Britannica Concise 2005

Antigua and Barbuda \an- , t9-g3...bar- , byu-do\ Island country, Lesser Antilles, Caribbean Sea. It consists of three islands: Antigua, Bar¬ buda, and Redonda. Area: 171 sq mi (442 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 77,800. Capital: St. John's (on Antigua). The majority of the population are descendants of African slaves brought in during colonial times. Lan¬ guage: English (official). Religion: Christianity (mostly Protestant; also Roman Catholic). Currency: Eastern Caribbean dollar. The largest of the islands is Antigua (108 sq mi [280 sq km]), which lacks forests, moun¬ tains, and rivers and is subject to droughts. The main anchorage is the deepwater harbour of St. John’s. Barbuda—25 mi (40 km) north of Anti¬ gua, 62 sq mi (161 sq km) in area, and mostly uninhabited—is home to a large bird sanctuary; its only human settlement is Codrington, on the western coast. Redonda, an uninhabited rock (0.5 sq mi [1.3 sq km]), lies southwest of Antigua. Tourism is the mainstay of the country’s economy; offshore banking is growing. Christopher Columbus visited Antigua in 1493 and named it after a church in Sevilla, Spain. It was colonized by English settlers in 1632, who imported African slaves to grow tobacco and sug¬ arcane. Barbuda was colonized by the English in 1678. In 1834 the islands’ slaves were emancipated. Antigua (with Barbuda) was part of the British colony of the Leeward Islands from 1871 until that colony was defederated in 1956. The islands achieved full independence in 1981. See map opposite.

antihistamine V.an-ti-'his-to-.men, .an-ti-'his-to-monV Synthetic drug that counteracts the effects of released histamine in the body. Antihista¬ mines compete with histamine at one of the three types of histamine receptors, preventing allergic attacks (see allergy) or inflammation. Some antihistamines also prevent motion sickness and vertigo. Drowsiness is a frequent side effect. H 2 antihistamines, which bind to the second recep¬ tor type, are used to control gastric-acid secretion (see stomach) and treat PEPTIC ULCERS.

Antilles \an-'til-ez. Greater and Lesser Two groups of islands in the West Indies, bounding the Caribbean Sea on the north and east, respec¬ tively. The Greater Antilles include the largest islands (Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico), the Lesser Antilles all being much smaller. The name Antilia originally referred to semimythical lands located some¬ where west of Europe across the Atlantic. After Christopher Columbus’s

discoveries, the Spanish name Antillas was commonly assigned to the new lands; “Sea of the Antilles” in various European languages is used as an alternative name for the Caribbean Sea.

antimatter Substance composed of elementary particles having the mass and electric charge of ordinary matter (such as electrons and protons) but for which the charge and related magnetic properties are opposite in sign. The existence of antimatter was posited by the electron theory of P.A.M. Dirac. In 1932 the positron (antielectron) was detected in cosmic rays, followed by the antiproton and the antineutron detected through the use of particle accelerators. Positrons, antiprotons, and antineutrons, col¬ lectively called antiparticles, are the antiparticles of electrons, protons, and neutrons, respectively. When matter and antimatter are in close prox¬ imity, annihilation occurs within a fraction of a second, releasing large amounts of energy.

antimetabolite N.an-ti-mo-'ta-bo-.lhA Substance that competes with, replaces, or inhibits a specific compound within a CELL, whose function¬ ing is thereby disrupted. Because its structure resembles the compound’s, it is taken up by the cell, but it does not react in the same way with the enzyme that acts on the usual compound. It may inhibit the enzyme or be converted into an aberrant chemical. Many antimetabolites are useful in treating disease, including sulfa drugs, which disrupt bacterial but not human metabolism for bacterial diseases, and others (e.g., methotrexate, 5-fluorouracil) for various cancers.

antimony Van-to-.mo-neX Semimetallic to metallic chemical element (see metal), chemical symbol Sb, atomic number 51. Of its various allo- tropes, the most common is a lustrous, bluish, brittle, flaky solid. In nature

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antimony occurs chiefly as the gray sulfide mineral stibnite, Sb 2 S 3 . Pure antimony metal has no important uses, but its alloys and compounds are extremely useful. Some antimony alloys have the rare quality of expanding on solidifying; these are used for castings and for type metal. Alloys with lead are used in car batteries, bullets, and cable sheaths. Anti¬ friction alloys with tin and lead (babbitt metals) are used as components of machine bearings. Antimony compounds (valences 3, 4, and 5) are widely used as flame retardants in paints, plastics, rubber, and textiles; others are used as paint pigments.

anti novel Type of avant-garde novel that departs from traditional nov- elistic conventions by ignoring such elements as plot, dialogue, and human interest. Seeking to overcome readers’ habits and challenge their expectations, antinovelists deliberately avoid any intrusion of authorial personality, preferences, or values. Though the term was coined by Jean- Paul Sartre in 1948, the approach is at least as old as the works of the

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

84 I Antioch ► antitrust law

18th-century writer Laurence Sterne. Writers of such works include Nath¬ alie Sarraute, Claude Simon, Alain Robbe-Grillet, Uwe Johnson, and Rayner Heppenstall.

Antioch Van-te-,ak\ Turkish Antakya \,an-ta-'kya\ City (pop., 1997: 139,046), southern Turkey. Founded in 300 bc by the Seleucid dynasty, Antioch was the centre of the Seleucid power until 64 bc, when it became the capital of the province of Syria under the Roman Republic and Empire. An early centre of Christianity, the city was the headquarters of St. Paul c. ad 47-55. Despite being briefly occupied by the Persians in the 6th century, it remained part of the Byzantine Empire until the Arab invasion of the 7th century. Thereafter it returned to Byzantine rule (969) and was seized by the Turkish Seljuq dynasty (1084) before being captured by the Crusaders in 1098. (See Crusades.) From 1268 it was ruled by the Mam- lOk dynasty, and it was absorbed by the Ottoman Empire in 1517. The city remained under their control until World War I (1914-18), when it was transferred to Syria. It was made part of the Republic of Turkey in 1939. The economy of the modem town is based on agriculture and light manu¬ facturing.

Antiochus I Soter \an-'tI-3-k3s... , so-ter\ (b. c. 324—d. 261 bc) King of Seleucid Syria in the east (2927-281 bc) and later overall (281-261). Son of Seleucus I, he consolidated the Seleucid kingdom, founded numer¬ ous cities, and expanded trade routes. In 281 he contended with revolts in Syria and northern Anatolia and fought a war with Antigonus II Gona- tas. With the defeat of the Gauls in Greece (279), he and Antigonus signed a pact of nonintervention. The Gauls in Asia Minor were not defeated until 275, after which he was hailed as Soter (“Saviour”) by appreciative Ionians. He settled Greeks in Asia Minor and Persia to counter invasions, and he worked to revive Babylonian culture. Though he won Phoenicia and the coast of Asia Minor from Egypt, he soon lost them, and in 261 he lost much of northern Asia Minor to Pergamum.

Antiochus III known as Antiochus the Great (b. 242—d. 187 bc,

near Susa, Iran) Seleucid king of the Syrian empire (223-187 bc). After quelling a rebellion by Achaeus, his governor in Asia Minor (213), Anti¬ ochus marched east to India (212—

205). He forged a peaceful alliance with Armenia and forcible ones with Parthia and Bactria, stilling resis¬ tance to his campaign. After the death of Ptolemy IV, Antiochus and Philip V of Macedonia divided most of his empire, Antiochus taking the southern and eastern lands, including Palestine (c. 202). He then marched against Egypt, concluding a peace in 195, through which he acquired southern Syria and Ptolemy’s terri¬ tories in Asia Minor. Rome grew angry with Antiochus after he admitted Hannibal of Carthage to his court; when Antiochus took a force to defend the Aetolians against Rome, Rome struck against him, eventually defeating him at Magnesia (189). He gave up lands in Europe and western Asia Minor but kept Syria, Mesopotamia, and western Iran. He was murdered while exacting much-needed tribute near Susa.

Antiochus IV Epiphanes \i-'pif-3-,nez\ (b. c. 215—d. 164 bc, Tabae, Iran) Seleucid king of the Hellenistic Syrian kingdom (175-164 bc). Son of Antiochus III, he was taken hostage in Rome (189-175), where he learned about Roman institutions. On his release, he ousted a usurper to take over Syria. He conquered Egypt except Alexandria (169) and ruled Egypt as regent for his nephew Ptolemy VI. The Roman defeat of his Macedonian allies neutralized his victories in Cyprus and Egypt (168), and he was forced to leave both, though he kept southern Syria. He took Jerusalem (167) and enforced its Hellenization; Jewish rites were forbid¬ den on pain of death. In 164 Judas Maccabaeus and the anti-Greek Jews conquered Judaea except for the Acra in Jerusalem (164), tore down the altar of Zeus, and reconsecrated the Temple. Antiochus then turned to defending his empire against the Parthians in the east, regained Armenia, and went on to the Arabian coast before dying in Persis.

antioxidant' Any of various compounds added to certain foods, natural and synthetic rubbers, gasolines, and other products to retard autoxidation

(combination with oxygen in the air at room temperature) and its effects. Aromatic compounds such as aromatic amines, phenols, and aminophenols delay loss of elasticity in rubber and gummy deposits in gasoline. Pre¬ servatives such as tocopherol (vitamin E), propyl gallate, butylated hydrox- ytoluene (BHT), and butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) prevent rancidity in fats, oils, and fatty foods. In the body, antioxidants such as vitamins C and E and selenium may reduce oxidation caused by free radicals.

Antipater \an-'tip-9-t3r\ (d. 43 bc) Founder of the Herodian dynasty in Palestine. Bom in Idumaea, a region of southern Judaea, he gained power by helping the Romans, and in return, Julius Caesar appointed him procu¬ rator of Judaea in 47 bc. He was assassinated by a rival four years later, but his son, Herod the Great, was made king of Judaea.

Antiphon \'an-ti-,fan\ (fl. c. 480-411 bc) Orator and statesman. The first Athenian known to practice rhetoric professionally, he wrote speeches for others to give in court but was reluctant to appear in public debate. He may have instigated the revolution of the oligarchic Council of the Four Hundred, an attempt to seize the Athenian government in the midst of war. When the oligarchy fell, he defended his role in the overthrow in a speech called by Thucydides the greatest defense ever made, but he was nonethe¬ less executed for treason.

anti pope In Roman Catholicism, a person who tries to take the place of the legitimately elected pope. Some antipopes were elected by factions in doctrinal disagreements, and others were chosen in double elections arbi¬ trated by secular authorities or picked as third candidates in an effort to resolve such disputes. The earliest of the antipopes appeared in the 3rd century. During the Investiture Controversy, Henry IV appointed an anti¬ pope, and several more antipopes claimed the papal office over the next 200 years as a result of disputed elections or further struggles with secu¬ lar rulers. The principal age of the antipope came after the papal court was moved from Rome to Avignon in the 14th century (see Avignon papacy), an event that led to the Western Schism of 1378-1417. During this era, the popes now considered canonical were elected in Rome, and the antipopes were elected in Avignon.

Antirent War (1839-46) Civil protest by leaseholding farmers in upper New York state. Protesting outdated laws based on semifeudal leasehold¬ ing practices of the early Dutch estate owners, the leaseholders of Albany county in 1839 refused to pay back rent. The governor called out the mili¬ tia to quell the violence. Sporadic acts of resistance against rent and tax collection spread across the state, and in 1845 the governor declared mar¬ tial law. In 1846 a new state constitution abolished the leasehold system.

antiseptic Any of a variety of agents applied to living tissue to destroy or inhibit growth of infectious microorganisms. An antiseptic’s efficiency depends on concentration, time, and temperature. It is most valuable in the disinfection of contaminated wounds or skin surfaces when a wide margin exists between the concentration at which it is germicidal and that at which it is toxic to the body’s cells. Many antiseptics destroy specific types or forms of microorganisms (e.g., bacteria but not spores). Among the major families of antiseptics are alcohols, phenols, chlorine and iodine compounds, MERCURY-based tinctures, certain acridine dyes, and some essen¬ tial oils. Antiseptics are distinguished from disinfectants, which are ger¬ micidal agents used to destroy microorganisms on inanimate surfaces. See also ANTIBIOTIC.

antitank weapon Any of several guns, missiles, and mines intended for use against tanks. Land mines, ordinary artillery, and other projectiles were used to destroy tanks in World War I. By World War II antitank guns had been developed; they frequently fired special ammunition such as the hollow charge shell, which exploded on impact with great penetrating force. Various antitank missiles and launching devices, including the bazooka, were also used in the war.

antitoxin Antibody formed in the body in reaction to a bacterial toxin, which it can neutralize. People who have recovered from bacterial dis¬ eases often develop specific antitoxins that give them immunity against recurrence. Injecting an animal (usually a horse) with increasing doses of toxin produces a high concentration of antitoxin in the blood. The result¬ ing highly concentrated preparation of antitoxins is called an antiserum. The first antitoxin developed (1890) was specific to diphtheria; today, anti¬ toxins are also used to treat botulism, dysentery, gas gangrene, and tetanus.

antitrust law Any law restricting business practices that are consid¬ ered unfair or monopolistic. Among U.S. laws, the best known is the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890, which declared illegal “every contract,

Antiochus III, coin, late 3rd-early 2nd century bc; in the British Museum.

COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM; PHOTOGRAPH, J.R. FREEMAN & CO. LTD.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

antiion ► Antwerp I 85

combination.. .or conspiracy in restraint of trade or commerce.” The Clay¬ ton Antitrust Act of 1914, as amended in 1936 by the Robinson-Patman Act, prohibits discrimination among customers through prices or other means; it also prohibits mergers or acquisitions whenever the effect may be “to substantially lessen competition.” Labour unions are also subject to antitrust laws.

antiion Insect (family Myrmeleontidae) known in its larval stage for its aggressive capture of prey. The ant- lion larva digs a funnel-shaped sandy pit by using its oval, bristled abdomen, then buries itself in the pit with only its powerful jaws uncov¬ ered. Any small insect that ventures over the pit’s edge slips to the bot¬ tom and is seized by the antiion, which sucks the contents of its vic¬ tim and throws out the empty skin.

The adult antiion does not feed. The best known of the 65 described spe¬ cies occurs in North America and Europe.

Antofagasta \,an-t6-fa-'gas-ta\ Seaport (pop., 1999: est.: 243,038), capital of Antofagasta region, northern Chile. Located on Moreno Bay, it was a Bolivian city until it was taken by Chile in 1879 (see War of the Pacific). Its early growth resulted from the nitrate boom that began in 1866 and from the Caracoles silver discovery in 1870. The largest city of north¬ ern Chile, it remains a supply source for the mines and is a communica¬ tions centre on the Pan-American Highway.

Antonello da Messina X.an-to-'nel-o-da-ma-'se-noV (b. c. 1430, Mes¬ sina, Sicily—d. c. Feb. 19, 1479,

Messina) Italian painter. Trained in Naples, then a cosmopolitan art cen¬ tre, he studied the Flemish artists, notably Jan van Eyck. Based on these experiences, when he returned to Venice he introduced oil painting and Flemish pictorial techniques into mid-15th-century Venetian art. His major works were altarpieces and portraits. In Venice he executed the San Cassiano altarpiece, of which three fragments remain. His portrait busts in three-quarter view, combin¬ ing Flemish detail with Italian gran¬ deur, became fashionable.

Antonello’s practice of building form with colour rather than line and shade greatly influenced the subse¬ quent development of Venetian painting. See also Venetian school.

Antonescu V.an-to-'nes-kiA, Ion (b. June 15, 1882, Pitesti, Rom.—d.

June 1, 1946, near Jilava) Romanian marshal. He served in World War I and later became chief of staff (1934) and minister of defense (1937). Appointed prime minister in 1940, he established a fascist dictatorship and openly supported the Axis Powers. Initially he won broad support for his domestic reforms and declaration of war against the Soviet Union (1941), but that support eroded. His regime was overthrown in 1944, and he was later executed as a war criminal.

Antonine Wall Roman frontier barrier in Britain. It ran 37 mi (59 km) across Scotland between the River Clyde and the Firth of Forth. Ordered by Antoninus Pius and built in ad 142 by the governor of Britain, it was about 15 ft (5 m) wide and 10 ft (3 m) high; a ditch 40 ft (12 m) wide and 12 ft (4 m) deep ran in front of it and a road behind. It was controlled by 19 forts spaced at intervals of 2 mi (3 km). Its construction moved the northern boundary of Roman Britain into Scotland, providing defense against the northern tribes beyond Hadrian's Wall, which lay to the south. The wall was abandoned by 196, but traces remain.

Antoninus Pius X.an-to-'nI-nos-'pI-osX in full Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius (b. Sept. 19, 86, Lanuvium, Latium— d. March 7, 161, Lorium, Etruria) Roman emperor (ad 138—

161). Of Gallic origins, he served as consul (120) before being assigned judicial administrative duties in Italy.

He later governed the province of Asia (c. 134). He became an adviser to Hadrian and in 138 was made Hadrian’s heir. On accession he had the deceased emperor declared a god; for such dutiful acts he was named Pius (“Pious”). He quelled rebellions in Britain and other prov¬ inces and built the Antonine Wall.

Antonioni X.an-.to-ne-'o-neV Michelangelo (b. Sept. 29, 1912,

Ferrara, Italy) Italian film director and producer. He wrote film reviews and studied filmmaking before directing his short film The People of the Po Valley (1947). His first majoi Antoninus Pius, marble bust; in the Brit- film, The Girl Friends (1955), was j s h Museum, followed by the international sue- reproduced by courtesy of the trustees of the

cesses L’avventura (1960), Eclipse BRmSHMUSEUM _

(1962), and Blow-up (1966). His

other films include The Red Desert (1964), Zabriskie Point (1970), and The Passenger (1974). In Antonioni’s films, plot and dialogue are sub¬ ordinated to the visual image, which becomes a metaphor of human exist¬ ence rather than a record of it.

Antony, Mark Latin Marcus Antonius (b. c. 83—d. August, 30 bc) Roman general. After military service (57-54), he joined the staff of his relative Julius Caesar. He helped Caesar drive Pompey from Italy in 49 and in 44 was made co-consul. After Caesar’s assassination, Octavian (later Caesar Augustus) initially opposed Antony but later formed the Second Triumvirate with Antony and Lepidus. Antony helped defeat republican forces at Philippi and took control of Rome’s eastern provinces.

On a mission to Egypt to question Cleopatra about her loyalty, he became her lover (41-40). He returned to Italy in 40 to settle dif¬ ferences with Octavian, whereupon he received command of the eastern provinces. To strengthen his posi¬ tion, he agreed to marry Octavian’s sister Octavia. When relations with Octavian again collapsed, he headed for Syria and sent for Cleopatra for aid. Octavian sent Octavia to him, and, when Antony ordered her back to Rome, a fatal breach opened. The Triumvirate ended in 32, leaving Antony little support in Rome. He divorced Octavia, and Octavian declared war on Cleopatra. Antony lost the Battle of Actium, and he and Cleopatra fled to Egypt, pursued by Octa¬ vian. When resistance became futile, they committed suicide.

Antrim Town and district (pop., 2001: 48,366), Northern Ireland. It is also the name of a former Northern Irish county. The town borders Lough Neagh. In 1798 it was the scene of a battle in which several thousand nationalist insurgents led by Henry J. McCracken were defeated by the British. A busy market centre, Antrim town was formerly an important locale for the linen industry. The area has evidence of human inhabita¬ tion dating to c. 6000 bc. Anglo-Norman adventurers arrived in the 12th century ad, and the area became part of the earldom of Ulster. The inva¬ sion by Edward Bruce from Scotland in 1315 caused the decline of Brit¬ ish power. In the 1973 administrative reorganization of Northern Ireland, the county was divided into several districts.

Antwerp French Anvers \a n -'ver\ Flemish Antwerpen \'ant-,ver-p9n\ City (pop., 2000 est.: 446,500), capital of Antwerp prov¬ ince, Belgium. One of the world’s major seaports, it is located 55 mi (88 km) southeast of the North Sea. Because it lies in the Flemish-speaking part of Belgium, it plays the role of unofficial capital of Flanders. It

Antiion

WILLIAM E. FERGUSON

"Portrait of a Man," panel painting by Antonello da Messina, c. 1472; in the National Gallery, London.

COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY, LONDON

Mark Antony, detail of a marble bust; in the Vatican Museum.

AUNARI/ART RESOURCE

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

86 I antyesti ► Apache

received municipal rights in 1291 and became a member of the Hanseatic League by 1315. As a distribution centre for Spanish and Portuguese trade, it became the commercial and financial capital of Europe in the 16th cen¬ tury. Following destructive invasions it went into decline but began to revive after Napoleon’s improvement of the harbour c. 1803. It was part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815-30), then was ceded to Belgian nationalists. Its current economic life centres around shipping, port-related activities, and major manufacturing.

antyesti \ant-'yes-te\ Hindu funeral rites. They generally involve cre¬ mation followed by disposal of the ashes in a sacred river. As soon as possible after death, the body is removed to the cremation grounds, usu¬ ally on the riverbank. The eldest son of the deceased and a priest perform the final rites. For 10 days, the mourners are considered impure as they perform rites intended to provide the soul of the deceased with a new spiritual body for the next life. At a prescribed date, the bones are col¬ lected and buried or immersed in a river.

Anu Va-.niA Mesopotamian sky god. He belonged to a triad that included Bel and Ea. Though he was the highest god, his role in mythology, hymns, and cult was small. The father of all gods, evil spirits, and demons, and the god of kings and the calendar, he was depicted with headdress and horns signifying strength. His Sumerian counterpart, An, was originally envisaged as a great bull; he probably began as a god of herders.

Anu Va-.nuV, Chao (b. 1767—d. 1835, Bangkok, Siam) Ruler of the central Lao kingdom of Vientiane (r. 1804-29). In his youth Anu fought with the Siamese against the Burmans (Burmese) and won Siamese respect for his military prowess. Chosen by them to be king of Vientiane, he undertook major public works and cultivated good relations with Viet¬ nam. He had the Siamese appoint his son ruler of the southern Lao prin¬ cipality of Champassak and began to plot a rebellion for Lao independence. His armies nearly reached Bangkok, but the revolt was quelled and Vientiane was sacked and later razed. Anu fled to the forests but was captured, punished, and killed.

Anubis Xo-'nii-bosX Ancient Egyptian god of the dead, represented as a jackal or as a man with the head of a jackal. In the Early Dynastic period and the Old Kingdom he was preeminent as lord of the dead, but he was later overshadowed by Osiris. Anubis was associated with the care of the dead and was credited with the invention of embalming, an art he first practiced on the corpse of Osiris. Later assigned the role of conducting souls into the underworld, he was sometimes identified in the Greco- Roman world with Hermes.

Anuradhapura Xo-'nur-o-do-.pur-oV (c. 3rd century Bc-10th century ad) Sinhalese kingdom centred at Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka. Though plagued by invasions from southern India (which took actual control of the kingdom several times) and internal strife among warring clans, the kingdom of Anuradhapura developed a high degree of culture. Its com¬ plex irrigation system is often considered its major achievement. The modern city of Anuradhapura (pop. 2001 prelim.: 56,632) contains vast Buddhist ruins and a bo tree grown from a slip of the tree under which the historical Buddha is said to have reached Enlightenment.

Anvers See Antwerp

anvil Iron block on which metal is placed for shaping, originally by hand with a hammer. The blacksmith’s anvil is usually of wrought iron (some¬ times of cast iron), with a smooth working surface of hardened steel. A projecting conical beak, or horn, at one end is used for hammering curved pieces of metal. When power hammers are used, the anvil is supported on a heavy block, which in turn rests on a strong foundation of timber and masonry or concrete. See also smithing.

anxiety In psychology, a feeling of dread, fear, or apprehension, often with no clear justification. Anxiety differs from true fear in that it is typi¬ cally the product of subjective, internal emotional states rather than a response to a clear and actual danger. It is marked by physiological signs such as sweating, tension, and increased pulse, by doubt concerning the reality and nature of the perceived threat, and by self-doubt about one’s capacity to cope with it. Some anxiety inevitably arises in the course of daily life and is normal; but persistent, intense, chronic, or recurring anxi¬ ety not justified by real-life stresses is usually regarded as a sign of an emotional disorder. See also stress.

Anzio \'ant-se-,6\ Seaport and resort town (pop., 2001 prelim.: 36,468) southeast of Rome, Italy. It was founded, according to legend, by Ante-

ias, son of Odysseus and Circe. It was a stronghold of the Volsci in the 5th century bc. Conquered by Rome in 338 bc, Antium (as it was then known) became a resort for wealthy Romans. Nero and Caligula were born there. Destroyed by the Saracens in the 9th-10th centuries, it remained virtu¬ ally deserted until 1698, when Pope Innocent XII built a new port nearby. In 1944 it was the scene of a bloody but successful amphibious landing by Allied forces during World War II.

ANZUS Pact officially Pacific Security Treaty Security pact for the South Pacific, signed in 1951 by Australia, New Zealand, and the U.S. (hence its acronym). The U.S. first suggested a pact to Australia in the wake of the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty and fears of Japanese rearmament. The signatories agreed to maintain a consultative relationship for their collective security. In the 1980s New Zealand refused to let ships carry¬ ing nuclear weapons dock at its ports; the U.S., refusing to identify its nuclear-armed ships, suspended its treaty obligations to New Zealand in 1986, and the treaty has since been nonoperative with reference to New Zealand.

aorta Artery that carries blood from the heart to all the organs and struc¬ tures of the body. Where the left ventricle opens into the aorta, a valve prevents backflow of blood into the heart. The aorta ascends from the heart, arches over it to the left, then descends into the trunk. Arteries branch off along its length until it divides at hip level into arteries that go to the legs.

aorta, coarctation of the Congenital disorder involving narrowing of a short section of the aorta’s arch over the heart. It causes a charac¬ teristic murmur, abnormally high blood pressure in the arms, and reduced blood flow to the abdomen, pelvis, and legs. It increases the workload of the left ventricle, which usually becomes enlarged. Surgical reconstruc¬ tion or replacement (depending on the person’s age) of the narrowed area is most effective in the young.

Aosta \a-'os-ta\ City (pop., 2001: 33,926), capital of Valle d' Aosta region, northwestern Italy. Located at the juncture of the Great and Little St. Bernard Pass roads through the Alps, it was a stronghold of the Salassi, a Celtic tribe subdued by the Romans in 25 bc. A Roman town was founded there by Augustus in 24 bc, and many Roman structures survive, including the walls, two gates, and a triumphal arch in honour of Augus¬ tus. Aosta was the birthplace of St. Anselm.

AP See Associated Press

Apache North American Indians of the southwestern U.S. Their name is a Zuni word meaning “enemy.” Most Apaches live on five reservations in Arizona and New Mexico, U.S. Culturally, the Apache are divided into Eastern Apache, which include the Mescalero, Jicarilla, Chiricahua, and

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Apamea Cibotus ► aphorism I 87

Lipan, and Western Apache, which include the Cibecue. The Eastern Apache were predominantly hunting and gathering societies, while their Western counterparts relied more on farming. Their ancestors had come down from the north, as is evident from their languages; Apachean lan¬ guages are distantly related to other Athabascan languages spoken in Canada. They settled the Plains, but with the introduction of the horse they were pressed south and west by the Comanche and Ute. They attempted to befriend the Spanish, the Mexicans, and later the U.S. In 1861, however, there began a quarter-century confrontation between U.S. military forces and the Apache and Navajo. The Apache wars were among the fiercest fought on the frontier. The last ended in 1886 with the sur¬ render of Geronimo. The Chiricahua Apache were evacuated from the West and held successively in Florida, Alabama, and Oklahoma. In the 2000 U.S. census some 57,000 people claimed sole Apache descent. See also Cochise.

Apamea Cibotus V.a-po-'me-o-si-'bo-tosX City of Hellenistic Phrygia, near modern Dinar, Turkey. The city was built by Antiochus I (Antiochus Soter) in the 3rd century bc on the Maeander (Menderes) River. Super¬ seding the fortress city of Celaenae, it was placed in a commanding posi¬ tion on the great east-west trade route of the Seleucid dynasty. In the 2nd century bc Apamea passed to the rule of the Roman Republic and Empire and became an important centre for Italian and Jewish traders. Declining after the 3rd century ad, it was captured by Turkish invaders in 1070 and there¬ after was destroyed by an earthquake.

apartheid \o-'par-,tat\ (Afrikaans: “apartness” or “separateness”) Policy of racial segregation and political and economic discrimination against non-European groups in South Africa. The term was first used as the name of the official policy of the National Party in 1948, though racial segregation, sanctioned by law, was already widely practiced. The Group Areas Act of 1950 established residential and business sectors in urban areas for each “race” and strengthened the existing “pass” laws, which required non whites to carry identification papers. Other laws forbade most social contacts between those of European descent and others, authorized segregated public facilities, established separate educational standards, restricted each group to certain types of jobs, curtailed nonwhite labour unions, denied nonwhite participation in the national government, and established various black African “homelands,” partly self-governing units that were nevertheless politically and economically dependent on South Africa. These so-called homelands were not recognized by inter¬ national governments. Apartheid was always subject to internal criticism and led to many violent protests, strikes, and acts of sabotage; it also received international censure. In 1990-91 most apartheid legislation was repealed, but segregation continued on a de facto basis. In 1993 a new constitution enfranchised blacks and other racial groups, and all-race national elections in 1994 produced a coalition government with a black majority. These developments marked the end of legislated apartheid, though not of its entrenched social and economic effects. See also Afri¬ can National Congress; racism.

apatite A member of the phosphate group of minerals, the world’s major source of phosphorus, found as variously coloured, glassy crystals, masses, or nodules. Much of it has a chemical composition approximat¬ ing Ca 5 (P0 4 ) 3 (F,Cl,OH). If not for its softness, apatite would be a popu¬ lar gemstone; some of the material found is clear, but it is fragile and difficult to cut and polish.

Apatosaurus Vo-.pa-to-'sor-osX Genus of giant herbivorous dinosaur, one of the largest land animals of all time. Apatosaurus lived between 147 million and 137 million years ago during the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous Periods in North America and Europe. It weighed as much as 30 tons and was as long as 70 ft (21 m), including the very long neck and tail. Formerly known as Brontosaurus because of incomplete fossil evi¬ dence, its head was depicted until 1978 as massive and snub-nosed, with spoonlike teeth; scientists now know the animal had a slender, elongated skull and long, peglike teeth. Skeletal evidence indicates that, despite their great bulk, apatosaurs were primarily land animals.

ape Any of the tailless primates known as the lesser apes (gibbons and siamangs; family Hylobatidae) or the great apes (chimpanzees, bonobos, orangutans, and gorillas; family Hominidae). Apes are found in the tropi¬ cal forests of western and central Africa and South Asia. They are distin¬ guished from monkeys by having no tail, having an appendix, and having a more complex brain. Apes typically move about by swinging or knuckle- walking, though they are capable of standing erect and occasionally walk

on two feet. Highly intelligent animals, apes are very closely related to humans, who are also categorized by zoologists as members of Homi¬ nidae. As a result of habitat destruction and hunting, all the apes are now regarded as endangered.

APEC in full Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Trade group established in 1989 in response to the growing interdependence of Asia- Pacific economies and the advent of regional economic blocs (such as the European Union and the North American Free Trade Area) in other parts of the world. APEC works to raise living standards and education levels through sustainable economic growth and to foster a sense of community and an appreciation of shared interests among Asia-Pacific countries. At the end of the 1990s APEC’s membership included its 12 founding members—Australia, Brunei, Canada, Indonesia, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and the United States—as well as Chile, China, Hong Kong, Mexico, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Russia, Taiwan, and Vietnam. The Pacific Economic Coop¬ eration Council, the South Pacific Forum, and the secretariat of the Asso¬ ciation of Southeast Asian Nations maintain observer status. The APEC group represents about 40% of the world’s population, 40% of global trade, and 50% of the world’s gross national product. See also NAFTA; trade agreement; World Trade Organization.

a pel la \3-'pe-b\ Ancient Spartan assembly, similar to the Ecclesia of other Greek states. The apella, whose monthly meetings were open to citizens over age 30, did not initiate proposals. It could only consider matters submitted by the ephors or the gerousia. Voting was by shouts. Its business included treaties, wars, and succession; it named commanders, elected elders and ephors, and voted on changes in the laws.

Apelles \3-'pe-,lez\ (fl. late 4th century-early 3rd century bc) Greek painter. He studied under Pamphilus and was court painter to Philip II of Macedonia and his son, Alexander the Great. Notable works included a portrait of Alexander, an allegorical picture of Calumny, and a painting of Aphrodite rising from the sea. A master of composition and chiaroscuro, he was noted for his technical improvements; he used a dark glaze to pre¬ serve his paintings and soften their colour. Though no copies of his works survive, in antiquity he was considered the greatest of Greek painters.

Apennines Va-p9- l nlnz\ Mountain range, central Italy. It stretches some 840 mi (1,350 km) from near Savona in the northwest to Reggio di Cal¬ abria in the south, its width varying from 25 to 80 mi (40-130 km). Monte Corno is its highest peak, at 9,560 ft (2,915 m). The range is the source of most of Italy’s rivers, including the Arno, Tiber, Voltumo, and Gari- gliano. It is famous for its hill towns, including Florence, Arezzo, L'Aquila, and Benevento.

Apgar Score System Rating procedure to identify newborns need¬ ing life-sustaining medical assistance. It was developed in 1952 by Vir¬ ginia Apgar (1909-1974). Five signs, keyed to Apgar’s name— Appearance (color), Pulse, Grimace (reflex irritability), Activity (muscle tone), and Respiration—measure adaptation to leaving the uterus. The maximum score is 10. If the total score at one and then five minutes after birth is less than 7, the infant is reevaluated every five minutes for 20 minutes or until two consecutive scores of 7 or more are obtained.

aphasia \9-'fa-zh9\ or dysphasia \dis-'fa-zho\ Defect in the expres¬ sion and comprehension of words, caused by damage to the frontal and temporal lobes of the brain. It can result from head trauma, tumour, stroke, or infection. Symptoms vary with the brain area involved, and the ability to put words in a meaningful order may be lost. Speech therapy may be useful. In some cases, improvement may be due to assumption of some language functions by other areas of the brain.

aphid Va-fod', a-fod\ Any of several species of sapsucking, soft-bodied insects (order Homoptera) that are about the size of a pinhead, with tube¬ like projections on the abdomen. Serious plant pests, they stunt plant growth, produce plant galls, transmit plant viral diseases, and deform leaves, buds, and flowers. Ants may take care of aphids, protecting them from weather and natural enemies and transferring them from wilted to healthy plants. The ants in turn obtain honeydew, a sweet product excreted by aphids, which the ants retrieve by “milking” the aphids (stroking their abdomens).

aphorism Terse formulation of any generally accepted truth or senti¬ ment conveyed in a pithy, memorable statement. The term was first used in the Aphorisms of Hippocrates, a long series of propositions concerning disease and the art of healing. Aphorisms were used especially in dealing

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88 I aphrodisiac ► Apollo

with subjects for which principles and methodology developed relatively late, including art, agriculture, medicine, jurisprudence, and politics, but in the modern era they have usually been vehicles of wit and pithy wis¬ dom. Celebrated modern aphorists include Friedrich Nietzsche and Oscar Wilde.

aphrodisiac X.a-fro-'de-ze-.akA Any of various forms of stimulation thought to arouse sexual excitement. They may be psychophysiological (arousing the senses of sight, touch, smell, or hearing) or internal (e.g., foods, alcoholic drinks, drugs, love potions, medicinal preparations). Most foods traditionally believed to be aphrodisiacs have no chemical compo¬ nents that would have such an effect. In some cases, their reputation may be based on a supposed resemblance to genitalia (e.g., ginseng root, rhi¬ noceros horn). Drugs such as alcohol or marijuana may lead to sexual excitation by lessening the user’s inhibitions. Few medical studies have been conducted; the only substances medically recognized as aphrodisi¬ acs are extremely hazardous to the health.

Aphrodite \,a-fr3-'dl-te\ Greek goddess of sexual love and beauty. She is also associated with the sea and, according to legend, was born of sea foam arising from the genitals of Uranus. Sparta, Thebes, and Cyprus honored her as a goddess of war. Many scholars believe that her cult is Semitic rather than Greek in origin. According to Homer, she was the daughter of Zeus and his consort Dione, and she married Hephaestus but betrayed him with Ares. She had many mortal lovers. Her main centres of worship were on the islands of Cyprus and Cythera and at Corinth. As a fertility goddess, she is associated with Eros, the Graces, and the Horae (seasons). Venus is her Roman counterpart.

Apia \a-'pe-a\ Seaport town (pop., 2001: 38,836) and capital, Samoa. It lies on the northern coast of Upolu Island. Its economy centres on the export of goods to American Samoa. Robert Louis Stevenson is buried at nearby Mount Vaea; Vailima, his former home, is now the residence of the head of state.

apiculture See beekeeping

Apis \'a-p3s\ In ancient Egyptian religion, a sacred bull deity worshiped at Memphis. The cult originated at least as early as the 1st dynasty (c.

2925-c. 2775 bc). Apis was probably at first a fertility god but became associated with Ptah and also with Osiris and Sokaris, gods of the dead.

When an Apis bull died, it was bur¬ ied with great pomp, and the calf that was to be its successor was installed at Memphis. Apis’s priests drew omens from the bull’s behaviour, and his oracle had a wide reputation. The worship of Serapis (a combination of Osiris and Apis) probably arose at Memphis in the 3rd century bc and became one of the most widespread Oriental cults in the Roman Empire.