Britannica Concise 2005 - читать бесплатно онлайн полную версию книги автора Encyclopedia Britannica (ч. 125)

Tango danced by Rudolph Valentino and partner from the motion picture Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse,

1921

tank ► Tanzania I 1871

tank Heavily armed and armoured combat vehicle that moves on two continuous metal chains called tracks. It is usually equipped with a can¬ non mounted in a revolving turret as well as lighter automatic weapons. The British developed tanks during World War I to fill the need for an armoured assault vehicle that could cross the muddy, uneven terrain of the trench battle zone. They first saw combat at the Battle of the Somme (1916). In World War II, Germany’s tank force was initially the most effective in Europe because it was organized into fast-moving massed formations with great striking power. After World War II, tanks became larger and more heavily armed. Most modern main battle tanks weigh more than 50 tons yet are capable of road speeds of 30-40 mph (50-70 kph). The standard main armament is a 120-mm gun, which fires armour- piercing projectiles; laser range-finders and infrared imaging devices aid in sighting.

Tannenberg Vta-non-.berkN, Battle of (July 15, 1410) Major Polish- Lithuanian victory over the Knights of the Teutonic Order. Fought near the villages of Griinfelde and Tannenberg in northeastern Poland (for¬ merly East Prussia), the battle marked the end of the order’s expansion along the southeastern coast of the Baltic Sea and the beginning of the decline of its power.

Tannenberg Vta-non-.berkV, Battle of (August 26-30, 1914) Battle in World War I between Germany and Russia in modem northeastern Poland. Two Russian armies invaded German East Prussia but became separated. German forces under Paul von Hindenburg attacked one of the isolated armies and forced its retreat, inflicting Russian casualties of over 30,000 and capturing over 90,000 men. German casualties were about 13,000. The battle was disastrous for Russia, but it forced Germany to divert troops from the attack on France.

Tanner, Henry Ossawa (b. June 21, 1859, Pittsburgh, Pa., U.S.—d. May 25, 1937, Paris, France) U.S. painter. He studied under Thomas Eakins at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, where he was the only black student. He moved to Paris in 1891, and by 1894 his work was being exhib¬ ited at the annual Salons, where he was awarded honourable mention in 1896 for Daniel in the Lions’ Den and won a medal in 1897 for his Raising of Lazarus. He gained international acclaim and many awards for his land¬ scapes and his treatments of biblical themes. He was made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1923, and in 1927 he became the first African American granted full membership in the National Academy of Design.

Tannhauser Vtan-.hoi-zorX (b. c. 1200—d. c. 1270) German lyric poet and legendary hero. A professional minnesinger, Tannhauser served sev¬ eral noble patrons; a few of his works are extant. In the legend preserved in a popular ballad, “Danhauser,” he lives a life of pleasure but, torn by remorse, goes to Rome to seek remission of his sins. The pope tells him that, as his pilgrim’s staff would never put on leaf again, so his sins can never be forgiven. Shortly afterward his discarded staff puts forth green leaves. The pope sends messengers to search for him, but he is never seen again. The legend, popular among 19th-century Romantic writers, was retold in Richard Wagner’s opera Tannhauser (produced 1845).

tannin or tannic acid Any of a group of pale yellow to light brown amorphous substances widely distributed in plants and used chiefly in tanning leather, dyeing fabric, and making ink. Their solutions are acid and have an astringent taste. They are isolated from oak bark, sumac, myrobalan (an Asian tree), and galls. Tannins give tea astringency, colour, and some flavour. Tannins are used industrially to clarify wine and beer, reduce viscosity of oil-well drilling mud, and prevent scale in boiler water; they have also had medical uses.

tanning Chemical treatment of raw animal hides or skins to convert them into leather. Vegetable tanning (using bark, wood, roots, or berries) has been practiced since prehistoric times. After removal of hair, flesh, or fat, a tanning agent displaces water from the interstices between the pro¬ tein (mostly collagen) fibres in the skin and cements the fibres together. The agents most widely used are vegetable tannin, salts such as chromium sulfate, and fish or animal oil. The tanning of fair skin in humans by sun¬ light is completely different: ultraviolet light causes production and redis¬ tribution of the pigment melanin in epidermal cells.

tansy Vtan-ze\ Any of about 50 species of strong-smelling, poisonous herbs, especially common tansy ( Tanacetum vulgare, or Chrysanthemum vulgare), of the composite family, native to the northern temperate zone. T. vulgare has button-shaped yellow flower heads of disk flowers (no ray flowers) that are arranged in a flat-topped cluster, deeply cut leaves, and

many stems. It is sometimes cultivated in herb gardens and was formerly used in medicines and insecticides. See also chrysanthemum.

tantalum Vtan-t3-bm\ Metallic chemical element, one of the transition elements, chemical symbol Ta, atomic number 73. It is a dense, hard, unre¬ active, silvery gray metal with an extremely high melting point (5,425 °F [2,996 °C]). Relatively rare, it occurs native in a few places. It is difficult to separate from niobium, the element above it in the periodic table, with which it shares many properties. The most important uses are in electro¬ lytic capacitors, corrosion-resistant chemical equipment, dental and sur¬ gical instruments, tools, catalysts, components of electron tubes, rectifiers, and prostheses. Its compounds are relatively unimportant commercially; tantalum carbide is used in machine tools and dies.

Tantalus \'tan-t 3 l-os\ In Greek mythology, the king of Sipylus (or Phry¬ gia). An intimate friend of the gods, he was allowed to dine at their table until he offended them by repeating their secrets on earth. Another ver¬ sion of the myth held that he killed his son Pelops and served him to the gods. In the underworld he was placed up to his neck in water, which flowed away every time he tried to drink, just as the branches overhead swung out of reach whenever he tried to pick the fruit from them.

tantra Vton-troV In some Indian religions, a text that deals with esoteric aspects of religious teaching. There is considerable tantric literature and practice in Hinduism, Buddhism, and, to a lesser extent, Jainism. Because tantric practices typically represent teachings of relatively late develop¬ ment and incorporate elements of different traditions, they are often eschewed by orthodox practitioners. In Hinduism, tantras deal with popu¬ lar aspects of the religion, such as spells, rituals, and symbols. Buddhist tantric literature, believed to date from the 7th century or earlier, has ref¬ erence to numerous practices, some involving sexual activity, that have no basis in canonical literature.

Tanzania \,tan-z3-'ne-3\ officially United Republic of Tanzania

Country, eastern Africa. It is mostly on the African mainland but also includes the islands of Zanzibar, Pemba, and Mafia in the Indian Ocean.

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Area: 364,901 sq mi (945,090 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 36,766,000. Capi¬ tal: Dar es Salaam; Dodoma, designated. There are about 120 identifiable ethnic groups; the largest, the Sukuma, are about one-tenth of the population. Languages: Swahili, English (both official). Religions: Christianity (Protestant, Roman Catholic), Islam, traditional beliefs. Currency: Tanzanian shilling. Although most of Tanzania consists of plains and plateaus, it has some spectacular relief features, including Kil¬ imanjaro and 01 Doinyo Lengai, an active volcano. All or portions of Lakes Nyasa, Tanganyika, Victoria, and Rukwa lie within Tanzania, as do the head-

1872 I Tanzimat ► tapir

waters of the Nile, Congo, and Zambezi rivers. Serengeti National Park is the most famous of its extensive game reserves. Important mineral deposits include gold, diamonds, gemstones, coal, and natural gas. The centrally planned economy is based largely on agriculture; major crops include corn, rice, coffee, cloves, cotton, sisal, cashews, and tobacco. Industries include food processing, textiles, cement, and brewing. Tanzania is a republic with one legislative house; its head of state and government is the president. Inhabited from the 1st millennium bc, it was occupied by Arab and Indian traders and BANTU-speaking peoples by the 10th century ad. The Portuguese gained control of the coastline in the late 15th century, but they were driven out by the Arabs of Oman and Zanzibar in the late 18th century. German colonists entered the area in the 1880s, and in 1891 the Germans declared the region a protectorate as part of German East Africa. During World War I, Britain captured the German holdings, which became a British mandate (1920) under the name Tanganyika. Britain retained control of the region after World War II when it became a UN trust territory. Tanganyika gained independence in 1961 and became a republic in 1962. In 1964 it united with Zanzibar under the name Tanzania and was led by Pres. Julius Nyerere until 1985. The country subsequently experienced both political and economic struggles; it held its first multiparty elections in 1995.

Tanzimat \,tan-ze-'mat\ (Turkish: “Reorganization”) (1839-76) Series of reforms undertaken in the Ottoman Empire to modernize society along secular and bureaucratic lines. The first set of reforms (1839) sought to secularize the government’s treatment of people and property and to reform taxation and military conscription. Later reforms (1856) estab¬ lished a secular school system and a new law code. Efforts to centralize government administration, however, ended by concentrating all author¬ ity in the hands of the sultan, who often abused the power. The consti¬ tution of 1876, while promising democratic reforms, actually was intended to stave off European intervention. See also Abdulhamid II; Young Turks.

tao See dao

Tao Hongjing Vtau-'huq-'jiqX or T'ao Hung-ching (b. 451, Mo-ling, China—d. 536, Hua-yang) Chinese poet, calligrapher, physician, and naturalist. He became a tutor to the imperial court while still a youth. In 492 he retired to a mountain retreat at Mao Shan to devote himself to the study of Daoism. His research in proper eating and living practices led him to write one of the major pharmacological works of China. He also edited and annotated the religious writings of his major Daoist predeces¬ sors, producing Declarations of the Perfected and Secret Instructions for Ascent to Perfection.

Tao-te ching See Daodejing Taoism See Daoism

Taos \'taus\ Town (pop., 2000: 4,700) and resort, northern New Mexico, U.S. Located on a branch of the Rio Grande in the Sangre de Cristo Moun¬ tains, Taos is composed of three villages: Don Fernando de Taos (known as Taos), the pueblo of San Geronimo (Taos Pueblo), and the Ranchos de Taos. An early Spanish settlement, it was the scene of a revolt (1680) of Taos and other Pueblo Indians against Spain and later was an important commercial centre on the Santa Fe Trail. In the 20th century artists and writers moved there, including D.H. Lawrence. Lawrence’s home and that of Kit Carson are historic sites; Carson’s grave is in a memorial state park.

tap dance Style of American theatrical dance using precise rhythmical patterns of foot movement and audible foot tapping. It is derived from the traditional clog dance of northern England, the jigs and reels of Ireland and Scotland, and the rhythmic foot stamping of African dances. Popular in 19th-century minstrel shows, versions such as “buck-and-wing” (danced vigorously in wooden-soled shoes) and “soft-shoe” (danced smoothly in soft-soled shoes) developed as separate techniques; by 1925 they had merged, and metal taps were attached to shoe heels and toes to produce a more pronounced sound. The dance was also popular in variety shows and early musicals.

Tapajos \,ta-pa-'zh6s\ River River, northern Brazil. Formed by the confluence of the Teles Pires and the Juruena rivers, it flows northeast to empty into the Amazon River just above Santarem after a course of about 400 mi (650 km). Though interrupted by rapids, its entire length is navi¬ gable. Several important rubber plantations lie along its banks.

tapas Vt3-p3s\ Ascetic practice carried out to achieve spiritual power or purification. In Hinduism, it is associated with Yoga as a way of purifying

the body in preparation for the more exacting spiritual exercises leading to liberation. In Jainism, its practice is a central means of breaking the cycle of rebirths by preventing new karma from forming and by eliminating the old. Tapas can take many forms, including fasting, controlling the breath, and holding difficult and painful body postures. Extreme forms are car¬ ried out by sadhus, many of whom earn alms for their unusual abilities or deprivations.

tape recorder Recording system that makes use of electromagnetic phenomena to record and reproduce sound waves. The tape consists of a plastic backing coated with a thin layer of tiny particles of magnetic pow¬ der. The recording head of the tape deck consists of a tiny C-shaped mag¬ net with its gap adjacent to the moving tape. The incoming sound wave, having been converted by a microphone into an electrical signal, produces a time-varying magnetic field in the gap of the magnet. As the tape moves past the recording head, the powder is magnetized in such a way that the tape carries a record of the shape of the wave being recorded.

tapestry Heavy, reversible, patterned or figured hand-woven textile, usually in the form of a hanging or upholstery fabric. Tapestries are usu¬ ally designed as single panels or as sets of panels related by subject and style and intended to be hung together. The earliest known tapestries were made from linen by the ancient Egyptians. Tapestry weaving was well established in Peru by the 6th century, and outstanding silk tapestries were made in China beginning in the Tang dynasty (ad 618-907). In western Europe, tapestry making flourished from the 13th century. Among the greatest European tapestries are the 15th-century Lady with the Unicorn set and the 16th-century Acts of the Apostles set, based on cartoons by Raphael. Tapestry art was revitalized in late-19th-century Britain with the Arts and Crafts Movement. In the 20th century, abstract tapestries were produced at the Bauhaus, and many painters, including Pablo Picasso and Henri Matisse, allowed their paintings to provide the basis for tapestry art.

tapeworm Any of about 3,000 species (class Cestoda, phylum Platy- helminthes) of bilaterally symmetrical parasitic flatworms found world¬ wide. Tapeworms range from 0.04 in. (1 mm) to more than 50 ft (15 m) long. The head bears suckers and often hooks for attaching to the liver or digestive tract of the host. Once attached, a tapeworm absorbs food through its body wall. The body is often divided into a head, or scolex, possessing the suckers and hooks, an unsegmented neck, and a series of proglottids (units containing both male and female reproductive organs) that continually form in a growth region at the base of the neck. Follow¬ ing fertilization, each mature proglottid containing thousands of embryos breaks off and is eliminated in the host’s feces. If these are ingested by an animal (the intermediate host) grazing on food contaminated with feces, they develop into larvae, which bore through the intestinal wall into the circulatory system and are carried to muscle tissues, which they bur¬ row into, forming a dormant cyst. When meat is inadequately cooked, humans become infested with the larvae, which attach to the intestinal wall. Many species that infest humans belong to the genus Taenia', the intermediate host is implied by the name (e.g., beef tapeworm, T. sagi- nata ). Humans can also acquire tapeworms through fecal contamination of soil or water. See illustration on the following page.

Tapi \'ta-pe\ River or Tapti River Vtap-te\ River, west-central India. It flows west from the mountains of Madhya Pradesh to the Gulf of Kham¬ bhat and the Arabian Sea. It is about 435 mi (700 km) long and largely unnavigable.

Tapies \'tap-yes\, Antoni (b. Dec. 13, 1923, Barcelona, Spain) Catalan painter. In 1946 he abandoned the study of law to devote his time to paint¬ ing, which he taught himself. His early works were influenced by Surreal¬ ism, Paul Klee, and Joan Miro. In 1953, after seeing the works of Jean Dubuffet, he developed a unique blend of abstraction, assemblage, and impasto that established his interna¬ tional reputation. He has produced lithographs and illustrated books; his belief in the validity of commonplace materials has had worldwide influ¬ ence. In 1990 the Tapies Foundation, housing some 2,000 of his works, opened in Barcelona.

tapir Vta-p9r\ Any of four extant members (genus Tapirus ) of the fam¬ ily Tapiridae, heavy-bodied, odd¬ toed ungulates, 6-8 ft (1.8-2.5 m)

Tappan ► Tarantino I 1873

rostellum scolex

Principal features of the beef tapeworm (Taenia saginata). The head, or scolex, con¬ tains suckers and hooks for attaching to the host. A series of reproductive organs (proglottids) continually form at the base of the neck, and following fertilization they mature and break off. Each proglottid, eliminated in the host's feces, contains thou¬ sands of embryos to continue the life cycle.

long and up to 3 ft (1 m) high. They have short ears and legs and a fleshy snout overhanging the upper lip. The feet have three functional toes. Body hair is usually short and sparse, but two species have a short, bristly mane. The Malayan tapir ( T. indicus) has a black head, shoulders, and legs and white rump, back, and belly. The single Central and two South American species are plain brown or gray. Tapirs inhabit the deep forest or swamp.

Tappan \’tap-on \, Arthur (b. May 22, 1786, Northampton, Mass., U.S.—d. July 23, 1865, New Haven, Conn.) U.S. merchant and philan¬ thropist. He operated various businesses, including a silk-importing firm in New York (1826-37) with his brother Lewis Tappan (1788-1873); they also founded the first commercial credit-rating service (1841). He used his wealth to support missionary societies and the abolitionist crusade, helping found the American Anti-Slavery Society and serving as its first president (1833-40). After breaking with William Lloyd Garrison, he cre¬

ated the American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society (1840). The Tappan brothers later supported the Underground Railroad.

taproot Main root of a primary-root system. It grows vertically down¬ ward. From the taproot arise smaller lateral roots (secondary roots), which in turn produce even smaller lateral roots (tertiary roots). Most dicotyle¬ donous plants (see cotyledon), such as dandelions, produce taproots. The system may be modified into a fibrous, or diffuse, system, in which the initial secondary roots soon equal or exceed the primary root in size and there is no well-defined single taproot. Fibrous root systems are generally shallower than taproot systems. Carrots and beets are tuberous roots modi¬ fied from taproots.

Tapti River See Tapi River

taqiyyah \to-'ke-3\ In Islam, the practice of concealing one’s faith and forgoing ordinary religious duties under threat of death or injury to one¬ self or one’s fellow Muslims. Its basis is found in the Qur’an, and Muham¬ mad is regarded as having set its first example when he chose to make the Hijrah. It has since been practiced mostly among minority groups, par¬ ticularly those of the ShTite branch. Various rules governing its applica¬ tion are meant to ensure that taqiyyah does not become an excuse for cowardice or for failure to take appropriate action. Consideration of com¬ munity rather than private welfare is generally stressed.

taqlld \ta-'kled\ In Islamic canon law, the unquestioning acceptance of legal precedent. The interpretation of taqlid varies widely among the major schools of Islamic law. Taqlld is compulsory for Shi*ites. Of the four Sunnite legal schools, views are mixed; most scholars of the ShafiT, MalikI, and Hanafi schools embrace taqlld, but those of the Hanbal! do not view the opinions of earlier scholars as necessarily binding. Support for the practice is based mainly on the belief that early Muslim scholars, being closer in time to Muhammad, were in the best position to derive authoritative legal opinions.

tar sand or bituminous sand Deposit of loose sand or partially consolidated sandstone that is saturated with highly viscous bitumen. Oil recovered from tar sands, commonly referred to as synthetic crude, is a potentially significant form of fossil fuel. The largest known deposits of tar sands occur in Canada’s Athabasca River valley, where commercial projects for synthetic oil production from tar sands are being carried out.

Tara \'ta-ra\ In Buddhism, a saviour-goddess with numerous forms. Her worship is widely popular in Nepal,

Tibet, and Mongolia. She is the femi¬ nine counterpart of Avalokitesvara.

She came into existence when his tear fell to the ground and formed a lake; out of its waters rose a lotus, which, on opening, revealed the god¬ dess. She is the protector of naviga¬ tion and earthly travel, as well as of spiritual travel along the path to enlightenment. In art she typically holds a lotus and has a third eye. She is represented in various colours, sig¬ nifying different aspects of her pow¬ ers.

Tarabulus See Tripoli (Lebanon) and Tripoli (Libya)

Tarai or Terai \t3-'rl\ Region of northern India and southern Nepal. It runs parallel to the lower ranges of the Himalayas and stretches from the Yamuna River to the Brahmaputra River. Numerous springs at its north¬ ern edge form several streams, including the Ghaghara River, that intersect the region and give it its marshy character. Much of the area’s marshland, once malarial, has been drained and put under cultivation.

Tarantino, Quentin (b. March 27, 1963, Knoxville, Tenn., U.S.) U.S. director and screenwriter. He worked in a video store in California before selling two screenplays that became True Romance (1993) and Oliver Stone’s Natural Born Killers (1994). He made his directing debut with Reservoir Dogs (1993). His controversial Pulp Fiction (1994) won the

White Tara, gilt copper repousse statue from Nepal, 18th century; in the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, The Avery Brundage Collection

COURTESY OF THE ASIAN ART MUSEUM OF SAN FRANCISCO, THE AVERY BRUNDAGE COLLECTION; PHOTOGRAPH, MARTIN GRAYSON

1874 I Taranto ► Tarkovsky

Academy Award for best screenplay and the Golden Palm at the Cannes Film Festival. His films, including Jackie Brown (1997), Kill Bill: Vol. 1 (2003), and Kill Bill: Vol. 2 (2004), are known for their stylized violence, razor-sharp dialogue, and fascination with film and pop culture. Tarantino also worked as an actor, producer, and executive of a film distribution company, Rolling Thunder.

Taranto Vta-ran-,to\ ancient Tarentum Seaport (pop., 2001 prelim.: 201,349), Puglia region, southeastern Italy. Located on the Gulf of Taranto, the old city is on a small island, with newer areas on the adjacent main¬ land. Founded by SpARTAns in the 8th century bc, it was called Taras and became one of the leading cities of Magna Graecia. It reached its zenith in the 4th century bc under Archytas. It came under Rome in 272 bc. Between the 5th and the 11th centuries ad it was taken by the Goths, Byz¬ antines, Lombards, Arabs, and Normans. By the 15th century it was part of the Kingdom of Naples. It became part of the Kingdom of the Two Sicil¬ ies from 1815 and then joined the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. Taranto was an important stronghold of the Italian navy in both world wars; it was heavily bombed in 1940 and was occupied by British forces in 1943. Still an important naval base, it is the site of extensive shipyards and a large iron- and steelworks.

tarantula \t9-ran-ch9-lo\ Name that originally referred to the wolf spi¬ der but now covers any spider in the family Theraphosidae. It is found from the southwestern U.S. to South America. Many species live in a bur¬ row, and most have a hairy body and long, hairy legs. They are nocturnal predators of insects and, occasion¬ ally, amphibians and mice. Certain South American tarantulas eat small birds. In the southwestern U.S., tarantulas of the genus Aphonopelma may have a body 2 in. (5 cm) long and a leg spread of nearly 5 in. (12 cm). They may inflict a painful bite if provoked. The most common U.S. species, Eurypelma califomicum, may live up to 30 years.

Tarasco or Tarascan Indian people of Michoacan state in central Mexico. Traditionally, they have been farmers, though they fish, hunt, trade, and work for wages as well. Each village tends to specialize in a craft (e.g., woodworking, weaving, pottery, net weaving, embroidering, or sewing). Their Roman Catholicism is only slightly influenced by pre- Columbian religion. They are gradually becoming assimilated to the mes¬ tizo culture, though their primary language remains Tarascan.

Tarawa Us-'ra-ws, 'ta-rs-waX Coral atoll (pop., 1995: 32,354), Gilbert Islands, Kiribati. The site of Bairiki, the capital of Kiribati, Tarawa is made up of 15 islets along a reef 22 mi (35 km) long. Occupied by the Japa¬ nese during World War II, it was seized by U.S. Marines in 1943 after a costly battle. Now a commercial and educational centre, it exports copra and mother-of-pearl and has an extension of the University of the South Pacific. It was the capital of Gilbert and Ellice Islands until 1975.

Tarbell Vtar-bslV, Ida M(inerva) (b. Nov. 5, 1857, Erie county, Pa., U.S.—d. Jan. 6, 1944, Bridgeport, Conn.) U.S. investigative journalist, lecturer, and chronicler of American industry. In 1891 Tarbell went to Paris, where she supported herself by writing for U.S. magazines. She became best known for The History of the Standard Oil Company (1904), an account of the rise of a business monopoly that first appeared serially in McClure’s Magazine and led to the government’s epochal antitrust suit against the company. For her work Tarbell became one of the journalists Theodore Roosevelt dubbed muckrakers.

Tardieu \tar-'dyoe\, Andre (-Pierre-Gabriel-Amedee) (b. Sept. 22, 1876, Paris, France—d. Sept. 15, 1945, Menton) French politician. After work in the diplomatic service, he became foreign editor of Le Temps and was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1914. A delegate to the Paris Peace Conference, he was instrumental in drafting the Treaty of Versailles. A supporter of Georges Clemenceau in his early career, he served in various government posts, and as the leader of the right-centre in the Chamber of Deputies, he twice served as premier (1929-30, 1932), advocating a policy of large national expenditure. Disillusioned with the failures of the parliamentary system, he retired in 1936.

Targum \'tar-gam\ Any of several translations of the Hebrew scriptures or its parts into Aramaic. The earliest date from after the Babylonian Exile and were designed to meet the needs of uneducated Jews who did not know Hebrew. After the destruction of the Second Temple of Jerusalem (ad 70), Targums became established in synagogues, where scripture was read aloud with a translation in Aramaic. These readings eventually incor¬ porated paraphrase and commentary. Targums were regarded as authori¬ tative throughout the Talmudic period (see Talmud) and began to be committed to writing in the 5th century.

Tarhun \'tar-,kun\ or Taru \'tar-,u\ Ancient Anatolian weather god whose name appeal's in records as early as 1400 bce. He was one of the supreme deities of the Hittite pantheon and was regarded as the embodi¬ ment of the state in action. He was the consort of Arinnitti, the Hittite sun goddess and principal deity. His sacred animal is the bull, and in art he may be depicted standing on one. Jupiter Dolichenus arose as a develop¬ ment of Tarhun.

tariff or customs duty Tax levied upon goods as they cross national boundaries, usually by the government of the importing country. The words tariff, duty, and customs are generally used interchangeably. Usu¬ ally assessed on imports, tariffs may apply to all foreign goods or only to goods produced outside the borders of a customs union. A tariff may be assessed directly, at the border, or indirectly, by requiring the prior pur¬ chase of a license or permit to import specified quantities of the good. Examples of tariffs include transit duties and import or export taxes, which may be levied on goods passing through a customs area en route to another destination. In addition to providing a source of revenue, tariffs can effec¬ tively protect local industry by driving up the price of an imported item that competes with domestic products. This practice allows domestic pro¬ ducers either to charge higher prices for their goods or to capitalize on their own lighter taxes by charging lower prices and attracting more cus¬ tomers. Tariffs are often used to protect “infant industries” or to safeguard older industries that are in decline. They are sometimes criticized for imposing hidden costs on domestic consumers and encouraging ineffi¬ ciency in domestic industries. Tariffs are subject to negotiation and trea¬ ties among nations (see General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade; trade agreement; World Trade Organization).

Tarim \'da-'rem\ River Chinese Talimu \'ta-Te-'mu\ He or T'a-li-mu

Ho Chief river of Xinjiang autonomous region, China. Formed by the confluence of two rivers in the far west, it follows an undefined riverbed for much of its course, flowing along the northern edge of the Takla Makan Desert before turning southeast. Because it frequently changes course, its length varies but is about 1,260 mi (2,030 km). The Tarim Basin is enclosed by the Tien Shan, the Pamirs, and the Kunlun Mountains. It is the driest region of Eurasia.

tarTqah \ta-‘re-k3\ In Sufism, the spiritual path toward direct knowledge of God. For early Sufi mystics, the term referred to an individual’s spiri¬ tual path; later it came to mean the path advocated by a particular school or order of Sufis and then of the order itself. Each mystic order claimed a chain of spiritual descent from Muhammad. Today Sufi tariqah number in the hundreds.

Tarkington, (Newton) Booth (b. July 29, 1869, Indianapolis, Ind., U.S.—d. May 19, 1946, Indianapolis) U.S. novelist and dramatist. He became known for satirical and sometimes romanticized pictures of Mid- westerners in humorous portrayals of boyhood and adolescence that include the young-people’s classics Penrod (1914), Seventeen (1916), and Gentle Julia (1922). The trilogy Growth (1927) includes The Magnificent Ambersons (1918, Pulitzer Prize; film, 1942), which traces the decline of a once-powerful and prominent family. Alice Adams (1921; film, 1923, 1935), a searching character study, is perhaps his most finished novel.

Tarkovsky \tar-'k6f-ske\, Andrey (Arsenyevich) (b. April 4, 1932, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.—d. Dec. 29, 1986, Paris, France) Soviet film director. The son of a poet, he studied at the Soviet State Film School and won praise for his first feature film, Ivan’s Childhood (1962). His religious and aesthetic concerns were reflected in Andrei Rublev (1966), about a medieval icon painter confronted with the brutality of war. His later films, noted for their striking visual images, visionary tone, and pau¬ city of conventional plot, include Solaris (1972), A Mirror (1975), and Stalker (1978). Soviet authorities hindered domestic distribution of his films, and in 1984, after making Nostalgia (1983), he defected to the West, where he made his last film, the acclaimed The Sacrifice (1986).

Mexican red-kneed tarantula ( Brachy- pelma smithii).

LYNAM/TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES

Tarn River ► Tashkent I 1875

Tarn River River, southwestern France. Rising in the Lozere Mountains, it flows west and southwest for 233 mi (375 km) into the Garonne River. Its magnificent gorges, which extend more than 30 mi (48 km) through limestone plateaus, are popular tourist attractions.

taro \'tar-o\ Herbaceous plant ( Colocasia esculenta) of the arum family, probably native to Southeast Asia and taken to the Pacific islands. It is a staple crop cultivated for its large, starchy, spherical tubers, which, though poisonous raw, become edible with heating. They are consumed as a cooked vegetable or are made into puddings, breads, or Polynesian poi (a thin, pasty, highly digestible mass of fermented taro starch). Poi is a staple food in Hawaii. The large leaves (also poisonous raw) of the taro are commonly eaten stewed.

tarot \'tar-,o\ Sets of cards used in fortune-telling and in certain card games. The origins of tarot cards are obscure; cards approximating their present form first appeared in Italy and France in the late 14th century.

Modern tarot decks consist of 78 cards, of which 22 have pictures rep¬ resenting forces, characters, virtues, and vices. The remaining cards are divided into four suits—(1) wands, batons, or rods, (2) cups, (3) swords, and (4) coins, pentacles, or disks—of 14 cards each. Each suit has 10 num¬ bered cards and 4 court cards (king, queen, knight, and page). Modern playing cards evolved from these suit cards. Initially used as playing cards, tarot cards were imbued with eso¬ teric associations in the 18th century and are now used widely for fortune¬ telling. Each card’s basic meaning is altered by the card’s position in the spread of cards laid out by the fortune-teller, by the card’s orienta¬ tion, and by the cards that are near it.

tarpon Any of certain marine fish (family Megalopidae) having an elongated last dorsal fin ray and a bony throat plate between the sides of the protruding lower jaw. The scales are large, thick, and silvery.

The Atlantic tarpon ( Tarpon atlanti- cus or Megalops atlanticus ) is found inshore in warm parts of the Atlantic Ocean, on the Pacific Ocean side of Central America, and sometimes in rivers. It habitually breaks the water’s surface and gulps air. It grows to 6 ft (1.8 m) and 100 lb (45 kg) or larger and is a favourite game fish. The Pacific tarpon (M. cyp- rinoides) is similar.

Tarquinia Uar-'kwen-ya \ formerly (until 1922) Corneto Town (pop., 1991: 14,000), northern Lazio region, central Italy. It developed out of the ancient Tarchuna, one of the chief cities of the Etruscan confederation. It was defeated by Rome in the 4th century bc and became a Roman colony (as Tarquinii) in the 1st century bc. It was moved to its present site after Lombard and Saracen invasions in the 6th-8th centuries ad. In medieval times it was called Corneto. Remains of the ancient city include the foun¬ dations of a great Etruscan temple with a group of terra-cotta winged horses that is considered a masterpiece of Etruscan art. The famous necropolis contains the most important painted tombs in Etruscan Italy.

tarragon Vtar-o-gonV Bushy aromatic herb (Artemisia dracunculus) of the composite family, the dried leaves and flowering tops of which are used to add tang to many culinary dishes. Tarragon is a common ingredient in seasoning blends, such as fines herbes. The fresh leaves are used in sal¬ ads, and vinegar in which fresh tarragon has been steeped is a distinctive condiment. The plant is probably native to Siberia; a French variety is cultivated in Europe and North America.

Moon, the eighteenth card of the Major Arcana

MARY EVANS PICTURE LIBRARY

Young Atlantic tarpon (Tarpon atlanti¬ cus ]I

COURTESY OF MIAMI SEAQUARIUM

tarsier Vtar-se-or, 'tar-se-,a\ Any of three species (genus Tarsius, fam¬ ily Tarsiidae) of nocturnal prosimian primates found on several South Asian islands. Tarsiers have large, goggling eyes and a round head that can be rotated 180°. The ears are large, membranous, and almost constantly in motion. Tarsiers are 4-6 in. (9-16 cm) long; the thin, tufted tail of about twice that length provides balance and support. The gray to dark brown fur is thick and silky. Tarsiers cling vertically to trees and leap from trunk to trunk. They have greatly elongated hind limbs and disklike adhesive pads on the digit tips. Tarsiers prey mainly on insects. The well-furred newborn is born with eyes open.

Tarsus City (pop., 1997: 190,184), south-central Turkey. It is located near the Mediterranean Sea coast. Settled from Neolithic times, it was razed and rebuilt c. 700 bc by the Assyrian king Sennacherib. Later, Achae- menid and Seleucid rule alternated with periods of autonomy. In 67 bc it was absorbed into the new Roman province of Cilicia, becoming its prin¬ cipal city. It was the site of the first meeting in 41 bc between Mark An¬ tony and Cleopatra and was the birthplace of St. Paul. It remained a leading industrial and cultural centre through the early Byzantine period. It came under various powers in the 10th-15th centuries and passed to the Otto¬ man Empire in the early 16th century. Modem Tarsus is a prosperous agricultural and cotton-milling centre.

tartan Cross-checkered repeating pattern (or “sett”) of bands, stripes, or lines of various colours and of defi¬ nite width and sequence, woven into woolen cloth, sometimes with silk added. Such patterns have existed for centuries in many cultures but have come to be regarded as fundamen¬ tally Scottish and as a quasi-heraldic Scottish family or clan emblem.

Though claims of great antiquity have been made for Scottish tartans, few seem to predate the 17th or even 18th century as clan emblems. The Scottish Tartans Society (founded 1963) maintains a register of all known tartans, numbering about

1,300.

Tartar See Tatar

Tartarus \'tar-te-res\ In Greek mythology, the lowest depths of the underworld. It was a region of eter- Royd Stuart (Slewart) tartan nal darkness where the evil were the Scottish tartans society/museum punished after death for having

offended the gods. Here Zeus confined the Titans, who were prevented from escaping by hundred-armed giants. Later classical authors some¬ times used Tartarus interchangeably with Hades to designate the entire underworld.

Tartikoff Vtar-ti-.koA, Brandon (b. Jan. 13, 1949, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Aug. 27, 1997, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. television executive. He successfully promoted local ABC television stations before being hired by Fred Silverman as ABC’s director of dramatic development. From 1978 the two men worked together at NBC, and in 1980 Tartikoff became president of NBC entertainment (then the bottom-rated television net¬ work) and the youngest division chief in U.S. network history. He devel¬ oped dramatic series such as St. Elsewhere and Hill Street Blues as well as the popular sitcoms Family Ties, The Golden Girls, The Cosby Show, Cheers, and Seinfeld, making NBC the top-rated network. Tartikoff later became head of Paramount Pictures and New World Entertainment.

Taru See Tarhun

tashblh \tash-'be, tash-'be-hoX In Islam, the comparison of God to cre¬ ated things. The practice of attributing human characteristics to the deity is regarded as a sin in Islamic theology, as is its opposite, ta'til (divesting God of all attributes). The difficulty of dealing with the nature of God in Islam arises from seemingly contradictory views in the Qur’an, which describes God as unique, yet also refers to him as having eyes, ears, hands, and face. Tashblh is forbidden out of the fear that its practice will lead to paganism and idolatry; ta'tll is feared to lead to atheism.

Tashkent \tash-'kent, tash-'kend\ or Toshkent City (pop., 1998 est.: 2,124,000), capital of Uzbekistan. Dating from about the 1st century bc,

1876 I Tasman ► Tate

it was an important trade centre on the caravan routes to Europe and East Asia. The Arabs conquered it in the early 8th century; it fell to the Mon¬ gols in the 13th century and was under Turkish control in the 14th—15th centuries. Taken by the Russians in 1865, it was made the administrative centre of Turkistan in 1867, and a new European city grew up beside the old native one. The city was heavily damaged by an earthquake in 1966. Today it is the main economic and cultural centre of Central Asia. Its many institutions of higher education include the Uzbek Academy of Sciences

(1943).

Tasman Vtas-manX, Abel Janszoon (b. 1603?, Lutjegast, Neth.—d. probably before Oct. 22, 1659, certainly before Feb. 5, 1661) Dutch explorer. In the service of the Dutch East India Company, he made explor¬ atory and trading voyages to East and Southeast Asia (1634-39). In 1642 he was sent by Anthony van Diemen to find the hypothetical southern con¬ tinent of the Pacific and a possible route to Chile. Sailing from Batavia (modern Jakarta), he reached 49° S at 94° E, then turned north and dis¬ covered land he named Van Diemen’s Land (Tasmania), then sailed along the coast of New Zealand, believing it to be the southern continent. He also discovered Tonga and the Fiji Islands. On his next voyage (1644) he sailed into the Gulf of Carpentaria and along the northern and western coasts of Australia.

Tasman Peninsula \'taz-mon\ Peninsula, southeastern Tasmania, Aus¬ tralia. About 26 mi (42 km) long by 20 mi (32 km) wide, it has sea cliffs and unusual rock formations. First explored in 1642, it was not settled until a penal colony was established at Port Arthur in 1830. Its partly restored ruins are now a tourist attraction, and the peninsula is part of Australia’s National Estate.

Tasman Sea Part of the South Pacific Ocean, between southeastern Australia and western New Zealand. About 1,400 mi (2,250 km) wide, it has maximum depths exceeding 17,000 ft (5,200 m) in the Tasman Basin. Explored by Abel Janszoon Tasman in 1642 and by Capt. James Cook in the 1770s, it is notoriously stormy. Economic resources include fisheries and petroleum deposits.

Tasmania \taz-ma-ne-d\ formerly Van Diemen's Vde-monzX Land Island (pop., 2005 est.: 485,199) and state, Australia. Located off the southeastern comer of the continent and separated from it by Bass Strait, the state has an area of 26,410 sq mi (68,400 sq km) that also includes numerous smaller islands. Hobart is the capital. Originally inhabited by Australian Aboriginals, the island was explored and named Van Diemen’s Land by Abel Janszoon Tasman in 1642. Taken by the British in the early 1800s and made a colony in 1825, it was used as an auxiliary penal settle¬ ment until the 1850s. It was granted self-government and renamed Tas¬ mania in 1856; it became a state of the Australian Commonwealth in 1901. Chief economic activities include copper, zinc, tin, and tungsten mining; livestock raising, especially sheep for wool; and tourism. Several natural areas, collectively called the Tasman Wilderness, were designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1982 (extended in 1989).

Tasmanian Any member of a now-extinct population of Tasmania. An isolate population of Australian Aboriginals who entered Tasmania 25,000-40,000 years ago, they were cut off from the mainland when a general rise in the sea level flooded the Bass Strait about 10,000 years ago. Subsistence was based on hunting land and sea mammals and col¬ lecting shellfish and vegetable food. The first permanent white settlement was made in Tasmania in 1803, and the settlers provoked a war in 1804. Of an estimated 4,000 Tasmanians present when the Europeans first arrived, only 200 remained by the 1830s; moved to Flinders Island for their protection, they did not survive long in their new home, and the last full-blooded Tasmanian died in 1876.

Tasmanian devil Marsupial spe¬ cies ( Sarcophilus harrisii or S. ursi- nus, family Dasyuridae), now extinct on the Australian mainland, that sur¬ vives in remote rocky areas of Tas¬ mania. It is 30^10 in. (75-100 cm) long, with a stocky body, large head and jaws, and long bushy tail. The coat is usually black and brown with a white-marked breast. Named for its devilish expression and husky snarl, Tasmanian devi | ( s arcop f,;/ us harrisii). it is mainly a scavenger of wallaby JO hn yates/shostalassociates

and sheep carcasses but also eats beetle larvae and occasionally poultry. Its three or four young remain in the mother’s pouch about five months.

Tasmanian wolf or Tasmanian tiger or thylacine Extinct, slen¬ der, fox-faced marsupial ( Thylacinus cynocephalus, family Thylacinidae), 40-50 in. (100-130 cm) long. It was yellowish brown, with dark bars on the back and rump. It hunted at night for wallabies and birds. The female carried her young in a shallow pouch. Once found on the Australian mainland and New Guinea, it was confined to Tasmania in historical times, when competition with the dingo led to its disappearance from the mainland. Europeans in Tasmania hunted it to protect their sheep; the last known individual died in captivity in 1936.

Tasso Vtas-scA, Torquato (b. March 11, 1544, Sorrento, Kingdom of Naples—d. April 25, 1595, Rome) Italian poet. The son of a poet and courtier, Tasso became a courtier of Duke Alfonso II d’Este at Ferrara. In a period of intense poetic activity he produced the pastoral drama L’Aminta (1581; performed 1573), a lyrical idealization of court life. In 1575 he completed his celebrated masterpiece on the First Crusade, Gerusalemme liberata (1581; Jerusalem Delivered), a heroic epic in ottava rima that blends historical events with imaginary romantic and idyllic episodes. He developed a persecution mania and from 1579 to 1586 was incarcerated in a hospital by order of the duke. Gerusalemme was translated and imitated in many European languages, and Tasso was the subject of literary legend for centuries. He is regarded as the greatest Ital¬ ian poet of the late Renaissance.

taste or taste perception Special sense for perceiving and distin¬ guishing the sweet, sour, bitter, or salty quality of a dissolved substance, mediated by taste buds on the tongue. More than 9,000 taste buds on the tongue are responsible for the chemoreception of taste. Some taste buds are also found on the roof of the mouth and throat. See illustration on fol¬ lowing page.

Tatar Vta-tor\ or Tartar Any member of the Turkic-speaking peoples who today live mainly in west-central Russia east to the Ural Mountains, in Kazakhstan, and in western Siberia. They first appeared as nomadic tribes in northeastern Mongolia in the 5th century. Some joined the armies of Genghis Khan. Especially identified with the Golden Horde, they were converted to Islam in the 14th century. The Golden Horde soon became independent Tatar khanates (see khan). Their economy was based on mixed farming and herding, which remain central to their economy. They developed craftsmanship in wood, ceramics, leather, cloth, and metal and have been well known as traders. Today there are about six million Tatars in all regions; they constitute about half the population of the Russian republic of Tatarstan. See also Tatar language.

Tatar Vta-tor\ language formerly Volga Tatar language Turkic language with some eight million speakers. Its speakers include less than half the population of Tatarstan in Russia, with the remainder scattered in enclaves across eastern European Russian, Siberia, and the Central Asian republics. Tatar, like the closely related Bashkir language, is characterized by a remarkable series of vowel shifts that distinguish it (at least in its most characteristic varieties) from all other Turkic languages. It has numerous dialect distinctions; the conventional division is between a central group that includes the Tatar of most of Tatarstan and the literary language based on Kazan speech, a western group, and an eastern group. Crimean Tatar, belonging to the southwestern group of Turkic languages, and Chulym Tatar, belonging to the northeastern group, are not closely related to Tatar.

Tatar Strait Vta-,tar\ Wide passage in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, connecting the Sea of Japan (East Sea) and the Sea of Okhotsk. Located between Sakhalin Island and Russia’s Far East mainland, it is generally shallow, with depths less than 700 ft (210 m). Ice impedes its ports for half the year.

Tate, (John Orley) Allen (b. Nov. 19, 1899, Winchester, Ky., U.S.—d. Feb. 9, 1979, Nashville, Tenn.) U.S. poet and novelist. While attending Vanderbilt University Tate helped found The Fugitive (1922- 25), a poetry magazine concentrating largely on the South, and contrib¬ uted to I’ll Take My Stand (1930), a Fugitive manifesto defending the region’s conservative agrarian society. From 1934 he taught at several institutions, including Princeton University and the University of Minne¬ sota, becoming a leading exponent of the New Criticism. He emphasized the writer’s need for tradition, which he found in Southern culture and later in Roman Catholicism, to which he converted in 1950. His best- known poem is “Ode to the Confederate Dead” (1926).

Tate ► Taunton I 1877

A. Taste centres on the tongue's surface. Taste buds on the tip of the tongue are most sensitive to sweet tastes, those on the sides to sour, those at the back to bitter, and those on the tip and sides to salty. B. Close-up of a papilla showing location of the taste buds. C. Structure of a taste bud. Each is composed of narrow modified epithelial taste cells with specialized hairs (microvilli) that project into a pore open¬ ing onto the tongue's surface and of broader supporting cells. Impulses from the taste cells are carried by nerve pathways to the brain.

Tate, Nahum (b. 1652, Dublin, Ire.—d. July 30, 1715, London, Eng.) Irish-English poet and playwright. After graduating from Trinity College, Dublin, Tate moved to London. Though he wrote plays of his own, he is best known for his adaptations of Elizabethan works, notably William Shakespeare’s King Lear , with a happy ending, which was performed well into the 19th century. He wrote the libretto for Henry Purcell’s Dido and Aeneas (1689?) and collaborated with Nicholas Brady in A New Version of the Psalms of David (1696). The best of his own poems is “Panacea: A Poem upon Tea” (1700). He became England’s poet laureate in 1692.

Tate Gallery Art museum in London housing the national collection of British painting and sculpture and of modem British and European art since c. 1870. It is named after Sir Henry Tate (1819-1899), a sugar refiner and inventor of the sugar cube, who donated his collection of Victorian art to the nation in 1890. The Neoclassical building, designed by Sidney R. J. Smith, opened in 1897. Originally administered by the National Gallery,

the museum became completely independent only in 1954. In 1987 the Clore Gallery was built to house the principal collection of J.M.W. Turner’s works. In 1988 a branch was opened in Liverpool. The Tate Modern, a con¬ verted power plant housing the modem collections, opened in 2000.

Tathagata \t9-'ta-g9-to\ Epithet of the Buddha that he employed pri¬ marily when referring to himself. He also used it to refer to other bud- dhas who preceded him and who would follow. Tathagatha refers to one who has trod the path to full awakening and so reached the end of suf¬ fering and escaped samsara. The implication is that the path is open to all who would follow it. In later Mahayana Buddhism, Tathagata came to mean the essential buddha nature found in everyone.

Tati \ta-'te\, Jacques orig. Jacques Tatischeff (b. Oct. 9, 1908, Le Pecq, France—d. Nov. 5, 1982, Paris) French film actor and director. He became a popular music-hall entertainer in the 1930s with a pantomime act that caricatured athletes. After appearing in comedy shorts, he wrote, directed, and starred in a series of comic feature films— Jour de fete (1949), Monsieur Hulot’s Holiday (1953), Mon oncle (1958), Playtime (1968), Traffic (1971), and Parade (1974)—in which he became known for his inspired physical comedy and his accident-prone alter ego. Mon¬ sieur Hulot. In his films Tati forsakes traditional narrative in favour of vignettes that use sight gags, timing, mannerisms, and physical action to reveal the humour and texture of modem living.

Tatlin \'tat-lyin\, Vladimir (Yevgrafovich) (b. Dec. 16, 1885, Kharkov, Russian Empire—d. May 31, 1953, Moscow, U.S.S.R.) Ukrai¬ nian sculptor and painter. After a visit to Paris (1914), he became the leader of a group of Moscow artists who sought to apply engineering techniques to sculpture construction, a movement that developed into Constructivism. He pioneered the use of iron, glass, wood, and wire in nonrepresentational constructions. His Monument to the Third Interna¬ tional, commissioned by the Soviet government, was one of the first buildings conceived entirely in abstract terms and was intended to be, at more than 1,300 ft (400 m), the world’s tallest structure. A model was exhibited at the 1920 Soviet Congress, but the government disapproved of nonfigurative art and it was never built. After 1933 Tatlin worked largely as a stage designer.

tattoo Permanent mark or design made on the body by pigment intro¬ duced through ruptures in the skin. The term is also loosely applied to the inducement of scars (cicatrization). Tattooing has been practiced in most parts of the world, and examples have been found on Egyptian and Nubian mummies dating from 2000 bc. Decoration is perhaps the most common motive, though designs may also serve to identify rank, status, or mem¬ bership and are thought by some to provide magical protection against sickness or misfortune. The word comes from Tahiti, where it was recorded by James Cook’s expedition in 1769. The first electric tattooing implement was patented in the U.S. in 1891.

Tatum \'ta-tom\, Art(hur) (b. Oct. 13, 1909, Toledo, Ohio, U.S.—d. Nov. 5, 1956, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. jazz pianist. Tatum was blind from birth. Influenced by Fats Waller and Earl Hines, his playing represents a synthesis of stride and swing piano traditions. He developed an unprec¬ edented technical and harmonic control on the instrument and was capable of astonishing speed and intricate elaborations of melody. By 1937 he was recognized as the outstanding pianist in jazz. He formed a trio with gui¬ tar and bass in 1943 but frequently made solo performances that show¬ cased his unique mastery.

Tatum, Edward L(awrie) (b. Dec. 14, 1909, Boulder, Colo., U.S.—d. Nov. 5, 1975, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. biochemist. He worked with George Wells Beadle at Stanford University, where they con¬ firmed that all biochemical processes in organisms are ultimately con¬ trolled by genes, that these processes can be broken down into a series of individual sequential chemical reactions, each controlled by a single gene, and that mutation of a single gene changes the cell’s ability to carry out only a single chemical reaction. Each gene was found to determine the structure of a specific enzyme (the “one gene, one enzyme” hypothesis). With Joshua Lederberg, Tatum discovered the occurrence of genetic recom¬ bination, or “sex,” between certain bacteria. Largely because of their efforts, bacteria became the main source of information about genetic control of biochemical processes in the cell. Tatum, Beadle, and Leder¬ berg shared the Nobel Prize in 1958.

Taunton Town (pop., 1995 est.: 55,000), county seat of Somerset, England. An Anglo-Saxon king founded it c. 710. Its castle was besieged

1878 I Taupo ► Tay-Sachs disease

during the English Civil Wars and subsequently dismantled. Taunton later was the scene of the duke of Monmouth’s rebellion (1685). It is in an agricultural region; tourism is also important to the economy.

Taupo \'tau-p6\, Lake Lake, North Island, New Zealand. The largest lake in New Zealand, it is 234 sq mi (606 sq km) in area and covers the remains of several volcanic craters. The Waikato River flows into and out of it. Numerous geothermal springs on the lake’s borders are used for health resorts and for generating electricity.

Taurus (Latin: “Bull”) In astronomy, the constellation lying between Aries and Gemini; in astrology, the second sign of the zodiac, governing approximately the period April 20-May 20. Its symbol is a bull, a refer¬ ence to the Greek myth in which Zeus transformed himself into a white bull to abduct Europa.

Taurus Mountains Mountain chain, southern Turkey, running paral¬ lel with the Mediterranean Sea coast. The system extends along a curve from Lake Egridir in the west to the upper reaches of the Euphrates River in the east. It has many peaks rising above 10,000-12,000 ft (3,000-3,700 m) in elevation. The Cilician Gates pass, 38 mi (61 km) long and used by caravans and armies since antiquity, crosses the range north of Tarsus.

Taussig \'tau-sig\, Helen Brooke (b. May 24, 1898, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.—d. May 20, 1986, Kennett Square, Pa.) U.S. physician. She received her medical degree from Johns Hopkins in 1927. As head of a Baltimore heart clinic (1930-63), she studied “blue babies” (babies whose heart malformations cause low blood oxygen content) and pioneered use of fluoroscopy and X rays to pinpoint the defect responsible for each set of symptoms. The surgical treatment she devised with Alfred Blalock saved thousands of such infants, and her research spurred development of other surgical treatments for heart disorders. Her Congenital Malforma¬ tions of the Heart (2 vol., 1947) comprehensively described heart defects and diagnostic tools, techniques, and findings. She also played a key role in alerting U.S. physicians to the dangers of thalidomide.

tautog See wrasse

tautology \to-'ta-b-je\ In logic, a statement that cannot be denied with¬ out inconsistency. Thus, “All bachelors are either male or not male” is held to assert, with regard to anything whatsoever that is a bachelor, that it is male or it is not male. In the propositional calculus, even complicated symbolic expressions such as [(A zd B) a (C zd —■ B)] zd (C z> —■ A) can be shown to be tautologies by displaying in a truth table every possible combination of T (true) and F (false) of its arguments A, B, C. A tautol¬ ogy can be purely formal (a statement form rather than a statement), and in some usages only such formal truths are tautologies.

tautomerism Uo-'ta-mo-.ri-zomX Existence of two or more chemical compounds that have the same chemical composition but different struc¬ tures (isomers) and that convert easily from one to another. A major class of tautomeric reactions involves exchange of a hydrogen atom between two other atoms in the same molecule, in both cases forming a covalent bond. For example, in keto-enol tautomerism, the hydrogen atom bonded to the carbon atom in a carbonyl (keto) group (—CH—C=0; see func¬ tional group) moves to the oxygen atom, making it an enol group (—C=C—OH). The keto form predominates in many aldehydes and ketones, the enol form in phenols. Sugars (e.g., glucose) exhibit tautom¬ erism between open (chain) forms and closed (ring) forms. See also isom¬ erism.

Tawney, Richard Henry (b. Nov. 30, 1880, Calcutta, India—d. Jan. 16, 1962, London, Eng.) English economic historian. He was educated at Rugby School and at the University of Oxford, where he wrote his first major work, The Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century (1912). From 1913 he taught at the London School of Economics. An ardent socialist, he helped formulate the economic and moral viewpoint of the Labour Party in the 1920s and ’30s. In his most influential book, The Acquisitive Society (1920), he argued that the acquisitiveness of capitalist society was a mor¬ ally wrong motivating principle. His Religion and the Rise of Capitalism (1926), which built on the work of Max Weber, also became a classic.

tax Government levy on persons, groups, or businesses. Taxes are a gen¬ eral obligation of taxpayers and are not paid in exchange for any specific benefit. They have existed since ancient times— property TAxes and sales taxes were known in ancient Rome—but tariffs were favoured over inter¬ nal taxes as a source of revenue. In modem economies, there has been a trend away from tariffs in favour of internal taxes, which provide the

majority of revenues. Taxes have three functions: to cover government spending, to promote stable economic growth, and to lessen inequalities in the distribution of income and wealth. They have also been used for nonfiscal reasons, such as to encourage or discourage certain activities (e.g., cigarette consumption). Taxes may be classified as direct or indi¬ rect. Direct taxes are those that the taxpayer cannot shift onto someone else; they are mainly taxes on persons and are based on an individual’s ability to pay as measured by income or net wealth. Direct taxes include income TAxes, taxes on net worth, death duties (i.e., inheritance and estate taxes), and gift taxes. Indirect taxes are those that can be shifted in whole or in part to someone other than the person legally responsible for pay¬ ment. These include excise taxes, sales taxes, and value-added TAxes. Taxes may also be classified according to the effect they have on the distribu¬ tion of wealth. A proportional tax is one that imposes the same relative burden on all taxpayers, unlike progressive TAxes and regressive taxes.

Taxco \'tas-ko\ in full Taxco de Alarcon Town (pop., 2000: 50,488), Guerrero state, south-central Mexico. A silver-mining site in pre- Columbian times, it became one of the first mining centres to be inhab¬ ited by Spaniards. It prospered in the colonial period and is still renowned for its silver. Because of its colonial character, with its cobblestone streets and the baroque Church of Santa Prisca, it has been declared a national landmark.

taxidermy Practice of creating lifelike representations of animals by using their prepared skins and various supporting structures. Taxidermy began with the ancient custom of keeping trophies of the hunt. Beginning in the 18th century, a growing interest in natural history resulted in col¬ lections and exhibits of birds, beasts, and curiosities. Chemically preserv¬ ing skins, hair, and feathers made it possible to recreate the appearance of live animals by stuffing the sewed-up skin with straw or hay. Con¬ structing and sculpting anatomically correct manikins of clay and plaster are the basis of modem taxidermy.

Taxila \'tak-so-b\ Ancient city, northwestern Pakistan. Its ruins, includ¬ ing temples and a fortress, lie just northwest of Rawalpindi. It was the capital of the Buddhist kingdom of Gandhara and a centre of learning. Founded by Bharata, the younger brother of Rama, it came under Persian rule and in 326 bc was surrendered to Alexander the Great. Ruled by a succession of conquerors, including Bactrians and Scythians, the city became an important Buddhist centre under King Ashoka (c. 261 bc). The apostle Thomas reputedly visited it in the 1st century ad. Taxila’ s pros¬ perity in ancient times resulted from its position at the junction of three great trade routes. When they declined, the city sank into insignificance; it was finally destroyed by the Huns in the 5th century.

taxol \'taks-ol\ Organic compound with a complex multi-ring molecule that occurs in the bark of Pacific yew trees ( Taxus brevifolia). It is active against certain cancers of the lung, ovary, breast, head, and neck, disrupt¬ ing cell division and interfering with separation of the nuclear chromo¬ somes. A semisynthetic process to make it from yew needles and twigs eliminated the prospect of widespread destruction of yew forests, and total synthesis methods were later developed.

taxonomy \tak-'sa-n3-me\ In biology, the classification of organisms into a hierarchy of groupings, from the general to the particular, that reflect evolutionary and usually morphological relationships: kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species. The black-capped chickadee, for example, is an animal (kingdom Animalia) with a dorsal nerve cord (phy¬ lum Chordata) and feathers (class Aves: birds) that perches (order Passe¬ riformes: perching birds) and is small with a short bill (family Paridae), a song that sounds like “chik-a-dee” (genus Parus ), and a black-capped head (species atricapillus ). Most authorities recognize five kingdoms: monerans (prokaryotes), protists, fungi (see fungus), plants, and animals. Carolus Linnaeus established the scheme of using Latin generic and spe¬ cific names in the mid-18th century; his work was extensively revised by later biologists.

Tay, River Longest river in Scotland. It rises on the northern slopes of Ben Lui and flows through Loch Tay to enter the North Sea below Dundee after a course of 120 mi (193 km). It drains 2,400 sq mi (6,200 sq km), the largest drainage area in Scotland.

Tay-Sachs \'ta-'saks\ disease Recessive hereditary metabolic disor¬ der, mostly in Ashkenazi Jews, causing progressive mental and neurologic deterioration and death by age five. A lipid, ganglioside GM 2 , accumulates in the brain (because of inadequate activity of the enzyme that breaks it

Taylor ► Taymyr Peninsula I 1879

down), with devastating neurological effects. Infants appear normal at birth but soon become listless and inattentive, lose motor abilities, and develop seizures. Blindness and general paralysis usually precede death. Tests can detect the disease in fetuses and the Tay-Sachs gene in carriers. There is no treatment.

Taylor, Dame Elizabeth (Rosemond) (b. Feb. 27, 1932, London, Eng.) U.S. film actress. She left London for Los Angeles with her Ameri¬ can parents at the outset of World War II. Noted for her exceptional beauty from childhood, she was discovered by a talent scout in Beverly Hills. She made her screen debut in 1942, appeared in Lassie Come Home in 1943, and became a star with National Velvet in 1944. She was a glam¬ orous adult star in A Place in the Sun (1951), Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1958), and Butterfield 8 (1960, Academy Award). In Who’s Afraid of Vir¬ ginia Woolf (1966, Academy Award) and other films, she starred opposite her husband, Richard Burton. After the mid-1970s, she appeared only intermittently in films, Broadway plays, and television films. Taylor’s personal life (she was married eight times) was exceptionally well pub¬ licized and often tended to overshadow her acting career.

Taylor, Frederick W(inslow) (b. March 20, 1856, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—d. March 21, 1915, Philadelphia) U.S. inventor and engineer. He worked at Midvale Steel Co. (1878-90), where he introduced time-and- motion study in order to systematize shop management and reduce manu¬ facturing costs. Though his system provoked resentment and opposition from labour when carried to extremes, it had an immense impact on the development of mass production techniques and has influenced the devel¬ opment of virtually every modern industrial country. Taylor is regarded as the father of scientific management. See also production management; Taylorism.

Taylor, Sir Geoffrey Ingram (b. March 7, 1886, London, Eng.—d. June 27, 1975, Cambridge) British physicist. He taught at Cambridge Uni¬ versity from 1911 to 1952. He made important discoveries in fluid mechan¬ ics, as well as significant contributions to the theory of the elastostatic stress and displacement fields created by dislocating solids, the quantum theory of radiation, and the interference and diffraction of photons.

Taylor, John known as John Taylor of Caroline (b. Dec. 19?, 1753, Caroline county, Va.—d. Aug. 21, 1824, Caroline county, Va., U.S.) U.S. politician. He served in the Continental Army (1775-79) and the Virginia militia (1781) in the American Revolution. A strong advocate of states' rights, he opposed ratification of the U.S. Constitution. He was a member of the U.S. Senate (1792-94, 1803, 1822-24), and he introduced the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions in the Virginia legislature (1798). A supporter of Thomas Jefferson, he wrote essays on the importance of main¬ taining an agrarian democracy as a defense against the development of an overly powerful central government.

Taylor, Joseph H(ooton), Jr. (b. March 24, 1941, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.) U.S. physicist. He received his Ph.D. from Harvard University. While teaching at the University of Massachusetts (1968-81), he and Russell Alan Hulse discovered the first binary pulsar (1974). Their discov¬ ery provided evidence in support of Albert Einstein’s relativistic theory of gravitation, which predicts that objects accelerated in a strong gravita¬ tional field will emit gravitational waves. With its enormous interacting gravitational fields, the binary pulsar should emit such waves, draining energy and reducing the orbital distance between the two stars. In 1978 they showed, on the basis of tiny variations in the pulsar’s radio emission, that the two stars are revolving ever faster and closer around each other at a rate agreeing precisely with Einstein’s prediction. Their discoveries won the two men a 1993 Nobel Prize.

Taylor, Lawrence (Julius) (b. Feb. 4, 1959, Williamsburg, Va., U.S.) U.S. football linebacker. He played for the University of North Carolina, making All-American in 1980. During his 13-year career with the New York Giants (1981-94), he was twice named Defensive Player of the Year (1981, 1982) and once named Most Valuable Player (1986), only the sec¬ ond defensive player to be so honoured. The prototypical linebacker of his era, he possessed the strength to defeat blocks from linemen and the speed to chase down running backs.

Taylor, Maxwell (Davenport) (b. Aug. 26, 1901, Keytesville, Mo., U.S.—d. April 19, 1987, Washington, D.C.) U.S. army officer. He gradu¬ ated from West Point and helped organize the army’s first airborne divi¬ sion early in World War II. He commanded a parachute assault in the Normandy Campaign and in the Battle of the Bulge (1944). He served as

commanding general of UN forces in Korea (1953), as U.S. Army chief of staff (1955-59), and as chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (1962- 64). He was appointed ambassador to South Vietnam (1964-65) and was a special consultant to Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson (1965-69). He advocated the maintenance of conventional infantry as a prudent alternative to the use of nuclear weapons in war.

Taylor, Paul (Belville) (b. July 29, 1930, Wilkinsburg, Pa., U.S.) U.S. modern dancer, choreographer, and director. In 1953 he joined Martha Graham’s company, where he was a leading soloist until 1960. In 1957 he established the Paul Taylor Dance Company. As a choreographer he employed a wide variety of move¬ ment styles, some of which he described as “flat” (two-dimensional in appearance), “dance scribbling”

(emphasis on action rather than on shape or line), and “lyric” (“long arms”). His works include Duet (1957), Aureole (1962), Orbs (1966), and Nightshade (1979). In 1993 he formed Taylor 2, a small group of dancers who perform in smaller ven- ues and teach the Taylor style. Paul Ta y |or and Bettie de Jon 9 in Scud '

orama, 1967

Taylor, Peter (Hillsman) (b. jackmitchell Jan. 8, 1917, Trenton, Tenn.,

U.S.—d. Nov. 2, 1994, Charlottes¬ ville, Va.) U.S. short-story writer, novelist, and playwright. Taylor stud¬ ied in the 1930s under several poets associated with the Southern literary renaissance. He taught at various schools, including the University of Vir¬ ginia. He is best known for his short stories, which are usually set in con¬ temporary Tennessee and which reveal conflicts between the old rural society and the industrialized “New South.” The novella A Woman of Means (1950) is perhaps his finest work; his later works include The Old Forest and Other Stories (1985) and A Summons to Memphis (1986, Pulitzer Prize).

Taylor, Zachary (b. Nov. 24, 1784, Montebello, Va., U.S.—d. July 9, 1850, Washington, D.C.) 12th president of the U.S. (1849-50). He fought in the War of 1812, the Black Hawk War (1832), and the Seminole War in Florida (1835—42), earning the nickname “Old Rough-and-Ready” for his indifference to hardship. Sent to Texas in anticipation of war with Mexico, he defeated the Mexican invaders at the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma (1846). After the Mexican War formally began, he captured Monterrey and granted the Mexican army an eight-week armi¬ stice. Displeased, Pres. James K. Polk transferred Taylor’s best troops to the command of Winfield Scott to serve in the invasion of Veracruz. Tay¬ lor ignored orders to remain in Monterrey and marched south to defeat a large Mexican force at the Battle of Buena Vista (1847). He became a national hero and was nominated as the Whig candidate for president (1848). He defeated Lewis Cass to win the election. His brief term was marked by a controversy over the new territories that produced the Com¬ promise of 1 850 and by a scandal involving members of his cabinet. He died, probably of cholera, after only 16 months in office and was suc¬ ceeded by Millard Fillmore.

Taylorism System of scientific management advocated by Fred W. Tay¬ lor. In Taylor’s view, the task of factory management was to determine the best way for the worker to do the job, to provide the proper tools and training, and to provide incentives for good performance. He broke each job down into its individual motions, analyzed these to determine which were essential, and timed the workers with a stopwatch. With unneces¬ sary motion eliminated, the worker, following a machinelike routine, became far more productive. See also production management, time-and- MOTION STUDY.

Taymyr \tl-‘mir\ Peninsula Peninsula, north-central Siberia, northern Russia. It lies between the Kara Sea, the Laptev Sea, and the Vilkitsky Strait and includes Cape Chelyuskin, the northernmost point of Asia. Its central part is crossed by the Taymyra River, which is 400 mi (644 km) long. It occupies an area of approximately 150,000 sq mi (400,000 sq km). The Byrranga Mountains, in its centre, reach a height of about 3,800 ft (1,150 m).

1880 I Tbilisi ► teal

Tbilisi \to-bi-Te-s e\ formerly Tiflis City (pop., 2002: 1,081,679), capital of the Republic of Georgia, on the Kura River. Founded c. ad 458 as the capital of the Georgian kingdom, its strategic position on trade routes between Europe and Asia led to its frequent capture. It endured under successive Persian, Byzantine, Arab, Mongol, and Turkish rulers and came under the control of the Russian Empire c. 1801. It was made the capital of the Transcaucasian S.F.S.R. by 1922, of the Georgian S.S.R. in 1936, and of independent Georgia in 1991. Some ancient structures still exist in the city, which is now a major cultural, educational, research, and industrial centre.

Tchaikovsky \cho-'k6f-ske, chI-'kof-ske\, Pyotr Ilyich (b. May 7, 1840, Votkinsk, Russia—d. Nov. 6, 1893, St. Petersburg) Russian com¬ poser. Sensitive and interested in music from his early childhood, Tchai¬ kovsky turned to serious composition at age 14. In 1862 he began studying at the new St. Petersburg Conservatory; from 1866 he taught at the Mos¬ cow Conservatory. His Piano Concerto No. 1 (1875) was premiered in Boston and became immensely popular. He wrote his first ballet. Swan Lake (first performed 1877), on commission from the Bolshoi Ballet. In 1877 he received a commission from the wealthy Nadezhda von Meek (1831-94), who became his patron and longtime correspondent. The opera Eugene Onegin (1878) soon followed. Though homosexual, he married briefly; after three disastrous months of marriage, he attempted suicide. His composition was overshadowed by his personal crisis for years. His second ballet, Sleeping Beauty (1889), was followed by the opera The Queen of Spades (1890) and the great ballet The Nutcracker (1892). The Pathetique Symphony (1893) premiered four days before his death from cholera; claims that he was forced to commit suicide by noblemen out¬ raged by his sexual liaisons are unfounded. He revolutionized the ballet genre by transforming it from a grand decorative gesture into a staged musical drama. His music has always had great popular appeal because of its tuneful, poignant melodies, impressive harmonies, and colourful, picturesque orchestration.

TCP/IP in full Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Pro¬ tocol Standard Internet communications protocols that allow digital com¬ puters to communicate over long distances. The Internet is a packet- switched network, in which information is broken down into small packets, sent individually over many different routes at the same time, and then reassembled at the receiving end. TCP is the component that collects and reassembles the packets of data, while IP is responsible for making sure the packets are sent to the right destination. TCP/IP was developed in the 1970s and adopted as the protocol standard for ARPA¬ NET (the predecessor to the Internet) in 1983.

te See de

Te Anau Lake \ta-'a-naii\ Lake, southwestern South Island, New Zealand. The largest of the Southern Lakes, it is 38 mi (61 km) long and 6 mi (10 km) wide, and a source of the Waiau River. In a superb alpine setting bordered by forested mountains, it is known for fishing and tourism.

Te Kanawa Ue-'ka-no-woV Dame Kiri (Janette) (b. March 6,1944, Gisborne, North Island, N.Z.) New Zealand-born (half-Maori) soprano. After winning various singing competitions at home, she went to London for further study in 1966 and made her Covent Garden debut in 1970. Soon moving into leading roles, she became especially admired as the Countess in The Marriage of Figaro. In 1974 she made a triumphal debut at the Metropolitan Opera, substituting at the last moment in Giuseppe Ver¬ di’s Otello. A glamorous and regally imperturbable presence with a rich voice, she was chosen to sing at the 1981 wedding of Prince Charles, and she has made many recordings.

tea Beverage produced by steeping in freshly boiled water the young leaves and leaf buds of the tea plant, Camellia sinensis, a member of the family Theaceae, which contains 40 genera of trees and shrubs. Tea cul¬ tivation is first documented in China in ad 350; according to legend, it had been known there since c. 2700 bc. It was established in Japan by the 13th century and was spread to Java by the Dutch and to India by the English in the 19th century. Today tea is the most widely consumed drink in the world, drunk (either hot or cold) by half the world’s population. Major tea types are classified by processing method: fermented, or black, tea produces an amber-colored, full-flavored beverage without bitterness; semifermented, or oolong, tea yields a slightly bitter, light brownish-green liquid; and unfermented, or green, tea, results in a mild, slightly bitter, pale greenish-yellow beverage. Caffeine is responsible for tea’s stimulat¬ ing effect. Green tea, long regarded as healthful in the Far East, has in

recent years attracted much favorable attention in the West for a wide range of possible beneficial effects. Infusions and decoctions of the leaves, bark, and roots of many other, unrelated plants are commonly drunk as herbal or medicinal teas.

Tea Act (1773) British legislation giving a tea monopoly in the Ameri¬ can colonies to the British East India Co. It adjusted the duty regulations to allow the failing company to sell its large tea surplus below the prices charged by colonial competitors. The act was opposed by colonists as another example of taxation without representation. Resistance to the act resulted in the Boston Tea Party.

tea ceremony Japanese chado or cha-no-yu Ritualized prepara¬ tion and drinking of tea developed in Japan. It involves a host and one or more guests; the tea, utensils, and movements used in preparing, serving, and drinking the tea are all prescribed. When tea was introduced from Song-dynasty China by the Zen monk Eisai (1141-1215), it was drunk by Zen monks to help them stay awake during meditation. The laity enjoyed tea-tasting competitions that developed into a more refined, medi¬ tative form among the warrior aristocracy in the 15th century. The most famous exponent of the tea ceremony was Sen Rikyu (1522-91), tea mas¬ ter to Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who codified a style known as wabi, which favoured rustic, rough-shaped tea bowls and spare, simple surroundings. Three popular schools of the tea ceremony trace their roots to Rikyu, and other schools exist as well; today mastery of the tea ceremony is one accomplishment of a well-bred young woman.

Teach, Edward See Blackbeard

teaching Profession of those who give instruction, especially in an elementary or secondary school or a university. The teaching profession is a relatively new one. Traditionally, parents, elders, religious leaders, and sages were responsible for teaching children how to behave and think and what to believe. Germany introduced the first formal criteria for the education of teachers in the 18th century. In the 19th century, as society became more industrialized, the concept of schooling became more uni¬ versal. In industrialized nations today, most teachers are university gradu¬ ates. Teacher-training programs usually include both general and specialized academic, cultural, or vocational courses; the study of educa¬ tional principles; and a series of professional courses combined with prac¬ tical experience in a typical school setting. Most countries also require professional certification following formal training. See also National Education Association.

Teagarden, Jack orig. Weldon Leo Teagarden (b. Aug. 20, 1905, Vernon, Texas, U.S.—d. Jan. 15, 1964, New Orleans, La.) U.S. jazz trombonist and singer. He worked with two of the most popular bands of the early swing era, those of Ben Pollack (1928-33) and Paul Whiteman (1933-38). After leading his own group (1938—47), he joined Louis Arm¬ strong’s All Stars and recorded and toured with them internationally until 1951. Teagarden’s trademark relaxed, bluesy approach was evident in both his playing and singing, his engaging Texas accent seeming to colour both.

teak Large deciduous tree ( Tectona grandis) of the verbena family, and its wood, one of the most valuable and durable timbers. Teak has been widely used in India for more than 2,000 years; some temples contain teak beams more than 1,000 years old. The tree has a straight stem, often thickened at the base, a spreading crown, and four-sided branchlets. The rough leaves are opposite or sometimes whorled, and the branches end in many small white flowers. The unseasoned heartwood has a pleasant, strong aromatic fragrance and a beautiful golden-yellow colour, which on seasoning darkens into brown, mottled with darker streaks.

Resistant to the effects of water, teakwood is used for shipbuilding, fine furniture, door and window frames, wharves, bridges, cooling- tower louvers, flooring, and panel¬ ing. Its desirability has led to severe overcutting in tropical forests.

teal Any of about 15 species (genus Anas, family Anatidae) of small dab¬ bling ducks found on the major con- Holarctic American green-winged teal tinents and many islands. Many are drake (Anas crecca carolinensis). popular game birds. The Holarctic Gordon iangsbury/bruce coleman inc.

Teamsters Union ► Tedder I 1881

green-winged teal, usually found in a dense flock, is 13-15 in. (33-38 cm) long. The small blue-winged teal breeds across Canada and the north¬ ern U.S. and winters south of the U.S. The Hottentot teal of Africa fre¬ quently remains immobile among vegetation even when shots are fired nearby. Teal are primarily herbivorous, but some species eat small ani¬ mals. Flocks of many species take off and change direction in unison.

Teamsters Union officially International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (IBT ), formerly (until 1940) International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Stablemen and Helpers of America (IBT) Largest private-sector labour union in the U.S., repre¬ senting truck drivers and workers in related industries such as aviation. It was formed in 1903 with the merger of two team-drivers’ unions, and local deliverymen using horse-drawn vehicles remained the core mem¬ bership until the 1930s, when intercity truck drivers became predominant. From 1907 to 1952 the union was headed by Daniel J. Tobin, who built it up from 40,000 members in 1907 to more than one million in 1950. Disclosures of corruption in the leadership led to the Teamsters’ expul¬ sion from the AFL-CIO in 1957. Between 1957 and 1988 three Teamsters presidents—Dave Beck, Jimmy Hoffa, and Roy Williams—were convicted of various criminal charges and sentenced to prison terms. (Hoffa has been missing, and presumed dead, since 1975.) While Teamsters representa¬ tion of truck drivers declined with the growth of nonunion trucking com¬ panies in the 1980s, the union gained new members in clerical, service, and technology occupations. The union was readmitted to the AFL-CIO in 1987. Presidents Ron Carey (1992-99) and James P. Hoffa (1999- ), son of the former president, focused on job security and family issues.

Teapot Dome scandal Secret leasing of U.S. government land to private interests. In 1922 oil reserves at Teapot Dome, Wyo., and Elk Hills, Calif., were improperly leased to private oil companies by Secretary of the Interior Albert Fall, who accepted cash gifts and no-interest loans from the companies. When the leases became known, Congress directed Pres. Warren G. Harding to cancel them. A later investigation revealed illegal actions by several government officials, some of whom later received fines and short prison sentences. The scandal became a symbol of government corruption.

tear duct and gland or lachrymal Ylak-re-msH duct and gland Structures that produce, distribute, and carry away tears. An almond-shaped gland above the outer comer of each eye secretes tears between the upper eyelid and the eyeball. Tears moisten and lubricate the conjunctiva (the membrane that lines the eyelid and covers the white of the eye) and then flow into the barely visible openings (near the inner comers of the eyelids) of the tear ducts, which lead to the nasal cavity. Oil (from sebaceous glands on the edge of the eyelid) keeps tears from spilling out unless secretion increases because of crying or a reflex trig¬ gered by stimuli such as eye irritation, bright lights, or spicy foods.

tear gas Any of a group of substances, most often synthetic organic halogen compounds, that irritate the mucous membranes of the eyes, caus¬ ing a stinging sensation and tears. They may also irritate the upper res¬ piratory tract, causing coughing, choking, and general debility. Tear gas was first used in warfare in World War I, but since its effects are short- lasting and rarely disabling, it came into use by law-enforcement agen¬ cies as a means of dispersing mobs, disabling rioters, and flushing out armed suspects without the use of deadly force.

Teasdale, Sara orig. Sara Trevor Teasdale (b. Aug. 8, 1884, St. Louis, Mo., U.S.—d. Jan. 29, 1933, New York, N.Y.) U.S. poet. While living in St. Louis she made frequent trips to Chicago, where she even¬ tually joined Harriet Monroe’s Poetry magazine circle. Her collection Riv¬ ers to the Sea (1915) established her as a popular poet, and Love Songs (1917) won the first Pulitzer Prize for poetry. Over time her verse became simpler and more austere. After her marriage ended in divorce in 1929, she moved to New York City, where she lived in virtual retirement. Many of the poems in her last book, Strange Victory (1933), foreshadow her suicide.

teasel Vte-zoL Any of about 15 species constituting the genus Dipsa- cus of the family Dipsacaceae (the teasel family), native to Europe, the Mediterranean area, and tropical Africa. Many teasels are prickly, coarse biennials with tall-domed heads of numerous, four-lobed flowers that sit on a crownlike circle of spiny, narrow bracts. The spiny, dry fruiting heads of fuller’s teasel ( D. sativus ) have been used since Roman times to raise the nap of woolen fabrics in a process known as fulling.

Tebaldi Xta-'bal-deX, Renata (b. Feb. 1, 1922, Pesaro, Italy—d. Dec. 19, 2004, San Marino) Italian soprano. After her debut in Mefistofele in 1944, she established herself at La Scala, performing with the conductor Arturo Toscanini for the 1946 reopening concert and over the next decade. Her debuts at Covent Garden (1950) and the Metropolitan Opera (1955) were both in the role of Desdemona, and she sang at the Met for 17 years in roles such as Tosca, Manon Lescaut, Mimi, and Violetta. She retired in 1976.

technetium \tek-'ne-she-3m\ Metallic chemical element, one of the tran¬ sition elements, chemical symbol Tc, atomic number 43. All its isotopes are radioactive (see radioactivity); some occur in trace amounts in nature as nuclear fission products of uranium. Its isotope technetium-97 was the first element artificially produced (1937; see cyclotron). Technetium-99, a fis¬ sion product of nuclear reactors that emits gamma rays, is the most-used tracer isotope in nuclear medicine. Technetium resembles platinum in appearance and manganese and rhenium in chemical behaviour. It is also used as a metallurgical tracer and in corrosion-resistant products.

technical education Academic and vocational preparation of students for jobs involving applied science and modern technology. It emphasizes the understanding and practical application of basic principles of science and mathematics, rather than the attainment of proficiency in manual skills that is properly the concern of vocational education. The goal of techni¬ cal education is to prepare graduates for occupations that are classified above the skilled crafts but below the scientific or engineering profes¬ sions. People so employed are frequently called technicians. See also employee training.

techno Electronic dance music that first appeared in the U.S. in the 1980s and became globally popular in the 1990s. It originated with Detroit deejay-producers who, inspired by European electro-pop, underlaid dreamy synthesizer melodies with rapid electronic rhythms. Imported in Europe, it was adopted by the burgeoning rave scene of all-night dance parties (which often featured the hallucinogen ecstasy) and is celebrated in the annual Love Parade in Berlin.

technology Application of knowledge to the practical aims of human life or to changing and manipulating the human environment. Technology includes the use of materials, tools, techniques, and sources of power to make life easier or more pleasant and work more productive. Whereas science is concerned with how and why things happen, technology focuses on making things happen. Technology began to influence human endeav¬ our as soon as people began using tools. It accelerated with the Industrial Revolution and the substitution of machines for animal and human labour. Accelerated technological development has also had costs, in terms of air and water pollution and other undesirable environmental effects.

tectonics Scientific study of the deformation of the rocks that make up the Earth’s crust and the forces that produce such deformation. It deals with the folding and faulting associated with mountain building; the large- scale, gradual, upward and downward movements of the crust; and sud¬ den horizontal displacements along faults. Other phenomena studied include igneous processes and metamorphism. The chief working prin¬ ciple of tectonics is the concept of plate tectonics. See also continental drift; seafloor spreading.

tectonism See diastrophism

Tecumseh Vto-'kom-soN (b. 1768, Old Piqua, in modern Clark county, Ohio, U.S.—d. Oct. 5, 1813, near Thames River, Upper Canada) Shaw¬ nee Indian chief. As a boy during the American Revolution, Tecumseh participated in combined British and Indian attacks on American colo¬ nists. In 1794 he fought unsuccessfully against Gen. Anthony Wayne. He eventually established a confederation made up of members of the Creek and other nations. In 1811 his brother’s attack on William H. Harrison’s troops at Tippecanoe, Ind., ended in defeat. As the War of 1812 approached, Tecumseh assembled his followers under the British banner and captured Detroit. Several lesser successes followed, ending with his death at the Thames River in what is now Ontario, marking the end of Indian resis¬ tance in the Old Northwest (as the East North Central states were some¬ times known).

Tedder (of Glenguin), Arthur William Tedder, 1 st Baron (b.

July 11, 1890, Glenguin, Stirling, Scot.—d. June 3, 1967, Banstead, Sur¬ rey, Eng.) British air marshal. He joined the British army in 1913, trans¬ ferred to the Royal Flying Corps in 1916, and after World War I commanded a branch of the Royal Air Force (RAF). As head of the RAF

1882 I Tees River ► telecommunications

Middle East Command in World War II, he commanded Allied air opera¬ tions in North Africa and Italy, and in 1944 he was appointed head of Allied air operations in western Europe. His policy of bombing German communications and providing close air support of ground operations contributed significantly to the success of the Normandy Campaign and the Allied advance into Germany. He later became the first peacetime chief of the air staff (1946-50).

Tees River \'tez\ River, northern England. It rises in the northern Pen- nines and flows 70 mi (110 km) east to the North Sea. There are falls and reservoirs along its course. Teesside, the urban area at the river’s mouth, has seen large-scale industrial development since the railroad arrived in

Teflon Trademark for a polymer of tetrafluoroethylene fluorocarbon (poly- tetrafluoroethylene [PTFEJ). Teflon is a tough, waxy, nonflammable organic compound with a slippery surface, attacked by very few chemi¬ cals and stable over a wide temperature range. Its qualities make it use¬ ful in gaskets, bearings, container and pipe linings, electrical insulation, parts for valves and pumps used for corrosive fluids, and protective non¬ stick coatings on cooking utensils, saw blades, and other articles. A closely related fluorocarbon polymer, fluorinated ethylene-propylene (FEP), has properties and applications similar to those of Teflon.

Tegea \'te-je-o\ Ancient city, eastern Arcadia, southern Greece. It was under Spartan rule from the mid-6th century bc until Thebes' victory over Sparta in the battle of Leuctra c. 371 bc. Afterward it joined a succession of leagues, and by the early 1st century ad was the only important town in Arcadia. It survived the Goth invasion in 395-396 and flourished under Byzantine and Frankish rule. It is the site of the Temple of Athena Alea, built by the city’s traditional founder, Aleus, and rebuilt in the 4th cen¬ tury bc by the sculptor Scopas.

Tegernsee \ , ta-gom- 1 za\ Lake, southern Bavaria, southeastern Germany. Located in the foothills of the Alps, it covers 3.5 sq mi (9 sq km). Sur¬ rounded by wooded mountains, it is a popular resort and recreation area. The castle of Maximilian I lies on the eastern shore.

Tegucigalpa \ta-,gu-se-'gal-pa\ City (pop., 2001: 769,061), capital of Honduras. Located on hilly terrain hemmed in by mountains, it was founded in 1578 as a gold- and silver-mining centre. It was made the per¬ manent capital of Honduras in 1880. It produces textiles and sugar. Prin¬ cipal buildings include the presidential and legislative palaces, the National University of Honduras (1847), and an 18th-century cathedral.

Tehran or Teheran \,ta-(9-)'ran\ City (pop., 1996: 6,758,845), capital of Iran. It is situated on the southern slopes of the Elburz Mountains. It was originally a suburb of ancient Rhagae (Rey), which was destroyed by the Mongols in 1220 and was later the home of several Safavid rulers of Persia (16th-18th centuries). It became prominent after its capture by Agha Muhammad Khan, founder of the Qajar dynasty, who made it his capital in 1785. It underwent rapid modernization after 1925 and espe¬ cially after World War II (1939-45). In 1943 it was the site of the Tehran Conference. In 1979, following the Islamic revolution in Iran, the U.S. embassy there was seized and its staff taken hostage by Iranian militants (see Iran hostage crisis). A transportation and industrial centre, Tehran produces more than half of Iran’s manufactured goods. It is the seat of several educational institutions, including the University of Tehran

(1934).

Tehran Conference (Nov. 28-Dec. 1, 1943) Meeting of Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin in Tehran during World War II to discuss military strategy and political issues. Stalin agreed to launch a military offensive from the east to coincide with a planned inva¬ sion of German-occupied France from the west. Also discussed but not settled were eastern Europe’s postwar borders, including Poland’s post¬ war status, and a postwar international organization.

Tehuantepec \ta-'wan-ta-,pek\ A Gulf of Inlet of the Pacific Ocean, southeastern Mexico. It extends 300 mi (500 km) between Oaxaca and Chiapas states and is 100 mi (160 km) wide at its mouth. Numerous lagoons mark its shores, and the Tehuantepec River and numerous smaller streams flow into it. Its southern shore forms the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.

Teide \'ta-,tha\ A Pico de or Pico de Tenerife Vpe-ko-da-.tan-o-'ref-oV Volcanic peak on the island of Tenerife, Canary Islands. At 12,198 ft (3,718 m) tall, it is the highest point on Spanish soil. Vents within its cra¬ ter and on its slopes eject hot gases. The peak is atop a volcanic cone on

the upper reaches of El Teide, a conglomeration of several volcanoes; its last eruption was in 1789. It lies within a national park. Nearby is an international solar observatory.

Teilhard de Chardin N.ta-yar-do-shar-'daA, (Marie-Joseph-) Pierre (b. May 1, 1881, Sarcenat,

France—<1. April 10, 1955, New York, N.Y., U.S.) French philosopher and paleontologist. Ordained a Jesuit priest in 1911, he taught geology from 1918 at the Institut Catholique in Paris. In 1929 he directed the excavations at the Peking man site at Zhoukoudian. This and other geologi¬ cal work won him high honours, though it came to be disapproved of by the Jesuit order. His philosophy was strongly informed by his scien¬ tific work, which he believed helped prove the existence of God. He is known for his theory that mankind is evolving, mentally and socially, toward a final spiritual unity that he called the Omega point. Though his major philosophical works. The Divine Milieu (1957) and The Phe¬ nomenon of Man (1955), were written in the 1920s and ’30s, their pub¬ lication in his lifetime was forbidden by the Jesuits.

Tekakwitha \,tek-3-'kwith-3\ A Kateri (b. 1656, probably Ossernenon, New Netherland—d. April 17, 1680, Caughnawaga, Que.) First North American Indian considered for canonization. The daughter of an Algon¬ quin Christian mother and a non-Christian Mohawk father, she was born in what is now Auriesville, N.Y., U.S., and was partially blinded by small¬ pox as a child. She was deeply impressed by the lives and words of three Jesuit missionaries she met at age 11, and at 20 she was baptized. Harassed and threatened with torture in her home village, she fled 200 mi (320 km) to a Christian Indian mission near Montreal, where she became known as the “Lily of the Mohawks” for her kindness, faith, and heroic suffering before her early death. She was beatified in 1980.

tektite Any of a class of small, natural glassy objects found on the Earth’s surface and associated with meteorite impacts. The extremely high temperatures and enormous pressures generated when a large meteorite, comet, or asteroid hits the Earth melt the rocks at the site, producing masses of molten droplets that are blasted into and out of the Earth’s atmosphere. The droplets cool quickly to a glassy form and then fall back to the Earth.

Tel Aviv-Yafo Vel-o-'vev-'ya-foV or Tel Aviv-Jaffa

N.tel-o-'vev-'ja-foX City (pop., 1999 est.: 348,100) and main port of Israel. The hub of Israel’s largest urban centre, it was formed in 1950 by the incorporation of the ancient port of Jaffa with Tel Aviv, its former sub¬ urb. Tel Aviv was founded in 1909 and was the capital of Israel (1948- 50). It grew with Jewish immigration in the early 20th century and by 1936 was the largest and most important city in Palestine. Jaffa was an old Canaanite city that was taken by Egypt in the 15th century bc and occupied by the Israelite kings David and Solomon. Over the centuries it was ruled by the Ptolemies, Syrians, and Romans, captured by the Cru¬ saders, and razed by the Mamluks. The British occupied it in 1917; it surrendered to Jewish military forces during the first Arab-Israeli war (1948). Israel’s main business, communications, and cultural centre, it is the site of more than half of Israel’s industrial plants, the country’s stock exchange, Tel Aviv University (1953), and Bar-Ilan University (1953).

telecommunications Communication between parties at a distance from one another. Modem telecommunication systems—capable of trans¬ mitting telephone, fax, data, radio, or television signals—can transmit large volumes of information over long distances. Digital transmission is employed in order to achieve high reliability with minimal noise, or inter¬ ference, and because it can transmit any signal type, digital or analog. For digital transmission, analog signals must be subjected to a process of analog-to-digital conversion; most television, radio, and voice communi¬ cations are analog and must be digitized before transmission. Transmis¬ sion may occur over cables, wireless radio relay systems, or via satellite links.

telegraph ► televangelism I 1883

telegraph Electromagnetic communication device. In 1832 Samuel F.B. Morse made sketches of ideas for a system of electric telegraphy, and in 1835 he developed a code to represent letters and numbers (Morse code). In 1837 he was granted a patent on an electromagnetic telegraph that transmitted signals along a wire. That same year British inventors pat¬ ented a telegraph system that activated five needle pointers that could be made to point to specific letters and numbers on their mounting plate. Public use of Morse’s telegraph system began in 1844 and lasted more than 100 years. By the late 20th century the telegraph had been replaced in most applications in developed countries by digital data transmission systems based on computer technology. See also Western Union Corp.

Teleki Vte-le-kiV, Pal, Count (b. Nov. 1, 1879, Budapest, Hung., Austria-Hungary—d. April 3, 1941, Budapest) Hungarian politician. An eminent geographer, he was a member of the Hungarian Parliament from 1905 and a delegate to the Paris Peace Conference (1919) after World War I. In 1921, however, he withdrew from party politics. He then taught at Budapest University before returning to office as minister of education (1938-39) and premier (1939—41). Hoping to use Germany’s power to win back territories lost through the Treaty of Trianon (1920), he initially cooperated with Adolf Hitler. In 1941, caught between German demands for support after it invaded Yugoslavia (with whom Hungary had signed a friendship treaty in 1940) and British threats against helping Germany, he committed suicide.

Telemann \'ta-b-,man\, Georg Philipp (b. March 14, 1681, Magde¬ burg, Brandenburg—d. June 25, 1767, Hamburg) German composer. By age 10 he had learned several instruments, and he composed an opera at age 12, but his family discouraged his pursuit of a musical profession. While studying law at Leipzig University, he organized student music groups and became music director of the Leipzig Opera (1702), organist at the New Church (1704), and kapellmeister to a count (1705). Moving to Eisenach (c. 1708), where he met Johann Sebastian Bach, he composed French-style instrumental music and German-style sacred music. He moved to Gotha (1717) and then Hamburg (1721), where he served as musical director of the Opera (1722-38), for which he wrote several dozen Italian-influenced works. He wrote some 600 cantatas and a total of some 2,000 pieces, many of high quality.

telemetry \t3-Te-mo-tre\ Highly automated communications process by which data are collected from instruments located at remote or inaccessible points and transmitted to receiving equipment for measurement, monitor¬ ing, display, and recording. Transmission of the information may be over wires or, more commonly, by radio. The technique is used extensively for oil-pipeline monitoring and control systems and in oceanography and meteorology. Telemetry for rockets and satellites bloomed in the 1950s and has continued to grow in complexity and in breadth of application. Data can be transmitted from inside internal-combustion engines during tests, from steam turbines in operation, and from manned and unmanned spacecraft. Major scientific applications include biomedical research and remote observation of operations with highly radioactive material.

teleological argument See argument from design

teleological ethics Theory that derives duty from what is valuable as an end, in a manner diametrically opposed to deontological ethics. Teleo¬ logical ethics holds that the basic standard of duty is the contribution that an action makes to the realization of nonmoral values. Teleological theo¬ ries differ on the nature of the nonmoral goods that actions ought to pro¬ mote. Eudaemonism emphasizes the cultivation of virtue in the agent as the end of all action. Utilitarianism holds that the end consists in the aggregate balance of pleasure to pain for all concerned. Other teleological theories claim that the end of action is survival and growth, as in evolutionary ethics (Herbert Spencer); power over others (Niccolo Machiavelu and Friedrich Nietzsche); satisfaction and adjustment, as in pragmatism (Ralph Barton Perry and John Dewey); and freedom, as in existentialism (Jean-Paul Sartre).

teleology \,te-le-'a-b-je\ Causality in which the effect is explained by an end (Greek, telos ) to be realized. Teleology thus differs essentially from efficient causality, in which an effect is dependent on prior events. Aris¬ totle’s account of teleology declared that a full explanation of anything must consider its final cause—the purpose for which the thing exists or was produced. Following Aristotle, many philosophers have conceived of biological processes as involving the operation of a guiding end. Modem science has tended to appeal only to efficient causes in its investigations. See also mechanism.

telephone Instrument designed for simultaneous transmission and reception of the human voice. It works by converting the sound waves of the human voice to pulses of electrical current, transmitting the current, and then retranslating the current back to sound. The U.S. patent granted to Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 for developing a device to transmit speech sounds over electric wires is often called the most valuable ever issued. Within 20 years, the telephone acquired a form that has remained fundamentally unchanged for more than a century. The advent of the transistor (1947) led to lightweight, compact circuitry (see cell phone). Advances in electronics have allowed the introduction of a number of “smart” features such as automatic redialing, caller identification, call waiting, and call forwarding. Telephone systems are also a primary access route for the Internet.

telescope Device that collects light from and magnifies images of dis¬ tant objects, undoubtedly the most important investigative tool in astronomy. The first telescopes focused visible light by refraction through LENSes; later instruments used reflection from curved mirrors (see optics). Their invention is traditionally credited to Hans Lippershey (15707- lb 19?), who adapted A. van Leeuwenhoek’s use of lenses in microscopes. Among the earliest telescopes were Galilean telescopes, modeled after the simple instruments built by Galileo, who was the first to use telescopes to study celestial bodies. In 1611 Johannes Kepler proposed an improved version that became the basis for modem refracting instruments. The reflecting telescope came into its own after William Herschel (see Her- schel family) used one to discover the planet Uranus in 1781. Since the 1930s radio telescopes have been used to detect and form images from radio waves emitted by celestial objects. More recently, telescopes have been designed to observe objects and phenomena in other parts of the ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM (see GAMMA-RAY ASTRONOMY; INFRARED ASTRONOMY;

ultraviolet astronomy; X-ray astronomy). Spaceflight has allowed tele¬ scopes to be launched into Earth orbit to avoid the light-scattering and light-absorbing effects of the atmosphere (e.g., the Hubble Space Telescope). See also binoculars; observatory.

objective lens eyepiece lens

incoming light

Two types of telescopes. A refracting telescope forms an image by focusing light from a distant object using an objective lens. A reflecting telescope uses mirrors to focus the light. Both types use a lens in the eyepiece to magnify the image formed.

Teletype Telegraphic instrument that was used for much of the 20th century to transmit and receive printed messages and data via telephone cables or radio relay systems. Teletypewriters (or teleprinters) became common for commercial use in the 1920s. In 1924 the Teletype Corp. introduced a series of teletypewriters so popular that the name Teletype became synonymous with teleprinters in the U.S. Coding schemes used for teleprinters included a variation of the Baudot code (1920s) and ASCII (1960s). (See Jean-Maurice-Emile Baudot.) With the advent of high-speed data transmission in the 1980s, teletype gave way to e-mail and fax.

televangelism Evangelism through religious programs on television. Such programs are usually hosted by a fundamentalist Protestant minis-

1884 I television ► temperature

ter, who conducts services and often asks for donations. Billy Graham became known worldwide through his TV specials from the 1950s on. Other prominent televangelists have included Oral Roberts, Jerry Falwell, and Pat Robertson.

television (TV) Electronic system for transmitting still or moving images and sound to receivers that project a view of the images on a picture tube or screen and recreate the sound. Early versions (1900-20) of the cathode-ray (picture) tube, methods of amplifying an electronic signal, and theoretical formulation of the electronic-scanning principle later became the basis of modem TV. RCA demonstrated the first all-electronic TV in 1932. Colour TV (in the 1950s), cable TV systems (introduced in the 1960s), and recording or playback machines (in the 1980s; see VCR) followed. Digital high-definition (HDTV) systems (1990s) provide sharper, clearer pictures and sound with little interference or other imperfections and have the potential to merge TV functions with those of computers.

television, cable See cable television

telex International telegraphic message-transfer service consisting of a network of teleprinters. Subscribers to a telex service can exchange tex¬ tual communications and data directly with one another. Telex systems originated in Europe in the early 1930s and were widely used for several decades. The ability to conduct high-speed digital communication over regular telephone lines led to a decline in the use of telex, but it is still used as a data transmission service for applications in which high trans¬ mission speeds are not necessary or in areas where more modem data equipment is not available.

Telford, Thomas (b. Aug. 9, 1757, near Westerkirk, Dumfries, Scot.—d. Sept. 2, 1834, London, Eng.) Scottish civil engineer. He built the Ellesmere, Caledonian, and Gota canals and the St. Katherine’s Docks in London. His crowning achievement was the design and construction (1819-26) of the great Menai Bridge, a suspension bridge in Wales. In all he built some 1,200 bridges, over 1,000 miles of road, and many build¬ ings. He was the first president of the British Institution of Civil Engi¬ neers (founded 1818).

Tell, William German Wilhelm Tell. Swiss national hero whose his¬ torical existence is disputed. According to tradition, in the 13th or early 14th century he defied Austrian authority and was forced to shoot an apple from his son’s head with a crossbow at a distance of 80 paces by the hated Austrian governor. He subsequently ambushed and killed the governor, an event that supposedly led to rebellion against Austrian rule. He is first mentioned in a chronicle from 1470. The marksman’s test is widely found in folklore, and the story has resemblances to the founding myths of other nations.

Tell Asmar See Eshnunna

Tell el-Amarna See Tell cI-Amarna

Tell MardTkh See Ebla

Teller, Edward orig. Ede Teller (b. Jan. 15, 1908, Budapest, Hung., Austria-Hungary—d. Sept. 9, 2003,

Stanford, Calif.) Hungarian-born U.S. nuclear physicist. Born to a prosperous Jewish family, he earned a Ph.D. at the University of Leipzig (1930) before leaving Nazi Germany (1933) and settled in the U.S. in 1935. In 1941 he joined Enrico Fer¬ mi’s team in the effort to produce the first self-sustaining nuclear reaction, and in 1943 J. Robert Oppenheimer recruited him for the Manhattan Project. At the war’s end, Teller advocated development of a fusion bomb, and he won permission after initial government resistance. With Stanislaw Ulam he developed a work¬ able hydrogen bomb in 1952. That same year he helped establish the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory (Livermore, Calif.), which became the chief U.S. factory for nuclear weapons. In 1954 he joined the oppo¬ sition to Oppenheimer’s continued security clearance. A staunch anticom¬

munist, he devoted much energy to his crusade to keep the U.S. ahead of the Soviet Union in nuclear arms; he opposed nuclear weapons treaties, and he was principally responsible for convincing Pres. Ronald Reagan of the need for the Strategic Defense Initiative. In 2003 Teller was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom.

Telloh See Lagash

Telugu \'te-l3-,gu\ language Dravidian language spoken by more than 66 million people in South India and in immigrant communities else¬ where. It is the official language of the state of Andhra Pradesh. The ear¬ liest inscription entirely in Telugu is from the 6th century; literary texts begin in the 11th century. The Telugu script, derived from the writing of the Calukya dynasty, is closely akin to Kannada script (see Indic writing systems). Like other major Dravidian languages, Telugu has very marked distinctions between formal or literary and colloquial registers and between social dialects.

telum figure or tellem figure Vte-bmX Small, devotional image carved from wood or stone, probably used in private ancestor worship in primitive societies. Telum figures are known from northwestern New Guinea and in the Dogon art of Sudan. Extant examples are rare, perhaps because they had less intrinsic value than the more carefully executed statues used in formal ceremonies of ancestor worship.

Tempe Vtem-pe, tem-'pe\ City (pop., 2000: 158,625), southwest-central Arizona, U.S. Tempe is located on the Salt River, near Phoenix. First settled in 1872, it was renamed in 1880 for the Vale of Tempe in Greece. After World War II the city experienced rapid residential and economic growth with light-industrial development. Arizona State University (founded 1885), located there, has an auditorium designed by Frank Lloyd Wright.

Tempe Vtem-peX, Vale of Greek Tembi Narrow valley between Mount Olympus and Mount Ossa, northeastern Thessaly, Greece. The Pin- ios River flows through the 6-mi (10-km) valley before emptying into the Aegean Sea. The ancient Greeks dedicated Tempe to the cult of Apollo. Legends attribute its formation to a blow from Poseidon’s trident; how¬ ever, geologists believe it was carved by stream action. Because it pro¬ vides access from the coast of Greece to the Thessalian plain, it has been a traditional invasion route. Ruins of castles and fortifications, from the Roman period to the Middle Ages, mark its strong points.

tempera painting Painting executed with ground pigment mixed with a water-soluble material, such as egg yolk, gum, or wax. The special ground for tempera painting is a rigid wood panel coated with thin layers of gesso, a preparation usually made of plaster of Paris and glue. Tem¬ pera paint is resistant to water and allows overpainting with more colour; the thin, transparent layers of paint produce a clear, luminous effect. The exclusive medium for panel painting in the Middle Ages and early Renais¬ sance, it was largely superseded in the 15th century by oil paint.

temperament In the psychological study of personality, an individu¬ al’s characteristic or habitual inclination or mode of emotional response. The notion of temperament in this sense originated with Galen, who developed it from an earlier theory regarding the four “humours”: blood, phlegm, and black and yellow bile. The subject was taken up in the 20th century by Ernst Kretschmer and later theorists, including Margaret Mead. Today researchers emphasize physiological processes (including the endo¬ crine and autonomic nervous systems) and culture and learning.

temperament See tuning and temperament

temperance movement International social movement dedicated to the control of alcohol consumption through the promotion of moderation and abstinence. It began as a church-sponsored movement in the U.S. in the early 19th century. It attracted the efforts of many women, and by 1833 there were 6,000 local temperance societies in the U.S. The first European temperance society was formed in Ireland in 1826. An international tem¬ perance movement began in Utica, N.Y., U.S., in 1851 and spread to Aus¬ tralia, Asia, Europe, India, South and West Africa, and South America. See also Carry Nation; Prohibition; Woman's Christian Temperance Movement.

temperature Measure of hotness expressed in terms of any of several arbitrary scales, such as Fahrenheit, Celsius, or Kelvin. Heat flows from a hotter body to a colder one and continues to do so until both are at the same temperature. Temperature is a measure of the average energy of the molecules of a body, whereas heat is a measure of the total amount of thermal energy in a body. For example, whereas the temperature of a cup of boiling water is the same as that of a large pot of boiling water (212°F,

Edward Teller.

COURTESY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LAWRENCE BERKELEY LABORATORY, BERKELEY, CAUF.

temperature inversion ► Tempyo style I 1885

or 100°C), the large pot has more heat, or thermal energy, and it takes more energy to boil a pot of water than a cup of water. The most com¬ mon temperature scales are based on arbitrarily defined fixed points. The Fahrenheit scale sets 32° as the freezing point of water and 212° as the boiling point of water (at standard atmospheric pressure). The Celsius scale defines the triple point of water (at which all three phases, solid, liquid, and gas, coexist in equilibrium) at 0.01° and the boiling point at 100°. The Kelvin scale, used primarily for scientific and engineering pur¬ poses, sets the zero point at absolute zero and uses a degree the same size as those of the Celsius scale.

temperature inversion In meteorology, an increase of air tempera¬ ture with altitude. Such an increase is a reversal of the normal tempera¬ ture condition of the troposphere, where temperature usually decreases with altitude. Inversions play an important role in determining cloud forms, precipitation, and visibility. An inversion acts as a lid, preventing the upward movement of the air below it. Where a pronounced inversion is present at a low level, convective clouds cannot grow high enough to produce showers and, at the same time, visibility may be greatly reduced by trapped pollutants (see smog). Because the air near the base of the inversion is cool, fog is frequently present there.

tempering Heat-treating of metal alloys, particularly steel, to reduce brittleness and restore ductility. In tempering, steel is slowly heated to a temperature between 300 and 1,300 °F (150 and 700 °C), depending on desired properties, in an oil or salt bath and held for about two hours and then allowed to air cool. As steel is physically worked (e.g., rolling, wire¬ drawing, hammering), hardening takes place, and it grows progressively more brittle. Similarly, but more deliberately, heating and quenching increase hardness. Combined quench-and-temper heat-treating is applied at many different cooling rates, holding times, and temperatures and is a very important means of controlling the properties of steel.

Tempest, Dame Marie orig. Marie Susan Etherington (b. July 15, 1864, London, Eng.—d. Oct. 15, 1942, London) British actress. She began her career as an operetta singer, winning acclaim for her charming and high-spirited performances in Dorothy (1887) and touring the U.S. and Canada in the early 1890s in operettas such as The Bohemian Girl and The Pirates of Penzance. Turning to straight comedy in 1899, she appeared notably in English Nell (1900), Mrs. Dot (1908), and Hay Fever (1925).

Tempietto \tem-'pyet-o\ Small monument built in 1502 to mark the crucifixion spot of St. Peter in Rome. Designed by Donato Bramante, it is a circular, domed, unadorned masterpiece of High Renaissance archi¬ tecture. Its outer face is a colonnade of bare Tuscan Doric, the earliest modern use of this order. Because of its proportions, the tiny temple has the majesty of a great monument.

Templar \'tem-pbr\ or Knight Templar Member of a religious mili¬ tary order of knighthood established during the Crusades. At its beginning (c. 1119), the group consisted of eight or nine French knights who devoted themselves to protecting from Muslim warriors those on pilgrimage to Jerusalem. They were given quarters near the site of the former Temple of Jerusalem, from which they derived their name. Taking vows of poverty and chastity, they performed courageous service, and their numbers increased rapidly, partly because of the propagandistic writing of St. Ber¬ nard de Clairvaux, who also wrote their rule of life. They flourished for two centuries, expanding to other countries, growing in number to 20,000, and acquiring vast wealth and property. By 1304 rumours, probably false, of irreligious practices and blasphemies had made them the target of per¬ secution. In 1307 Philip IV of France and Pope Clement V initiated the offensive that culminated in the Templars’ final suppression in 1312, including the confiscation of all their property and the imprisonment or execution of many members; their last leader, Jacques de Molay (1243- 1314), was burned at the stake.

temple Edifice constructed for the worship of a deity. Features commonly include a sanctuary and an altar. Ancient Egypt had two kinds of temple: mortuary temples for the cults of dead kings, with a chapel in which offer¬ ings were presented, and cult temples that held images of deities. The cult temple typically included a massive pylon entrance with a court leading to a hypostyle hall and, at the heart of the temple, a shrine for the cult image. Most Classical Greek temples were rectangular and built of marble or other stone on a low stylobate (stepped platform). A gable roof was supported by columns, with a portico at each end (amphiprostyle temple), a colonnade extending all around (peripteral temple), or a double line of columns all around (dipteral temple). An inner cella housed the image of a deity, and an

altar stood outside the temple. Roman temples were profoundly influenced by Greek style, but the altar was inside the temple and the colonnade was often reduced to a row of engaged columns. Hindu temples vary regionally, but generally consist of a towering shrine and a columned hall surrounded by an elaborate wall. Buddhist temples range from half-buried sanctuaries with richly carved entrances to single carved towers or statues. The Chi¬ nese and Japanese Buddhist temple is typically a one-story building of richly carved, painted, or tiled timber constructed around an atrium used for worship, though towering pagodas were sometimes built as temples over a shrine. In the Americas, Inca and Mayan temples were constructed of stone, often richly carved; they were generally stair-stepped pyramids, with the shrine at the top. See also synagogue.

Temple, Sir William (b. April 25, 1628, London, Eng.—d. Jan. 27, 1699, Moor Park, Surrey) British statesman. As ambassador to The Hague (1668-70, 1674-79), he formulated England’s pro-Dutch foreign policy and arranged the marriage between William of Orange and Princess Mary of England (later William III and Mary II). After retiring from politics in 1681, he wrote numerous essays that were collected for publication by his secretary, Jonathan Swift. He also wrote the acclaimed Observations upon the United Provinces (1673).

Temple of Heaven Large religious complex in the old outer city of Beijing, considered the supreme achievement of traditional Chinese archi¬ tecture. Its layout symbolizes the belief that heaven is round and earth square. The three buildings are built in a straight line. The Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests (1420) has three concentric circles of massive wood columns symbolizing the four sea¬ sons, 12 months, and 12 daily hours; in a remarkable feat of engineering, they support the three roof levels and, in succession, a huge square brace (earth), circular architrave (heaven), and vast interior cupola.

The Imperial Vault of Heaven (1530; rebuilt 1572) is a smaller circular building constructed without cross¬ beams; its dome is supported by complicated span work. The Circu¬ lar Mound Altar (1530; rebuilt 1749) is a triple-tiered white stone terrace enclosed by two sets of walls that are square outside and round inside.

Tempyo style \'temp-yo\ Japa¬ nese sculptural style of the Nara period (710-784), greatly influenced by the Chinese imperial style of the

vshura, dry lacquer ( kanshitsu ) sculp- jre in the Tempyo style, Late Nara eriod (724-794); in the Kofuku-ji, Jara, Japan

SUKA-EN, JAPAN

Temple, Shirley later Shirley Temple Black (b. April 23, 1928, Santa Monica, Calif., U.S.) U.S. child actress. She was selected from her dancing class for a screen test and made her debut at age four. She won notice in Stand Up and Cheer (1934) and was featured in Little Miss Marker (1934) and Bright Eyes (1934), in which she sang “On the Good Ship Lollipop.” A precocious performer known for her dimples and golden curls, she became the country’s most popular female star and Hollywood’s top box office attraction in the Great Depression era. She received a special Academy Award in 1934. Her later films include The Little Colonel (1935),

Wee Willie Winkie (1937), and The Little Princess (1939). As an adult she served as a U.S. delegate to the cu- i t i UN General Assembly (1969-70) brown Mothers

and as U.S. ambassador to Ghana -

(1974-76) and Czechoslovakia (1989-92).

1886 I Ten Commandments ► Tenniel

Tang dynasty (618-907). Many supreme sculptural achievements of Japa¬ nese Buddhist art were created during this era, often in unbaked clay, solid wood, and lacquered cloth molded on a removable core (a technique called kanshitsu , or dry lacquer). Tempyo style shows a closer fusion of parts into a unified whole than is found in works of the Early Nara period, giving a sense of activity and realistic observation; the new realism is especially notable in portrait sculpture.

Ten Commandments List of religious precepts sacred in Judaism and Christianity. They include injunctions to honour God, the Sabbath, and one’s parents, as well as bans on idolatry, blasphemy, murder, adultery, theft, false witness, and covetousness. In the book of Exodus, they are divinely revealed to Moses on Mount Sinai and engraved on two stone tablets. Most scholars propose a date between the 16th and 13th century bc for the com¬ mandments, though some date them as late as 750 bc. They were not regarded with deep reverence by Christians until the 13th century.

Ten Thousand Smokes, Valley of Volcanic region, southern Alaska, U.S. Located in Katmai National Park and Preserve, the valley cov¬ ers 56 sq mi (145 sq km). It was created in 1912 when the eruption of the Novarupta and Mount Katmai volcanoes covered the valley in a flow of lava. When an expedition visited the site in 1916, it discovered tens of thousands of fissures known as fumaroles spouting smoke, gas, and steam in the valley floor. The largest was 150 ft (46 m) in diameter; some had temperatures as high as 1,200 °F (649 °C). About 60 years later there were fewer than 12 fumaroles left. In the 1960s U.S. astronauts used the scarred region to train for Moon landings.

tenant See landlord and tenant

tenant farming Agricultural system in which landowners rent their land to farmers and receive either cash or a share of the product in return. Landowners may also contribute operating capital and management. Under one arrangement, known as sharecropping, the landowner furnishes all the capital and sometimes the food, clothing, and medical expenses of the tenant and may also supervise the work. The sharecropper then pays the landowner with a portion of the output grown on the land. In other forms of tenant farming, the tenant may furnish all the equipment and have substantial autonomy in the farm’s operation. Tenants and their fami¬ lies probably constitute two-fifths of the world’s population engaged in agriculture. Tenant farming can be highly efficient, as has been shown in England and Wales. Abuses occur when landowners’ power is excessive and the tenants are poor or of inferior social status.

Tendai See Tiantai

tendinitis or tendonitis \,ten-d 3 n-T-t9s\ Inflammation of a tendon sheath, due to irritation of this thin, filmy tissue by overuse of the ten¬ dons, which slide within them, or to bacterial infection. It is often an occupational disease, affecting tendons used in repetitive motions on the job. The tendon becomes swollen and red, with pain that increases on motion. The swelling hampers the tendon’s sliding within, causing stiff¬ ness. Treatment involves immobilization with a splint, cast, or bandage and gradually increasing motion after inflammation subsides, which may happen sooner with corticosteroid injections. Repeated episodes can per¬ manently thicken the sheath, limiting motion.

tendon Tissue attaching a muscle to other body parts, usually bones, to transmit the mechanical force of muscle contraction to the other part. Much like ligaments, tendons are composed of dense, fibrous connective tissue with a high collagen content, which makes them remarkably tough and strong, with great tensile strength to withstand the stresses generated by muscle contraction.

tendril Plant organ specialized to anchor and support vining stems. A tendril is a slender, whiplike or threadlike strand, produced usually from the node of a stem and composed of either stem or leafstalk tissue, by which a vine or other plant may climb. Sensitive to contact, the tendril turns toward any object it brushes against, wraps about it, and clings to it for as long as the stimulation persists. Later, strong mechanical tissue develops in the tendrils, making them strong enough to support the weight of the plant. Some tendrils have enlargements at the ends that flatten and produce an adhesive that firmly cements them to their support. Common examples of tendril plants are grape, English ivy, sweet pea, gourds, and PASSIONFLOWERS.

Tenerife, Pico de See Pico de Teide Teng Hsiao-p'ing See Deng Xiaoping

Teniers Uo-'nirs, ta-'nya\, David (baptized Dec. 15, 1610, Antwerp, Belg.—d. April 25, 1690, Brussels) Flemish painter. His father, also named David Teniers (1582-1649), was a painter of primarily religious subjects. The younger Teniers was highly prolific and is best known for his genre scenes of peasant life, many of which were used for tapestry designs in the 18th century. He was brilliant at handling crowd scenes in an open landscape and adept at characterizing his figures with a warm, human, and often humorous touch. As court painter to the archduke Leopold William, he also made many small-scale copies of paintings in the archduke’s collection; engraved and published as Theatrum Pictorium (1660), they constitute a valuable source as a pictorial inventory of a great 17th-century collection.

Tennessee State (pop., 2000: 5,689,283), southeast-central U.S. It occu¬ pies 42,144 sq mi (109,153 sq km); its capital is Nashville. It is bordered by Kentucky and Virginia to the north, North Carolina to the east, Ala¬ bama and Mississippi to the south, and Arkansas and Missouri to the west. The Great Smoky Mountains edge the eastern part of the state, while the Mississippi River is on its western boundary. The Tennessee River valley domi¬ nates much of the state, and the Tennessee Valley Authority is the nation’s largest electric-power generating system. Tennessee has a moderate cli¬ mate; about half of it is forested. American Indians, including Chickasaw, Cherokee, and Shawnee, inhabited the region when Spanish, French, and English explorers visited it in the 16th-17th centuries. It was included in the British charter of Carolina and in the French Louisiana claim and was ceded to Great Britain after the French and Indian War. The first perma¬ nent settlement was made c. 1770. It was part of North Carolina until 1785, when the area’s settlers broke away and formed the free state of Franklin. North Carolina relinquished its claim in 1789, and Tennessee became the 16th U.S. state in 1796. In 1861 it seceded from the Union; the hard-fought American Civil War battles of Shiloh, Chattanooga, Stones River, and Nashville occurred there. In 1866 it was the first state read¬ mitted to the Union. During the Reconstruction era, blacks lost what little power they had gained. After World War II Tennessee became a testing ground for those involved in the civil rights movement. The state’s economy is based on manufacturing.

Tennessee River Navigable river, Tennessee, northern Alabama, and western Kentucky, U.S. Formed by the confluence of the Holston and French Broad rivers in eastern Tennessee, it flows 652 mi (1,049 km) before joining the Ohio River in Kentucky. During the American Civil War it served as a strategic invasion route into the western Confederacy. Its development as one of the world’s greatest irrigation and hydropower systems began with the establishment in 1933 of the Tennessee Valley Authority. The Tennessee River is linked to the Tombigbee River by the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway.

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) U.S. government agency estab¬ lished in 1933 to control floods, improve navigation, and generate elec¬ trical power along the Tennessee River and its tributaries. The TVA is a public corporation governed by a board of directors. It has jurisdiction over the entire basin of the river, which covers parts of seven states: Ala¬ bama, Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia. Created by Congress as one of the major public-works projects of the New Deal, the TVA built a system of dams to control the region’s chronic flooding, deepened the channel to improve navigation, and encouraged the development of port facilities along the river. The projects greatly increased traffic on the river and provided cheap electricity, spur¬ ring the industrial development of what had been a chronically depressed regional economy. See also Public Works Administration.

Tennessee Walking Horse or Plantation Walking Horse

Breed of light horse with a distinctive, easy-to-sit gait, the running walk. It was developed for touring U.S. Southern plantations. It averages 15.2 hands (61 in. [154 cm]) high and weighs about 1,000 lb (450 kg). Coat colour varies. Its ancestors included any horse capable of a running walk, a natural gait that cannot be acquired, but the most influential stallion was a Standardbred. The running walk, faster than a flat-footed walk, is a low, gliding, reaching action; the front foot strikes the ground an instant before the diagonal hind foot, which then oversteps the front footprint by sev¬ eral inches.

Tenniel Vten-yslX, Sir John (b. Feb. 28, 1820, London, Eng.—d. Feb. 25, 1914, London) British illustrator and satirical artist. After attracting attention with his mural decorations, he was invited to contribute draw¬ ings to Punch magazine in 1850 and in time became its chief cartoonist.

tennis ► tensor analysis I 1887

(1.4 m)

A professional tennis court. The person serving stands behind the baseline, alternately to the right and left of the center mark, and must land the ball alternately in the opposite left and right service court. A narrower portion of the court is used in singles tennis (one person on a side) than in doubles (two people on a side), though the size of the service court does not change. In doubles, the two partners alternate in serving, but (soth may otherwise roam freely over the entire court.

His drawings lent new dignity to the political cartoon. Of his many book illustrations, best known are those for Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adven¬ tures in Wonderland (1865) and Through the Looking-Glass (1872), which are remarkable for their subtlety and cleverness.

tennis Game played with rackets and a light, elastic ball by two play¬ ers or pairs of players on a rectangu¬ lar court divided by a low net. Tennis is played indoors and outdoors, on hard-surface, clay, and grass courts.

The object is to hit the ball over the net and into the opponent’s half of the court in such a way as to defeat the opponent’s attempt to reach and return it. Each player serves for an entire game. Points are scored as 15,

30, 40, and game (the term “love” is used for 0). A tied score (“deuce”) requires continued play until a two- point margin is achieved. The first player to win six games, with a lead of two games, takes the set. A match consists of the best two out of three (or three out of five) sets. Since the early 1970s, tiebreakers have been employed to eliminate marathon sets. Tennis developed in the 1870s in Britain from earlier racket-and-ball games. The first world lawn-tennis championship was held in 1877 at Wimbledon; clay- and hard-court competitions emerged later. Current international team tournaments include the Davis Cup for men and the Federation Cup (since 1963) for women’s teams. The major tournaments for individual players constitute the “Grand Slam” of tennis: the national championships of Britain (Wimbledon), the U.S., Australia, and France.

Tennis Court Oath (June 20, 1789) Oath taken by deputies of the Third Estate in the French Revolution. Believing that their newly formed National Assembly was to be disbanded, the deputies met at a nearby ten¬ nis court when they were locked out of their usual meeting hall at Ver¬ sailles. They vowed never to separate until a written constitution was established for France. Their solidarity forced Louis XVI to order the clergy and the nobility to join with the Third Estate in the National Assembly.

Tennyson Vte-na-sanV Alfred, 1st Baron Tennyson (of Ald- wortn and Freshwater) known as Alfred, Lora Tennyson (b.

Aug. 6, 1809, Somersby, Lincolnshire, Eng.—d. Oct. 6, 1892, Aldworth, Surrey) English poet, the leading poet of the Victorian age. While attend¬ ing Cambridge University, Tennyson developed a deep friendship with Arthur Hallam. His reputation as a poet increased at Cambridge, and he published Poems, Chiefly Lyrical (1830). Another volume, including “The Lotos-Eaters” and “The Lady of Shalott,” was published in 1832 (dated 1833). Hallam’s sudden death in 1833 prompted Tennyson to write poems that eventually became part of the vast In Memoriam (1850) and lyrics that later appeared in the brooding Maud (1855), his favourite poem. Poems (1842), including “Ulysses,” “Morte d’Arthur,” and “Locksley Hall,” followed, then The Princess (1847), a long antifeminist fantasia that includes such lyrics as “Sweet and Low” and “Tears, Idle Tears.” In 1850 he married; that year he was also named poet laureate of England. Among his subsequent works are “The Charge of the Light Brigade” (1855); Idylls of the King (1859), treating the Arthurian legend; and Enoch Arden (1864). A consummate poet who was inclined to melancholy, Ten¬ nyson was also regarded as a spokesman for the educated English middle class. His works often dealt with the difficulties of an age when tradi¬ tional assumptions were increasingly called into question by science and modern progress.

Tenochtitlan \ta-,n6ch-tet-'lan\ Ancient capital of the Aztec empire. Located at the site of modern Mexico City, it was founded c. 1325 in the marshes of Lake Texcoco. It formed a confederacy with Texcoco and Tla- copan and was the Aztec capital by the late 15th century. Originally located on two small islands in Lake Texcoco, it gradually spread through the con¬ struction of artificial islands to cover more than 5 sq mi (13 sq km). It was connected to the mainland by several causeways. The population in 1519 was estimated to be about 400,000 people, the largest residential concen¬

tration in Mesoamerican history. It contained the palace of Montezuma II, said to consist of 300 rooms, as well as hundreds of temples. It was destroyed by the Spanish coNQUiSTADORes under Hernan Cortes in 1521.

tenor High male voice range, extending from about the second B below middle C to the G above it. In the polyphony of the 13th-16th centuries, the tenor was the part that held (Latin, tenere : “to hold”) the CANTUS FlR- mus. Tenor voices are often classified as dramatic, lyric, or heroic (hel- dentenor). In instrument families, tenor refers to the instrument in which the central range is roughly that of the tenor voice (e.g., tenor saxophone).

tenor tuba See euphonium tenpounder See ladyfish

Tenrikyo \'ten-re-,kyo\ Largest and most successful of the modem Shinto sects in Japan. Its founder, Nakayama Miki (1798-1887), was a charis¬ matic peasant who, at age 40, claimed to be possessed by a god of divine wisdom. She developed a form of worship characterized by ecstatic danc¬ ing and shamanistic practices, and a doctrine emphasizing charity and the healing of disease through mental acts of faith. Her writings and deeds were considered divine models. Tenrikyo was one of the most powerful religious movements in Japan immediately after World War II, and its membership reached about 2.5 million in the late 20th century.

tense In grammar, an inflected form of a verb indicating the time of a narrated event in relation to the time at which the narrator is speaking. Time is often perceived as a continuum with three main divisions, past, present, and future, defined in relation to the time when the event is described. Other categories, including mood and aspect, may further specify the action as definite or indefinite, completed or not completed, lasting or nonlasting, and recurring or occurring once.

tensile \'ten-sol\ strength Ratio of the maximum load a material can support without fracture when being stretched to the original area of a cross section of the material. When STRESSes less than the tensile strength are removed, a material completely or partially returns to its original size and shape. As the stress approaches that of the tensile strength, a mate¬ rial that has begun to flow forms a narrow, constricted region that is eas¬ ily fractured. Tensile strengths are measured in units of force per unit area. See also deformation and flow.

Tenskwatawa See The Prophet

tensor analysis Branch of mathematics concerned with relations or laws that remain valid regardless of the coordinate system used to specify the quantities. Tensors, invented as an extension of vectors, are essential to the study of manifolds. Every vector is a tensor, but tensors are more general and not easily pictured as geometrical objects. A tensor can be thought of as an abstract object defined as a set of components (like geo¬ metric coordinates) that, under a transformation of coordinates, undergo a specific type of transformation. While tensors were explored before

1888 I tent caterpillar ► Terbrugghen

Albert Einstein, the success of his general theory of relativity led to their widespread exploration and use by mathematicians and physicists.

tent caterpillar Any moth larva of the genus Malacosoma (family Lasiocampidae). Tent caterpillars are often brightly coloured. Congrega¬ tions of the eastern tent caterpillar (M americanum ) of eastern North America spin huge, tent-shaped communal nests in forked tree branches. Eggs the moth deposits on a tree in midsummer hatch in spring. The hatched caterpillars migrate to a tree crotch and construct a silken tent, which they leave each day throughout the summer to feed on the sur¬ rounding leaves. The forest tent caterpillar (M. disstria) is common in the southern U.S.

tent structure Building that uses masts or poles and tensile membrane (e.g., fabric or animal skin) enclosures. Tent structures are prestressed by externally applied forces so that they are held taut under anticipated load conditions. Tents have been the dwelling places of most of the world’s nomadic peoples, from ancient times until the present. The traditional Bedouin tent consists of a rectangular membrane of strips of woven camel hair that is strained on webbing straps and secured with guys over a rect¬ angle of poles. The American Plains Indians developed the conical tepee. The Central Asian nomadic pole dwelling, or yurt, uses skins and textiles as its covering. See also membrane structure, pole construction.

Tenure of Office Act (1867) Law forbidding the U.S. president to remove civil officers without the consent of the Senate. Passed by the Radical Republicans over the veto of Pres. Andrew Johnson, the measure sought to prevent Johnson from removing cabinet members who sup¬ ported Congress’s harsh Reconstruction policies. When Johnson tried to dismiss his secretary of war, Edwin M. Stanton, an ally of the Radical Republicans, Congress began impeachment proceedings against him. The law was partially repealed in 1869 and completely repealed in 1887; in 1926 it was found unconstitutional.

Tenzing Norgay Vten-.ziq-'nor-geV (b. May 15, 1914, Tshechu, Tibet [now Tibet Autonomous Region, China]—d. May 9, 1986, Darjeeling [now Darjiling], India) Tibetan Sherpa mountaineer. Tenzing served on numerous expeditions before joining Edmund Hillary as sirdar, or organizer of porters. In 1953 he and Hillary became the first two people to reach the summit of Mount Everest. A devout Buddhist, Tenzing left an offering of food at Everest’s summit.

teosinte X.ta-o-'sin-teN Tall, stout, annual grass ( Zea mexicana or Euchlaena mexicana) of the family Poaceae (or Gramineae), native to Mexico. Related to corn, teosinte grows in large clumps, producing bundles of fruiting spikes enclosed in husks and with silk hanging from the upper ends, similar to com ears. Species of corn have recently been crossed with teosinte to produce a perennial variety of corn.

Teotihuacan X.ta-o-.te-wa-'kanN Largest (though not most populous) city of pre-Columbian central Mexico, about 30 mi (50 km) northeast of modern Mexico City. Teotihuacan wielded its greatest influence in the first 900 years ad, after which it was sacked by the Toltecs. At its height, some 150,000 people lived in the city, which covered about 8 sq mi (21 sq km). Its plazas, temples, and palaces are dominated by the Pyramid of the Moon and the huge Pyramid of the Sun. Teotihuacan was the capital of one of the earliest Mesoamerican civilizations, and some consider it also to have been the centre of Toltec civilization. See also Tula.

Tepe Gawra \'te-pa-gau-'ra\ Ancient city, Mesopotamia. Located near present-day Mosul, Iraq, it was continuously occupied from the mid-6th to the mid-2nd millennium bc and gave its name to the Gawra Period (c. 3500-2900 bc). Its remains include the earliest known temple decorated with pilasters and recesses, a style that remained dominant in Mesopo¬ tamia for centuries. Its archaeological record illustrates the transition from early Stone Age farming villages to complex settlements.

Tepe Yahya \'te-pa-'ya-ya\ Ancient trading city, southeastern Iran. Almost continuously occupied in the 5th-3rd millennia bc, it flourished as a centre for the production and distribution of soapstone before being abandoned during the 2nd millennium. It was reoccupied from c. 1000 bc to c. ad 400.

tepee or tipi Tall tent dwelling used by the Plains Indians. It was suited to their nomadic life of buffalo hunting, because it could be easily folded and dragged by a horse. It was made by stretching dressed and fitted buf¬ falo skins over a skeleton of 20-30 wooden poles, all slanted in toward a central point and tied together near the top. A flap at the top allowed smoke

to escape, and a flap at the bottom served as a doorway. The tepee became a popular symbol of all American Indians, although the wigwam, wick¬ iup, hogan, igloo, and longhouse were at least as important.

Tepic \ta-'pek\ City (pop., 2000: 265,817), capital of Nayarit state, west- central Mexico. It lies along the Tepic River, at the foot of an extinct vol¬ cano. Founded in 1542, much of the city retains a Spanish colonial atmosphere. Its isolation limited its growth until construction of the rail¬ road in 1912; since then it has become a commercial, industrial, and agri¬ cultural centre. Nearby are Toltec ruins.

tequila Uo-'ke-loN Distilled liquor, usually clear in colour and unaged, made from the fermented juice of the Mexican agave plant. (See agave family.) It contains 40-50% alcohol. It was developed soon after the Span¬ iards brought distillation to Mexico, and is named for the town of Tequila. It is mixed with lime juice and orange liqueur to make the margarita cocktail, which is served in a glass rimmed with salt. Mescal, a stronger- flavoured liquor, is made from a wild agave from Oaxaca.

Terborch \t3r-'bork,\ English \t3r-'bork\, Gerard or Gerard ter Borch (b. 1617, Zwolle, Neth.—d. Dec. 8, 1681, Deventer) Dutch painter. After travels in England, Italy, Westphalia, and Spain, he returned home in 1648 and settled in Deventer in 1654. His works consist almost equally of portraits and genre paintings. By subtlety of tonal gradations and mastery of rendering diverse textures, he achieved extraordinarily rich effects with the clothing in his portraits. His superb colour sense is seen to advantage in his interior genre pieces, in which he depicted with grace

and fidelity the atmosphere of well- to-do middle-class life in 17th- century Holland.

Terbrugghen Uor-'bru-gsnV

Hendrik or Hendrick ter Brugghen (b. c. 1588, Deventer?, Neth.—buried Nov. 9, 1629, Utre¬ cht) Dutch painter. He reportedly spent 10 years in Italy, and on his return to Utrecht in 1615 his work showed the strong influence of Car¬ avaggio. His two versions of The Calling of St. Matthew (c. 1617, 1621) reflect knowledge of Caravag¬ gio’s treatment of the same subject. He is most indebted to Caravaggio for his chiaroscuro, though his own light is more atmospheric and sil¬ very, as in The Flute Player (1621). His masterpiece is St. Sebastian Attended by Irene and Her Maid (1625). With Gerrit van Honthorst, he was a leader of the Utrecht school.

brugghen, 1621; in the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, Kassel, Ger.

COURTESY OF THE STAATLICHE KUNSTSAMMLUNGEN, KASSEL, GER

Terence ► terrazzo I 1889

Terence orig. Publius Terentius Afer (b. c. 195, Carthage, North Africa—d. 159? bc, in Greece or at sea) Roman comic dramatist. Bom as a slave, he was taken to Rome, where he was educated and later freed. His six extant verse plays are The Woman of Andros, The Mother-in-Law, The Self-Tormentor, The Eunuch, Phormio, and The Brothers. Produced between 166 and 160 bc, they were based on Greek originals (including four by Menander); Terence eliminated their original prologues, used con¬ temporary colloquial Latin, and introduced a measure of realism. He influ¬ enced later dramatists such as Moliere and William Shakespeare.

Teresa (of Calcutta), Blessed Mother orig. Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu (b. Aug. 27, 1910, Skopje, Maced., Ottoman Empire—d. Sept. 5, 1997, Calcutta, India; beatified Oct. 19, 2003) Roman Catholic nun, founder of the Order of the Missionaries of Charity. The daughter of a grocer, she became a nun and went to India as a young woman. After studying nursing, she moved to the slums of Calcutta (Kolkata); in 1948 she founded her order, which served the blind, the aged, the disabled, and the dying. In 1963 the Indian government awarded her the Padmashri (“Lord of the Lotus”) for her services to the people of India, and in 1971 Pope Paul VI awarded her the first Pope John XXIII Peace Prize. In 1979 she received the Nobel Prize for Peace. Although in her later years she suffered from a worsening heart condition, Mother Teresa continued to serve the poor and sick and also spoke out against divorce, contraception, and abortion. Her order included hundreds of centres in more than 90 countries, with some 4,000 nuns and hundreds of thousands of lay work¬ ers. She was succeeded by the Indian-born Sister Nirmala. The process to declare her a saint began within two years of her death, and Pope John Paul II issued a special dispensation to expedite the process. She was beatified on Oct. 19, 2003, reaching the ranks of the blessed in the short¬ est time in the church’s history.

Teresa of Avila, Saint orig. Teresa de Cepeda y Ahumada

(b. March 28, 1515, Avila, Spain—d. Oct. 4, 1582, Alba de Tormes; can¬ onized 1622; feast day October 15) Spanish Carmelite nun, mystic, and saint. After entering a convent around the age of 20, she fell seriously ill. She underwent a religious awakening in 1555 and, despite her frail health, initiated the Carmelite Reform, leading the order’s return to its original austere practices, including poverty and seclusion from the world. Against some opposition, she opened new convents (the first in 1562) under the reformed order throughout Spain. St. John of the Cross joined her in her efforts, establishing reformed Carmelite monasteries. Her doctrines have been accepted as the classical exposition of the contemplative life, and her spiritual writings are still widely read today, among them The Inte¬ rior Castle (1588). In 1970 she became the first woman elevated to the position of Doctor of the Church.

Tereshkova \ 1 ter-3sh- , ko-v3\, Valentina (Vladimirovna) (b.

March 6, 1937, Maslennikovo, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Russian cosmonaut. An accomplished parachutist, she was accepted for the cosmonaut program in 1961. In 1963 she became the first woman in space, making 48 orbits in 71 hours aboard Vostok 6. She left the program after her flight and served in various governmental positions until the early 1990s. She was named a hero of the Soviet Union and twice awarded the Order of Lenin.

Terkel Vtor-kolV, Studs orig. Louis Turkel (b. May 16, 1912, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. radio personality and author. He moved with his family to Chicago when he was eight. Terkel gave up a legal career to become a radio disk jockey and interviewer, exposure that led to his own television show in 1950. In 1953, blacklisted from television for his left¬ ist leanings, he returned to radio, continuing at the same station for 45 years. His books include Division Street (1967), about Chicago; Hard Times (1970), about the Depression; Working (1974), on Americans and their jobs; The Good War, on World War II (1984, Pulitzer Prize); and Race (1992), on American feelings about race.

Terman, Lewis M(adison) (b. Jan. 15, 1877, Johnson county, Ind., U.S.—d. Dec. 21, 1956, Palo Alto, Calif.) U.S. psychologist. After join¬ ing the faculty of Stanford University in 1910, he revised the Binet-Simon intelligence scale and published the Stanford-Binet IQ test (1916), which soon was widely adopted in the U.S. During World War I he developed group intelligence testing for the U.S. Army, and in 1921 he launched a long-term program for the study of gifted children. He wrote The Mea¬ surement of Intelligence (1916) and coauthored Genetic Studies of Genius (5 vol., 1926-59).

termite Any of 1,900 species (order Isoptera) of mostly tropical, social, cellulose-eating insects that are usually soft-bodied and wingless. Intesti¬

nal microorganisms enable them to digest cellulose. Termite colonies con¬ sist of a fertile queen and king (reproductives), workers (the most numerous), and soldiers (see caste). Kings are less than an inch long (1-2 cm), but a queen may grow to more than 4 in. (11 cm). Workers and soldiers are sterile and blind. They survive two to five years; reproductives may live for 60-70 years. Termites live in a sealed, humid nest in wood or under¬ ground. Underground nests may be built up into a mound. Periodically, alates (winged, sighted forms) develop and leave the nest to start a new colony. Termites eat chiefly wood. Soil-dwelling termites attack wood that is in contact with the ground; wood-dwelling termites, requiring less humidity than soil-dwellers, attack trees, posts, and wooden buildings.

tern Any of about 40 species (subfamily Steminae, family Laridae) of slender, web-footed, migratory water birds found almost worldwide. Spe¬ cies vary from 8 to 22 in. (20-55 cm) long. The plumage is white, black- and-white, or black; the sharply pointed bill is black, red, or yellow; and the feet are red or black. Most species have long, pointed wings and a forked tail. Terns plunge into the water to catch crustaceans and fishes. They breed colonially, usually on the ground on islands. See also Arctic TERN.

terneplate Vtom-.pliUA Steel sheet with a coating of terne metal, an alloy of lead and tin applied by dipping the steel in molten metal. The lead con¬ tent gives terneplate a dull appearance, a noncorrosive surface, and sol- derability. The tin (12-50% of the alloy) wets the steel, making possible the union of lead and iron, which would otherwise not alloy. While it is still used for roofing, gutters and downspouts, casket linings, gasoline tanks, oil cans, and various containers, it has largely been replaced by other, more durable steel products that are easier to manufacture. See also GALVANIZING, TINPLATING.

terpene See isoprenoid

terra-cotta Italian "baked earth" Fairly coarse, porous clay that, when fired, assumes a colour ranging from dull ochre to red. Terra-cotta objects are usually left unglazed and are often of a utilitarian kind, because of their cheapness, versatility, and durability. Small terra-cotta figures from 3000 bc have been found in Greece and others throughout the Roman Empire from the 4th century bc. The use of terra-cotta virtually died out when the Roman Empire collapsed, but it was revived in Italy and Germany in the 15th century.

Terranova Pausania See Olbia

terrapin Any omnivorous aquatic turtle of the family Emydidae, espe¬ cially the diamondback terrapin {Malaclemys terrapin). The dia¬ mondback inhabits salt marshes and coasts from New England to the Gulf of Mexico. It has raised diamond¬ shaped patterns on its brownish or black upper shell. The female attains a shell length of about 9 in. (23 cm); the male grows to about 6 in. (14 cm). The eight species of the turtle genus Pseudemys (or Chrysemys) are sometimes referred to as terrapins.

They inhabit freshwaters from the northeastern U.S. to Argentina. The female’s shell is 6-16 in. (15-40 cm) long. Infant red-eared turtles (P. scripta elegans) are sold in pet shops.

terrazzo Vto-'rat-so, to-'ra-zoX Type of flooring consisting of marble chips set in cement or epoxy resin that is poured and ground smooth when dry. Terrazzo was ubiquitous in the 20th century in commercial and insti¬ tutional buildings. Available in many colours, it forms a hard, smooth, durable surface that is easily cleaned.

'Virgin and Child," polychromed and gilded terra-cotta relief by Andrea del Verrocchio, c. 1470; in the Metropoli¬ tan Museum of Art, New York City.

COURTESY OF THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK CITY, ROGERS FUND, 1909

Red-eared turtle (Pseudemys scripta elegans).

LEONARD LEE RUE III FROM THE NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCIETY COLLECTION/PHOTO RESEARCHERS

1890 I terrier ► Test Act

terrier Any of several dog breeds developed, mostly in England, to find and kill vermin and for use in the sports of foxhunting and dog fighting. Bred to fight and kill, they often were pugnacious but are now bred for a friendlier temperament. Because terriers had to fit in rodent burrows, most breeds are small and lean and have a rough, wiry coat that requires little maintenance. They have a long head, square jaw, and deep-set eyes. All terriers are vocal and inclined to chase and confront. Most breeds were named for the place where they were developed. See also Airedale terrier, Bedlington terrier, Boston terrier, bull terrier, Dandie Dinmont terrier, fox terrier, Irish terrier, pit bull terrier, Scottish terrier, Yorkshire terrier.

territorial behaviour In zoology, the actions by which an animal, or group of animals, protects its territory from incursions by others of its species. Territorial boundaries may be marked by sounds (e.g., birdsong), scents, or even piles of dung. If such advertisement does not discourage intruders, chases and fighting follow. Territories may be seasonal (usually for nesting and feeding the young) or maintained permanently (for hunt¬ ing and living). Territorial behaviour benefits the species by permitting mating and rearing young without interruption and by preventing over¬ crowding and minimizing competition for food.

territorial waters Waters under the sovereign jurisdiction of a nation or state, including both marginal sea and inland waters. The concept origi¬ nated in the 17th-century controversy over the status of the sea. Though the doctrine that the sea must be free to all was upheld, a nation’s juris¬ diction over its coastal waters was also recognized. Nations subscribing to the Law of the Sea observe a territorial limit of 12 nautical mi (22 km) from shore. Territorial rights include the airspace above those waters and the seabed below them. See also high seas.

Terror, Reign of See Reign of Terror

terrorism Systematic use of violence to create a general climate of fear in a population and thereby to bring about a particular political objective. It has been used throughout history by political organizations of both the left and the right, by nationalist and ethnic groups, and by revolutionar¬ ies. Although usually thought of as a means of destabilizing or overthrow¬ ing existing political institutions, terror also has been employed by governments against their own people to suppress dissent; examples include the reigns of certain Roman emperors, the French Revolution (see Reign of Terror), Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union under Stalin, and Argen¬ tina during the “dirty war” of the 1970s. Terrorism’s impact has been magnified by the deadliness and technological sophistication of modern- day weapons and the capability of the media to disseminate news of such attacks instantaneously throughout the world. The deadliest terrorist attack ever occurred in the United States on Sept. 11, 2001 (see September 11 attacks), when members of al-Qaeda terrorist network hijacked four commercial airplanes and crashed two of them into the twin towers of the World Trade Center complex in New York City and one into the Pentagon building near Washington, D.C.; the fourth plane crashed near Pittsburgh, Pa. The crashes resulted in the collapse of much of the World Trade Cen¬ ter complex, the destruction of part of the southwest side of the Penta¬ gon, and the deaths of some 3,000 people.

Terry, Eli (b. April 13, 1772, East Windsor, Conn.—d. Feb. 26, 1852, Plymouth, Conn., U.S.) U.S. clockmaker. He made a specialty of one-day wooden shelf clocks, especially his “perfected wood clock” known as the Terry clock (1814). Using interchangeable parts made by mechanized techniques, production at his Plymouth factory rose to as high as 10,GOO- 12,000 Terry clocks per year.

Terry, (Alice) Ellen (b. Feb. 27, 1847, Coventry, Warwickshire, Eng.—d. July 21, 1928, Small Hythe, Kent) English actress. Born into a family of actors, she made her stage debut at age nine. She acted with several companies before joining Henry Irving as his leading lady (1878— 1902), playing a variety of Shakespearean roles in a notable partnership. Her warmth, gentleness, and beauty made her one of the most popular actresses in Britain and the U.S., and she continued to act until 1925. She conducted a famous correspondence with the playwright George Bernard Shaw. The actor, stage designer, and drama theorist Gordon Craig was her son.

Tertiary Vt3r-she-,er-e\ Period Interval of geologic time, 65-1.8 mil¬ lion years ago. It constitutes the first of the two periods of the Cenozoic Era, the second being the Quaternary. The Tertiary has five subdivisions: (from oldest to youngest) the Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene epochs. During most of the Tertiary, the spatial distribution of the

major continents was largely similar to that of today. Emergence and sub¬ mergence of land bridges between continents critically affected the dis¬ tribution of both terrestrial and marine animals and plants. Virtually all the existing major mountain ranges were formed either partly or wholly during the Tertiary.

Tertullian Uor-'tol-yonV (b. c. 155/160, Carthage—d. after 220, Carthage) Early Christian theologian and moralist. Educated in Carthage, he became impressed by the courage, morality, and uncompromising monotheism of Christian martyrs, and he converted to Christianity. He became a leading member of the African church and one of the early Apologists. He devoted himself to writing for 20 years, producing works on such topics as defense of the faith, prayer and devotion, and morality, as well as the first Christian book on baptism, De baptismo. Later, dis¬ mayed by the laxity he witnessed among even his orthodox contempo¬ raries, he joined the prophetic movement known as Montanism, then left it to form his own sect, which survived in Africa until the 5th century.

terza rima Vtert-so-'re-moX Verse form consisting of tercets, or three- line stanzas, in which the second line of each rhymes with the first and third lines of the next. The series ends with a separate line that rhymes with the second line of the last stanza, so that the rhyme scheme is aba , bcb, cdc, ..., yzy, z . Dante, in The Divine Comedy (c. 1310-14), was the first to use terza rima in a long poem. A demanding form, it has not been widely adopted in languages less rich in rhymes than Italian. It was intro¬ duced into England by Thomas Wyat in the 16th century. Poets who have experimented with terza rima include Percy B. Shelley, Robert Browning, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, and W.H. Auden; Derek Walcott’s book-length Omeros is written in modified terza rima.

Teschen \'te-shon\ Former eastern European duchy. It was originally a principality linked to the Polish duchy of Silesia, and passed in 1526 to the Habsburgs. Though most of Silesia was seized by Prussia in 1742, Teschen remained under Habsburg rule until the end of World War I. In 1920 Poland and Czechoslovakia contested and then divided the region; Poland received the eastern district, including the city of Teschen (now Cieszyn), while Czechoslovakia received the rest. The Czechs were forced to cede their section to Poland in 1938. Germany occupied the entire region until after World War II, when the 1920 borders were restored.

Tesla, Nikola (b. July 9/10, 1856, Smiljan, Lika, Austria-Hungary—d. Jan. 7, 1943, New York, N.Y., U.S.)

Serbian U.S. inventor and researcher.

He studied in Austria and Bohemia and worked in Paris before coming to the U.S. in 1884. He worked for Thomas Alva Edison and George Westinghouse but preferred indepen¬ dent research. His inventions made possible the production and distribu¬ tion of alternating-current electric power. He invented an induction coil that is still widely used in radio tech¬ nology, the Tesla coil (c. 1890); his system was used by Westinghouse to light the 1893 World’s Columbian Exposition. Tesla established an electric power station at Niagara Falls in 1893. His research also included work on a carbon button lamp and on the power of electrical resonance. He discovered terrestrial stationary waves (1899-1900), prov¬ ing that the Earth is a conductor. Due to lack of funds, many of his ideas remained only in his notebooks, which are still examined by engineers for inventive clues.

Test Act (1673) Act passed by the British Parliament that required hold¬ ers of civil and military offices to profess the established religion and to receive Holy Communion according to the rites of the Church of England. Though directed primarily against Roman Catholics, it extended in prin¬ ciple to all non-Anglicans; it was modified in 1689 to enable most non- Catholics to qualify. An act adopted in 1828 removed the test. In the U.S. Constitution, Article VI prescribes that “no religious test” shall be required for any officeholder. See also Catholic Emancipation.

Nikola Tesla.

CULVER PICTURES

testcross ► Teutonic Order I 1891

testcross Experiment in which an organism with unknown genetic makeup is mated with an organism whose entire genetic makeup for a trait is known, to determine which genes are carried by the former. In a breed of dog, for example, in which the gene for black coat colour is dominant over the gene for red coat colour (see dominance), a dog with a black coat may be pure (with two genes for black coat colour) or hybrid (with one gene for black and one for red). When its mating with a red- coated dog (which always has two genes for red coat colour only) pro¬ duces only black offspring, the black-coated parent must be pure, whereas if some of the young are red, the parent must be hybrid.

testes or testicles Male reproductive organs (see reproductive system). Humans have two oval-shaped testes 1.5-2 in. (4-5 cm) long that produce sperm and androgens (mainly testosterone), contained in a sac (scrotum) behind the penis. Each testis is divided into 200-400 lobes containing three to 10 very thin coiled tubes (seminiferous tubules) each, which produce the sperm and contract to expel them through a complex network of canals to another structure in the scrotum, the epididymis, for temporary storage. The cells in the testes are undeveloped in early childhood; at puberty they are stimulated by hormones to develop into fertile sperm cells.

testicular cancer Malignant tumour of the testis, or testicle. Although relatively rare, testicular cancer is the most common malignancy for men between the ages of 20 and 34. It typically affects men between 15 and 39 years old. A developmental abnormality of males in which one or both testes fail to descend into the scrotum about the time of birth increases the risk of developing the cancer later in life. The most notable symptom of testicular cancer is the formation of a painless lump in either testis. Treatment usually consists of the surgical removal of the cancerous tes¬ tis, followed by radiation therapy or chemotherapy if the cancer has metastasized.

testing machine Machine used in materials science to determine the properties of a material. Machines have been devised to measure tensile strength, strength in compression, shear, and bending (see strength of MATERIALS), DUCTILITY, HARDNESS, impact Strength (see IMPACT TEST), FRACTURE toughness, creep, and fatigue. Standardization of machines and tests is the province of the International Organization for Standardization, American National Standards Institute, British Standards Institution, and many gov¬ ernmental bodies. Many industries have special-purpose testing machines for the materials they use.

testosterone Ues-'ta-stor-.onX Masculinizing sex hormone produced by the testes. It is responsible for the development of the male sex organs and secondary sex characteristics (e.g., facial hair, masculine musculature, deep voice, and male-pattern baldness). Testosterone can be manufactured by modifying other, less expensive steroids. It is used in the treatment of hypogonadism, undescended testes (cryptorchism), and certain cancers.

tetanus Vte-t9-nss\ or lockjaw Acute bacterial disease caused by Clostridium tetani (see Clostridium). Spores of this organism are common, especially in soil; it thrives away from oxygen in deep wounds, especially punctures. Its toxin stimulates nerves, causing muscle rigidity with fre¬ quent spasms. This may occur around the site of the wound or, if the toxin reaches spinal motor ganglia via the bloodstream, throughout the body. The jaw muscles are almost always involved (lockjaw). Vaccination every few years is the best protection; an antitoxin prevents or delays symptoms in cases of suspect wounds but has limited value once they develop. Treatment usually includes antibiotics, sedatives, and muscle relaxants. Recovered patients are not immune.

Tetley (Jr.), Glen(ford Andrew) (b. Feb. 3, 1926, Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.) American dancer, choreographer, and ballet director. He trained in modern dance with Hanya Holm and Martha Graham. Between 1946 and 1962 he danced in Broadway musical productions as well as with dance companies such as the American Ballet Theatre. He became a choreogra¬ pher in 1962, forming his own company and creating Pierrot Lunaire. Subsequently he staged works with most of the major dance companies throughout the world. Tetley’s work helped to bring about a synthesis of modern dance and classical ballet. His creative staging and daring, often sexual, subject matter were sometimes controversial, but he was praised for the passion and strong physicality of his work.

Teton \'te-,tan\ Range Segment of the Middle Rocky Mountains, north¬ western Wyoming, U.S. The range extends 40 mi (64 km) across Wyo¬ ming, from the southern boundary of Yellowstone National Park to Teton Pass. Some foothills reach as far as southeastern Idaho. Many peaks

exceed 12,000 ft (3,700 m); the highest point is Grand Teton (13,766 ft [4,196 m]), which was first ascended in 1872. Much of the range lies within Grand Teton National Park.

tetra Any of numerous attractively coloured freshwater South American and African fishes (family Charac- idae), often kept in home aquariums.

Tetras are small, lively, hardy, and unaggressive. The slender neon tetra (Paracheirodon, or Hyphessobry- con, innesi) has gleaming red hind parts and a neonlike blue-green stripe on its sides. The glowlight tetra ( Hemigrammus erythrozonus) has a shining red stripe along each side. The body of the silver tetra (Ctenobrycon spilurus) is flattened sidewise.

tetracycline Any of a class of broad-spectrum antibiotics with a common basic structure, including doxycycline. They may be isolated directly from several species of actinomycetes of the genus Streptomyces or modified from the compounds isolated. They are the drugs of choice in the treatment of cholera, rickettsial infections (see Rickettsia), psittaco¬ sis, brucellosis, and tularemia; tetracyclines are also used in the treatment of acne. Overuse of these and other antibiotics has led to drug resistance in microorganisms.

Tetragrammaton V.te-tro-'gra-mo-.tanN Greek "having four let¬ ters" Four Hebrew consonants yod, he, vav, and he —variously translit¬ erated as JHVH, JHWH, YHWH, or YHVH—that together represent the name of God. Traditionally the tetragrammaton is not pronounced; Jeho¬ vah and Yahweh are two vocalizations of it.

tetrarch Greek "ruler of a quarter" In Greco-Roman antiquity, the ruler of a principality, originally the ruler of one-quarter of a region or province. The first tetrarchs ruled the four tetrarchies of Thessaly under Philip II of Macedonia. Tetrarchs ruled in Galatia (in Asia Minor) before the Roman conquest (169 bc) and still later in Hellenized Syria and Pal¬ estine, where the title denoted the semi-independent ruler of a divided kingdom or minor district. Herod the Great’s realm after his death (4 bc) was ruled by his three sons, two of whom were called tetrarchs.

Teutates Vta-u-.ta-tezX or Toutates Vto-,ta-tez\ Celtic god, one of the three mentioned by the Roman poet Lucan in the 1st century ad, the other two being Esus and Taranis. Victims sacrificed to Teutates are believed to have been killed by being plunged headfirst into a vat filled with an unspecified liquid, possibly ale. He was identified with both Mercury and Mars. The Irish god Tuathal Techtmar, one of the legendary conquerors of Ireland, may have been another manifestation.

Teutoburg Forest Vtii-ts-.bsrgV German Teutoburger Wald

Vtoi-ts-.bur-gsr-.vahA Range of forested hills, northern Germany. It was the scene of a battle in ad 9 in which German tribes defeated the Roman legions, thus establishing the Rhine River as the German-Latin border. The Hermannsdenkmal, a colossal statue commemorating the battle, stands outside Detmold. There are numerous health and holiday resorts in the forest’s small hill towns.

Teutonic\tu-'ta-nik\ Order or Teutonic Knights officially House of the Hospitallers of Saint Mary of the Teutons Religious order important in eastern Europe in the late Middle Ages. Founded in 1189-90 to nurse the sick in Palestine during the Third Crusade, it was militarized in 1198 and given land in Jerusalem and Germany. It trans¬ ferred its base of operations to eastern Europe in the 13th century, gain¬ ing control of Prussia by 1283 and making Marienburg the centre of a military principality (1309-1525). The order extended its influence until it was defeated at the Battle of Tannenberg (1410). Another Polish victory in 1466 forced the knights to cede lands to Poland and become vassals of the Polish king. In 1525 the grand master in Prussia converted to Prot¬ estantism, dissolved the order in Prussia, and became a duke under Polish suzerainty. In other parts of Europe, especially Austria, the order survived the Reformation. Napoleon declared the order dissolved in 1809 and redis¬ tributed most of its remaining lands. In 1834 the Austrian emperor refounded it as a charitable religious order, and it is now headquartered in Vienna.

Glowlight tetras (Hemigrammus eryth¬ rozonus)

JANE BURTON-BRUCE COLEMAN LTD.

1892 I Tewodros II ► Thailand

Tewodros II \ta-'w6-dros\ or Theodore II (b. c. 1818—d. April 13, 1868, Magela, Eth.) Emperor of Ethiopia (1855-68). Often called Ethio¬ pia’s first modern ruler, he came to the throne through the conquest of other chiefs. He reunified the various Ethiopian kingdoms into one empire, attempted to focus loyalty around the government rather than the Ethiopian church, and worked to abolish the feudal system. Though he failed in his aims, his example was followed by his successors. His reign ended when a British force under Robert Napier attacked in response to the imprisonment of several British citizens.

Texas State (pop., 2000: 20,851,820), southwestern U.S. Occupying 266,853 sq mi (691,146 sq km), it is the second largest state in both area and population. Many of Texas’s boundaries are formed by water—the course of the Red River on the north makes up two-thirds of the state’s boundary with Oklahoma; on the east the state is bordered in part by Arkansas, though the Sabine River forms most of Texas’s eastern bound¬ ary with Louisiana; the Gulf of Mexico forms the coastal boundary to the southeast; the Rio Grande carves a shallow channel that separates Texas from Mexico on the southwest; the Panhandle section juts northward, forming a counterpart in the western part of Oklahoma; and New Mexico lies to the west. The capital of Texas is Austin. Plains and hills make up the terrain, which ranges from the fertile prairie of the Coastal Plains on the Gulf of Mexico through the central Great Plains grasslands to the arid High Plains of the Panhandle. The forerunners of West Texas Indians inhabited the area as much as 37,000 years ago. Some of the peoples later formed the Caddo confederacy. Indians, including Apaches, were living in the region when the Spanish arrived in 1528. The first settlement was attempted in 1685 by the French, who claimed the region as part of Loui¬ siana. In 1803 the U.S. acquired the French claim in the Louisiana Pur¬ chase but relinquished it to Spain by treaty in 1819. It became part of Mexico at Mexican independence in 1821. In 1836 Texans declared inde¬ pendence from Mexico as the Republic of Texas (see Stephen Austin; Sam Houston). After a 10-year struggle to remain independent, Texas became the 28th U.S. state in 1845. Its boundary with Mexico was fixed after the Mexican War (1848). In the American Civil War it seceded from the Union (1861); it was readmitted in 1869. After the war, railroad building and increased shipping helped expand the economy, and the discovery of oil in 1901 transformed it. While Texas still leads all other states in oil and natural gas production and in petroleum-refining capacity, its manufac¬ ture of electronics, aerospace components, and other high-technology items is increasingly important. It is also the leading cotton, beef cattle, and sheep producer in the U.S.

Texas, University of U.S. state university system with 13 campuses throughout the state. It was founded in 1883. The main campus, at Aus¬ tin, is the second most populous campus in the U.S. It is a comprehen¬ sive research and teaching institution, offering about 100 undergraduate programs and about 190 graduate degree programs. There are more than 85 organized research units on campus, including centres for biomedical research, economic geology, and cognitive science. The Lyndon B. Johnson Library and Museum is located there.

Texas Instruments, Inc. (Tl) U.S. manufacturer of calculators, microprocessors, and digital signal processors. The direct antecedent to the company, headquartered in Dallas, Texas, was founded by John Karcher and Eugene McDermott in 1930 to provide seismographic data for the petroleum industry. In 1958 Jack Kilby, a researcher at TI, coinvented the integrated circuit (IC), and in 1967 he invented the basic design for hand¬ held calculators. In 1973 TI began to manufacture dynamic random-access memory (DRAM, commonly shortened to RAM) chips for use in comput¬ ers, and in 1982 it introduced the single-chip digital signal processor (DSP), which it employs in cell phones, Global Postioning System (GPS) receivers, and adapters for computer networks.

Texas Rangers Loosely organized police force in Texas. The first members were “minutemen” hired by U.S. settlers as protection against Indian attacks in the 1830s. They did not wear uniforms or salute their officers but were highly disciplined and known for their marksmanship, making the six-shooter (the Colt revolver) the weapon of the West. At their peak in the 1870s, the Rangers brought law and order to hundreds of miles of Texas frontier. In 1935 they were merged with the state high¬ way patrol.

Texcoco \tas-'ko-k6\, Lake Lake, central Mexico. Originally one of the five lakes of the Valley of Mexico, Texcoco has been drained by chan¬ nels and a tunnel to the Panuco River since the early 17th century. It now

occupies only a small area surrounded by salt marshes just east of Mexico City. Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital, stood on islands in old Lake Texcoco and was connected to the mainland by causeways.

textile Any filament, fibre, or yarn that can be made into fabric or cloth, and the resulting material itself. The word originally referred only to woven fabrics but now includes knitted, bonded, felted, and tufted fab¬ rics as well. The basic raw materials used in textile production are fibres, either obtained from natural sources (e.g., wool) or produced from chemi¬ cal substances (e.g., nylon and polyester). Textiles are used for wearing apparel, household linens and bedding, upholstery, draperies and curtains, wall coverings, rugs and carpets, and bookbindings, in addition to being used widely in industry.

Tezcatlipoca V.tas-kat-le-'po-koV Omnipotent god of the Aztec pantheon and god of the constellation Ursa Major. The protector of slaves, he severely punished masters who ill-treated them. He is said to have put an end to the Toltecs’ golden age. Each year his worshipers selected a hand¬ some prisoner of war who was allowed to live in princely luxury for a year before being sacrificed. Tezcatlipoca is represented in art with an obsidian mirror, in which he sees all, on his chest or in place of a foot.

Thackeray, William Makepeace (b. July 18, 1811, Calcutta, India—d. Dec. 24, 1863, London,

Eng.) English novelist. He studied law and art but soon became a pro¬ lific writer for periodicals, using a variety of pen names. His early writ¬ ings appear in such volumes as The Book of Snobs (1848), a collection of his articles from Punch ; and Miscel¬ lanies (1855-57), which includes the historical novel Barry Lyndon (1844). His fame rests chiefly on the novels Vanity Fair ( 1847—48), a pan¬ oramic survey of English manners and human frailties set in the Napo¬ leonic era, and Henry Esmond (1852), set in the early 18th century.

Pendennis (1848-50) is a partly fic¬ tionalized autobiography. In his time he was regarded as the only possible rival of Charles Dickens for his pic¬ tures of contemporary life, but his popularity declined in the 20th cen¬ tury.

Thailand \'tl-,land\ officially Kingdom of Thailand formerly Siam Country, mainland Southeast Asia. Area: 198,116 sq mi (513,119 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 64,186,000. Capital: Bangkok. The population is predominantly Thai, with significant Chinese, Khmer, and Malay minori¬ ties. Language: Thai (official). Religions: Buddhism (official); also Islam. Currency: Thai baht. The country encompasses forested hills and moun¬ tains, a central plain containing the Chao Phraya River delta, and a plateau in the northeast. Its market economy is based largely on services (nota¬ bly trade) and light industries; agriculture employs a large proportion of the workforce. Thailand is a major producer of tungsten and tin. Among its chief agricultural products are rice, corn, rubber, soybeans, and pine¬ apples; manufactures include clothing, canned goods, electronic equip¬ ment, and cement. Tourism is also important. Thailand is a constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses; its chief of state is the king, and the head of government is the prime minister. The region of Thailand has been continuously occupied for 20,000 years. It was part of the Mon and Khmer kingdoms from the 9th century ad. Thai-speaking peoples immi¬ grated from China c. the 10th century. During the 13th century two Thai states emerged: the Sukhothai kingdom, founded c. 1220 after a successful revolt against the Khmer, and Chiang Mai (which evolved into the king¬ dom of Lan Na with Chiang Mai as its capital), founded in 1296 after defeating the Mon. In 1351 the Tai kingdom of Ayutthaya (Siam) suc¬ ceeded the Sukhothai. Myanmar (Burma) was its most powerful rival, Burman armies occupying it briefly in the 16th century and destroying it in 1767. The Chakri dynasty came to power in 1782, moved the capital to Bangkok, and extended its empire along the Malay Peninsula and into Laos and Cambodia. The empire was formally named Siam in 1856. Although Western influence increased during the 19th century, Siam’s rulers avoided colonization by granting concessions to European coun-

William Makepeace Thackeray, detail of an oil painting by Samuel Laurence; in the National Portrait Gallery, Lon¬ don.

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, LONDON

Thailand ► Thant I 1893

Mount Luang Chiang Dao MYANMAR 7,13-i n A Mount Inthanon

, Nan, Chiang Mai MAE PING NATIONAL •PARK i