninklijke Nederlandse Corps Mariniers (1665). See also U.S. Marine Corps.

marine biology Science that deals with the animals and plants of the sea and estuaries and with airborne and terrestrial organisms that depend directly on bodies of saltwater for food and other necessities. Marine biologists study the relations between ocean phenomena and the distri¬ bution and adaptations of organisms. Of particular interest are adaptations to the chemical and physical properties of seawater, the movements and currents of the ocean, the availability of light at various depths, and the composition of the sea floor. Other important areas of study are marine food chains, the distribution of economically important fish and crusta¬ ceans, and the effects of pollution. In the later 19th century, the emphasis was on collecting and cataloging marine organisms, for which special nets, dredges, and trawls were developed. In the 20th century, improved diving equipment, submersible craft, and underwater cameras and televi¬ sion have made direct observation possible.

marine geology or geologic oceanography Scientific disci¬ pline concerned with all geologic aspects of the continental shelves and slopes and the ocean basins. Marine geology originally focused on marine sedimentation and the interpretation of bottom samples. The advent of the concept of seafloor spreading, however, broadened its scope. Many inves¬ tigations of the oceanic ridge system, the magnetism of rocks on the sea¬ floor, geochemical analyses of deep brine pools, and seafloor spreading and continental drift may be considered within the general realm of marine geology.

marine geophysics Subdiscipline of geophysics that is concerned with ocean phenomena. The main techniques and areas of study include heat- flow data, seismic reflection and refraction techniques, geomagnetics, and gravity studies. The principal concepts in marine geophysics are seafloor SPREADING, CONTINENTAL DRIFT, and PLATE tectonics.

marine sediment Any deposit of insoluble material, primarily rock and soil particles, transported from land areas to the ocean by wind, ice, and rivers, as well as the remains of marine organisms, products of sub¬ marine volcanic activity, and chemical precipitates from seawater that accumulate on the seafloor.

Mariner Vmar-o-norf Any of a series of unmanned U.S. space probes sent near Venus, Mars, and Mercury. Mariners 2 (1962) and 5 (1967) passed Venus within 22,000 mi (35,000 km) and 2,500 mi (4,000 km), respectively, and made measurements of temperature and atmospheric density. Mariners 4 (1965), 6 and 7 (1969), and 9 (1971-72) obtained striking photographs of the surface of Mars and analyzed its atmosphere and magnetic field. Mariner 10 is the only spacecraft ever to have visited Mercury (1974-75).

Marinetti X.ma-re-'nat-teV Filippo Tommaso (Emilio) (b. Dec. 22, 1876, Alexandria, Egypt—d. Dec. 2, 1944, Bellagio, Italy) Italian-French writer, the ideological founder of Futurism. In early poetry such as Destruc¬ tion (1904), he showed the vigour and anarchic experimentation with form that would characterize his later work. Futurism officially began with the 1909 publication of his manifesto in the Paris newspaper Le Figaro. His ideas were quickly adopted in Italy, and he later elaborated on his theory in a novel and several dramatic works. Arguing that fascism was Futur¬ ism’s natural extension, he became an active fascist and lost most of his following in the 1920s.

Marini, Marino (b. Feb. 27, 1901, Pistoia, Italy—d. Aug. 6, 1980, Viareggio) Italian sculptor and painter. Working primarily in bronze, he concentrated on two major images: the earthbound woman and the horse and rider. His sensitivity to form and surface owes much to Etruscan and Roman works, but the inner tension of his bold, straining figures reflects an Expressionist sensibility. His portrait busts, as of Igor Stravinsky (1950), capture the spiritual substratum of his subjects. In the 1940s he turned to painting nearly abstract works.

Marinid Vmar-i- l nid\ dynasty Berber dynasty that followed the Almo- had dynasty in North Africa in the 13th—15th centuries. The Marlnids were

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Marino ► Mark I 1197

a tribe of the Zanatah group, which was allied to the Umayyads in Cor¬ doba. In 1248 a Marlnid leader, Abu Yahya, captured Fes and made it the Marinid capital. The capture of Marrakech (1269) made the Marlnids the masters of Morocco. They waged inconclusive war in Spain and Africa that gradually depleted their resources, reducing the realm to anarchy in the 15th century. Sa'di sharifs captured Fes in 1554.

Marino, Dan(iel Constantine), Jr. (b. Sept. 15, 1961, Pittsburgh, Pa., U.S.) U.S. gridiron football quarterback. Chosen by the Miami Dol¬ phins in the first round of the 1983 NFL draft, he set all-time career records for passes completed (4,453 in 7,452 attempts), yards passing (55,416), and touchdown passes (385) and for 21 other categories. In 1984 he became the first quarterback to pass for more than 5,000 yards in a single season (5,084) and the first to complete over 40 touchdown passes (48) in a season.

Marino, Giambattista (b. Oct. 18, 1569, Naples—d. March 25, 1625, Naples) Italian poet, founder of the school of Marinism (later secen- tismo), which dominated 17th-century Italian poetry. Trained as a lawyer, Marino chose not to practice and instead found immense success with poetry that he managed to get published despite censorship. His most important work, a labour of 20 years, is Adonis (1623), an enormous poem (45,000 lines) that relates, with many digressions, the love story of Venus and Adonis. His work, praised throughout Europe, far surpassed that of his imitators, who carried his complicated wordplay and elaborate con¬ ceits and metaphors to such extremes that Marinism became a pejorative term.

Mariology \,mar-e-'a-l3-je\ Study of doctrines concerning Mary, the mother of Jesus, or the content of those doctrines. The New Testament contains little information about Mary, though the tradition that she remained a virgin despite giving birth to Jesus was accepted in the early church. Various feast days in her honour were established in both the Eastern and Western liturgical traditions, and she became an especially important figure in Roman Catholicism. Pius IX proclaimed the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception in 1854. Mary is seen as the spiritual mother and heavenly intercessor of every Catholic and as a partner with Jesus in the redemption of human beings. In 1950 Pius XII proclaimed the doctrine that at her death Mary was bodily assumed into heaven.

Marion, Francis known as The Swamp Fox (b. c. 1732, Winyah, S.C.—d. Feb. 26, 1795, Berkeley county, S.C., U.S.) American Revolu¬ tionary commander. He fought the Cherokee (1759) and later served as a member of the provincial assembly (1775). In the American Revolution he commanded troops in South Carolina. After the surrender of Gen. Ben¬ jamin Lincoln to the British at Charleston, S.C. (1780), he slipped away to the swamps, gathered together his band of guerrillas, and began leading bold raids on British positions. For a daring rescue of American troops surrounded by the British at Parkers Ferry, S.C. (1781), he received the thanks of Congress. He was then appointed a brigadier general.

marionette Puppet figure manipulated from above by strings attached to a wooden cross or control. The figure, also called a string puppet, is usually manipulated by nine strings, attached to each leg, hand, shoulder, and ear and at the base of the spine. Additional strings give more sensi¬ tive control of movement, and some marionettes can be made to imitate almost every human and animal action. Early marionettes were controlled by an iron rod instead of strings, a form that survived in Sicily. In the 18th century, marionette operas were extremely popular, and they are still per¬ formed today in Salzburg to Mozart’s music. See also puppetry.

Maris \'mar-3s\, Roger in full Roger Eugene Maris (b. Sept. 10, 1934, Hibbing, Minn., U.S.—d. Dec. 14, 1985, Houston, Texas) U.S. baseball player. Maris’s family moved from Minnesota to North Dakota when he was 10, and there he excelled in high school sports, playing American Legion baseball in Fargo in the summer. An outfielder and left- handed hitter, he played for the Cleveland Indians, the New York Yan¬ kees, and the St. Louis Cardinals. In 1961 his one-season total of 61 home runs broke Babe Ruth’s long-standing record of 60, edging out his Yankee teammate Mickey Mantle. Maris’ s record stood until 1998, when it was broken by Mark McGwire’s 70 and Sammy Sosa’s 66. See also Barry Bonds.

Maritain \ma-re-'ta n \, Jacques (b. Nov. 18, 1882, Paris, France—d. April 28, 1973, Toulouse) French philosopher. Reared a Protestant, he converted to Roman Catholicism in 1906. His thought, which is based on Aristotelianism and Thomism, incorporates ideas of other Classical and modern philosophers and draws upon anthropology, sociology, and psy¬

chology. Among the dominant themes in his work are: that science, phi¬ losophy, poetry, and mysticism are among many legitimate ways of knowing reality; that the individual person transcends the political com¬ munity; that natural law expresses not only what is natural in the world but also what is known naturally by human beings; that moral philoso¬ phy must take into account other branches of human knowledge; and that people holding different beliefs must cooperate in the formation and main¬ tenance of salutary political institutions. Among his major works are Art and Scholasticism (1920), The Degrees of Knowledge (1932), Art and Poetry (1935), Man and the State (1951), and Moral Philosophy (1960).

maritime law or admiralty law or admiralty Body of legal rules that governs ships and shipping. One early compilation of maritime regulations is the 6th-century Digest of Justinian. Roman maritime law and the 13th-century Consolat de Mar (“Consulate of the Sea”) both brought temporary uniformity of maritime law to the Mediterranean, but nationalism led many countries to develop their own maritime codes. Maritime law deals mainly with the eventualities of loss of a ship (e.g., through collision) or cargo, with insurance and liability relating to those eventualities, and with collision compensation and salvage rights. There has been an increasing tendency to make maritime laws uniform; the chief organization overseeing maritime law is the International Maritime Com¬ mittee, composed of the maritime law associations of several countries.

Maritime Provinces Canadian provinces of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. They are located on the Atlantic Coast and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. With Newfoundland and Labrador they form the Atlantic Provinces. The name Acadia was applied to much of the region during French colonial rule, until it was ceded to the British in

Maritsa \m9-'ret-s3\ River Greek Evros Vev-,r6s\ Turkish Meric \me-'rech\ River, southeastern Europe. Rising southeast of Sofia, Bulg., it flows east and southeast across Bulgaria, briefly forms the Bulgaria- Greece border, and then runs along the Greece-Turkey border. At Edime it changes direction, flowing southwest to enter the Aegean Sea after a course of about 300 mi (480 km).

Marius Vmar-e-osV Gaius (b. c. 157, Cereatae, near Arpinum, Latium—d. Jan. 13, 86 bc, Rome) General and consul who redesigned the Roman army. He secured command of the army in Africa (107) and solved the chronic manpower shortage by enlisting landless citizens for the first time. He defeated Jugurtha in 106. At Rome he held unconstitutional suc¬ cessive consulships (104-100) while it was threatened by the Cimbri and the Teutones, whom he fought and defeated. He held a command during the Social War and was awarded another in 88 to replace Sulla as Asian commander and confront Mithradates. When an outraged Sulla marched on Rome, Marius fled for his life. He returned forcibly in 87, was elected consul for the seventh time, and ruthlessly murdered his opponents.

Marivaux \ma-re-'v6\, Pierre (Carlet de Chamblain de) (b.

Feb. 4, 1688, Paris, France—d. Feb. 12, 1763, Paris) French playwright. Born into an aristocratic family, he joined Paris salon society, which he described in his journalistic writings. The loss of his fortune in 1720 and the death of his young wife a few years later prompted him to embark on a serious literary career. He wrote his first plays, including the tragedy Annibal (1720), for the Comedie-Francaise, but he preferred to write for the Italian commedia dell'arte theatre in Paris, for which he produced Har¬ lequin Brightened by Love (1723) and The Game of Love and Chance (1730). His nuanced feeling and clever wordplay became known as marivaudage. He also wrote the satirical plays Isle of Slaves (1725), Isle of Reason (1727), and The New Colony (1729).

marjoram or sweet marjoram Vmar-jo-romX Perennial herb (.Majorana hortensis) of the mint family, or its fresh or dried leaves and flowering tops. Native to the Mediterranean and western Asia, marjoram is cultivated as an annual where winter temperatures kill the plant. It is used to flavor many foods. Various other aromatic herbs or undershrubs of the genera Origanum (see oregano) and Majorana of the mint family are also called marjoram.

Mark (the Evangelist), Saint (fl. 1st century, Jerusalem—d. tradi¬ tionally Alexandria, Egypt; Western feast day April 25; Eastern feast day September 23) Christian evangelist to whom the second Gospel is tradi¬ tionally ascribed. He joined Saints Paul and Barnabas on their first mis¬ sionary journey but left them at Perga and returned to Jerusalem. He may also have aided St. Peter in Rome, and some scholars believe that Mark’s

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Gospel is based on Peter’s account of his experiences as one of the Twelve Apostles. If this is true, it was probably written shortly after Peter’s death c. ad 65. The Egyptian church claims Mark as its founder, and he is patron saint of the Italian cities of Aquileia and Venice. His symbol is the lion.

Mark Antony See Mark Antony

market Means by which buyers and sellers are brought into contact with each other and goods and services are exchanged. The term originally referred to a place where products were bought and sold; today a market is any arena, however abstract or far-reaching, in which buyers and sell¬ ers make transactions. The commodity exchanges in London and New York, for example, are international markets in which dealers communicate by telephone and computer links as well as through direct contact. Markets trade not only in tangible commodities such as grain and livestock but also in financial instruments such as securities and currencies. Classical economists developed the theory of perfect competition, in which they imagined free markets as places where large numbers of buyers and sell¬ ers communicated easily with each other and traded in commodities that were readily transferable; prices in such markets were determined only by supply and demand. Since the 1930s, economists have focused more often on the theory of imperfect competition, in which supply and demand are not the only factors that influence the operations of the market. In imperfect competition the number of sellers or buyers is limited, rival products are differentiated (by design, quality, brand name, etc.), and various obstacles hinder new producers’ entry into the market.

market research Study of the requirements of specific markets, the acceptability of products, and methods of developing and exploiting new markets. Various strategies are used for market research: past sales may be projected forward; surveys may be made of consumer attitudes and product preferences; and new or altered products may be introduced experimentally into designated test-market areas. Formal market research dates back to the 1920s in Germany and the 1930s in Sweden and France. After World War II, U.S. firms led in the use and refinement of market- research techniques, which spread throughout much of Western Europe and Japan.

marketing Activities that direct the flow of goods and services from producers to consumers. In advanced industrial economies, marketing considerations play a major role in determining corporate policy. Once primarily concerned with increasing sales through advertising and other promotional techniques, corporate marketing departments now focus on credit policies (see credit), product development, customer support, dis¬ tribution, and corporate communications. Marketers may look for outlets through which to sell the company’s products, including retail stores, direct-mail marketing, and wholesaling. They may make psychological and demographic studies of a potential market, experiment with various mar¬ keting strategies, and conduct informal interviews with target audiences. Marketing is used both to increase sales of an existing product and to introduce new products. See also merchandising.

marketing board Organization set up by a government to regulate the buying and selling of a certain commodity within a specified area. The simplest type of board is designed to carry out market research, pro¬ mote sales, and furnish information; it is usually financed by a fee levied on all sales of the product concerned. Examples include the Sri Lanka Tea Board and the Ghana Cocoa Board. Other boards are empowered to regu¬ late terms and conditions of sale, usually by establishing packing stan¬ dards and quality analysis. The primary goal of most marketing boards is to stabilize prices, especially of products intended for the export market, where price fluctuations are often extreme. The boards may raise average prices through manipulation of commodity flows, with the objective of maintaining reasonably high levels of demand at all times. Marketing boards such as the Washington State Apple Commission are used for products whose perishability requires that outlets be set up in advance. See also cartel.

Markham Vmar-komX City (pop., 1991: 154,000), southeastern Ontario. It is situated on the Rouge River, northeast of Toronto. Settled in 1794, the town was named for William Markham, archbishop of York. It annexed the nearby township of Markham in 1971.

Markham, Beryl orig. Beryl Clutterbuck (b. Oct. 26, 1902, Leicester, Leicestershire, Eng.—d. Aug. 3, 1986, Nairobi, Kenya) British pilot, adventurer, and writer. Raised in British East Africa, she became a horse trainer and breeder, training several Kenya Derby winners. Turning

to aviation, she carried goods, people, and mail to far comers of Africa, and in 1936 she made a historic east-to-west solo flight across the North Atlantic from England to Cape Breton Island. In 1942 she published her celebrated memoir, West with the Night.

Markham River River, eastern Papua New Guinea. It rises in north¬ eastern mountains and flows southeast for 110 mi (180 km) to enter the Huon Gulf of the Solomon Sea, south of Lae. It is named for Clements Markham of the Royal Geographical Society. During World War II its valleys were the scene of fighting in 1943 between Japan and the Allies. The area around the river suffered severe earthquakes in 1993.

Markova \mar-'ko-v3\, Dame Alicia orig. Lilian Alicia Marks

(b. Dec. 1, 1910, London, Eng.—d. Dec. 2, 2004, Bath) British ballerina. She made her debut with Sergey Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes in 1924 and became a leading ballerina noted for her ethereal lightness. At the Vic- Wells Ballet (1931-35; now the Royal Ballet) she became the first English dancer to dance the lead in Giselle. With her frequent partner Anton Dolin, she formed and directed several Markova-Dolin companies (1935-38) and the Festival Ballet (1950-52; now the English National Ballet). She con¬ tinued to dance as a guest artist with many companies worldwide, admired for her interpretations of roles in Les Sylphides and Swan Lake, among others. She retired from the stage in 1963 and served as director of the Metropolitan Opera Ballet (1963-69).

markup language Standard text-encoding system consisting of a set of symbols inserted in a text document to control its structure, formatting, or the relationship among its parts. The most widely used markup lan¬ guages are SGML, HTML, and XML. The markup symbols can be inter¬ preted by a device (computer, printer, browser, etc.) to control how a document should look when printed or displayed on a monitor. A marked-up document thus contains two types of text: text to be displayed and markup language on how to display it.

marl Earthy mixture of fine-grained minerals, which range widely in composition. Lime (calcium carbonate) is present as shell fragments of snails and bivalves, or as powder mixed with clay and silica-containing silt. Large deposits contain 80-90% calcium carbonate and less than 3% magnesium carbonate. With decreasing amounts of lime, calcium- containing marls are called clays and clayey limestones. Marls rich in potash (potassium carbonate), called greensand marls, are used as water softeners. Marls have also been used in the manufacture of insulating material and Portland cement, as liming material, and in making bricks.

\

Marlborough, John Churchill, 1st duke of (b. May 26, 1650,

Ashe, Devon, Eng.—d. June 16, _

1722, Windsor, near London) British military commander. He served with distinction at Maastricht (1673), was promoted rapidly, and advanced at court, in part because his wife (see Sarah Jennings, duchess of Marlbor¬ ough) was a confidant of Princess (later Queen) Anne. On the accession of James II in 1685, Churchill was made a lieutenant general and effec¬ tive commander in chief. In 1688 he transferred his allegiance to William III, who rewarded him with the earl¬ dom of Marlborough and a succes¬ sion of commands in Flanders and Ireland. His relationship with Will¬ iam deteriorated in the 1690s. Queen Anne appointed him commander of English and Dutch forces in the War of the Spanish Succession, and for his successes he was created duke of Marlborough (1702). His victory at the Battle of Blenheim (1704) helped change the balance of power in Europe. In gratitude, he was granted a royal manor, where Blenheim Pal¬ ace was built. His outstanding military tactics continued to produce vic¬ tories, notably at Ramillies (1706) and Oudenaarde (1708). His influence with Queen Anne and financial backing for the war were undermined by intrigue between Tories and Whigs. After his Whig allies lost the election of 1710, he was dismissed on charges of misuse of public money. He retired from public life, though he was restored to favour by George I in

John Churchill, 1 st duke of Marlbor¬ ough, painting attributed to John Clos- terman; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Marlborough ► Marquesas Islands I 1199

Considered one of England’s greatest generals, he secured a repu¬ tation in Europe that was unrivaled until the rise of Napoleon.

Marlborough, Sarah Jennings, duchess of (b. May 29, 1660, Sandridge, Hertfordshire, Eng.—d. Oct. 18, 1744, London) Wife of John Churchill, duke of Marlborough. A childhood friend of Princess (later Queen) Anne, she entered the household of Anne’s father, the duke of York. She married Churchill in 1678 and served as a lady of the bed¬ chamber after Anne’s marriage (1683). When Anne acceded to the throne (1694), the Marlboroughs enjoyed great favour at court. Sarah’s influence grew until her strong Whig sympathies alienated Anne, who dismissed her in 1711. The Marlboroughs retired to Blenheim Palace, which Sarah completed building after her husband’s death in 1722.

Marley, Bob orig. Robert Nesta Marley (b. Feb. 6, 1945, Nine Miles, St. Ann, Jam.—d. May 11, 1981, Miami, Fla., U.S.) Jamaican singer and songwriter. Born in the hill country of Jamaica to a white father and a black mother, Marley was living in the Kingston slum known as Trench Town in the early 1960s when he formed the Wailers with Peter Tosh and Bunny Livingston (Bunny Wailer). Mixing the Jamaican musi¬ cal forms of ska and rock steady with rock, they helped to pioneer reg¬ gae and became its first international stars with releases such as Catch a Fire (1973), Exodus (1977), and Uprising (1980). Marley’s political lyr¬ ics, grounded in his belief in the Jamaican religious movement Rastafari and calling for social and economic justice, made him a voice for the poor and dispossessed. His reputation grew after his death from cancer at age

marlin Any of four species (genus Makaira, family Istiophoridae) of deep-blue to blue-green marine fish with a long body, a long dorsal fin, a rounded spear extending from the snout (which it uses to club the fish it feeds on), and usually pale vertical stripes. They are highly prized for sport and food. Species range in weight from about 100 lbs (45 kg) to more than 1,500 lbs (700 kg). The Indo-Pacific black marlin (M. nigicans) has a distinctive, stiff pectoral fin set at an angle.

Marlowe, Christopher (baptized Feb. 26, 1564, Canterbury, Kent, Eng.—d. May 30, 1593, Deptford, near London) British poet and play¬ wright. The son of a Canterbury shoemaker, he earned a degree from Cambridge University. From 1587 he wrote plays for London theatres, starting with Tamburlaine the Great (published 1590), in which he estab¬ lished dramatic blank verse. Tamburlaine was followed by Dido, Queen of Carthage (published 1594), cowritten with Thomas Nashe; The Massacre at Paris (c. 1594); and Edward II (1594). His most famous play is The Tragicall History of Doctor Faustus (published 1604), which uses the dramatic framework of a morality play in its presentation of a story of temptation, fall, and damnation. The Jew of Malta (published 1633) may have been his final work. His poetry includes the unfinished long poem Hero and Leander. Known for leading a disreputable life, he died a vio¬ lent death at age 29 in a tavern brawl; he may have been assassinated because of his service as a government spy. His brilliant, though short, career makes him William Shakespeare’s most important contemporary in English drama.

Marmara Vmar-ma-roV Sea of Inland sea lying between the Asian and European parts of Turkey. It is connected with the Black Sea through the Bosporus, and with the Aegean Sea through the Dardanelles. It is 175 mi (280 km) long and nearly 50 mi (80 km) wide, and it occupies an area of 4,382 sq mi (11,350 sq km). The sea has two distinct island groups. The Kizil Islands in the northeast are primarily resort areas. The Marmara Islands in the southwest are rich in granite, slate, and marble, which have been quarried since antiquity.

marmoset Any species of arboreal, diurnal, long-tailed South Ameri¬ can monkey (family Callitrichidae) classified in two groups: eight species with short tusks (lower canine teeth), called marmosets, and 25 with long tusks, called tamarins. Marmosets move in a quick, jerky manner and eat insects and sometimes fruit and small animals. Members of the common marmoset genus Callithrix are 6-10 in. (15-25 cm) long, excluding the 10-16-in. (25-40-cm) tail. The dense, silky fur is white, reddish, or black¬ ish; the ears are generally tufted. Marmosets have been kept as pets since the early 17th century.

marmot Vmar-moA Any of about 14 species (genus Marmota) of stout¬ bodied, diurnal, terrestrial squirrels found in North America, Europe, and Asia. Marmots are 12-24 in. (30-60 cm) long, excluding the short tail, and weigh 7-17 lbs (3-7.5 kg). Most species live in burrows or among

boulders. They frequently sit upright and emit a whistling alarm call. Mar¬ mots live almost entirely on green plants, storing fat for hibernation.

The black-and-white hoary marmot (M. caligata ), of Siberia and north¬ western North America, which hiber¬ nates for up to nine months, is hunted for food and fur. The yellow-bellied marmot (M. flaviventris) inhabits the western U.S. and British Columbia.

See also woodchuck.

Marne, First Battle of the (Sept. 6-12, 1914) Military offensive by French and British troops in World War I. After the invading German forces had moved to within 30 mi (50 km) of Paris at the Marne River, Joseph-Jacques-Cesaire Joffre counterattacked and halted the German advance. French reinforcements were driven to the front by 600 Paris taxis, the first automotive transport of troops. French and British troops forced the Germans to retreat north of the Aisne River, where they dug in to conduct the trench warfare of the next three years. The Allied suc¬ cess thwarted Germany’s plan for a quick victory on the Western Front.

Marne, Second Battle of the (July 15-18, 1918) Last large Ger¬ man attack in World War I. As part of its final offensive to split the French forces, German troops under Erich Ludendorff crossed the Marne River but were met by strong French resistance under Ferdinand Foch. Allied counterattacks, especially at the Marne salient, forced the Germans to retreat to their former position along the Aisne and Vesle rivers.

Marne \'marn\ River River, northeastern France. It flows northwest into the Seine River near Paris. It is navigable for 220 mi (350 km) of its total length of 326 mi (525 km) and has extensive canals. Its valley was the scene of crucial battles in World War I (see First Battle of the Marne; Second Battle of the Marne).

Maroni \ma-'ro-ne\ River River forming the border between French Guiana and Suriname, South America. It rises in the Tumuc-Humuc Moun¬ tains near the Brazilian border and descends northward to enter the Atlan¬ tic Ocean at Point Galibi, Suri., after a course of 450 mi (725 km). Its upper course is known as the Litani in Suriname or Itany in French Gui¬ ana; its middle course is called the Lawa or Aoua. Shallow-draft vessels can navigate about 60 mi (100 km) upstream from the river’s mouth.

Maronite Church Vmar-o-.nltX Eastern-rite community centered in Lebanon (see Eastern Rite Church). It traces its origin to St. Maron, a Syr¬ ian hermit of the 4th-5th century ad, and St. John Maron, under whom the invading Byzantine forces were defeated in 684. For several centu¬ ries the Maronites were considered heretics, followers of Sergius, patri¬ arch of Constantinople, who taught that Jesus had only a divine will and not a human will. No permanent affiliation with Rome took place until the 16th century. A hardy mountain people, the Maronites preserved their freedom in Lebanon during the Muslim caliphate. In 1860 the Ottoman government incited a massacre of the Maronites by the Druze, an event that led to the establishment of Maronite autonomy within the Ottoman empire. The Maronites obtained self-rule under French protection in the early 20th century. Since the establishment of a fully independent Leba¬ non in 1943, they have constituted a major religious group in the coun¬ try. Their spiritual leader (after the pope) is the patriarch of Antioch, and the church retains the ancient West Syrian liturgy.

Marot \ma-'ro\, Clement (b. 1496?, Cahors, France—d. September 1544, Turin, Savoy) French poet. While imprisoned in 1526 for defying Lenten abstinence regulations, he wrote some of his best-known works, including “The Inferno,” an allegorical satire on justice. He held several court posts; his long service to Francis I was only briefly interrupted. One of the greatest poets of the French Renaissance, he markedly influenced the style of his successors with his use of the forms and imagery of Latin poetry. When not writing official court poems, he spent most of his time translating the Psalms.

Marquesas \mar-'ka-s3z\ Islands Island group (pop., 1996: 8,064), French Polynesia. Located in the central South Pacific Ocean northeast of Tahiti, the Marquesas comprise 10 islands. The southeastern group includes Hiva Oa, the largest and most populous island and the burial place of artist Paul Gauguin; Fatu Hiva and Tahuata; and the uninhabited Motane and Fatu Huku. The northwestern group comprises Nuku Hiva,

Olympic marmot (Marmota olympus).

E.R. DEGGINGER

L_

M

N

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1200 I marquess ► Mars

L_

N

Ua Pu, Ua Huka, Eiao, and Hatutu. The Spanish explorer Alvaro de Mendana de Neira named the islands for the marquesa de Mendoza in 1595. Annexed by France in 1842, the Marquesas form an administrative division of French Polynesia with headquarters at Taiohae on Nuku Hiva.

marquess Vmar-kw3s\ or marquis \mar-'ke\ European title of nobil¬ ity, ranking in modern times immediately below a duke and above a count or earl. The wife of a marquess is a marchioness or marquise. The term originally denoted a count holding a march, or mark (frontier district).

Marquess of Queensberry rules See Queensberry rules

marquetry \'mar-ko-tre\ Decorative work in which thin pieces of wood, metal, or organic material, such as shell or mother-of-pearl, are affixed in intricate patterns to the flat surfaces of furniture. Marquetry became popular in late 16th-century France and spread throughout Europe as the demand for luxurious home furnishings rose in the next two cen¬ turies. See also Andre-Charles Boulle.

Marquette \mar-'ket\, Jacques known as Pere Marquette (b.

June 1, 1637, Laon, France—d. May 18, 1675, Ludington, Mich.) French missionary and explorer. Ordained a Jesuit priest, he arrived in Quebec in 1666 to preach among the Ottawa. He helped found missions at Sault Ste. Marie in 1668 and St. Ignace in 1671 (both now in Michigan). In 1673 he accompanied Louis Jolliet on his exploration of the Mississippi River, traveling south to the mouth of the Arkansas River. They returned via the Illinois River to Green Bay on Lake Michigan, where Marquette remained. In 1674 he set out to found a mission among the Illinois Indi¬ ans, reaching the site of present-day Chicago. His journal of his voyage with Jolliet was published in 1681.

Marquez, Gabriel Garcia See Gabriel Garcia Marquez

Marr, Nikolay (Yakovlevich) (b. Jan. 6, 1865, Kutaisi, Georgia, Russian Empire—d. Dec. 20, 1934, Leningrad, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Russian linguist, archaeologist, and ethnographer. A specialist in Caucasian lan¬ guages, he published collections of literature in the Georgian and Arme¬ nian languages and tried to prove a relationship between the Caucasian and Afroasiatic languages and the Basque language. His theory that all languages evolved from one original language and that the creation of language was a class-related phenomenon was adopted as official Soviet linguistic doctrine until 1950, when Stalin denounced it.

Marrakech or Marrakesh Xmo-'ra-kish, ,mar-3-'kesh\ City (pop., 2004: 823,154), west-central Morocco. One of the four imperial cities, it lies in the centre of the Haouz plain. It was founded in the mid-11th cen¬ tury by Yusuf ibn Tashufm as the capital of the Almoravid dynasty. It fell to the Almohad dynasty in 1147, passed to the Marinid dynasty in 1269, and was the capital under the Sa'did dynasty in the 16th century. In the pre¬ modern era, it was one of Islam’s great cities. In 1912 it was captured by the French, who dominated the city until 1956. Now a popular tourist destination, it has many historical buildings and a well-known souk within its ancient city centre (designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1985).

Marrano \ma-'ra-no\ Spanish Jew who converted to Christianity to escape persecution but continued to practice Judaism secretly. During fierce persecutions in the late 14th century, many Jews died rather than renounce their faith, but at least 100,000 converted to Christianity in order to survive. In time the Marranos came to form a compact society within Spain, growing rich and gaining political power. They were viewed with suspicion, and the name Marrano was originally a term of abuse. Resent¬ ment against them led to riots and massacres in 1473. In 1480 the Inqui¬ sition intensified the persecution, and thousands of Marranos lost their lives. In 1492 a royal edict ordered the expulsion of all Jews who refused to renounce their faith. Many Marranos settled in North Africa and West¬ ern Europe. By the 18th century, emigration and assimilation had led to the disappearance of the Marranos in Spain.

marriage Legally and socially sanctioned union, usually between a man and a woman, that is regulated by laws, rules, customs, beliefs, and attitudes that prescribe the rights and duties of the partners and accords status to their offspring (if any). The universality of marriage is attributed to the many basic social and personal functions it performs, such as pro¬ creation, regulation of sexual behaviour, care of children and their edu¬ cation and socialization, regulation of lines of descent, division of labour between the sexes, economic production and consumption, and satisfac¬ tion of personal needs for social status, affection, and companionship. Until modern times marriage was rarely a matter of free choice, and it

was rarely motivated by romantic love. In most eras and most societies, permissible marriage partners have been carefully regulated. In societies in which the extended family remains the basic unit, marriages are usually arranged by the family. The assumption is that love between the partners comes after marriage, and much thought is given to the socioeconomic advantages accruing to the larger family from the match. Some form of dowry or bridewealth is almost universal in societies that use arranged marriages. The rituals and ceremonies surrounding marriage are associ¬ ated primarily with religion and fertility and validate the importance of marriage for the continuation of a family, clan, tribe, or society. In recent years the definition of marriage as a union between members of opposite sexes has been challenged, and in 2000 The Netherlands became the first country to legalize same-sex marriages. See also bridewealth; divorce; dowry; exogamy and endogamy; polygamy.

marriage chest See cassone

marriage law Body of legal specifications and requirements and other laws that regulate the initiation, continuation, and validity of marriages. In western Europe most marriage law derives from Roman Catholic canon law. Although the church regards marriage as a sacred, indissoluble union, modern western European and U.S. marriage law treats it as a civil trans¬ action. Marriage law allows only monogamous unions; partners must be above a certain age and not within prohibited degrees of blood relation¬ ship; and they must be free to marry and give consent to the marriage. Divorce is now almost universally allowed. Although Islamic law regards marriage as a contract between the two spouses for the “legalization of intercourse and the procreation of children,” it is also considered a gift from God or a kind of service to God; the Islamic practice of polygamy was always limited and has waned. Polygamous marriages are permitted under customary laws in many African countries, though there has been a growing trend toward monogamy. Marriage law in present-day China and Japan resembles that in the West. Although most jurisdictions restrict marriage to a union between a man and a woman, same-sex marriages have been legalized in The Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, and Canada. Civil unions or domestic partnerships between persons of the same sex, which entail many of the rights and obligations assumed by married couples, are recognized in numerous other jurisdictions, including several European countries and some U.S. states. Other U.S. jurisdictions, while not recognizing civil unions or domestic partnerships, grant a range of legal rights to same-sex couples.

Marriott Vmar-e-.atX, J(ohn) Willard (b. Sept. 17, 1900, Marriott, Utah, U.S.—d. Aug. 13, 1985, Wolfeboro, N.H.) U.S. businessman who founded one of the largest U.S. hotel and restaurant organizations. The son of a Mormon rancher, he opened a rootbeer and barbecue stand in Washington, D.C., in 1927. By the end of World War II his chain of Hot Shoppe family restaurants extended over the entire East Coast, and in 1957 he opened his first hotel. His son J. Willard Marriott, Jr., succeeded him as president of the Marriott Corp. in 1964. At the time of the elder Marriott’s death, the Marriott Corp. had 140,000 employees in 26 coun¬ tries and total annual sales of $3.5 billion. He was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1988.

Marryat \'mar-e-3t\, Frederick (b. July 10, 1792, London, Eng.—d. Aug. 9, 1848, Langham, Norfolk) English naval officer and novelist. He served in the Royal Navy from age 14 until he retired in 1830 as a cap¬ tain. He then began a series of adventure novels—including The King’s Own (1830), Peter Simple (1834), and Poor Jack (1840)—marked by a lucid, direct narrative style, humour, and incidents drawn from his varied experience at sea. His Children of the New Forest (1847), set during the English Civil Wars, is a classic of children’s literature.

Mars Ancient Roman god of war and protector of Rome, second only to Jupiter in importance. His festivals occurred in the spring (March) and fall (October). Until the time of Augustus, Mars had only two temples in Rome. His sacred spears were kept in a sanctuary; on the outbreak of war, the consul had to shake the spears, saying “Mars vigila!” (“Mars, awake!”) Under Augustus, Mars became not only the guardian of Rome in its mili¬ tary affairs but the emperor’s personal guardian. He was identified with the Greek god Ares.

Mars Fourth planet from the Sun, named after the Roman god of war. Its mean distance from the Sun is 141 million mi (227 million km). Its day is 24.6 Earth hours and its year about 687 Earth days. It has two small moons, Phobos and Deimos. Mars’s equatorial diameter is 4,220 mi (6,792 km), about half that of Earth, and it is less dense than Earth. Its

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Mars ► Marshall I 1201

mass is about one-tenth of Earth’s and its surface gravity about one-third as strong. No magnetic field has been detected on Mars, suggesting, as does its low density, the absence of a substantial metallic core. Like Earth, it has seasons and an atmosphere, but its average daytime surface tem¬ perature is only -10 °F (-20 °C). Mars’s thin atmosphere is mainly car¬ bon dioxide, with some nitrogen and argon and traces of water vapour. Spacecraft images show a cratered surface, with volcanoes, lava plains, flood channels, and canyons, many large by Earth standards; Olympus Mons, for example, is the largest known volcano in the solar system. Wind is an important element on Mars, sculpting features such as dunes and occasionally causing global dust storms. In the distant past Mars appears to have had a denser, warmer atmosphere and much more water than at present. Images from the Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft suggest that some liquid water may have flowed near the planet’s surface in relatively recent times. No life has been detected on the planet.

Mars, canals of Apparent systems of straight-line markings on the surface of Mars, now known to be an illusion caused by the chance align¬ ment of large craters and other surface features. Giovanni Virginio Schi¬ aparelli (1835-1910) observed about 100 of what he described as channels. Percival Lowell called them canals and believed them to be evi¬ dence of intelligent life. Most astronomers could not see them, and many doubted their reality. The controversy was finally resolved only when pic¬ tures from Mariner spacecraft showed nothing resembling a network of channels.

Mars Pathfinder First spacecraft to land on Mars since the Viking 1976 missions. Launched in 1996 by NASA, Pathfinder descended to the Mar¬ tian surface in July 1997 using parachutes, rockets, and air bags. It then deployed instruments, including Sojourner, a small, six-wheeled robotic rover, which explored as far as 1,600 ft (500 m) from the lander and sent pictures back for over a month. The mission’s main objective was to show that low-cost Mars landings and exploration are feasible.

Marsalis \mar-'sa-l9s\, Wynton (b. Oct. 18, 1961, New Orleans, La., U.S.) U.S. trumpeter and composer. Marsalis was a trumpet prodigy and was recognized as an important soloist in both the classical and jazz tra¬ ditions at an early age. He joined Art Blakey’s Jazz Messengers (1980- 82) before leading his own groups. As a composer he has written ballet and concert works, and he won the 1997 Pulitzer Prize for his oratorio Blood on the Fields. He also worked on Ken Burns’s Jazz miniseries and was a catalyst in the revival of broad interest in jazz.

Marseille or Marseilles \mar-'sa\ City (pop., 1999: city, 797,486; metro, area, 1,349,772), southeastern France. One of the Mediterranean’s major seaports and the second largest city in France, it is located on the Gulf of Lion, west of the French Riviera. It was settled by Greeks during the 7th century bc and was annexed by the Romans, who called it Massilia, in 49 bc. It declined along with the Roman Empire but revived as a commer¬ cial port during the Crusades era; it passed to the French crown in 1481. The plague of 1720 killed half of its population. In the 19th century the devel¬ opment of France’s colonial empire added to the city’s importance. Fol¬ lowing World War II, rapid industrial growth took place around the port complex at Fos-sur-Mer and in suburbs such as Marignane and Vitrolles.

marsh Freshwater or marine wetland ecosystem characterized by poorly drained mineral soils and by plant life dominated by grasses. Fewer plant species grow in marshes than on well-watered but not waterlogged land; grasses, sedges, and reeds or rushes are most common. Commercially, rice is by far the most important freshwater marsh plant: it supplies a major portion of the world’s grain. Salt marshes are formed on intertidal land by seawater flooding and draining, and salt-marsh grasses will not grow on permanently flooded flats. See also swamp.

Marsh, Dame (Edith) Ngaio (b. April 23, 1895, Christchurch, N.Z.—d. Feb. 18, 1982, Christchurch) New Zealand writer of detective stories. Originally an artist, she later acted in and produced Shakespear¬ ean repertory theatre (1938-64). She is known for her mystery stories featuring Inspector Roderick Alleyn of Scotland Yard. With novels such as Overture to Death (1939), Final Curtain (1947), Death of a Fool (1956), and Dead Water (1963), she helped make the detective story a respectable literary genre.

Marsh, O(thniel) C(harles) (b. Oct. 29, 1831, Lockport, N.Y., U.S.—d. March 18, 1899, New Haven, Conn.) U.S. paleontologist. He spent his entire career at Yale University (1866-99) as the first professor of vertebrate paleontology in the U.S. From 1870 he led scientific expe¬

ditions to the West; in 1871 his party discovered the first pterodactyl found in the U.S. In 1882 he was placed in charge of the U.S. Geological Sur¬ vey’s work in vertebrate paleontology, aggravating a fierce rivalry between him and Edward D. Cope. Credited with discovering more than 1,000 fossil vertebrates and describing at least 500 more, Marsh published major works on toothed birds, gigantic homed mammals, and North American dinosaurs. His books include Fossil Horses in America (1874) and Introduction and Succession of Vertebrate Life in America (1877).

Marsh, Reginald (b. March 14, 1898, Paris, France—d. July 3, 1954, Bennington, Vt., U.S.) U.S. painter and printmaker. Bom to American parents in Paris and educated at Yale University, from 1922 to 1925 he produced a daily column of drawings of vaudeville acts for the New York Daily News. In 1925 he became an original member of the staff of The New Yorker magazine, for which he drew humorous illustrations and met¬ ropolitan scenes. In 1929 he began painting scenes of city life, including Coney Island crowds and Bowery derelicts. He taught at the Art Students League from 1934 until his death.

marsh gas See methane

marsh mallow Perennial herbaceous plant ( Althaea officinalis ) of the mallow family, native to eastern Europe and northern Africa and natural¬ ized in North America. Found usually in marshy areas near the sea, the marsh mallow has strongly veined, heart-shaped or oval leaves and pink¬ ish flowers borne on stalks about 6 ft (1.8 m) tall. The root was formerly processed to make marshmallows.

marsh marigold Perennial herbaceous plant ( Caltha palustris) of the buttercup family, native to wetlands in Europe and North America. It is grown in boggy wild gardens. The plant has a hollow stem, heart-shaped or round leaves, and glossy pink, white, or yellow flowers composed solely of sepals (petals are absent). The stems, leaves, and roots are some¬ times cooked and eaten as a vegetable, though the fresh plant is poison¬ ous. See also cowslip.

Marshall, Alfred (b. July 26, 1842, London, Eng.—d. July 13, 1924, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire) British economist, one of the founders of English neoclassical economics. The first principal of University College, Bristol (1877-81), and a professor at the University of Cambridge (1885— 1908), he reexamined and extended the ideas of classical economists such as Adam Smith and David Ricardo. His best-known work. Principles of Economics (1890), introduced several influential economic concepts, including elasticity of demand, consumer's surplus, and the representative firm. His writings on the theory of value proposed time as a factor in analysis and reconciled the classical cost-of-production principle with the theory of marginal utility. See also classical economics.

Marshall, George C(atlett) (b. Dec. 31, 1880, Uniontown, Pa., U.S.—d. Oct. 16, 1959, Washington, D.C.) U.S. Army officer and states¬ man. After graduating from the Virginia Military Institute, he served in the Philippines (1902-03) and in World War I. He was later an aide to Gen. John Pershing (1919-24) and assistant commandant of the army’s infantry school (1927-33), where he taught many future commanders. As chief of staff of the U.S. Army (1939—45), he directed army operations throughout World War II. After his retirement in 1945, Pres. Harry Tru¬ man sent him to China to mediate the civil war there. As secretary of state (1947—49), Marshall proposed the European aid program known as the Marshall Plan and initiated discussions that led to the formation of NATO. He resigned because of ill health but was called back by Truman to become secretary of defense (1950-51) and to prepare the armed forces for the Korean War. In 1953 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace.

Marshall, John (b. Sept. 24, 1755, near Germantown, Va.—d. July 6, 1835, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.) U.S. patriot, politician, and jurist. In 1775 he joined a regiment of minutemen and served as a lieutenant under Gen. George Washington in the American Revolution. After his discharge (1781), he served in the Virginia legislature and on Virginia’s executive council (1782-95), gaining a reputation as a leading Federalist. He sup¬ ported ratification of the U.S. Constitution at the state’s ratifying conven¬ tion. He was one of three commissioners sent to France in 1797-98 (see XYZ Affair); he later served as secretary of state (1800-01) under Pres. John Adams. In 1801 Adams named Marshall chief justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, a post he held until his death. He participated in more than 1,000 decisions, writing 519 himself. During his tenure, the Supreme Court set forth the main structure of the government; its ground¬ breaking decisions included Marbury v. Madison, which established judi-

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cial review; McCulloch v. Maryland, which affirmed the constitutional doctrine of “implied powers”; the Dartmouth College case, which protected businesses and corporations from much government regulation; and Gib¬ bons v. Ogden, which established that states cannot interfere with Con¬ gress’s right to regulate commerce. Marshall is remembered as the principal founder of the U.S. system of constitutional law.

Marshall, Paule orig. Paule Burke (b. April 9, 1929, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. writer. She was born to Barbadian parents and attended Brooklyn College. Her autobiographical first novel, Brown Girl, Brown- stones (1959), was acclaimed for its acute rendition of dialogue. Her short story “Reena” (1962) was one of the first pieces of fiction to feature a college-educated, politically active black woman as its protagonist. Her most eloquent statement of her belief in black Americans’ need to redis¬ cover their African heritage is the novel Praisesongfor the Widow (1983). The Fisher King (2000) is a story of love and family conflict.

Marshall, Thomas R(iley) (b. March 14, 1854, North Manchester, Ind., U.S.—d. June 1, 1925, Washington, D.C.) U.S. politician. As gov¬ ernor of Indiana (1909-13) he sponsored a broad program of social leg¬ islation. In 1912 he was elected vice president on a ticket with Woodrow Wilson. He became the first vice president in nearly 100 years to serve two terms (1913-21). When Wilson suffered a stroke that partially para¬ lyzed him in 1919, Marshall refused to assume the powers of the presi¬ dency without a congressional resolution and written requests from first lady Edith Wilson and the president’s doctor. A popular public official, he was heard to remark during a tedious debate, “What this country needs is a really good five-cent cigar.”

Marshall, Thurgood (b. July 2, 1908, Baltimore, Md., U.S.—d. Jan. 24, 1993, Bethesda, Md.) U.S. jurist and civil-rights advocate. He received his law degree from Howard University in 1933. From 1936 he worked for the NAACP, becoming its chief counsel in 1940. He won 29 of the 32 cases he argued before the Supreme Court of the United States, includ¬ ing the landmark Brown v. Board of Education (1954) and others that established equal protection for African Americans in housing, voting, employment, and education. He served as U.S. solicitor general (1965— 67) before being appointed in 1967 to the Supreme Court by Pres. Lyn¬ don B. Johnson, becoming the first African American Supreme Court justice. Marshall was a steadfast liberal during his tenure on the Court, and he maintained his previous views concerning the need for equitable and just treatment of the nation’s minorities by the state and federal gov¬ ernments. He retired in 1991.

Marshall Islands officially Republic of the Marshall Islands

Island country, central Pacific Ocean. It is composed of two parallel chains of low-lying coral atolls: the Ratak, or Sunrise, to the east and the Ralik, or Sunset, to the west. The chains lie 125 mi (200 km) apart and extend some 800 mi (1,290 km) northwest to southeast. The islands and islets number more than 1,200. Area: 70 sq mi (181 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 56,300. Capital: Majuro. The indigenous people are Micronesian. Lan¬ guages: Marshallese, English (both official). Religion: Christianity (Prot¬ estant, Roman Catholic, other Christians). Currency: U.S. dollar. The largest atoll is Kwajalein, consisting of about 90 islets, with a total land area of 6 sq mi (16 sq km). Much of Kwajalein is used as a missile-testing range by the U.S. military, which provides a major source of revenue to the Mar¬ shall Islands. Subsistence farming, fishing, and the raising of pigs and poul¬ try are the principal economic activities. The Marshall Islands is a republic with two legislative houses; its head of state and government is thejjresi- dent. The islands were sighted in 1529 by the Spanish navigator Alvaro Saavedra (or de Saavedra). Germany purchased the islands from Spain in 1885 and declared them a protectorate the following year. Japan seized them in 1914 and after 1919 administered them as a League of Nations mandate. During World War II the U.S. seized Kwajalein and Enewetak, and the Marshall Islands were made part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands under U.S. jurisdiction in 1947. Bikini and Enewetak atolls served as testing grounds for U.S. nuclear weapons from 1946 to 1958. The Marshall Islands became an internally self-governing republic in 1979. It signed the compact of free association with the U.S. in 1982 and became fully self-governing in 1986. The compact was amended in 2004.

Marshall Plan (1948-51) U.S.-sponsored program to provide eco¬ nomic aid to European countries after World War II. The idea of a Euro¬ pean self-help plan financed by the U.S. was proposed by George Marshall in 1947 and was authorized by Congress as the European Recovery Pro¬ gram. It provided almost $13 billion in grants and loans to 17 countries

and was a key factor in reviving their economies and stabilizing their political structures. The plan’s concept was extended to less-developed countries under the Point Four Program.

Marshfield Bay See Coos Bay Marsic War See Social War

Marsilius of Padua (b. c. 1280, Padua, Kingdom of Italy—d. c. 1343, Munich) Italian political philosopher. He was consultant to the Ghibellines until condemned as a heretic (1327) after writing Defensor pads (1320- 24) and fleeing to the court of Louis IV of Bavaria. He helped declare Pope John XXII a heretic, install Nicholas V as antipope, and crown Louis emperor (1328). In his secular concept of the state, the power of the church is limited, and political power lies with the people, a theory that influ¬ enced the modern idea of the state.

Marston, John (b. Oct. 7, 1576, Oxfordshire, Eng.—d. June 25, 1634, London) English dramatist. He began his literary career as a poet in 1598 but soon turned to writing for the theatre. One of the most vigorous sati¬ rists of his era, he wrote all his plays before taking holy orders in 1609. His best-known work is the tragicomedy The Malcontent (1604), which rails at the iniquities of a lascivious court. Also notable is The Dutch Courtezan (produced 1603-04), one of the cleverest comedies of its time. Though he satirized and feuded with Ben Jonson, the two collaborated on Eastward Hoe (1605; with George Chapman) and Love’s Martyr (1607).

Marston Moor, Battle of (July 2, 1644) First major Royalist defeat in the English Civil Wars. Royalist forces under Prince Rupert relieved the siege of York and pursued the Parliamentary forces to nearby Long Mar¬ ston. A surprise counterattack by Parliamentary forces under Oliver Crom¬ well caused heavy losses to Royalist troops. With the fall of York, Charles I lost control of the north, and Cromwell emerged as the leading Parlia¬ mentary general.

marsupial \mar-'su-pe-3l\ Any mammal of the infraclass Marsupialia, characterized by premature birth and continued development outside the womb. The young remain attached to the mother’s teats for a period cor¬ responding to the late stages of fetal development of a placental mammal.

More than 170 species (e.g., bandi¬ coots, kangaroos, koalas, wombats) are found in Australia, New Guinea, and nearby islands. About 65 species of opossum occur in the Americas and seven species of ratlike marsupials in South America. Many species have a pouch (marsupium), a fold of skin covering the nipples on the mother’s lower belly, where the young con¬ tinue their development.

Marsyas \mar-'se-9s\ Painter (fl. c. 350-325 bc, Greece) Greek painter of the late Classical period, known for two containers, both dated 340-330 bc. Both are painted in the so-called Kerch style, named for the area north of the Black Sea where many such vessels were excavated.

Characterized by slender, mannered forms, elaborate decoration, and polychrome effects, the Kerch style is thought to be the last major style of Attic RED-FIGURE POTTERY.

marten Any of several forest¬ dwelling carnivore species (genus Martes, family Mustelidae). Species differ in size and colour, but they resemble weasels in general propor¬ tions, and their fur is valuable. Their total length is 20-40 in. (50-100 cm), and they may weigh 2-5 lb (1-2.5 kg) or more. Martens hunt

"Peleus Taming Thetis," pelike by the Marsyas Painter, c. 340-330 bc; in the British Museum

COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM

Stone marten (Martes foina)

REINHARD/REISER—BAVARIA-VERLAG

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Martha's Vineyard ► Martineau I 1203

alone, feeding on animals, fruit, and carrion. The fur of the American marten (M. americana) of northern North America is sometimes sold as sable. Other species include the pine, baum, or sweet marten (M. martes ) of Europe and Central Asia and the yellow-throated marten, or honey dog (M flavigula), named for its preference for sweet foods, of southern Asia. See also fisher; polecat.

Martha's Vineyard Island, Atlantic Ocean, off the southeastern coast of Massachusetts, U.S. Situated across Vineyard Sound from Cape Cod, it is nearly 20 mi (32 km) long and 2-10 mi (3-16 km) wide. It was first described in 1602 by Bartholomew Gosnold and was named for its wild grapevines. Purchased by Thomas Mayhew in 1641, it was considered part of New York before being ceded to Massachusetts in 1692. It was once a centre of the whaling and fishing industries; it is now a popular summer resort.

Marti \mar-'te\ (y Perez), Jose Julian (b. Jan. 28, 1853, Havana, Cuba—d. May 19, 1895, Dos Rios) Cuban poet, essayist, and patriot. Involved in an 1868 revolutionary uprising, Marti was deported to Spain, where he received a law degree and continued his political activities and writing. He later lived in various countries, spending most of 1881-95 in New York City. He organized and unified the movement for Cuban inde¬ pendence and died in battle. As a writer, he is noted for his personal prose and deceptively simple verse on themes of a free and united America. His essays, such as those in Our America (1881), are often considered his great¬ est contribution to Latin American letters. He is the national hero of Cuba.

Martial Vmar-shoR Latin Marcus Valerius Martialis (b. c. ad

38/41, Bilbilis, Hispania—d. c. 103) Roman poet. Born in a Roman colony in what is now Spain, Martial went to Rome as a young man. There he associated with such figures as Seneca, Lucan, and Juvenal and enjoyed the patronage of the emperors Titus and Domitian. His early poetry, some marred by gross adulation of Titus, was undistinguished. He is renowned for his 12 books of epigrams (86-1027), a form he virtually created. Pointed and often obscene, they provide a picture of Roman society during the early empire that is remarkable both for its completeness and for its accu¬ rate portrayal of human foibles.

martial art Any of several arts of combat and self-defense that are widely practiced as sport. There are armed and unarmed varieties, most based on traditional fighting methods used in East Asia. In modem times, derivatives of armed martial arts include kendo (fencing with wooden swords) and kyudo (archery). Unarmed varieties include aikido, judo, karate, kung fu, and tae kwon do. Because of the influence of Taoism and Zen Buddhism, there is a strong emphasis in all the martial arts on the practitioner’s mental and spiritual state. A hierarchy of expertise, ranging from the novice (“white belt”) to the master (“black belt”), is usually rec¬ ognized. See also Y ai chi ch'uan; jujitsu.

martial law Temporary rule of a designated area by military authori¬ ties in time of emergency when the civil authorities are deemed unable to function. Under martial law, civil rights are usually suspended, and the activities of civil courts are restricted or supplanted entirely by military tribunals. Such “acts done by necessity” are limited only by international law and the conventions of civilized warfare. Though temporary in theory, a state of martial law may in fact continue indefinitely. See also human rights; war crimes.

Martin V orig. Oddo Colonna (b. 1368, Genazzano, Papal States—d. Feb. 20, 1431, Rome) Pope (1417—31). His election at the Council of Constance marked the end of the Western Schism. He con¬ demned conciliar theory (see Conciliar movement) and any appeals of papal judgment on matters of faith. Martin rejected French efforts to persuade him to live at Avignon (see Avignon papacy). Instead he returned to Rome (1420), where he helped to rebuild the ruined city. He also tried to recover control of the Papal States. He mediated in the Hundred Years' War and organized crusades against the Hussites, and he asserted the rights of the church against the crown.

martin Any of several species of songbirds in the family Hirundinidae. In the U.S., the name refers to the purple martin (Progne subis ), at 8 in. (20 cm) long, the largest U.S. swallow. The sand martin, or bank swal¬ low (Riparia riparia ), a 5-in. (12-cm) brown-and-white bird, breeds throughout the Northern Hemisphere, nesting in sandbank burrows. The house martin (Delichon urbica ), blue-black above and white-rumped, is common in Europe. The African river martin (Pseudochelidon eurystom- ina) of the Congo is black, with red eyes and bill.

Martin, Agnes (b. March 22, 1912, Macklin, Sask., Can.—d. Dec. 16, 2004, Taos, N.M., U.S.) Canadian-born U.S. painter. She moved to the U.S. in 1931 and became a U.S. citizen in 1950. She studied at Colum¬ bia University and taught at the University of New Mexico. In 1958 she had her first solo exhibition. Martin was a prominent exponent of geo¬ metric abstraction, and, for her, a gray grid of intersecting penciled lines became the ultimate geometric composition. Her gridlike abstractions were also noted for their light-soaked appearance and quiet effect. In the 1970s she produced printed equivalents of her paintings; a notable series of silkscreens, On a Clear Day (1973), was produced after her math¬ ematically annotated sketches. Martin was one of the leading practitio¬ ners of Abstract Expressionism in the 20th century.

Martin, Mary (Virginia) (b. Dec. 1, 1913, Weatherford, Texas, U.S.—d. Nov. 3, 1990, Rancho Mirage, Calif.) U.S. singer and actress. She co-owned a dancing school in her native Weatherford, Texas, before moving in 1938 to New York City, where she won a small part in the musical Leave It to Me and became famous for her rendition of “My Heart Belongs to Daddy.” She appeared in movies before returning to Broad¬ way to star in One Touch of Venus (1943). Martin originated the role of Nellie Forbush in South Pacific (1949-53) and later starred in Peter Pan (1954, Tony Award; television version, 1955), The Sound of Music (1959, Tony Award), and I Do, I Do (1966).

Martin, Paul in full Paul Joseph Martin, Jr. (b. Aug. 28, 1938, Windsor, Ont., Can.) Canadian prime minister (2003-06). The son of Paul Joseph Martin, who served as a minister in four Liberal governments, the younger Martin studied law at the University of Toronto and was called to the bar in 1966. Instead of practicing law, however, he joined Canada Steamship Lines, a freight carrier he purchased in 1981. From 1993 to

2002 Martin, a member of the Liberal Party, served as minister of finance in Prime Minister Jean Chretien’s government. Highly successful in the post, Martin eliminated a large budget deficit, achieved five consecutive budget surpluses, and secured the largest tax cut in Canadian history. In

2003 Martin succeeded Chretien as leader of the Liberal Party and as prime minister. He was elected prime minister in his own right in 2004 but was ousted from office following his party’s defeat in the 2006 Cana¬ dian general election.

Martin, Steve (b. Aug. 14, 1945, Waco, Texas, U.S.) U.S. comedian and writer. He began writing for the Smothers Brothers in 1967. In the 1970s he wrote for and performed on shows such as Saturday Night Live. His slapstick and absurdist humour were showcased in The Jerk (1979), which he both wrote and starred in. His other film comedies include All of Me (1984), Roxanne (1987), Little Shop of Horrors (1986), Dirty Rot¬ ten Scoundrels (1988), Parenthood (1989), L.A. Story (1991), Bowfinger (1999), and Bringing Down the House (2003). He wrote the stage play Picasso at the Lapin Agile (1995).

Martin du Gard \mar-ta ll -dil- , gar\, Roger (b. March 23, 1881, Neuilly-sur-Seine, France—d. Aug. 22, 1958, Belleme) French novelist and dramatist. Originally trained as a paleographer and archivist, he brought to his literary works a spirit of objectivity and a scrupulous regard for detail. He first attracted attention with the novel Jean Barois (1913), the story of an intellectual tom between the Roman Catholic faith of his childhood and the scientific materialism of his maturity. He is best known for the eight-novel cycle Les Thibault (1922^10), the record of a fami¬ ly’s development that chronicles the social and moral issues facing the French bourgeoisie in the pre-World War I era. He received the 1937 Nobel Prize for Literature.

Martin of Tours Vtur\, Saint (b. c. 316, Sabaria, Pannonia—d. Nov. 8, 397, Candes, Gaul; Western feast day, November 11; Eastern feast day November 12) Patron saint of France. Born a pagan, he converted to Christianity at age 10. He was forced to join the Roman army but asked to be released because service was incompatible with his Christianity. After imprisonment he settled in Poitiers and then became a missionary on the Balkan Peninsula. He returned to Poitiers in 360 and founded the first monastery in Gaul. In 371 he was made bishop of Tours. A second monastery he founded, at Mormoutier, became a great monastic complex. St. Martin was known as a miracle worker in his own lifetime and was one of the first venerated saints who was not a martyr.

Martineau \'mar-ti-,no\, Harriet (b. June 12, 1802, Norwich, Nor¬ folk, Eng.—d. June 27, 1876, near Ambleside, Westmorland) English essayist, novelist, and economic and historical writer. She became promi¬ nent among English intellectuals of her time despite deafness and other

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disabilities. She first gained a large reading public with a series popular¬ izing classical economics, published in several collections (1832-34). Her chief historical work was The History of the Thirty Years' Peace, A.D. 1816-1846 (1849), a widely read popular treatment. Her most scholarly work is a condensed translation of The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte (1853). Her best-regarded novel is Deerbrook (1839).

Martinez Montanes, Juan See Juan Martinez Montanes

Martini, Simone (b. c. 1284, Siena, Republic of Siena—d. 1344, Avi¬ gnon, Provence) Italian painter. An exponent of Gothic art, he did much to spread the influence of Sienese painting. Duccio di Buoninsegna influ¬ enced his use of harmonious, pure colour, but his graceful, decorative lines were inspired by French Gothic art, as seen in his Maesta fresco (1315), which depicts the Madonna as a Gothic queen holding court beneath a Gothic canopy. His equestrian portrait of Guidoriccio da Fogliano (1328) was an important precedent for Renaissance equestrian portraits.

Martinique \ l mar-t9-'nek\ Island (pop., 2002 est.: 386,000) of the Wind¬ ward Islands, West Indies, and overseas department of France. It is 50 mi (80 km) long and 22 mi (35 km) wide and occupies an area of 436 sq mi (1,128 sq km). Largely mountainous, its highest point, Mount Pelee, is an active volcano. Its capital is Fort-de-France. Tourism is the basis of its economy. Carib Indians, who had ousted earlier Arawak inhabitants, resided on the island when Christopher Columbus visited it in 1502. In 1635 a Frenchman established a colony there, and in 1674 it passed to the French crown. The British captured and held the island from 1762 to 1763 and occupied it again during the Napoleonic Wars, but each time it was returned to France. Made a department of France in 1946, it remained under French rule despite a communist-led independence movement in the 1970s.

Martins, Peter (b. Oct. 27, 1946, Copenhagen, Den.) Danish-born U.S. dancer, choreographer, and director of the New York City Ballet. He trained at the Royal Danish Ballet School and became a member of its company in 1965. He joined the New York City Ballet in 1969 as a principal dancer and created roles in ballets such as Jerome Robbins’s Goldberg Variations (1971) and George Balanchine’s Duo Concertante (1972). He began cho¬ reographing for the company in 1977 with Calcium Light Night. After Balanchine’s death in 1983, Martins became codirector (until 1990) and then sole director of the company.

Martinson, Harry (Edmund) (b. May 6, 1904, Jamshog, Swed.—d. Feb. 11, 1978, Stockholm) Swedish novelist and poet. He spent his child¬ hood in foster homes and his young adulthood as a merchant seaman, labourer, and vagrant. He described his early experiences in two autobio¬ graphical novels. Flowering Nettle (1935) and The Way Out (1936), and in travel sketches. Among his best-known works are the poetry collection Trade Wind (1945), the novel The Road (1948), and the epic poem Ani- ara (1956). In 1949 he became the first self-taught working-class writer ever elected to the Swedish Academy. He shared the 1974 Nobel Prize for Literature with Eyvind Johnson.

Martinu \mar-'te-nu\, Bohuslav (Jan) (b. Dec. 8, 1890, Policka, Bohemia—d. Aug. 28, 1959, Liestal, Switz.) Czech (Bohemian) com¬ poser. He started composing at age 10 but was expelled from the conser¬ vatory for neglecting his studies. His early pieces combined the influences of Czech folk music and French composer Claude Debussy’s music. In Paris (1923^40) he gained a reputation for his colourful ballet scores and experimented with Neoclassicism, jazz, and ragtime. He composed many works, including six symphonies, operas (including Julietta, 1938), and large choral works (including The Epic of Gilgamesh, 1955), but he did little to promote his music.

Martov Vmar-.tofX, L. orig. Yuly Osipovich Tsederbaum (b. Nov. 24, 1873, Constantinople, Ottoman Empire—d. April 4, 1923, Berlin, Ger.) Russian revolutionary. He first lived in Vilna, where he belonged to the Bund, a Jewish socialist group. In 1895 he and Vladimir Ilich Lenin formed the St. Petersburg Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class. After his arrest and exile to Siberia (1896-99), he joined Lenin in Switzerland as an editor of Iskra. From 1903 Martov supported the Menshevik faction of the Russian Social-Democratic Workers' Party and became its leader (1905-07). After the Russian Revolution of 1917, he supported the Bolshevik government in the Russian Civil War but later opposed many of its dictatorial measures. He left Russia in 1920 and edited the Socialist Courier in Berlin.

martyr Person who voluntarily suffers death rather than deny his or her religion. Readiness for martyrdom was a collective ideal in ancient Juda¬

ism, notably in the era of the Maccabees, and its importance has contin¬ ued into modern times. Roman Catholicism sees the suffering of martyrs as a test of their faith. Many saints of the early church underwent mar¬ tyrdom during the persecutions of the Roman emperors. Martyrs need not perform miracles to be canonized. In Islam, martyrs are thought to com¬ prise two groups of the faithful: those killed in jihad and those killed unjustly. In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is regarded as a martyr because he voluntarily postpones enlightenment to alleviate the suffering of others.

Marvell Vmar-volV Andrew (b. March 31, 1621, Winestead, York¬ shire, Eng.—d. Aug. 18, 1678, London) English poet and politician. He was employed as a tutor, including to Oliver Cromwell’s ward, before becoming an assistant to John Milton in the foreign office in 1657. From 1659 he held a seat in Parliament. His reputation as one of the finest secu¬ lar Metaphysical poets (see Metaphysical poetry) is based on a small body of brilliant lyric verse, notably “To His Coy Mistress” (1681) and “The Garden.” Among his other works are classical odes, such as “An Hora- tian Ode upon Cromwell’s Return from Ireland” (1650); political verse satires opposing the government after the Restoration, such as Last Instructions to a Painter (1667); and prose satires.

Marx, Karl (Heinrich) (b. May 5, 1818, Trier, Rhine province, Prus¬ sia [Ger.]—d. March 14, 1883, London, Eng.) German political philoso¬ pher, economic theorist, and revolutionary. He studied humanities at the University of Bonn (1835) and law and philosophy at the University of Berlin (1836—41), where he was exposed to the works of G.W.F. Hegel. Working as a writer in Cologne and Paris (1842^15), he became active in leftist politics. In Paris he met Friedrich Engels, who would become his lifelong collaborator. Expelled from France in 1845, he moved to Brus¬ sels, where his political orientation matured and he and Engels made names for themselves through their writings. Marx was invited to join a secret left-wing group in London, for which he and Engels wrote the Communist Manifesto (1848). In that same year, Marx organized the first Rhineland Democratic Congress in Germany and opposed the king of Prussia when he dissolved the Prussian Assembly. Exiled, he moved to London in 1849, where he spent the rest of his life. He worked part-time as a European correspondent for the New York Tribune (1851-62) while writing his major critique of capitalism, Das Kapital (3 vol., 1867-94). He was a leading figure in the First International from 1864 until the defec¬ tion of Mikhail Bakunin in 1872. See also Marxism; communism; dialectical

MATERIALISM.

Marx Brothers U.S. comedy team. The original five brothers were Chico (orig. Leonard) (1886-1961), Harpo (orig. Adolph Arthur) (1888— 1964), Groucho (orig. Julius Henry) (1890-1977), Gummo (orig. Milton) (1893-1977), and Zeppo (orig. Herbert) (1901-79). They formed a vaude¬ ville act with their mother, Minnie, called “The Six Musical Mascots” (1904-18). Gummo left the act early on, and the brothers later became “The Four Marx Brothers.” They won fame with their first Broadway play.

Groucho, Harpo, and Chico Marx

THE BETTMANN ARCHIVE

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Marxism ► Masaccio I 1205

I’ll Say She Is (1924), which was followed by The Cocoanuts (1925; film, 1929) and Animal Crackers (1926; film, 1930). They later starred in Mon¬ key Business (1931), Horse Feathers (1932), Duck Soup (1933), A Night at the Opera (1935), and Room Service (1938), among other films, devel¬ oping a skillful blend of visual and verbal humour, with Groucho sup¬ plying wisecracks and a running commentary as counterpoint to the frantic, anarchic activities of the silent Harpo and the Italian-accented Chico. Zeppo left the act in 1934, and the act disbanded in 1949. Grou¬ cho later hosted the television quiz program You Bet Your Life (1950-61).

Marxism Ideology and socioeconomic theory developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. The fundamental ideology of communism, it holds that all people are entitled to enjoy the fruits of their labour but are prevented from doing so in a capitalist economic system, which divides society into two classes: nonowning workers and non working owners. Marx called the resulting situation “alienation,” and he said that when the workers repossessed the fruits of their labour, alienation would be overcome and class divisions would cease. The Marxist theory of history posits class struggle as history’s driving force, and it sees capitalism as the most recent and most critical historical stage—most critical because at this stage the proletariat will at last arise united. The failure of the European Revolutions of 1 848 and an increasing need to elaborate on Marxist theory, whose orientation is more analytical than practical, led to adaptations such as Leninism and Maoism; in the late 20th century the collapse of the Soviet Union and China’s adoption of many elements of a free-market economy seemed to mark the end of Marxism as an applicable economic or gov¬ ernmental theory, though it retains interest as a critique of market capi¬ talism and a theory of historical change. See also Communist RAanifesto\ DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM; SOCIALISM; STAUNISM; TROTSKYISM.

Mary or St. Mary or Virgin Mary (fl. beginning of the Christian Era) Mother of Jesus. According to the Gospels, she was betrothed to St. Joseph when the archangel Gabriel appeared to her to announce the com¬ ing birth of Jesus. Other incidents in the Gospels in which she appears include the visit to Elizabeth, mother of John the Baptist; the birth of Jesus and his presentation in the Temple; the coming of the Magi and the flight to Egypt; the marriage at Cana in Galilee; the attempt to see Jesus while he was teaching; and watching at the cross. Eastern Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, and most Protestant denominations hold Jesus to have been divinely conceived and Mary to have remained a virgin. The Roman Catholic church also holds to the doctrine of her Immaculate Conception and her bodily assumption into heaven. Catholics pray to Mary as an intercessor. See also Mariology.

Mary See Merv

Mary I or Mary Tudor (b. Feb. 18, 1516, Greenwich, near London, Eng.—d. Nov. 17, 1558, London) Queen of England (1553-58). The daughter of King Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, she was declared illegitimate after Henry’s divorce and new marriage to Anne Boleyn (1533). In 1544 Mary was restored to court and granted succession to the throne. After becoming queen (1553), she married Philip II of Spain, restored Roman Catholicism, and revived the laws against heresy. The resulting persecution of Protestant rebels and the execution of some 300 heretics earned her the hatred of her subjects and the nickname “Bloody Mary.” She waged an unsuccessful war against France that in 1558 resulted in the loss of Calais, England’s last foothold on the Continent.

Mary II (b. April 30, 1662, London, Eng.—d. Dec. 28, 1694, London) Queen of England (1689-94). The daughter of King James II, a Catholic convert, she was reared as a Protestant and in 1677 married to her cousin, William of Orange. They lived in Holland until English nobles opposed to James’s pro-Catholic policies invited William and Mary to assume the English throne. After William landed with a Dutch force (1688), James fled, and Mary and William (as King William III) became corulers of England (1689). Mary enjoyed great popularity, and her Dutch tastes had an influence on English pottery, landscape gardening, and interior design. She died of smallpox at age 32.

Mary, Queen of Scots orig. Mary Stuart (b. Dec. 8, 1542, Lin¬ lithgow Palace, West Lothian, Scot.—d. Feb. 8, 1587, Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire, Eng.) Queen of Scotland (1542-67). She became queen when her father, James V (1512-42), died six days after her birth. She was sent by her mother, Mary of Guise, to be raised at the court of the French king Henry II and was married in 1558 to his son Fran¬ cis II. After Francis’s brief rule as king (1559-60) ended with his prema¬ ture death, Mary returned to Scotland (1561), where she was distrusted

because of her Catholic upbringing. In 1565 the red-haired queen married her ambitious cousin Henry Stewart, Lord Darnley, and became a victim of intrigues among the Scottish nobles. Darnley conspired with them to murder her confidant David Riccio. After the birth of her son James (later James I of England) in 1566, Mary was estranged from Darnley, who was murdered in 1567. Ignoring objections by the jealous Scottish nobility, she married James Hepburn, earl of Bothwell (15357-78), a suspect in Darnley’s murder. The rebellious nobles deserted her army at Carberry Hill and forced her to abdicate in favour of her son (1567). After failed attempts to win back the throne, she sought refuge in England with her cousin Elizabeth I, who arranged to keep her in captivity. Several uprisings by English Catholics in Mary’s favour convinced Elizabeth to have Mary tried and condemned; she was beheaded at Fotheringhay Castle in 1587.

Mary Magdalene, Saint (fl. 1st century, Palestine; feast day July 22) Follower of Jesus and the first person to see the resurrected Christ. According to Luke 8:2 and Mark 16:9, Jesus cleansed her of seven demons. She accompanied him in Galilee, and she witnessed his Cruci¬ fixion and burial. On Easter morning she went with two other women to anoint the corpse, but the tomb was empty. Christ later appeared to her and instructed her to tell the Apostles that he was ascending to God. Popu¬ lar tradition has long associated her with the repentant prostitute who anointed Christ’s feet.

Maryinsky Theatre See Mariinsky Theatre

Maryland State (pop., 2000: 5,296,486), eastern U.S. A Middle Atlan¬ tic state, it is deeply indented by Chesapeake Bay and is bordered by Penn¬ sylvania, Delaware, Virginia, the District of Columbia, and West Virginia. It covers 10,460 sq mi (27,091 sq km); its capital is Annapolis. The state’s main geographic regions are the coastal plain along Chesapeake Bay, the rich farming country of the Piedmont plateau, and the Appalachian Moun¬ tains. First occupied by late Ice Age hunters c. 10,000 bc, the area was later inhabited by the Nanticoke and Piscataway tribes. Capt. John Smith charted the Chesapeake Bay region in 1608. Maryland was included in a charter given by the British king to Cecil Calvert, Lord Baltimore. Leonard Calvert, his brother, founded the first settlement in 1634 at St. Marys City. Maryland became the first American colony to establish reli¬ gious freedom. Its boundary dispute with Pennsylvania was settled in the 1760s with the drawing of the Mason-Dixon Line. In 1788 Maryland became the seventh state to ratify the U.S. Constitution. The state ceded the District of Columbia as the site for a new federal capital in 1791. It was involved in the War of 1812 (see Fort McHenry). The U.S. Naval Acad¬ emy was founded at Annapolis in 1845. Maryland remained in the Union during the American Civil War, but strong Southern sentiments resulted in the imposition of martial law. After the war, it prospered as an important entrepot for consumer goods to the South and Midwest. During the 20th century its proximity to the national capital spurred population growth. Its economy is based primarily on government services and manufactur¬ ing.

Masaccio \m3- , za-che-,o\ orig. Tommaso di Giovanni di Simone Guidi (b. Dec. 21, 1401, Castel San Giovanni, Duchy of Milan—d. autumn 1428, Rome, Papal States) Italian painter. Little is known about him until 1422, when he entered the artists’ guild in Flo¬ rence. Giotto probably influenced his massive figures and spare compo¬ sition, but the gestural and emotional expression in his rendering of the human body are closer in spirit to Donatello. In his most famous work, the frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel of Florence’s Santa Maria del Car-

The Tribute Money, fresco by Masaccio, 1425; in the Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence.

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1206 I Masada ► Maslow

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mine (c. 1425-28), painted in conjunction with his sometime partner, Masolino, his figures are constructed with strongly differentiated areas of light and dark that give them a three-dimensional effect. His Trinity fresco (c. 1427-28) in Florence’s Santa Maria Novella is the first extant example of the systematic use of one-point perspective in a painting. He went to Rome in 1428 and died there so suddenly that some people suspected he had been poisoned. The rationality, realism, and humanity of the art he created in his brief six years of work inspired the major Florentine Renais¬ sance painters of the mid-15th century and ultimately influenced the course of Western painting.

Masada \m9-'sa-d3\ Ancient mountain fortress, southeastern Israel. It occupies the entire top of a mesa, which is 1,424 ft (434 m) tall and has an area of 18 acres (7 hectares). Its fortifications were built by Herod the Great in the 1st century bc; it was captured by the Zealots, a Jewish sect, in their revolt against Rome in ad 66. After the fall of Jerusalem, Masada, the last remnant of Jewish rule in Palestine, refused to surrender. In 73, after a lengthy siege, it was finally taken by the Romans, who found that nearly all of the some 1,000 Zealots there had committed suicide rather than be cap¬ tured. In the 20th century, the fortress became a symbol of Jewish national heroism; it is now one of Israel’s most visited tourist attractions.

Masai or Maasai \ma-'sl\ Nomadic herders of southern Kenya and northern Tanzania. They speak a language (usually called Maa) of the Nilo-Saharan family. Numbering some 900,000, the Masai subsist almost entirely on the meat, blood, and milk of their cattle herds. A kraal, con¬ sisting of a large circular thornbush fence around a ring of mud-dung houses, holds four to eight families and their herds. Polygamy is common among older men. All men are grouped into AGE sets. Young men tradi¬ tionally live in isolation in the bush for varying lengths of time in order to develop strength, courage, and endurance. See also Nilot.

Masamune X.ma-sa-'mu-neV orig. Okazaki Goronyudo (b.

1264?, Japan—d. 1343?, Kamakura) Japanese swordsmith. Masamune was appointed chief swordsmith by the emperor Fushimi in 1287. He founded the Soshu school of swordmaking, in which blades were made entirely of steel and hardened throughout. It marked an important advance in metallurgical technique that was significantly ahead of the technical level in Europe or elsewhere in Asia.

Masaryk \'ma-s9-rik\, Jan (Garrigue) (b. Sept. 14, 1886, Prague, Bohemia, Austria-Hungary—d. March 10, 1948, Prague, Czech.) Czech statesman. The son of TomAs Masaryk, he entered the foreign service of the newly independent Czechoslovakia in 1919 and served as ambassa¬ dor to Britain from 1925 to 1938. During World War II he was foreign minister of the Czechoslovak provisional government in London (1940- 45) and later Prague (1945-48). At the request of Pres. Edvard Benes, he remained at his post after the communist takeover in 1948. Two weeks later he either jumped or was pushed to his death from a window in the foreign office.

Masaryk, Tomas (Garrigue) (b. March 7, 1850, near Golding, Moravia, Austrian Empire—d. Sept. 14, 1937, Lany, Czech.) First presi¬ dent of Czechoslovakia (1918-35). After receiving a doctorate from the University of Vienna, he taught philosophy at the Czech University of Prague (1882) and wrote on the Czech Reformation; his most important works were a study of Marxism (1898) and Russia and Europe (1913). In the Austrian Reichsrat (1891-93, 1907-14), he supported democratic policies and criticized Austria-Hungary’s alliance with Germany. In 1915 he went to western Europe, where he organized the Czech national coun¬ cil, which in 1918 gained recognition as the de facto government of the future Czechoslovakia. He negotiated its liberation as one of the Fourteen Points in the projected post-World War I peace settlement. Elected presi¬ dent of the new country (1918-35), he was occupied with settling con¬ flicts between the Czech and Slovak parties.

Masbate \mas-'ba-ta\ Island (pop. 2000: 707,668) of the Visayan group, central Philippines. The V-shaped island occupies an area of 1,262 sq mi (3,269 sq km); its capital is Masbate (pop., 2000: 71,441). Explored by Spain in the late 16th century, it was ruled by the Spanish until the Spanish- American War, when the U.S. gained control. It was occupied by the Japanese during World War II but was recovered by the U.S. in 1945. Gold has been mined for centuries near Aroroy in the north.

Mascagni \mas-'kan-ye\, Pietro (b. Dec. 7, 1863, Livorno, Italy—d. Aug. 2, 1945, Rome) Italian composer. He began to compose when very young. At the Milan Conservatory he studied with Amilcare Ponchielli

(1834-86) and was Giacomo Puccini’s roommate, but he was expelled. Taking conducting jobs with touring opera companies, he started writing operas and won a contest with his one-act Cavalleria rusticana (1890); it was an instant success from its premiere, and it remains his best-known work.

Masefield, John (b. June 1, 1878, Ledbury, Herefordshire, Eng.—d. May 12, 1967, near Abingdon, Berkshire) English poet. He went to sea in his youth, then lived precariously for several years in the U.S. before settling in London. He is best known for his poems of the sea, Salt-Water Ballads (1902, including “Sea Fever” and “Cargoes”), and for his long narrative poems, such as The Everlasting Mercy (1911), containing phrases of colloquial coarseness that were unknown in earlier 20th- century English verse. After he became poet laureate in 1930, his poetry became more austere. He also wrote adventure novels, sketches, and works for children.

maser \'ma-zor\ Device that produces and amplifies electromagnetic radiation in the microwave range of the spectrum. The first maser was built in 1951 by Charles H. Townes. Its name is an acronym for “microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.” The wavelength pro¬ duced by a maser is so constant and reproducible that it can be used to control a clock that will gain or lose no more than a second over hundreds of years. Masers have been used to amplify faint signals returned from radar and communications satellites, and have made it possible to mea¬ sure faint radio waves emitted by Venus, giving an indication of the plan¬ et’s temperature. The maser was the principal precursor of the laser.

Maseru Vma-zs-.riA City (pop., 1999 est.: metro, area, 373,000), capi¬ tal of Lesotho. It lies on the Caledon River near the border with Free State province, Republic of South Africa. In 1869 the chief of the Basotho (Sotho) nation, Moshoeshoe I, founded the town near his mountain strong¬ hold of Thaba Bosiu. Diamond mining is important economically. The country’s only urban centre, Maseru is the site of government buildings as well as a technical school and Lesotho Agricultural College. Roma, to the southeast, is the seat of the National University of Lesotho (1945).

Mashhad Vmash-had, mo-'shadV or Meshed \m3-'shed\ City (pop., 1996: 1,887,405), northeastern Iran. It is situated in the valley of the Kashaf River. For centuries it has been an important trade centre along the caravan routes and highways of the Middle East. It was damaged in a Mongol attack in 1220 and was sacked by Turkmen and Uzbeks in the 16th— 17th centuries. Nadir Shah (r. 1736—47) made Mashhad his capital. The city is the burial place of HarOn al-Rashid and a site of pilgrimage for ShTite Muslims visiting the tomb of the eighth Shl'ite imam, 'All al-Rida’.

Masinissa \,ma-s3-'ni-S3\ (b. c. 240—d. 148 bc) Ruler of the North African kingdom of Numidia. Originally an ally of Carthage, he switched sides to help Rome after being persuaded by Scipio Africanus the Elder (206). After winning the Battle of Zama (202), he was awarded a larger kingdom. Though displeased with the presence of Cato’s army in Africa (149), he remained faithful to Rome and a client of the Scipios until his death.

Masjed-e Shah \'mas-jid-i-'sha\ Celebrated 17th-century mosque in Esfahan, Iran. The mosque, part of the rebuilding effort of the Safavid shah 'Abbas I, was located at the centre of Esfahan, along a great central mall called the may dan. Along with neighbouring structures of the period, it is notable for its logically precise vaulting and use of coloured tiles.

mask Object worn either to disguise or protect the face or to project the image of another personality or being. Masks have been used in art and religion since the Stone Age. In most primitive societies, their form is dictated by tradition, and they are thought to have supernatural power. Death masks, associated with the return of the spirit to the body, were used in ancient Egypt, Asia, and the Inca civilization, and were some¬ times kept as portraits of the dead. Masks worn on holidays such as Hal¬ loween and Mardi Gras signal festivity and license. They have also been widely used in the theater, beginning with the Greek drama and continu¬ ing through medieval mystery plays, and the Italian commedia dell'arte, as well as in other theater traditions (e.g., Japanese No drama).

Maslow Vmaz-lo\, Abraham H(arold) (b. April 1, 1908, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. June 8, 1970, Menlo Park, Calif.) U.S. psychologist. He taught at Brooklyn College (1937-51) and Brandeis University (1951— 69). A practitioner of humanistic psychology, he is known for his theory of “self-actualization.” In Motivation and Personality (1954) and Toward a Psychology of Being (1962), Maslow argued that each person has a hier-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

masochism ► mass flow I 1207

archy of needs that must be satisfied, ranging from basic physiological requirements to love, esteem, and, finally, self-actualization. As each need is satisfied, the next higher level in the emotional hierarchy dominates conscious functioning.

masochism Vma-so-.ki-zom, , ma-z3- l ki-zom\ Psychosexual disorder in which an individual achieves erotic release by being subjected to pain or humiliation. The term is derived from the name of Leopold von Sacher- Masoch, a 19th-century Austrian novelist who wrote extensively about the sexual enjoyment he derived from verbal and physical abuse. The amount of pain involved can vary; it is usually sought out and to some degree controlled by the masochist. Masochistic and sadistic traits often occur in the same individual.

Masolino \,ma-so-'le-no\ orig. Tommaso di Cristoforo Fini (b.

1383, Panicale, Romagna—d. probably 1440-47, Florence, Republic of Florence) Italian painter. He came from the same district in Tuscany as his younger contemporary Masaccio, with whom his career is closely linked. The two worked together on frescoes for the Brancacci Chapel in Florence’s Santa Maria del Carmine. Masaccio’s influence is evident in Masolino’s contributions, but upon Masaccio’s death Masolino returned to the more decorative Gothic style of his earlier years.

Mason, George (b. 1725, Fairfax county, Va.—d. Oct. 7, 1792, Fair¬ fax county, Va., U.S.) American Revolutionary statesman. The owner of a large plantation, he became active in efforts to promote the west¬ ward expansion of the colonies. In 1774 he helped his neighbour George Washington draft the Fairfax Resolves (1774), which called for a boycott of English goods. In 1776 he drafted the Virginia state constitution and the Virginia Declaration of Rights, which influenced Thomas Jefferson and was used as a model by other states. A member of the Virginia House of Delegates (1776-88), he attended the Constitutional Conven¬ tion but did not sign the Constitution of the United States, which he believed granted large and indefinite powers to the central government.

Mason, James (b. May 15, 1909,

Huddersfield, Yorkshire, Eng.—d.

July 27, 1984, Lausanne, Switz.)

British film actor. After studying architecture at the University of Cam¬ bridge, he made his screen debut in Late Extra (1935) and soon became a star in British films such as The Man in Grey (1943), The Seventh Veil (1945), and Odd Man Out (1947). He moved to Hollywood in the late 1940s but continued to make films in Britain as well. Noted for his urbane characterizations of flawed individuals, he appeared in more than 100 movies, including Madame Bovary (1949), A Star Is Born (1954), North by Northwest (1959), Lolita (1962), Georgy Girl (1966), The Boys from Brazil (1978), and The Verdict (1982).

Mason, James Murray (b. Nov. 3, 1798, Fairfax county, Va., U.S.—d. April 28, 1871, Alexandria, Va.) U.S. politician. A grandson of George Mason, he practiced law in his native Virginia from 1820. He served in the state legislature (1826, 1828-32), the U.S. House of Rep¬ resentatives (1837-39), and the U.S. Senate (1847-61). An advocate of secession, he resigned his Senate seat in 1861. Appointed Confederate commissioner to England, he was captured at sea with John Slidell aboard the Trent and imprisoned for two months (see Trent Affair). Released in 1862, he remained in England until 1865 but was unable to win support for the Confederate cause.

Mason-Dixon Line Originally, the boundary between Maryland and Pennsylvania. The 233-mi (375-km) line was surveyed by Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon in 1765-68 to define the disputed boundaries between the land grants of the Penns, proprietors of Pennsylvania, and the Balti- mores, proprietors of Maryland. The term was first used in congressional debates leading to the Missouri Compromise (1820) to describe the divid¬

ing line between the slave states to its south and the free-soil states to its north. It is still used as the figurative dividing line between the North and South.

masonry Craft of building in stone, brick, or block. By 4000 bc, Egypt had developed an elaborate cut-stone technique. In Crete, Italy, and Greece, cyclopean work overcame material weaknesses by using enor¬ mous irregularly shaped stones without mortal', thereby reducing the num¬ ber of joints. African stonemasons also were skilled at mortarless work, and Japanese mortarless castle walls resisted collapse during earthquakes. The Roman inventions of concrete and mortar permitted the development of the arch into one of the basic construction forms and gave rise to a number of variations in the facing used for walls: squared stone blocks, concrete studded with rough stones, concrete with diagonal stone courses, brick- and tile-faced concrete, and mixed brick and stone. The Assyrian and Persian empires, which lacked stone outcroppings, used sun-dried clay bricks. Stone and clay were the primary masonry materials in the Middle Ages and later. Precast-concrete blocks, often used as infill in modern steel framing, did not effectively compete with brick until the 20th century. Brick and block are often combined or used in cavity walls. Glass- block walls, which utilize steel rods to reinforce the mortar joints, admit light and afford greater protection against intruders and vandals than ordi¬ nary glass. See also adobe, building stone.

Masqat See Muscat

masque Short dramatic entertainment performed by masked actors. It originated in the folk ceremony known as mummery (see mumming play) and evolved into elaborate court spectacles in the 16th-17th centuries. A masque presented an allegorical theme using speeches, dances, and songs, in a performance often embellished with rich costumes and spectacular scenery. The genre reached its height in 17th-century England when the court poet, Ben Jonson, collaborating with Inigo Jones on many notable masques (1605-34), gave it literary force. The masque later developed into OPERA.

mass Quantitative measure of inertia, or the resistance of a body to a change in motion. The greater the mass, the smaller is the change pro¬ duced by an applied force. Unlike weight, the mass of an object remains constant regardless of its location. Thus, as a satellite moves away from the gravitational pull of the Earth, its weight decreases but its mass remains the same. In ordinary, classical chemical reactions, mass can be neither created nor destroyed. The sum of the masses of the reactants is always equal to the sum of the masses of the products. For example, the mass of wood and oxygen that disappears in combustion is equal to the mass of water vapour, carbon dioxide, smoke, and ash that appears. How¬ ever, Albert Einstein’s special theory of relativity shows that mass and energy are equivalent, so mass can be converted into energy and vice versa. Mass is converted into energy in nuclear fusion and nuclear fission. In these instances, conservation of mass is seen as a special case of a more general conservation of mass-energy. See also critical mass.

mass Celebration of the Eucharist in the Roman Catholic church. It is considered a sacramental reenactment of the death and resurrection of Jesus as well as a true sacrifice in which the body and blood of Jesus (the bread and wine) are offered to God. It is also seen as a sacred meal that unifies and nourishes the community of believers. The mass includes readings from Scripture, a sermon, an offertory, a eucharistic prayer, and communion. The rite was greatly changed after the Second Vatican Coun¬ cil, notably in the adoption of vernacular languages in place of Latin. See also SACRAMENT, TRANSUBSTANTIATION.

mass action, law of Fundamental law of chemical kinetics (the study of rates of chemical reactions), formulated in 1864-79 by the Norwegian scientists Cato M. Guldberg (1836-1902) and Peter Waage (1833-1900). The law states that the reaction rate of any simple chemical reaction is proportional to the product of the molar concentrations of the reacting substances, each raised to the power corresponding to the number of mol¬ ecules of that substance in the reaction.

mass-energy equation See Einstein's mass-energy relation

mass flow or convection In physiology, the mechanism responsible for movement of air from the atmosphere into the lungs and for move¬ ment of blood between the lungs and the tissues. It is one of two princi¬ pal mechanisms of exchange by which oxygen and carbon dioxide move between the environment and the tissues, the other being diffusion. Local

George Mason, detail of an oil paint¬ ing by L. Guillaume after a portrait by J. Hesselius; in the collection of the Vir¬ ginia Historical Society

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1208 I mass movement ► Massey

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flows (e.g., through skeletal muscles during exercise) can be increased selectively, increasing the exchange of gases between tissue cells and the capillaries.

mass movement or mass wasting Bulk movements of soil and rock debris down slopes, or the sinking of confined areas of the Earth’s ground surface. The term mass wasting refers only to gravity-driven pro¬ cesses that move large masses of earthen material from one place to another. The term mass movement includes the sinking of confined areas.

mass production Application of the principles of specialization, divi¬ sion of labour, and standardization of parts to the manufacturing of goods on a large scale. Modem mass-production methods have led to such improvements in the cost, quality, quantity, and variety of goods available that the largest global population in history is now sustained at the high¬ est general standard of living ever. The requirements for mass production of a particular product include the existence of a market large enough to justify a large investment; a product design that can use standardized parts (see interchangeable parts) and processes; a physical layout that minimizes materials handling; division of labour into simple, short, repetitive steps (see time-and-motion study); continuous flow of work; and tools designed specifically for the tasks to be performed. See also assembly line.

mass spectrometry or mass spectroscopy Analytic technique by which chemical substances are identified by sorting gaseous ions by mass using electric and magnetic fields. A mass spectrometer uses electri¬ cal means to detect the sorted ions, while a mass spectrograph uses pho¬ tographic or other nonelectrical means; either device is a mass spectroscope. The process is widely used to measure masses and relative abundances of different isotopes, to analyze products of a separation by liquid or gas chromatography, to test vacuum integrity in high-vacuum equipment, and to measure the geological age of minerals.

mass transit Transportation systems, usually publicly but sometimes privately owned and operated, designed to move large numbers of people in various types of vehicles in cities, suburbs, and large metropolitan areas. Modern mass transit is an outgrowth of industrialization and urban¬ ization. In the 1830s early mass transit in New York City included horse- drawn buses, which were soon replaced by fixed-rail horse-drawn trolleys. By 1900 motorized Buses had appeared in Europe and America. With the advent of electricity, streetcars and subways were introduced in many large cities. In the 20th century the automobile’s increasing popularity under¬ mined mass transit development; fixed-rail streetcar systems were widely removed to provide space for cars. Concern over air pollution has revived interest in light-rail transit and has led to regional mass transit systems.

Massachusetts officially Commonwealth of Massachusetts

State (pop., 2000: 6,349,097), northeastern U.S. One of the New England states, it lies on the Atlantic Ocean and is bordered by Vermont, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New York. It covers 8,262 sq mi (21,399 sq km); its capital is Boston. The state’s soils are poor and rocky, and agriculture plays a limited role in the economy, although cran¬ berry farming is important. The region was inhabited by Algonquian Indian peoples when the first English settler, Bartholomew Gosnold, arrived in 1602. Plymouth was settled by the Pilgrims, who arrived on the Mayflower in 1620. The Massachusetts Bay Colony was founded and gov¬ erned by the Massachusetts Bay Co., spurring Puritan settlement. It joined the New England Confederation in 1643 and acquired Maine in 1652. The southeastern and central settlements in the state experienced King Philip's War in 1675. After losing its first charter in 1684, it became part of the Dominion of New England in 1686. Its second charter in 1691 granted the colony jurisdiction over Maine and Plymouth. In the 18th century Massachusetts became a centre of resistance to British colonial policy; it was the scene of the Boston Tea Party and of uprisings at the Battles of Lexington and Concord that marked the beginning of the American Revo¬ lution. In 1788, it became the sixth state to ratify the U.S. Constitution. It was in the forefront of the 19th century Industrial Revolution and was known for its textile mills. Today its major industries are electronics, high technology, and communications. It is well-known as the location of many institutions of higher learning. Tourism is important especially in the Cape Cod region and the Berkshires.

Massachusetts Bay Colony Early English colony in Massachusetts. It was settled in 1630 by a group of 1,000 Puritan refugees from England (see Puritanism). In 1629 the Massachusetts Bay Co. had obtained an English charter allowing it to trade and colonize in New England. Puri¬ tan stockholders envisioned the colony as a refuge from religious perse¬

cution in England, and they transferred control of the company to the emigrants in Massachusetts. Led by John Winthrop, the colonists founded their colony on the Charles River at what would become Boston. In 1684 England annulled the company’s charter and in 1691 established royal government under a new charter, which merged Plymouth colony and Maine into the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) U.S. private uni¬ versity in Cambridge, famous for its scientific and technological training and research. Founded in 1861, MIT has schools of architecture and plan¬ ning, engineering, humanities and social sciences, management (the Sloan School), and science and a college of health sciences and technology. Though it is best known for its programs in engineering and the physical sciences, other areas such as economics, political science, urban studies, linguistics, and philosophy are also strong. Among its facilities are a nuclear reactor, a computation centre, geophysical and astrophysical observatories, a linear accelerator, a space research centre, supersonic wind tunnels, an artificial-intelligence laboratory, a centre for cognitive science, and an international-studies centre.

massage \m9-'sazh\ Systematic, scientific manipulation of body tissues with the hands to relieve pain and reduce swelling, relax muscles, and speed healing after strains and sprains. It has been used for more than 3,000 years by the Chinese. Early in the 19th century, the Swedish phy¬ sician Per Henrik Ling (1776-1839) devised a massage system for joint and muscle ailments, which was later extended to relieve deformities of arthritis and re-educate muscles following paralysis. Manipulations include light or hard stroking, compression (kneading, squeezing, and friction), and percussion (striking with the edges of the hands in rapid alternation). In acupressure, a style of massage derived from China, pres¬ sure is exerted on Chinese acupuncture points for healing effects. See also PHYSICAL MEDICINE AND REHABILITATION.

Massasoit \,mas-9-'s6it\ (b. c. 1590, near present Bristol, R.I.—d. 1661, near Bristol) American Indian chief. He was the grand sachem (intertribal chief) of the Wampanoag Indians, who inhabited parts of Massachusetts and Rhode Island. In March 1621, several months after the Mayflower landed, he journeyed to Plymouth and established peaceful relations with the settlers, with whom he shared techniques of planting, fishing, and cooking. In 1623 he was nursed back to health from a serious illness by grateful Pilgrims. After his death, good will gradually dissolved, leading to the bloody King Philip's War (1675), which was led by his son Metacom.

Massena \ma-sa-'na\, Andre, duke de Rivoli later prince d'Essling (b. May 6, 1758, Nice, France—d. April 4, 1817, Paris) French general. Entering the military in 1775, he served in the Revolu¬ tionary government’s army and rose to general in 1793. In campaigns against the Austrians in Italy, he became Napoleon’s most trusted officer; he then commanded the French army in Switzerland, defeating the Rus¬ sians at Zurich (1799). Sent by Napoleon to restore the demoralized army of Italy, he successfully defended Genoa against Austrian besiegers and enabled the French victory at the Battle of Marengo. He was made a mar¬ shal in 1804 and duke de Rivoli in 1808. He displayed heroism against the Austrians, notably at Aspem-Essling and the Battle of Wagram (1809), and Napoleon made him prince d’Essling (1810). In command of the French forces in Portugal and Spain (1810-11), he was defeated by the British under the duke of Wellington. Massena was relieved of his com¬ mand and returned to Paris, where he supported the restoration of the monarchy.

Massenet V.ma-s^-'aV Jules (-Emile-Frederic) (b. May 12, 1842, Montaud, near Saint-Etienne, France—d. Aug. 13, 1912, Paris) French composer. He attended the Paris Conservatoire from 1851. When his fam¬ ily left Paris in 1854, he ran away to continue his studies, playing piano and drums and teaching to support himself. His hard work paid off when he won the Prix de Rome in 1863, and he began writing operas in 1867. His reputation was established with his oratorio Marie-Magdeleine (1873), and his Le Roi de Lahore was performed at the Paris Opera in 1877. There followed the series of successes for which he is chiefly known, including Herodiade (1881), Manon (1884), Le Cid (1885), Esclarmonde (1889), Werther (1892), Thai's (1894), and Don Quichotte

(1910).

Massey, (Charles) Vincent (b. Feb. 20, 1887, Toronto, Ont., Can.—d. Dec. 30, 1967, London, Eng.) Canadian administrator, first Canadian governor-general of Canada (1952-59). He taught history at the University of Toronto from 1913 to 1915. During World War I he served

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Massif Central ► mastodon I 1209

as associate secretary of the cabinet war committee. After the war he operated a farm-machinery business until 1925. Active in Liberal Party politics, he served in the cabinet of W.L. Mackenzie King (1925) and was later Canada’s first minister to the U.S. (1926-30) and high commissioner for Canada in Britain (1935—46). After serving as chancellor of the Uni¬ versity of Toronto (1947-52), he was named governor-general. His brother was the actor Raymond Massey (1896-1983).

Massif Central \ma-'sef-sa n -'tral\ Plateau region, south-central France. It is bordered by the lowlands of Aquitaine, the Loire basin, the Rhone- Saone valley, and the Mediterranean coastlands of Languedoc. Compris¬ ing about one-sixth of France, it occupies an area of 35,006 sq mi (90,665 sq km). It consists mainly of plateaus with elevations of 2,000 to 3,000 ft (600 to 900 m). Its highest peak is Puy de Sancy, which reaches 6,184 ft (1,885 m). It is the source of many rivers, including the Loire, Allier, Cher, and Creuse.

Massine \ma-'sen\, Leonide orig. Leonid Fyodorovich Miassin

(b. Aug. 9, 1896, Moscow, Russia—d. March 15, 1979, Cologne, W.Ger.) Russian-born French dancer, teacher, and choreographer. He joined the Ballets Russes in 1914 and produced his first ballet, Midnight Sun , in 1915; this was followed by Parade (1917), The Three-Cornered Hat (1919), and Pulcinella (1920). He extended Michel Fokine’s reforms by enriching the characterization of many roles. During 1932-38 he was principal dancer and choreographer for the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo. His ballets Les Presages (1933), Choreartium (1933), and Rouge etnoir (1939) displayed innovative choreography and set designs and were among the first dances based on symphonies. In 1938—42 he directed his re-formed Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo, and he became artistic director of a new Ballet de Monte Carlo in 1966.

Massinger Vma-sin-jorV Philip (b. 1583, near Salisbury, Wiltshire, Eng.—d. March 1639/40, London) English playwright. After a period during which he collaborated with playwrights such as John Fletcher, Massinger began c. 1620 to write independently. From 1625 he was asso¬ ciated with the theatrical company The King’s Men. His 15 surviving solo works are noted for their social realism and satirical power. They include the comedies A New Way to Pay Old Debts (c. 1624), his most popular and influential play, and The City Madam (c. 1632), both of which probed economic and social issues, and the historical tragedy The Roman Actor (c. 1626).

Masson \ma-'so n \, Andre (-Aime-Rene) (b. Jan. 4, 1896, Balagny, France—d. Oct. 28, 1987, Paris) French painter and graphic artist. After studying painting in Brussels and Paris, he was severely wounded in World War I, and an overriding pessimism penetrated his art. He joined the Surrealist movement in 1924 and became the leading practitioner of automatism. In the late 1920s and ’30s he produced turbulent images of violence, psychic pain, eroticism, and physical metamorphosis, using sinuous lines to delineate abstract biomorphic forms. He lived in Spain (1934-36) and later the U.S. (1941—45), where he became an important link between Surrealism and Abstract Expressionism. He later returned to France and concentrated on landscape painting.

mastaba Vmas-ts-boV (Arabic: “bench”) Rectangular superstructure of ancient Egyptian tombs, built of mud brick or, later, stone, with sloping walls and a flat roof. A deep shaft descended to the underground burial chamber. Old Kingdom mastabas were used chiefly for nonroyal burials. Storage chambers were stocked with food and equipment, and walls were often decorated with scenes showing the deceased’s expected daily activi¬ ties. What had earlier been a niche on the side grew into a chapel with an offering table and a false door through which the spirit of the deceased could leave and enter the burial chamber.

mastectomy \ma-'stek-t3-me\ Surgical removal of a breast, usually because of breast cancer. If the cancer has spread, radical mastectomy may remove surrounding tissue and/or nearby structures, including chest muscles and lymph nodes. Modified radical mastectomy leaves at least the main chest muscle, has an equally high survival rate, and makes recon¬ struction easier. Simple mastectomy is removal of the breast only. Lumpectomy is removal of the tumour only.

master of the animals See master of the animals

Masters, Edgar Lee (b. Aug. 23,1869, Garnett, Kan., U.S.—d. March 5,1950, Philadelphia, Pa.) U.S. poet and novelist. He grew up on his grand¬ father’s farm and became a lawyer in Chicago. He wrote undistinguished poetry and plays before publishing Spoon River Anthology (1915), his

major work. Its 245 free-verse epi¬ taphs in the form of monologues are spoken from the grave by the former inhabitants of a fictitious small town, who tell of their bitter, unfulfilled lives in its dreary confines.

Masters, William H(owell); and Johnson, Virginia E(shelman) (respectively b. Dec.

27, 1915, Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.—d.

Feb. 16, 2001, Tucson, Ariz.; b. Feb.

11, 1925, Springfield, Missouri,

U.S.) U.S. human-sexuality research team. Together (as physician and psychologist, respectively), they founded and codirected the Masters & Johnson Institute in St. Louis.

They observed couples having sex under laboratory conditions, using biochemical equipment to record sexual stimulations and reactions. Their book Human Sexual Response (1966) was considered the first comprehensive study of the physiology and anatomy of human sexual activity (see sexual response). They were married in 1971 and continued to collaborate after their divorce in 1993.

Masters Tournament Invitational golf competition held annually since 1934 at the Augusta National Golf Club, Augusta, Ga., U.S. One of the world’s most prestigious golf contests, it comprises 72 holes of stroke play (the player with the lowest score wins). The course, famous for its beauty and for the speed and difficulty of its greens, was designed by Bobby Jones and Alister MacKenzie. The tournament is held during the first full week in April.

Masterson, Bat orig. Bartholomew Masterson (b. Nov. 27, 1853, Henryville, Canada East—d. Oct. 25, 1921, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Canadian-born U.S. lawman and gambler. He grew up on successive fam¬ ily farms in New York, Illinois, and Kansas. In Dodge City, Kan., he worked as a buffalo hunter and Indian scout (1873-75), as sheriff of Ford county (1877-79), and as deputy U.S. marshal (1879). In Tombstone, Ariz. (1880—81), he worked briefly with Wyatt Earp at the Oriental Saloon. He lived a gambler’s life in Denver (1887-1902) and then moved to New York City, where he was a deputy U.S. marshal (1905-07) and later a prominent sports editor for the Morning Telegraph.

mastication See chewing

mastiff Breed of powerful but gentle dog of Europe and Asia dating to 3000 bc. Mastiffs fought bears, lions, tigers, bulls, and gladiators in Roman arenas and were used in English bull- and bear-baiting rings.

The mastiff stands 28-30 in. (70-75 cm) tall and weighs 165-185 lbs (75-85 kg). It has a broad head, short dark muzzle, and dark drooping ears.

Its short coat is apricot, silver fawn, or brindled. The bullmastifif, a BULLDOG-mastiff crossbreed standing 24-27 in. (61-69 cm) tall and weigh¬ ing 100-130 lbs (45-59 kg), is used as a police and guard dog.

mastitis \ma-'stl-t3s\ Inflammation of the breast. Acute mastitis, usually caused by bacteria, begins almost exclusively in the first three weeks of nursing and can be cured with anti¬ biotics without stopping nursing. The breasts may become swollen, red, hard, and tender; without treatment abscesses may occur. Mastitis can be localized or widespread, and the breast’s lymphatic system may be involved. Girls may have brief hormone-induced breast inflammation soon after birth and during puberty. Chronic mastitis usually occurs in systemic dis¬ eases (e.g., tuberculosis, syphilis). One rare type is seen mostly in older women with a history of difficult nursing. Some mastitis cases resemble certain cancers.

mastodon Vmas-to-.danV Any of several extinct elephant species (genus Mastodon) that lived worldwide 23.7 million-10,000 years ago or later

Mastiff

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1210 I mastoiditis ► material implication

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in North America, where they were contemporaneous with historic Ameri¬ can Indian groups. Well-preserved remains are quite common. Mastodons ate leaves and had small grinding teeth and long, parallel, upward-curving upper tusks; males also had short lower tusks. Shorter than modem elephants, they had long, heavily built bodies and short, pillarlike legs. Their long hair was reddish brown. The skull was similar to that of mod¬ ern elephants but lower and flatter, and the ears were small. Human hunt¬ ing may have played a role in the mastodon’s extinction. See also MAMMOTH.

mastoiditis \ l mas- l toid- , I-t9s\ Inflammation of the mastoid process, a bony projection just behind the ear, almost always due to OTITIS media. It may spread into small cavities in the bone, blocking their drainage. Very severe cases infect the whole middle ear cleft. It causes pain behind the ear and on the side of the head. Temperature and pulse rate may rise. Tis¬ sues over the bone may swell until an abscess develops, indicating destruc¬ tion of the bone’s outer layer. Complications of inward spread include abscess inside the skull, thrombosis, and inner-ear infection; meningitis is a serious danger. Now rare with treatment of otitis media, mastoiditis usually responds to early antibiotic treatment; if not, surgical drainage with removal of all diseased bone is necessary.

Mastroianni \mas-troy-'a-ne\, Marcello (b. Sept. 28, 1924, Fontana Liri, Italy—d. Dec. 19, 1996, Paris, France) Italian film actor. He made his film debut in 1947 and was a well-known actor in Italy by the mid- 1950s. Darkly handsome, with a screen persona alternately winning and morose, he won international fame in films such as Luchino Visconti’s White Nights (1957) and Federico Fellini’s La dolce vita (1960). He acted in more than 100 movies, including 8 V 2 (1963), Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow (1963), We All Loved Each Other So Much (1975), Dark Eyes (1987), and Voyage to the Beginning of the World (1997).

masturbation Erotic stimulation of one’s own genital organs, usually to achieve orgasm. Masturbatory behavior is common in infants and ado¬ lescents, and is indulged in by many adults as well. Studies indicate that over 90% of U.S. males and 60-80% of U.S. females have masturbated at one time or another. Christian moral teaching condemned masturbation as the sin of Onan, who in the Old Testament was censured for spilling his seed, and the Roman Catholic Church still officially condemns it.

Masurian Nmo-'zur-e-onV Lakeland Lake district, northeastern Poland, containing more than 2,000 lakes. It extends 180 mi (290 km) eastward from the lower Vistula River to the Poland-Belarus border and occupies an area of 20,000 sq mi (52,000 sq km). It was the scene of Russian defeats in 1914-15 during World War I. It came under Russian control in January 1945 but was later granted to Poland by the Potsdam Conference.

Mata Hari orig. Margaretha Geertruida Zelle (b. Aug. 7, 1876, Leeuwarden, Neth.—d. Oct. 15,

1917, Vincennes, near Paris, France)

Dutch courtesan and alleged spy in World War I. In 1895 she married Campbell MacLeod, a Scottish officer, and lived in Java and Sumatra (1897-1902), after which they returned to Europe and sepa¬ rated. In 1905 she began to dance in Paris, calling herself Mata Hari (a Malay expression for the sun). Beau¬ tiful and exotic and willing to dance virtually nude, she soon had numer¬ ous lovers, including military offic¬ ers. Details of her spying activities are unclear, but she apparently spied for Germany from 1916. She was arrested by the French in 1917, tried by a military court, and shot by fir¬ ing squad.

Matabele See Ndebele

matador In bullfighting, the principal performer, who works the capes and attempts to dispatch the bull with a sword thrust between the shoul¬ der blades. Most of the techniques used by modern matadors were estab¬ lished in the 1910s by Juan Belmonte (b. 1894-d. 1962) of Spain. The matador’s traditional costume, which offers no protection, is known as

the “suit of lights.” The audience judges the matador according to his skill, grace, and daring. Almost every matador is gored at least once a season with varying degrees of severity, and many have received fatal wounds in the ring.

Matamba \ma-'tam-b3\ Historic African kingdom of the Mbundu people, located northeast of Luanda, Angola. A strong state in the early 16th century, it came into conflict with the Portuguese colonists of Angola. About 1630 it was conquered by Nzinga, ex-ruler of Ndongo, who strengthened it and stopped Angola’s eastward expansion in the 1670s. A 1684 treaty remained in effect until the Portuguese seized part of Mata¬ mba’s territory in 1744. The rest of it, assigned to Angola by European treaties of 1870-1900, remained a self-governing kingdom until it was occupied by Portuguese troops in the early 20th century.

Matamoros City (pop., 2000: 376,279), northern Tamaulipas state, Mexico. It is situated on the southern bank of the Rio Grande, across from Brownsville, Texas, U.S. Founded in 1824, it was the scene of bitter fight¬ ing in the Mexican War and was occupied by U.S. troops in 1846. It is now one of Mexico’s chief ports of entry for tourists and a trade centre.

Matapedia X.ma-to-'pe-de-oX Valley Valley of the Notre Dame Moun¬ tains, Gaspe Peninsula, eastern Quebec province, Canada. Extending for some 60 mi (100 km), it forms a direct lowland route through the moun¬ tains from the St. Lawrence River to the Atlantic coast. It serves as an important transportation route between the Maritime Provinces and the Canadian mainland. It is drained by the Matapedia River, which flows 50 mi (80 km) to join the Restigouche River.

Mata ram Xmo-'ta-ronA Historic kingdom, Java. Originally a vassal state of Pajang, it became powerful under Senapati, who became its first king in the late 16th century. Its territory expanded in the early 17th century, but the kingdom later began to decline. In the mid-18th century it lost both power and territory to the Dutch East India Co., and was a vassal state of the company by 1749. Wars of succession in 1755 led to its divi¬ sion into the regions of Surakarta and Yogyakarta.

matchlock Device for igniting gunpowder, invented in the 15th cen¬ tury. The first mechanical ignition system, it represented a major advance in small-arms manufacture.

It consisted of an S-shaped arm, called a serpentine, that held a match, and a trigger device that low¬ ered the serpentine so the lighted match would fire the priming pow¬ der in the pan at the side of the bar¬ rel. The flash in the pan penetrated a small port in the breech and lit the main charge. Though slow and somewhat clumsy, the matchlock was useful because it protected all the working elements inside the lock and freed the user’s hand. Early matchlock guns included the musket.

mate or yerba mate \'ma-ta\

Stimulating tealike beverage, popu¬ lar in many South American coun¬ tries, brewed from the dried leaves of an evergreen shrub or tree ( Ilex para- guariensis ) related to holly. It con¬ tains caffeine and tannin but is less astringent than tea. To brew mate, the dried leaves (yerba) are placed in dried hollow gourds ( mates or cul- has) decorated with silver and cov¬ ered with boiling water and steeped.

The tea is sucked from the gourd with a tube, often made of silver, with a strainer at one end to catch leaf particles. Though usually served plain, mate is sometimes flavored with milk, sugar, or lemon juice. Si | ver ves5e | for the pre p aration anc j

material implication See impli- s e™ n 9 of mate ; in a private collection.

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© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

materialism » Mathewson I 1211

materialism In metaphysics, the doctrine that all of reality is essentially of the nature of matter. In the philosophy of mind, one form of material¬ ism, sometimes called central-state materialism, asserts that states of the mind are identical to states of the human brain. In order to account for the possible existence of mental states in creatures that do not share the human nervous system (e.g., octopuses and Martians), proponents of func¬ tionalism identified particular mental states with the functional or causal roles those states play with respect to other physical and mental states of the organism; this allows for the “multiple realizability” of the same men¬ tal state in different physical states. (Strictly speaking, functionalism is compatible with both materialism and non-materialism, though most func¬ tionalists are materialists.) As a form of materialism, functionalism is “nonreductive,” because it holds that mental states cannot be completely explained in terms that refer only to what is physical. Though not iden¬ tical with physical states, mental states are said to “supervene” on them, in the sense that there can be no change in the former without some change in the latter. “Eliminative” materialism rejects any aspect of the mental that cannot be explained wholly in physical terms; in particular, it denies the existence of the familiar categories of mental state presupposed in folk psychology. See also identity theory; mind-body problem.

materials science Study of the properties of solid materials and how those properties are determined by the material’s composition and struc¬ ture, both macroscopic and microscopic. Materials science grew out of solid-state physics, metallurgy, ceramics, and chemistry, since the numer¬ ous properties of materials cannot be understood within the context of any single discipline. With a basic understanding of the origins of prop¬ erties, materials can be selected or designed for an enormous variety of applications, from structural steels to computer microchips. Materials sci¬ ence is therefore important to many engineering fields, including electron¬ ics, aerospace, telecommunications, information processing, nuclear power, and energy conversion. See also mechanics, metallography, strength OF MATERIALS, TESTING MACHINE.

mathematical physics Branch of mathematical analysis that empha¬ sizes tools and techniques of particular use to physicists and engineers. It focuses on vector spaces, matrix algebra, differential equations (especially for boundary value problems), integral equations, integral transforms, infi¬ nite series, and complex variables. Its approach can be tailored to applica¬ tions in electromagnetism, classical mechanics, and quantum mechanics.

mathematical programming Application of mathematical and computer programming techniques to the construction of deterministic models, principally for business and economics. For models that only require linear algebraic equations, the techniques are called linear pro¬ gramming; for models that require more complex equations, it is called nonlinear programming. In either case, models frequently involve hun¬ dreds or thousands of equations. The discipline emerged during World War II to solve large-scale military logistics problems. Mathematical pro¬ gramming is also used in planning civilian production and transportation schedules and in calculating economic growth.

mathematics Science of structure, order, and relation that has evolved from counting, measuring, and describing the shapes of objects. It deals with logical reasoning and quantitative calculation. Since the 17th cen¬ tury it has been an indispensable adjunct to the physical sciences and technology, to the extent that it is considered the underlying language of science. Among the principal branches of mathematics are algebra, analy¬ sis, arithmetic, combinatorics, Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometries, game

THEORY, NUMBER THEORY, NUMERICAL ANALYSIS, OPTIMIZATION, PROBABILITY, SET THEORY, STATISTICS, TOPOLOGY, and TRIGONOMETRY.

mathematics, foundations of Scientific inquiry into the nature of mathematical theories and the scope of mathematical methods. It began with Euclid’s Elements as an inquiry into the logical and philosophical basis of mathematics—in essence, whether the axioms of any system (be it Euclid¬ ean geometry or calculus) can ensure its completeness and consistency. In the modern era, this debate for a time divided into three schools of thought: logicism, formalism, and intuitionism. Logicists supposed that abstract math¬ ematical objects can be entirely developed starting from basic ideas of sets and rational, or logical, thought; a variant of logicism, known as math¬ ematical Platonism, views these objects as existing external to and indepen¬ dent of an observer. Formalists believed mathematics to be the manipulation of configurations of symbols according to prescribed rules, a “game” independent of any physical interpretation of the symbols. Intu- itionists rejected certain concepts of logic and the notion that the axiomatic

method would suffice to explain all of mathematics, instead seeing math¬ ematics as an intellectual activity dealing with mental constructions (see constructivism) independent of language and any external reality. In the 20th century, Godel's theorem ended any hope of finding an axiomatic basis of mathematics that was both complete and free from contradictions.

mathematics, philosophy of Branch of philosophy concerned with the epistemology and ontology of mathematics. Early in the 20th century, three main schools of thought—called logicism, formalism, and intuitionism —arose to account for and resolve the crisis in the foundations of mathematics. Logicism argues that all mathematical notions are reduc¬ ible to laws of pure thought, or logical principles; a variant known as math¬ ematical Platonism holds that mathematical notions are transcendent Ideals, or Forms, independent of human consciousness. Formalism holds that mathematics consists simply of the manipulation of finite configurations of symbols according to prescribed rules; a “game” independent of any physi¬ cal interpretation of the symbols. Intuitionism is characterized by its rejec¬ tion of any knowledge- or evidence-transcendent notion of truth. Hence, only objects that can be constructed (see constructivism) in a finite number of steps are admitted, while actual infinities and the law of the excluded middle (see laws of thought) are rejected. These three schools of thought were principally led, respectively, by Bertrand Russell, David Hilbert, and the Dutch mathematician Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer (1881-1966).

Mather Vma-thorV Cotton (b. Feb. 12, 1663, Boston, Massachusetts Bay Colony—d. Feb. 13, 1728, Bos¬ ton) American Puritan leader. The son of Increase Mather, he earned a master’s degree from Harvard Col¬ lege and was ordained a Congrega¬ tional minister in 1685, after which he assisted his father at Boston’s North Church (1685-1723). He helped work for the ouster of the unpopular British governor of Mas¬ sachusetts, Edmund Andros (1689).

Though his writings on witchcraft fed the hysteria that resulted in the Salem witch trials, he disapproved of the trials and argued against the use of “spectral evidence.” His best- known writings include Magnalia Christi Americana (1702), a church history of New England, and his Diary (1711—12). His Curio sa Americana (1712-24) won him membership in the Royal Society of London. He was an early supporter of smallpox inoculation. See also Congregationalism; Puritanism.

Mather, Henry See Charles S. and Henry M. Greene

Mather, Increase (b. June 21,

1639, Dorchester, Massachusetts Bay Colony—d. Aug. 23, 1723, Bos¬ ton) American Puritan leader. The son of a Puritan cleric, he was edu¬ cated at Harvard College and at Trin¬ ity College, Dublin. He returned to New England and served as minister of Boston’s North Church (1661—

1723). He and his son Cotton Mather lobbied successfully for the removal of the hated governor of Massachu¬ setts, Edmund Andros, and obtained a new charter for the colony in 1691.

He served as president of Harvard College (1685-1701). His writings include Case of Conscience Con¬ cerning Evil Spirits Personating Men (1693), which helped end the Salem witch trials. See also Puritanism.

Mathewson, Christy in full Christopher Mathewson (b.

Aug. 12, 1880, Factoryville, Pa.,

Cotton Mather, portrait by Peter Pel¬ ham; in the collection of the American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, Mass.

COURTESY OF THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY, WORCESTER, MASS.

Mathewson, 1909

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U.S.—d. Oct. 7, 1925, Saranac Lake, N.Y.) U.S. baseball pitcher. Mathew- son played football and baseball for Bucknell University and was one of the first college-educated men to enter the major leagues. Throwing right- handed for the New York Giants (1900-16), he won more than 20 games in each of 13 seasons, and 30 or more in four of those years. He ranks third in all-time wins (373) and shutouts (80) and fourth in earned run average (2.13). He played for and managed the Cincinnati Reds (1916— 18) and later served as president of the Boston Braves (1923-25). He died of tuberculosis at 45.

Mathias \m3-'thl-3s\, Bob in full Robert Bruce Mathias (b. Nov. 17, 1930, Tulare, Calif., U.S.) U.S. decathlete. He suffered from anemia as a child and turned to athletics to gain strength. In 1948, at age 17, he won a gold medal in the Olympic decathlon, becoming the youngest gold medalist ever to win an Olympic track-and-field event. He won a second decathlon gold medal in 1952; that same year he played fullback on Stan¬ ford University’s gridiron football team at the Rose Bowl. He won all 11 decathlon competitions he entered in his career. He later served in the U.S. House of Representatives.

Mathura art Vmo-to-roX Buddhist visual art that flourished in the trad¬ ing and pilgrimage center of Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India, from the 2nd century bc to the 12th cen¬ tury ad. Standing and seated Bud¬ dhas are represented with broad shoulders, large chest, legs apart, and feet firmly planted, conveying a sense of enormous energy. Female figures are frankly sensuous.

Matilda or Maud (b. 1102, Lon¬ don, Eng.—d. Sept. 10, 1167, near Rouen, Fr.) Daughter of Henry I of England and claimant to the English throne. She married Emperor Henry V in 1114; he died in 1125, and she made a second marriage to Geoffrey Plantagenet. Her brother’s death in 1120 left her as Henry I’s sole legiti¬ mate heir, and Henry named her as his successor in 1127. Stephen of Blois, Henry’s nephew, seized the throne on the king’s death in 1135, and his army defeated Matilda’s sup¬ porters in 1141. She continued her resistance and retired to Normandy in 1148. Her son became Henry II of England, and she remained his adviser and oversaw his continental possesions.

Matilda of Canossa \ko-'na-s3\

Italian Matilde known as Mat¬ ilda the Great Countess (b.

1046, Lucca, Tuscany—d. July 24,

1115, Bondeno, Romagna) Countess of Tuscany. A close friend of Pope Gregory VII, she backed him in his struggle against King Henry IV (see Investiture Controversy), and it was at her castle at Canossa that the king performed his barefoot penance before Gregory (1077). After Hen¬ ry’s second excommunication, she was intermittently at war with him until his death (1106), sometimes donning armour to lead her own troops, and she helped finance the pope’s military operations and encouraged Henry’s son Conrad to rebel against his father (1093). Her unwavering support for the popes of Rome was honoured by her reburial in St. Peter’s Basilica in 1634.

Matisse \ma-'tes\, Henri (-Emile-BenoTt) (b. Dec. 31, 1869, Le Cateau, Picardy, Fr.—d. Nov. 2, 1954, Nice) French painter, sculptor, and graphic artist. He was a law clerk when he became interested in art. After study with Gustave Moreau at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, he exhibited four

paintings at the Salon and scored a triumph when the government bought his Woman Reading (1895). Self-confident and venturesome, he experi¬ mented with pointillism but eventually abandoned it in favour of the swirls of spontaneous brushwork and riots of colour that became known as Fau- vism. Though his subjects were largely domestic and figurative, his works exhibit a distinctive Mediterranean verve. He also took up sculpture and would produce some 60 pieces during his lifetime. The Armory Show exhibited 13 of his paintings. In 1917 he moved to the French Riviera, where his paintings became less daring but his output remained prodigious. After 1939 he became increasingly active as a graphic artist and in 1947 published Jazz, a book of reflections on art and life with brilliantly coloured illustrations made by “drawing with scissors”: the motifs were pasted together after being cut out of sheets of coloured paper. He was ill during most of his last 13 years; he designed the magnificent Chapelle du Rosaire at Vence (1948—51) as a gift to the Dominican nuns who cared for him. His well-known paintings include Joy of Life (1906), The Red Studio (1915), Piano Lesson (1916), and The Dance I and The Dance // (1931—33).

Matlock Town (pop., 1995 est.: 14,000), Derbyshire Dales district, administrative and historic county of Derbyshire, north-central England. It consists of a group of settlements built along the River Derwent, in a region noted for its beautiful valleys and rugged hills. Between Cromford (site of Richard Arkwright’s first water-powered mill in 1771) and the 16th-century Matlock Bridge, the river runs through a narrow gorge. The town was once a famous spa offering hydropathic treatment.

Mato Grosso Vma-tu-'gro-siA State (pop., 2003 est.: 2,651,335), south¬ western Brazil. It covers an area of 348,788 sq mi (903,358 sq km), and its capital is Cuiaba. It is bounded by Bolivia on the southwest and west. Cuiaba was founded in 1719 after gold was discovered nearby. In 1748 Mato Grosso became an independent captaincy, in 1822 a province of the empire, and in 1889 a state of the federal union. One of the few great frontier regions still in existence, it consists of grassland, dense forest, and highland plains, with some areas that remain largely unexplored.

matriarchy \'ma-tre-,ar-ke\ Social system in which familial and politi¬ cal authority is wielded by women. Under the influence of Charles Dar¬ win’s theories of evolution and, particularly, the work of the Swiss anthropologist Johann Jakob Bachofen (b. 1815, Basel, Switz.—d. 1887, Basel), some 19th-century scholars believed that matriarchy followed a stage of general promiscuity and preceded male ascendancy (patriarchy) in human society’s evolutionary sequence. Like other elements of the evolutionist view of culture, the notion of matriarchy as a universal stage of development is now generally discredited, and the modern consensus is that a strictly matriarchal society has never existed. Nevertheless, in those societies in which matrilineal descent occurs, access to socially pow¬ erful positions is mediated through the maternal line of kin. See also SOCIOCULTURAL EVOLUTION.

matrix Set of numbers arranged in rows and columns to form a rect¬ angular array. Matrix elements may also be differential operators, vectors, or functions. Matrices have wide applications in engineering, physics, economics, and statistics, as well as in various branches of mathematics. They are usually first encountered in the study of systems of equations rep¬ resented by matrix equations of the form Ax = B, which may be solved by finding the inverse of matrix A or by using an algebraic method based on its determinant.

matsuri \'mat-sii- 1 re\ Civil or religious festival in Japan, especially a Shinto shrine festival. It traditionally has two parts: a solemn ritual of worship and a joyous celebration. The participants first purify themselves (see harai ) by periods of abstinence and by bathing. The inner doors of the shrine are then opened, a drum or bells are sounded, and the deity or sacred power ( kami ) is called to descend. The ritual continues with offer¬ ings, prayers, and ceremonial music and dancing. The celebration usually includes a feast, dancing, theatrical performances, divination, and athletic contests. A portable shrine housing the kami is often taken out and car¬ ried in procession.

Matsushita \mat-'su-shi-to\ Electric Industrial Co., Ltd. Major Japanese manufacturer of electric appliances and consumer electronics products. Founded in 1918 by Matsushita Konosuke (1894-1989) to pro¬ duce electric lamp sockets and plugs, the company was incorporated in 1935. In the 1930s it manufactured a variety of electrical products, includ¬ ing radios and phonographs. In the 1950s it added television sets, tape recorders, and household appliances; a decade later it brought out micro- wave ovens, air conditioners, and videotape recorders. It markets prod-

j/\

A yaksi (female nature spirit) holding tray and pitcher, red sandstone relief from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India, 2nd century ad; in the Archaeological Museum, Mathura.

P. CHANDRA

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Matteotti ► Maudslay I 1213

ucts under such brand names as Panasonic, JVC, and Quasar. Matsushita is noted for its heavy investment in research and development. Its head¬ quarters are in Kadoma, near Osaka; it has manufacturing and sales sub¬ sidiaries in many overseas markets.

Matteotti ^ma-ta-'ot-teV, Giacomo (b. May 22, 1885, Fratta Polesine, Italy—d. June 10, 1924, Rome) Italian Socialist leader. A lawyer, he joined the Italian Socialist Party and was elected to the Chamber of Depu¬ ties in 1919. As head of the Socialists in 1924, he strongly denounced the Fascist Party. Two weeks after his speech, he was kidnapped and mur¬ dered by fascists. The murder created a worldwide scandal, and Benito Mussolini took responsibility as head of the Fascist Party and dared his critics to prosecute him. Opposition was weak, and the Matteotti crisis enabled Mussolini to further consolidate his power.

matter Material substance that constitutes the observable universe and, together with energy, forms the basis of all objective phenomena. Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter. Every physical entity can be described, physically and mathematically, in terms of interrelated quantities of mass, inertia, and gravitation. Matter in bulk occurs in several states; the most familiar are the gaseous (see gas), liquid, and solid states (plasmas, glasses, and various others are less clearly defined), each with characteristic prop¬ erties. According to Albert Einstein’s special theory of relativity, matter and energy are equivalent and interconvertible (see conservation law).

Matterhorn French Mont Cervin \,m6 n -ser-'ve n \ Italian Monte Cervino Vmon-ta-cher-'ve-noV Mountain in the Alps, on the border between Italy and Switzerland. Ris¬ ing to 14,692 ft (4,478 m), it appears from the Swiss side to be an isolated peak, but it is actually the end of a ridge. The Italian slope is more dif¬ ficult to climb than the Swiss slope.

It was first scaled on July 14, 1865, by British explorer Edward Whymper, who ascended the Swiss side. Three days later Giovanni A.

Carrel led an Italian group in the first ascent from the Italian side.

Matthau Vma-thau\, Walter (b.

Oct. 1, 1920, New York, N.Y.,

U.S.—d. July 1, 2000, Santa Mon¬ ica, Calif.) U.S. actor. He began his career as a child actor in Yiddish the¬ atre and appeared on Broadway in plays such as Once More, with Feel¬ ing (1958) and A Shot in the Dark (1962). He worked steadily as a char¬ acter actor on the stage and on tele¬ vision in the early 1950s and made his film debut in The Kentuckian (1955). He won stardom with his stage role in The Odd Couple (1965), which he reprised in the 1968 film version with his frequent costar. Jack Lemmon. Known for his rumpled face, nasal bray, and razor-sharp timing, Matthau appeared in numerous other films, including The Fortune Cookie (1966, Academy Award), Charley Varrick (1973), The Sunshine Boys (1975), Grumpy Old Men (1993), and I’m Not Rappaport (1996).

Matthew, Saint (fl. 1st century ad, Palestine; Western feast day Sep¬ tember 21, Eastern feast day November 16) One of the Twelve Apostles, traditional author of the first Gospel. According to the Gospels, he was a tax collector known as Levi when Jesus called him to be a disciple. Other information about him is scarce. The Gospel of Matthew is directed at a Jewish-Christian audience in a Jewish environment and may have been written originally in Hebrew, but it is now doubted that the apostle Mat¬ thew was its author. Tradition holds that Matthew conducted his ministry in Judaea, after which he served as a missionary to Ethiopia and Persia. Legend differs as to whether he died a martyr’s death.

Matthews, Leigh (b. Jan. 3, 1952, Frankston, Victoria, Austl.) Aus¬ tralian Rules football player. A tenacious forward, he was legendary for his robust play and extraordinary skills. He played for Hawthorn (1969- 85), scoring 915 goals and helping the team to four league titles. He enjoyed subsequent success as a coach at Collingwood (1986-95) and Brisbane (1999- ), guiding both teams to league titles. He was inducted into the Australian Football Hall of Fame and elevated to Legend in 1996.

Matthias I or Matthias Corvinus \md-ihl-ds...k6r-\l-nds\Hungar- ian Mat yds Corvin orig. Maty as Hunyadi (b. Feb. 24, 1443, Kolozsvar, Transylvania—d. April 6, 1490, Vienna) King of Hungary (1458-90). He spent much of his reign combating the claims of the Habs- burg dynasty and attempting to reconstruct the Hungarian state after decades of feudal anarchy. He raised taxes, modernized the army, and codified Hungarian law. After fighting off Turks on Hungary’s southern border, Matthias organized a defensive system against them. He gained control of Bosnia (1463) but lost a struggle with Poland for Bohemia. Long a rival of Emperor Frederick III. he occupied Vienna and other Habs- burg lands, but after his death his conquests were lost.

Matthiessen Vmath-o-sonV, Peter (b. May 22, 1927, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. naturalist and writer. He attended Yale University and worked as a fisherman on Long Island before undertaking his extensive world travels. His nonfiction, much of it inspired by his career as a naturalist, includes Wildlife in America (1959), The Snow Leopard (1978, National Book Award), and In the Spirit of Crazy Horse (1983). His novels include At Play in the Fields of the Lord (1965; film, 1991), Far Tortuga (1975), and Killing Mister Watson (1990). The Cloud Forest (1996) is a chronicle of his travels in South America.

mattock Vma-t3k\ Picklike digging implement, one of the oldest tools of agriculture. It resembles the modern hoe but with a stone or wooden blade rather than a metal one, set at right angles to a long wooden handle. Though large-scale agriculture uses plows, harrows, and rotary hoes that open many rows of a field simultaneously, home gardeners and horticul¬ turists may still use mattocks to loosen dirt and to chop weeds.

Maturidiyyah \ma-,tur-e- , de-9\ Muslim orthodox school of theology named after its founder, Abu Mansur Muhammad al-Maturldl (d. 944). It is characterized by reliance on the Qur’an with minimal reasoning and little scope for inteipretation. On the question of free will, it once emphasized the absolute omnipotence of God and allowed only limited freedom of action, but it later stated unequivocally that humans have the utmost freedom to act. Unlike the AsiTariyyah (followers of al-AsiTARi), who believed that only God could determine whether a person was saved, the Maturidiyyah asserted that a Muslim who sincerely performed all religious duties as prescribed in the Qur’an was assured of a place in heaven.

Mau Mau Vmau-.maiA Militant KiKUYU-led nationalist movement of the 1950s in Kenya. The Mau Mau (the name’s origin is uncertain) advocated violent resistance to British domination in Kenya. In response to actions by Mau Mau rebels, the British Kenya government banned the movement in 1950 and launched a series of military operations between 1952 and 1956. Some 11,000 Kikuyu, 100 Europeans, and 2,000 African loyalists were killed in the fighting; another 20,000 Kikuyu were put into deten¬ tion camps. Despite their losses, Kikuyu resistance spearheaded the inde¬ pendence movement, and Jomo Kenyatta, jailed as a Mau Mau leader in 1953, became prime minister of independent Kenya in 1963. In 2003 the ban on the Mau Mau was lifted.

Mauchly Vmak-leV John W(illiam) (b. Aug. 30, 1907, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.—d. Jan. 8, 1980, Ambler, Pa.) U.S. physicist and engineer. He joined the faculty at the University of Pennsylvania after completing his graduate studies. During World War II he and J. Presper Eckert were asked by the U.S. Army to devise ways to accelerate the recomputation of artil¬ lery firing tables, for which they eventually developed the electronic com¬ puter ENIAC. The two men formed a computer-manufacturing firm in 1948, and in 1949 they produced the Binary Automatic Computer (BINAC), which used magnetic tape instead of punched cards for data storage. Their third computer, the UNIVAC I, was designed to handle business data.

Maud See Matilda

Maudslay \'modz-le\, Henry (b. Aug. 22, 1771, Woolwich, Kent, Eng.—d. Feb. 14, 1831, London) British engineer and inventor. The son of a workman, he became the inventor of machines fundamentally impor¬ tant to the Industrial Revolution, most outstandingly the metal lathe. He also invented methods for printing calico cloth and for desalting seawa¬ ter for ships’ boilers, as well as a measuring machine that was accurate to 0.0001 in. (0.00025 cm), and he designed and built many stationary and marine engines. Several outstanding engineers, notably James Nasmyth and Joseph Whitworth, learned their profession in Maudslay’s shop. See also Joseph Bramah.

The Matterhorn overlooking an Alpine valley.

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© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1214 I Maugham ► Mauritania

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Maugham VmomX, W(illiam) Somerset (b. Jan. 25, 1874, Paris, France—d. Dec. 16, 1965, Nice)

English novelist, playwright, and short-story writer. He abandoned a short career in medicine when his first novel, Liza of Lambeth (1897), had some success. His plays, mainly Edwardian social comedies, brought him financial security. His reputation rests primarily on the novels Of Human Bondage (1915), The Moon and Sixpence (1919), Cakes and Ale (1930), and The Razor’s Edge (1944), all of which were adapted for film and some for television. His short stories often portray the confu¬ sion of Europeans in alien surround¬ ings. His works, regarded less highly today than formerly, are character¬ ized by a clear, unadorned style, cos¬ mopolitan settings, and a shrewd understanding of human nature.

W. Somerset Maugham.

MICHAEL OCHS ARCHIVES/VENICE, CAUF.

Mauna Kea V.mau-na-'ke-oX Dormant volcano, north-central Hawaii island, Hawaii, U.S. Rising to 13,796 ft (4,205 m), it is the highest point in the state and is the chief feature of a state park occupying 500 acres (202 hectares). Its name means “white mountain,” referring to its snowcapped peak. Its dome is 30 mi (48 km) across and is the site of a major astronomi¬ cal observatory. The volcano’s lava flows have buried the southern slopes of the Kohala Mountains to the northwest, and its own western and south¬ ern slopes are covered with lava from its neighbour, Mauna Loa.

Mauna Loa Volcano, south-central Hawaii island, Hawaii, U.S. Located in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, it is one of the world’s largest moun¬ tain masses. It rises to 13,678 ft (4,169 m) and has a dome 75 mi (120 km) long and 64 mi (103 km) wide. Mokuaweoweo, its pit crater, has an area of nearly 4 sq mi (10 sq km) and a depth of 500-600 ft (150-180 m). It has averaged one eruption every 3.5 years since 1832. Many of its eruptions are confined within Mokuaweoweo; others are from fissures and vents. Its lava flows occupy more than 2,000 sq mi (5,120 sq km) of the island. See also Kilauea.

Mauretania Ancient region of North Africa, corresponding to present- day northern Morocco and western and central Algeria. It was settled by the Phoenicians and Carthaginians from the 6th century bc. Its later inhab¬ itants were known to the Romans as the Mauri and Massaeyli. It was

annexed to Rome c. ad 42 and divided into two provinces. It became vir¬ tually independent in the 5th century but was overrun by the Vandals and then by the Arabs in the 7th century.

Mauriac Vmor-'yakV, Francois (b. Oct. 11, 1885, Bordeaux, France—d. Sept. 1, 1970, Paris) French writer. Mauriac grew up in a pious and strict Catholic family, and he subsequently placed at the heart of all his works the soul grappling with the problems of sin, grace, and salva¬ tion. He is best known for his austere, psychological novels, including Young Man in Chains (1913); The Kiss to the Leper (1922); Therese (1927); Vipers’ Tangle (1932), often considered his masterpiece; and A Woman of the Pharisees (1941). He wrote polemical works against totali¬ tarianism and fascism in the 1930s and worked with the Resistance dur¬ ing World War II. In 1952 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature.

Maurice of Nassau Dutch in full Maurits, prince van Oranje, count van Nassau (b. Nov. 13, 1567, Dillenburg, Nassau—d. April 23, 1625, The Hague) Dutch general and statesman. The son of William I (the Silent), he was invested in 1585 as stadtholder (chief executive) of the northern provinces of the Netherlands. With political direction from Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, Maurice consolidated the power of the prov¬ inces against Spain and made them trade and shipping centres. He used military planning and siege warfare to defeat Spanish forces in the north and east but failed to take the southern Netherlands and was forced to conclude a truce with Spain in 1609. His development of military strat¬ egy and tactics made the Dutch army the most modern in Europe. In 1618 he consolidated his political power after removing Oldenbarnevelt from office, and as prince of Orange, count of Nassau, he became effectively king of the Netherlands.

Maurier, Daphne du See Daphne du Maurier Maurier, George du See George du Maurier

Mauritania officially Islamic Republic of Mauritania Country, northwestern Africa. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 398,000 sq mi (1,030,700 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 3,069,000. Capital:

Nouakchott. The Moors (of mixed Arab- Berber and Sudanic descent) constitute the great majority of the population. Lan¬ guages: Arabic (official), Fulani, Soninke,

Wolof (all national). Religion: Islam (official; predominantly Sunni). Cur¬ rency: ouguiya. Most of Mauritania is made up of low-lying desert that forms the extreme western part of the Sahara. Only a tiny fraction of its land is arable, but almost two-fifths is suitable for grazing, and the herd¬ ing of goats, sheep, and camels occupies a significant portion of the largely nomadic population. Ocean fishing and iron ore production are

Maupassant \mo-pa-'sa n \, (Henry-Rene-Albert-) Guy de (b.

Aug. 5, 1850, Chateau de Miromes- nil?, near Dieppe, France—d. July 6,

1893, Paris) French writer of short stories. His law studies were inter¬ rupted by the Franco-Prussian War; his experience as a volunteer pro¬ vided him with material for some of his best works. Later, as a civil- service employee, he became a pro¬ tege of Gustave Flaubert. He first gained attention with “Boule de Suif ’

(1880; “Ball of Fat”), probably his finest story. In the next 10 years he published some 300 short stories, six novels, and three travel books. Taken together, his stories present a broad, naturalistic picture of French life from 1870 to 1890. His subjects include war, the Norman peasantry, the bureaucracy, life on the banks of the Seine, the emotional problems of Guy de Maupassant, photograph by the different classes, and, ominously, hallucination. Maupassant was phe¬ nomenally promiscuous, and before ARCHIVES photographiques _

he was 25 years old his health was

being eroded by syphilis. He attempted suicide in 1892 and was committed to an asylum, where he died at age 42. He is generally considered France’s greatest master of the short story.

Nadar (Gaspard-Felix Tournachon), c.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Mauritius ► mawlid I 1215

major sources of revenue. Mauritania is a republic with two legislative houses; its head of state and government is the president, assisted by the prime minister. Inhabited in ancient times by Sanhaja Berbers, in the 11th— 12th century it was the centre of the Berber Almoravid dynasty, which imposed Islam on many of the neighbouring peoples. Arab tribes arrived in the 15th century and formed several powerful confederations: Trarza and Brakna, which dominated the Senegal River region; Kunta in the east; and Rigaibat in the north. The Portuguese arrived in the 15th century. France gained control of the coastal region in 1817, and in 1904 a for¬ mal French protectorate was extended over the territory. In 1920 it was added to French West Africa as a territory. In 1960 Mauritania achieved independence and left the French Community. The country’s first presi¬ dent, Moktar Ould Daddah, was ousted in a coup in 1978, and a military government was established. In 1991 a new constitution was adopted, and a civilian government was installed in 1992. The country has faced con¬ tinued economic hardship and political unrest.

Mauritius \m6-'ri-shos\ officially Republic of Mauritius Island country, lying east of Madagascar in the western Indian Ocean. The cen¬ tral independent island state of the Mascarene group, it extends 38 mi (61

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