Britannica Concise 2005

Cotton, Sir Robert Bruce (b. Jan. 22, 1571, Denton, Lancashire, Eng.—d. May 6, 1631, London?) English antiquarian. From c. 1585 Cot¬ ton collected ancient records, manuscripts, books, and coins and wel¬ comed scholars to his library. He entered Parliament in 1601 and was favoured at court until c. 1615. His acquisition of so many public docu¬ ments aroused misgivings, and after he wrote several works criticizing policies of Charles I, his library was sealed in 1629. After his death his son regained possession of the library, and his great-grandson presented it to the nation in 1700. The Cottonian Library’s historical documents formed the basis of the manuscript collection of the British Library.

Cotton Belt Agricultural region of the southeastern U.S. where cotton is the main cash crop. Once confined to the pre-Civil War South, the Cot¬ ton Belt was pushed west after the war. Today it extends primarily through North and South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, western Ten¬ nessee, eastern Arkansas, Louisiana, eastern Texas, and southern Okla¬ homa.

cotton boll worm See corn earworm

Cotton Club Nightclub in New York City’s Harlem district in the 1920s and ’30s. It opened in 1922 at 142nd Street and Lenox Avenue under the management of the reputed bootlegger Owney Madden (1892-1964). It became fashionable and featured the finest African American performers in the U.S., performing for an exclusively white audience. Louis Arm¬ strong, Cab Calloway, Duke Ellington, Lena Horne, Bill Robinson, and Ethel Waters were among its featured artists. The club later moved downtown

(1936-40).

cotton gin Machine for cleaning cotton of its seeds. The design that became standard was invented in the U.S. by Eli Whitney in 1793. The mechanization of spinning in England had created a greatly expanded market for U.S. cotton, but production was bottlenecked by the manual removal of the seeds from the raw fibre. The cotton gin pulled the cotton through a set of wire teeth mounted on a revolving cylinder, the fibre passing through narrow slots in an iron breastwork too small to permit passage of the seed. The simplicity of the invention caused it to be widely copied. It is credited with making cotton the most important export crop of the U.S. before the American Civil War, as settlers and their slaves spread westward through prime cotton-growing regions of South Caro¬ lina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Texas.

cottonmouth moccasin See water moccasin

cottonwood Any of several fast-growing North American trees of the genus Populus. Members of the wil¬ low family, cottonwoods have heart- shaped, toothed leaves and cottony seeds. The dangling leaves clatter in the wind. The eastern cottonwood ( P. deltoides) has thick glossy leaves.

Carolina poplar ( P. angulata ) and P. eugenei may be natural hybrids between P. deltoides and the Eur¬ asian black poplar ( P. nigra). The Alamo, or Fremont cottonwood (P. fremontii ), is the tallest of the group.

See also poplar.

cottony-cushion scale Scale insect ( Icerya purchasi, order Homoptera) that is a pest especially of California citrus trees. The adult lays bright red eggs in a distinctive large white mass that juts out from a twig. Distributed worldwide, cottony-cushion scale is found on many other plants, including acacia, pittosporum, and willow. Australian ladybird beetles (see ladybug), a natural enemy, have been imported to keep it from destroying the Cali¬ fornia citrus industry.

cotyledon \,ka-t3-'le-d 3 n\ Seed leaf within the embryo of a seed that provides energy and nutrients for the developing seedling. After the first true leaves have formed, they wither and fall off. Flowering plants whose embryos have a single cotyledon are grouped as monocots, or monocoty- ledonous plants; embryos with two cotyledons are grouped as dicots, or dicotyledonous plants. Unlike flowering plants, gymnosperms usually have several cotyledons rather than one or two. See illustration on opposite page.

Coubertin \ku-ber-'ta n \ / Pierre, baron de (b. Jan. 1, 1863, Paris, France—d. Sept. 2, 1937, Geneva, Switz.) French educator, primarily responsible for the revival of the Olympic Games in 1894. He became one of the first advocates of physical education in France. His drive to restart the Olympics, after a 1,500-year suspension, was partly inspired by a visit to Greece, where excavators were uncovering the ancient Olympic site. He served as the second president (1896-1925) of the International Olym¬ pic Committee.

Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum).

ROD HEINRICHS-GRANT HEILMAN

Eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides )

KITTY KOHOUT FROM ROOT RESOURCES-EB INC.

Cottony-cushion scales (Icerya pur¬ chasi, magnified)

ROBERT C. HERMES-THE NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCIETY COLLECTION/PHOTO RESEARCHERS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

couch grass ► counseling I 473

endosperm

cotyledon

coleoptile

epicotyl

hypocotyl

radicle

seed coat fused to ovary wall

seed coat

epicotyl_ _ coleoptile f— first

leaf

radicle

hypocotyl ' root

first leaves

monocotyledon

cotyledons

radicle

dicotyledon

root

Monocotyledon (internal structures of a corn seed with stages of germination). Nutrients are stored in the cotyledon and endosperm tissue. The radicle and hypocotyl (region between the cotyledon and radicle) give rise to the roots. The epicotyl (region above the cotyledon) gives rise to the stem and leaves and is covered by a protective sheath (coleoptile). Dicotyledon (internal structures of a bean seed with stages of germination). All nutrients are stored in the enlarged cotyledons. The radicle gives rise to the roots, the hypocotyl to the lower stem, the epicotyl to the leaves and upper stem.

© MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

couch grass or quack grass Rapidly spreading grass (.Agropyron repens ) with flat, somewhat hairy leaves and erect flower spikes, native to Europe and introduced into other northern temperate areas for forage or erosion control. In cultivated land, it is considered a weed because of its persistence. Its long, yellowish-white rhizomes must be completely dug up to eradicate the plant because broken rhizomes generate new plants. Couch grass has been used in various home remedies in Europe, and the rhizomes have been eaten during periods of famine.

Coue Vkwa\, Emile (b. Feb. 26, 1857, Troyes, France—d. July 2, 1926, Nancy) French pharmacist and psychologist. Starting as a pharmacist at Troyes in 1882, he studied hypnosis, opened a free clinic at Nancy in 1910, and developed his own method of psychotherapy based on autosuggestion, “Coueism,” which most famously required constant repetition of the for¬ mula “Every day, and in every way, I am becoming better and better.”

cougar or puma Vpii-ma, 'pyii-moV or mountain lion or panther

Species (Puma concolor) of large, graceful cat that lives in a wide vari¬ ety of habitats in the Americas, from southern Alaska to Patagonia. In many regions, the species is restricted to wilderness areas, and some sub¬ species are considered endangered. Cougars’ coloration ranges from pale buff to reddish brown, with dark ears and tail tip and white rump and belly. The adult weighs from 77 to more than 220 lb (35 to 100 kg). A male may be about 9 ft (3 m) long, one-third of which is tail, and stand 24-30 in. (60-75 cm) tall at the shoulder. Since the cougar occasionally kills livestock, it has been intensively hunted by farmers, especially in North America, and has been basically exterminated from the eastern U.S. It is valuable for preventing overpopulation of prey animals (mostly deer, in North America). In North America, cougar attacks on humans occur a few times per year, some being fatal.

Coughlin \'kag-bn\, Charles E(dward) or Father Coughlin (b.

Oct. 25, 1891, Hamilton, Ont., Can.—d. Oct. 27, 1979, Bloomfield Hills,

Mich., U.S.) Canadian-born U.S. clergyman. Ordained a Roman Catholic priest in 1923, he became pastor of a Michigan church. In 1930 he began radio broadcasts of his ser¬ mons, into which he gradually injected reactionary political state¬ ments and anti-Semitic rhetoric. His sermons attracted one of the first deeply loyal mass audiences in broadcast history. He attacked Her¬ bert Hoover and later turned on Fran¬ klin Roosevelt and the New Deal. His magazine, Social Justice, targeted Wall Street, communism, and Jews. It was banned from the mails and ceased publication in 1942, the same year the Catholic hierarchy ordered Coughlin to stop broadcasting.

Coulomb \ku-'lo n ,\ English Vkii-.lamV Charles-Augustin

de (b. June 14, 1736, Angouleme, France—d. Aug. 23, 1806, Paris) French physicist. After serving as a military engineer in the West Indies, he returned to France in the 1780s to pursue scientific research. To inves¬ tigate Joseph Priestley’s law of electri¬ cal repulsions, he invented a sensitive instrument to measure the electrical forces involved. A light rod made of an insulator, with a small conducting sphere at each end, was suspended horizontally by a fine wire so that it was free to twist when another charged sphere was brought close to it. By measuring the angle through which the rod twisted. Cou¬ lomb could measure the repulsive forces. He is best known for formu¬ lating Coulomb's law. He also did research on friction of machinery, on windmills, and on the elasticity of metal and silk fibres. The coulomb, a unit of electric charge, was named in his honour.

Coulomb's \ , ku- l lamz\ law Law formulated by C.-A. de Coulomb that describes the electric force between charged objects. It states that (1) like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other, (2) the attraction or repulsion acts along the line between the two charges, (3) the size of the force varies inversely as the square of the distance between the two charges, and (4) the size of the force is proportional to the value of each charge.

Council for Mutual Economic Assistance or Comecon Orga¬ nization founded in 1949 to facilitate and coordinate the economic devel¬ opment of Soviet-bloc countries. Its original members were the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Romania; other members joined later, including Albania (1949) and the German Demo¬ cratic Republic (1950). Its accomplishments included the organization of Eastern Europe’s railroad grid, the creation of the International Bank for Economic Cooperation, and the construction of the “Friendship” oil pipe¬ line. After the democratic revolutions of 1989, it largely lost its purpose and power. In 1991 it was renamed the Organization for International Economic Cooperation.

counseling Professional guidance of the individual by use of standard psychological methods such as collecting case-history data, using various techniques of the personal interview, and testing interests and aptitudes. The counselor’s goal is generally to orient the individual toward oppor¬ tunities that can best guarantee fulfillment of his personal needs and aspi¬ rations. The counselor usually attempts to clarify the client’s own thinking rather than to solve his problems. Professional counselors (such as edu¬ cational guidance and career counselors) and counseling psychologists (such as marriage and bereavement counselors) are found in a wide vari¬ ety of institutional settings and in private practice. See also psychotherapy.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

474 I count ► couplet

count or earl European title of nobility, ranking in modem times directly below a marquess or (in countries without marquesses) a duke. In England the title of earl is the equivalent of count and ranks above a VIS¬ COUNT. The wife of a count or earl is a countess. The Roman comes (“count”) was originally a household companion of the emperor; under the Franks he was a local commander and judge. The counts were later incorporated into the feudal structure, some becoming subordinate to dukes, though a few countships were as great as duchies. As royal author¬ ity was reasserted over the feudatories, which took place at different times in the different kingdoms, the counts lost their political authority, though they retained their privileges as members of the nobility.

Counter-Reformation or Catholic Reformation In Roman Catholicism, efforts in the 16th and early 17th century to oppose the Prot¬ estant Reformation and reform the Catholic Church. Early efforts grew out of criticism of the worldliness and corruption of the papacy and clergy during the Renaissance. Paul III (r. 1534-49) was the first pope to respond, convening the important Council of Trent (1545-63), which reacted to Protestant teachings on faith, grace, and the sacraments, and attempted to reform training for the priesthood. The Roman Inquisition was established in 1542 to control heresy within Catholic territories, and the Jesuits under Ignatius de Loyola undertook educational and missionary work aimed at conversion or reconversion. Emperors Charles V and Philip II took military action against Protestant growth. Later popes of the Counter-Reformation included Pius V, Gregory XIII, and Sjxtus V. Sts. Charles Borromeo, Philip Neri, John of the Cross, Teresa of Avila, Francis de Sales, and Vincent de Paul were among the most influential reforming figures.

counterfeiting Crime of making an unauthorized imitation of a genu¬ ine article, typically money, with the intent to deceive or defraud. Because of the value conferred on money and the high level of technical skill required to imitate it, counterfeiting is singled out from other acts of forgery. It is generally punished as a felony (see felony and misdemeanour). The international police organization Interpol was established primarily to organize law-enforcement efforts against counterfeiting. Software, credit cards, designer clothing, and watches are among nonmoney items com¬ monly counterfeited.

counterglow See gegenschein

counterpoint Art of combining different melodic lines in a musical composition. The term is often used interchangeably with polyphony (music consisting of two or more distinct melodic lines), but counterpoint more specifically refers to the compositional technique involved in the handling of these melodic lines. The first recorded use of two melodic lines simultaneously was in 9th-century treatises showing examples of organum (a type of music for multiple voices), though improvised counterpoint—in which the voices probably moved mostly parallel to each other, and thus failed to convey an impression of independence— may date back to some centuries earlier. The desire to ensure pleasant consonances and avoid unpleasant dissonances when improvising (see consonance and dissonance) called for principles of simultaneous vocal motion (voice leading). Because the relative movement of voices approaching and leaving given intervals was thought to produce effects that were more or less pleasing, rules were created to govern various types of relative motion. The “vertical” aspect of counterpoint—the relation¬ ship between the melodic lines—came to be studied as harmony, espe¬ cially from the 18th century. Though harmony and counterpoint are intimately intertwined, most of the multivoiced music of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance is considered essentially polyphonic or contrapuntal—that is, consisting of a combination of relatively indepen¬ dent and integral melodic lines. In the Baroque era, with the invention of figured bass and the continuo, the balance began to shift toward a har¬ monic orientation.

countertenor Adult male alto voice, either natural or falsetto. Some writers use the term only for the natural high tenor, preferring “male alto” for the falsetto voice. Like the castrato tradition, the countertenor devel¬ oped as a result of the prohibition on women taking part in church choirs. Since the falsetto voice lacks power, it was little used in opera. The coun¬ tertenor tradition was preserved in the English cathedral choir. Today it is again being widely cultivated internationally, primarily for Renaissance and Baroque music.

country dance or contredanse Vkan-tr3-,dans\ Type of social dance for couples, popular in the 17th century. Derived from English folk dance, the country dance is performed in one of three forms: circular or

round; “longways,” with rows of couples facing each other; and geomet¬ ric, in squares or triangles. The main source of country-dance steps and songs is John Playford’s The English Dancing Master (1650). The dance was the basis for the 19th-century quadrille. It was taken by colonists to North America as the Virginia reel and, in modified form, as the square dance. There was a modest revival in the 20th century.

country music or country and western Musical style that origi¬ nated among whites in rural areas of the southern and western U.S. The term country and western music was adopted by the music industry in 1949 to replace the derogatory hillbilly music. Its roots lie in the music of the European settlers of the Appalachians and other areas. In the early 1920s the genre began to be commercially recorded; Fiddlin’ John Car- son recorded its first hit. Radio programs such as Nashville’s Grand Ole Opry and Chicago’s National Barn Dance fueled its growth, and grow¬ ing numbers of musicians, such as the Carter Family and Jimmie Rodgers, began performing on radio and in recording studios. With the migration of Southern whites to industrial cities in the 1930s and ’40s, country music was exposed to new influences, such as blues and gospel music. Its nostal¬ gic bias, with its lyrics about poverty, heartbreak, and homesickness, held special appeal during a time of great population shifts. In the 1930s “sing¬ ing cowboy” film stars, such as Gene Autry, altered country lyrics to pro¬ duce a synthetic “western” music. Other variants include western swing (see Bob Wills) and honky-tonk (see Ernest Tubb and Hank Williams). In the 1940s there was an effort to return to country’s root values (see bluegrass), but commercialization proved a stronger influence, and in the 1950s and ’60s country music became a huge commercial enterprise. Popular sing¬ ers often recorded songs in a Nashville style, while many country music recordings employed lush orchestral backgrounds. Country music has become increasingly acceptable to urban audiences, retaining its vitality with diverse performers such as Willie Nelson, Waylon Jennings, Dolly Parton, Randy Travis, Garth Brooks, Emmylou Harris, and Lyle Lovett. Despite the influence of other styles, it has retained an unmistakable char¬ acter as one of the few truly indigenous American musical styles.

coup d'etat \,ku-da-'ta\ or coup (French: “stroke of state”) Sudden overthrow, often violent, of an existing government by a group of con¬ spirators. Coups are most common in countries with unstable govern¬ ments and in countries with little experience of successful democracy. Their success depends on surprise and speed. Coups rarely alter a nation’s fundamental social and economic policies or significantly redistribute power. See also military government, revolution.

Coup of 18 Fructldor See Coup of 18 Fructidor Coup of T8-T9 Brumaire See Coup of 18-19 Brumaire

Couperin \kup-'ra n \, Francois (b. Nov. 10, 1668, Paris, France —d. Sept. 12, 1733, Paris) French composer, harpsichordist, and organist. At age 17 he succeeded his father as organist at the important church of St. Gervais and kept the post for some 50 years. He was later also appointed organist and harpsichordist at the court of Louis XIV. Couperin is best known for four books of harpsichord pieces containing some 220 elegant, vivacious, and richly ornamented works {Pieces de clavecin , 1713-30). His other works include a collection of more than 40 organ compositions {Pieces d’orgue, 1709); much sacred vocal music (including the Legons de tenebres, c. 1715); and several sets of chamber music (including the Concerts royaux , 1722). His Art of Playing the Harpsichord (1716) is the most valuable instrumental treatise of its time. He was the foremost French composer of his generation. His uncle Louis Couperin (1626-61), also organist at St. Gervais, composed more than 200 keyboard works.

couple In physics, a pair of equal parallel forces that are opposite in direction. Couples produce or prevent the turning of a body. The forces used to turn the steering wheel of a car constitute a couple; each hand exerts a force, parallel but opposite in direction, yet they work together to achieve the same goal. A couple is also used to turn a screwdriver or a doorknob, and the pair of forces acting on the opposite poles of a com¬ pass needle as it points somewhere between north and south are a couple.

couplet Two successive lines of verse. A couplet is marked usually by rhythmic correspondence, rhyme, or the inclusion of a self-contained utterance. Couplets may be independent poems, but they usually function as parts of other verse forms, such as the Shakespearean sonnet, which concludes with a couplet. A couplet that cannot stand alone is an open couplet; a couplet whose sense is relatively independent is a closed cou¬ plet.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

courante ► courtly love I 475

courante \ku-'rant\ (from Latin currere, “to run”) Court dance of the 16th century, fashionable in European ballrooms into the 18th century. It was originally performed with small back-and-forth springing steps, which later became stately glides. Danced to music in quick triple time, the courante followed the allemande and later became part of the musical SUITE.

Courantyne Vkor-on-.tlM River or Corantijn Vkor-3n-.tIn\ or Coe- roeni \ku-'ru-ne\ River, northern South America. Rising in the Akarai Mountains, it flows north for 450 mi (700 km) and empties into the Atlan¬ tic Ocean near Nieuw Nickerie, Suri. It divides Suriname and Guyana; residents of the latter are free to navigate the river but have no fishing rights. It is navigable to small oceangoing vessels for about 45 mi (70 km) to the first rapids at Orealla. The Courantyne basin remains largely undeveloped, with much of it remaining unexplored forest.

Courbet \kur-'ba\, Gustave (b. June 10, 1819, Ornans, France—d. Dec. 31, 1877, La Tour-de-Peilz, Switz.) French painter. In 1839 he went to Paris, where, after receiving some formal training, he learned by copy¬ ing Old Masters in the Louvre. His early works were controversial but received public and critical acclaim. In 1849 and 1850 he produced two of his greatest paintings: respectively, The Stone-Breakers and Burial at Ornans. Both works depart radically from the more-controlled, idealized pictures of either the Neoclassical or the Romantic school; they portray the life and emotions not of aristocrats but of humble peasants, and they do so with a realistic urgency. Such images of everyday life, characterized by a powerful naturalism and boldly portrayed, cast him as a revolution¬ ary socialist. An intimate of many writers and philosophers of his day, he became the leader of the new school of Realism, which in time prevailed over other contemporary movements. His audacity and disrespect for authority were notorious. In 1865 his series depicting storms at sea astounded the art world and opened the way for Impressionism.

Detail from Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and His Children in 1853, oil on canvas by Gustave Courbet, 1865; in the Musee du Petit Palais, Paris.

© DEA PICTURE LIBRARY

coureur de bois Vkii-'rcer-do-'bwaV French "wood runner" French Canadian fur trader of the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Most of the coureur de bois traded illicitly (i.e., without the license required by the Quebec government). They sold brandy to Indians, which created diffi¬ culties for the tribes with whom they traded. Though they defied the colo¬ nial authorities, they ultimately benefited them by exploring the frontier, developing the fur trade, and helping ally the Indians with the French and against the English (see French and Indian War).

Courland Vkur-,lant,\ English Vkur-landN Latvian Kurzeme Vkur-zo-.maV Historical region, Latvia. Located on the Baltic Sea, it was named for the Curonians, who had established a tribal kingdom there by the end of the 9th century. Conquered in the 13th century by the Livo¬ nians, in 1561 the area was incorporated into the duchy of Courland, which became a Polish fief. The duchy flourished during the 17th century with the development of industries and foreign trade. From 1737 its duke was a client of the Russian throne, and it came under Russian rule in 1795. It became part of the newly independent Latvia in 1918.

Courland Lagoon Vkur-bnd\ or Kursky Zaliv \'kur-ske-'za-lif\ Inlet of the Baltic Sea at the mouth of the Neman River. Its northern por¬ tion is in Lithuania and its southern portion lies in Kaliningrad province, Russia. With an area of 625 sq mi (1,619 sq km), it is connected to the Baltic by a navigable strait, on which is the Lithuanian port of Klaipeda.

Cournand \kur-'na n \, Andre F(rederic) (b. Sept. 24, 1895, Paris, Fr.—d. Feb. 19, 1988, Great Barrington, Mass., U.S.) French-born U.S. physician and physiologist. He shared a 1956 Nobel Prize with Dickin¬ son W. Richards (b. 1895—d. 1973) and Werner Forssmann for discov¬ eries on heart catheterization and circulatory changes. Cournand and Richards perfected Forssmann’s cardiac catheterization procedure for studying the functioning of diseased hearts to more accurately diagnose underlying anatomic defects. They also used the catheter in the pulmo¬ nary artery, improving diagnosis of lung diseases.

Cournot \kur-'no\, Antoine-Augustin (b. Aug. 28, 1801, Gray, France—d. March 31, 1877, Paris) French economist and mathematician. The first economist to apply mathematics effectively to the treatment of economic questions, he made important contributions with his discussion of supply and demand functions, the shifting of taxes, and problems of international trade, and he is best remembered for his discussion of stra¬ tegic behaviour in a market with only two producers, a so-called duopoly. His principal work is Researches into the Mathematical Principles of the Theory of Wealth (1838).

Courreges \ku-'rezh\, Andre (b. March 9, 1923, Pau, Fr.) French fashion designer. He went to work in a small Parisian fashion house in 1948 and within a year joined the staff of Cristobal Balenciaga. In 1961 he opened his own house and became established as one of the most original couturiers in Paris. His futuristic styles featured well-cut pants, trapezoidal lines, and miniskirts with white midcalf boots; white became his hallmark. In the 1960s his designs were widely copied. He established control over manufacturing and distribution through licensed outlets.

court In architecture, an outdoor room surrounded by buildings or walls. Courts have existed in all civilizations from the earliest recorded times. The small garden court (atrium) of a Roman house was the center of domestic activity. In medieval Europe the court was a feature of all major residential buildings, as the cloister of a monastery, ward of a castle, or quadrangle of a college. A courtyard is often a utilitarian court (as for stables).

court Official assembly with judicial authority to hear and determine disputes in particular cases. In early judicial tribunals, judges sat in enclo¬ sures (courts in an architectural sense), and lawyers and the general pub¬ lic remained outside a bar (hence the term bar in legal contexts). Modem British courts are divided into those trying criminal cases and those try¬ ing civil cases; a second distinction is made between inferior courts, or courts of first instance, and superior courts, or courts of appeal. In the U.S. each state has its own system of courts, usually consisting of a supe¬ rior (appellate) court, trial courts of general jurisdiction, and specialized courts (e.g., probate courts). The U.S. also has a system of federal courts, established to adjudicate distinctively national questions and cases not appropriately tried in state courts. At the apex of the national system is the Supreme Court of the United States. The secondary level consists of the United States Courts of Appeals. United States District Courts form the ter¬ tiary level. Crimes committed by military figures may be tried in a court- martial. In the past, ecclesiastical courts had broad jurisdiction. See also International Court of Justice; judiciary.

Court, Margaret Smith orig. Margaret Smith (b. July 16, 1942, Albury, N.S.W., Austl.) Australian tennis player. She dominated women’s tennis in the 1960s, winning 66 grand-slam championships in her career, more than any other person. In 1970 she became the second woman (after Maureen Connolly) to win the grand-slam (the Wimbledon, U.S., Austra¬ lian, and French singles titles). In 1963, with fellow Australian Kenneth Fletcher, she became the only player to achieve the grand-slam in doubles as well as singles.

Court of High Commission See Court of High Commission

courtly love Late-medieval code that prescribed the highly conven¬ tionalized behaviour and emotions of aristocratic ladies and their lovers. It was the theme of an extensive literature that began with late 11th- century troubadour poetry in France and swiftly pervaded Europe. The courtly lover, who saw himself as enslaved by passion but fired by respect, faithfully served and worshiped his lady-saint. Courtly love was invari-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

476 I court-martial ► coverture

ably adulterous, largely because upper-class marriage at the time was usually the result of economic interest or the seal of a power alliance. Its literary sources are believed to be found in Arabic literature, transmitted to Europe through Arab-dominated Spain; the growing religious cult of Mary was another influence. Examples of works inspired by the ideal are the Roman de la rose, Petrarch’s sonnets to Laura, Dante’s Divine Com¬ edy, and the lyrics of the trouveres and minnesingers. See also chivalry.

court-martial Military court for hearing charges brought against mem¬ bers of the armed forces or others within its jurisdiction; also, the legal proceeding of such a court. Most countries today have military codes of justice administered by military courts, often subject to civilian appellate review. Courts-martial are generally convened as ad hoc courts to try one or more cases referred by some high military authority. The convening officer chooses officers, and sometimes enlisted personnel, from his or her command to sit on the court, determine guilt or innocence, and hand down sentences. See also military law.

Courts of Appeals, U.S. See United States Courts of Appeals

courtship behaviour Animal activity that results in mating and reproduction. Courtship may simply involve a few chemical, visual, or auditory stimuli, or it may be a highly complex series of acts by two or more individuals using several modes of communication. Females of some insect species use pheromones to attract males from a distance. Painted turtles court by touch, and the courtship songs of frogs are heard on spring nights across much of the world. Certain bird species have complex courtship patterns. Courtship is important as an isolating mecha¬ nism to prevent different species from interbreeding, and elaborate court¬ ship rituals help strengthen pair bonds that may last through the raising of the young or longer. See also display behaviour.

Cousteau \kii-'sto\, Jacques-Yves (b. June 11, 1910, Saint-Andre- de-Cubzac, France—d. June 25, 1997, Paris) French ocean explorer. A navy officer, he coinvented the Aqua-Lung, or scuba. He founded the French Office of Underseas Research (now the Centre of Advanced Marine Studies) in Marseille. For decades, beginning in 1950, he traveled the world in research vessels named Calypso. He invented a process for using television underwater, and he hosted an internationally successful television series (1968-76). He served as director of Monaco’s Oceano¬ graphic Museum (1957-88). In his later years he issued increasingly dire warnings about human destruction of the oceans. His many popular books include The Silent World (1953) and The Living Sea (1963); his films include The Golden Fish (1960, Academy Award).

Cousy Vkti-zeV, Bob in full Robert Joseph Cousy (b. Aug. 9,1928, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. basketball player and coach. He played col¬ legiate ball at Holy Cross College and joined the Boston Celtics in 1950. One of the game’s great ball-handling guards and playmakers, he led the NBA in assists from 1953 to 1960. He left the Celtics to coach at Boston College (1963-69), but he eventually returned to the professional game as coach of the Cincinnati Royals (1969-73).

covalent Vko-'va-lonA bond Force holding atoms in a molecule together as a specific, separate entity (as opposed to, e.g., colloidal aggre¬ gates; see bonding). In covalent bonds, two atoms share one or more pairs of valence electrons to give each atom the stability found in a noble gas. In single bonds (e.g., H—H in molecular hydrogen), one electron pair is shared; in double bonds (e.g., 0=0 in molecular oxygen or H 2 C=CH 2 in ethylene), two; in triple bonds (e.g., HC=CH in acetylene), three. In coor¬ dinate covalent bonds, additional electron pairs are shared with another atom, usually forming a functional group, such as sulfate (S0 4 ) or phos¬ phate (P0 4 ). The number of bonds and the atoms participating in each (including any additional paired electrons) give molecules their configu¬ ration; the slight negative and positive charges at the opposite ends of a covalent bond are the reason most molecules have some polarity (see elec¬ trophile; nucleophile). Carbon in organic compounds can have as many as four single bonds, each pointing to one vertex of a tetrahedron; as a result, certain molecules exist in mirror-image forms (see optical activity). Double bonds are rigid, leading to the possibility of geometric isomers (see isom¬ erism). Some types of bonds, such as the amide linkages that join the amino acids in peptides and proteins (peptide bonds), are apparently single but have some double-bond characteristics because of the electronic structure of the participating atoms. The configurations of enzymes and their substrates, determined by their covalent bonds (particularly the peptide bonds) and hydrogen bonds, are crucial to the reactions they participate in, which are fundamental to all life. See also aromatic compound; compare ionic bond.

cove See coving

covenant Vko-vo-.nantX In the Hebrew scriptures, an agreement or treaty among peoples or nations, but most memorably the promises that God extended to humankind (e.g., the promise to Noah never again to destroy the earth by flood or the promise to Abraham that his descendants would multiply and inherit the land of Israel). God’s revelation of the law to Moses on Mount Sinai created a pact between God and Israel known as the Sinai covenant. In Christianity, Jesus’ death established a new cov¬ enant between God and humanity. Islam holds that the Last Covenant was between God and the Prophet Muhammad.

Covenant, Ark of the See Ark of the Covenant covenant, restrictive See restrictive covenant

Covenanters Scottish Presbyterians of the 17th century who made convenants in which they pledged to maintain specific forms of worship and church government. After the signing of the National Covenant of 1638, the Scottish Assembly abolished the episcopal system. In the Bish¬ ops’ Wars of 1639-40 the Scots fought against England to maintain their religious liberty. In England the expenses of these wars were a factor in the English Civil War, and in the Solemn League and Covenant of 1643 the Scots promised their aid to the parliamentarian faction provided that the Church of England was reformed along Presbyterian lines. Crom¬ well’s settlement failed to satisfy the Covenanters, but their situation worsened considerably once Charles II came to the throne in 1660. Epis¬ copacy was brought back, and the Covenanters endured severe persecu¬ tions. Not until the Glorious Revolution of 1688 was Presbyterianism reestablished in Scotland.

Covent Vk9-v3nt\ Garden Square in London. It is now the site of the Royal Opera House, home of the British national opera and ballet com¬ panies. The land around the site, once a convent garden, was laid out as a residential square in 1630. The original Co vent Garden playhouse, called the Theatre Royal, was built in 1732 and served for performances of plays, pantomimes, and opera. Twice destroyed by fire and rebuilt, the theatre became the Royal Italian Opera House (1847) and was replaced by the Royal Opera Co. (1888). The square was also the site of a fruit, flower, and vegetable market from 1670 to 1974.

Coventry City and metropolitan borough (pop., 2001: 300,844), central England. The city was the home of Lady Godiva who, with her husband, founded a Benedictine abbey there in 1043. It was probably the centre of the presentation of the Coventry mystery plays in the 15th—16th centuries. During World War II, heavy bombing by the Germans left the town severely damaged. The spire of the 15th-century St. Michael’s Cathedral and its ruined nave stand beside the new cathedral built in 1962. Chief industries are motor vehicle manufacturing and telecommunications.

cover crop Fast-growing crop, such as rye, buckwheat, cowpea, or vetch, planted to prevent soil erosion, increase nutrients in the soil, and provide organic matter. Cover crops are grown either in the season during which cash crops are not grown or between the rows of some crops (e.g., fruit trees). See also green manure.

Coverdale, Miles (b. 1488?, York, Yorkshire, Eng.—d. Jan. 20, 1569, London) English bishop who issued the first printed English Bible. Ordained in 1514, he became an Augustinian friar at Cambridge, where he adopted Lutheran beliefs. By 1528 he was preaching against graven images and the mass. He lived abroad during 1528-34 to escape persecution, and while in Antwerp he translated the entire Bible into English; his Bible was published in 1535. He returned to England and edited the Great Bible (1539) but was soon forced to flee by the religious policies of Henry VIII. He returned after Henry’s death and became bishop at Exeter in 1551. Under the Catholic Mary I, he lost his office but was spared execution.

covering-law model Model of explanation according to which to explain an event by reference to another event necessarily presupposes an appeal to laws or general propositions correlating events of the type to be explained (explananda) with events of the type cited as its causes or con¬ ditions (explanantia). It is rooted in David Hume’s doctrine that, when two events are said to be causally related, all that is meant is that they instan¬ tiate certain regularities of succession that have been repeatedly observed to hold between such events in the past. This doctrine was given more rigorous expression by the logical positivist Carl Hempel (1905-1997).

coverture Vko-var-.churV In law, the inclusion of a woman in the legal person of her husband upon marriage. Because of coverture, married

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

coving ► coyote I 477

women formerly lacked the legal capacity to hold their own property or to contract on their own behalf (see contract); similarly, a husband’s tax payments or jury duty “covered” his wife as well. Aspects of coverture survived well into the 20th century; the term is still used in law when dividing jointly held property in divorce proceedings.

coving or cove Concave molding or deeply arched section of a wall surface. The curve typically describes a quarter-circle and serves to con¬ nect walls and ceiling (cove ceiling). The arched sections may be used to conceal light fixtures for dramatic effect, hence the term cove lighting. Coving can also refer to the curved soffit connecting the top of an exte¬ rior wall to a projecting eave.

cow In animal husbandry, the mature female of domesticated cattle. The name is also applied to the mature female of various, usually large, ani¬ mals (e.g., elephant, whale, or moose), or, more broadly, to any domestic bovine animal (see bovid) regardless of gender or age.

Coward, Sir Noel (Peirce) (b. Dec. 16, 1899, Teddington, near Lon¬ don, Eng.—d. March 26, 1973, St. Mary, Jam.) British playwright, actor, and songwriter. An actor from age 12, he wrote light comedies between engagements, but it was a serious drama. The Vortex (1924), that estab¬ lished his reputation. His classic comedies came later: Hay Fever (1925), Private Lives (1930), Design for Living (1933), Present Laughter (1939), and Blithe Spirit (1941) presented sophisticated characters in a worldly milieu. He often wrote for and performed with his close friend Gertrude Lawrence. His most popular musical play was Bitter Sweet (1929). He wrote the poignant film Brief Encounter (1945), and he acted in the film versions of many of his plays. He also wrote short stories, novels, and numerous songs, including “Mad Dogs and Englishmen.”

cowbird Any of six passerine species related to New World blackbirds (family Icteridae) that exhibit brood parasitism. Cowbirds lay their eggs in the nests of other birds, usually one to each host nest. Young cowbirds, which displace nestlings or outcompete them for food, may grow larger than the foster parents. In parts of North America, the brown-headed cowbird ( Molothrus ater) parasitizes the nests of more than 200 other bird species; others use the nests of only one or two kinds of oriole. Cowbirds forage on the ground, often associating with cattle in order to catch insects stirred up by the cows’ hooves. The male of most species is a uniform glossy black, the female grayish brown.

cowboy Horseman skilled at handling cattle in the U.S. West. From c. 1820, cowboys were employed in small numbers on Texas ranches, where they had learned the skills of the vaquero (Spanish: “cowboy”). After the Civil War, their numbers rapidly multiplied as cattle raising evolved into a lucrative industry throughout the western territories. Cowboys rounded up and branded the cattle, kept watch over the herd, and drove those ready for market to railroad towns. As the agricultural frontier moved west, the open range was transformed into farms, and by 1890 cowboys had been forced to settle on ranches. The romance of their image lived on in U.S. folklore and through movies and television.

Cowell, Henry (Dixon) (b. March 11, 1897, Menlo Park, Calif., U.S.—d. Dec. 10, 1965, Shady, N.Y.) U.S. avant-garde composer. He began early to experiment with techniques such as tone clusters and direct manipulation of piano strings. Five tours of Europe as composer-pianist (1923-33) expanded his reputation. He coinvented the Rhythmicon, an instrument for producing several conflicting rhythms simultaneously. Immensely prolific, he wrote nearly 1,000 pieces, including 19 completed symphonies, hundreds of piano works, and many ballets. In 1927 he founded the journal New Music. His book New Musical Resources (1930) presented his compositional ideas. He was one of the most important innovators in the history of American music.

Cowley, Abraham (b. 1618, London—d. July 28, 1667, Chertsey, Eng.) British poet and essayist. He was a fellow at the University of Cam¬ bridge but was ejected for his political opinions during the English Civil Wars; he joined the queen’s court, performing Royalist missions until 1656. In his poetic works—which include The Mistress (1647, 1656), the unfinished epic Davideis (1656), and Pindarique Odes (1656), in which he adapted the Pindaric ode to English verse—he used grossly elaborate, fanciful, poetic language that was more decorative than expressive. In his retirement he wrote sober, reflective essays.

Cowley, Malcolm (b. Aug. 24, 1898, Belsano, Pa., U.S.—d. March 27, 1989, New Milford, Conn.) U.S. literary critic and social historian. He was educated at Harvard and in France. As literary editor of the New

Republic (1929-44), he took part in many Depression-era literary and political battles, usually on the leftist side. He revived the reputation of William Faulkner with The Portable Faulkner (1946). His books include Exile’s Return (1934), a history of expatriate American writers; The Lit¬ erary Situation (1954), on the role of writers in society; and the collec¬ tions Think Back on Us (1967) and A Many-Windowed House (1970).

cowpea or black-eyed pea Any of the cultivated forms of the annual legume Vigna unguiculata. The plants are believed to be native to India and the Middle East but in early times were cultivated in China. The compound leaves have three leaflets. The white, purple, or pale-yellow flowers usually grow in twos or threes at the ends of long stalks. The pods are long and cylindrical. In the southern U.S. the cowpea is grown exten¬ sively as a hay crop, as a cover or green-manure crop, or for the edible BEANS.

Cowper \'ku-p3r\, William (b. Nov. 26, 1731, Great Berkhamstead, Hertfordshire, Eng.—d. April 25,

1800, East Dereham, Norfolk) Brit¬ ish poet. Throughout his life he was plagued by recurring mental instabil¬ ity and religious doubt. Olney Hymns (1779; with John Newton), a book of devotional verse, includes hymns that are still favourites in Protestant England. The Task( 1785), a long dis¬ cursive poem written “to recommend rural ease,” was an immediate suc¬ cess. He also wrote many melodious, even humorous, shorter lyrics, and he is considered one of the best letter writers in English. His work, often about everyday rural life, brought a new directness and humanitarianism to 18th-century nature poetry, fore¬ shadowing Romanticism.

cowrie Any of several marine snails (genus Cypraea ) found chiefly in coastal waters of the Indian and Pacific oceans. Its humped, thick shell is beautifully coloured (often speckled) and glossy. That of the 4-in. (10-cm) golden cowrie was tra¬ ditionally worn by royalty on Pacific islands. The money cowrie, a 1-in.

(2.5-cm) yellow species, has served as currency in Africa and elsewhere.

cowslip Any of several flowering plants, including (chiefly in British usage) the wild primrose ( Primula veris) and (in U.S. usage) the marsh MARIGOLD (Caltha palustris). P veris, once so abundant that it was used freely to make cowslip wine, is now much less common. Both P. veris and C. palustris are used in herbal remedies.

Cox, James M(iddleton) (b. March 31, 1870, Jacksonburg, Ohio, U.S.—d. July 15, 1957, Dayton, Ohio) U.S. politician. He worked as a reporter in Cincinnati before buying the Dayton News (1898) and Spring- field Daily News (1903). A supporter of Woodrow Wilson, he served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1909-13) and then was elected gov¬ ernor of Ohio (1913-15, 1917-21), where he introduced workers’ com¬ pensation and the minimum wage. He won the Democratic presidential nomination in 1920 but was defeated by Warren G. Harding in a Repub¬ lican landslide.

Coxey's Army Group of unemployed men who marched to Washing¬ ton, D.C., in the depression year of 1894. Jacob S. Coxey (1854-1951), a businessman, led the group, which hoped to persuade Congress to autho¬ rize public-works programs to provide jobs. It left Ohio on March 25 and reached Washington on May 1 with about 500 men, the only one of sev¬ eral groups to reach its destination. It attracted much attention but failed to bring about any legislation.

coyote \k!-'o-te, 'kI-,ot\ Species ( Canis latrans) of canine found in North and Central America. Its range extends from Alaska and Canada south

William Cowper, detail of an oil paint¬ ing by Lemuel Abbott, 1792; in the National Portrait Gallery, London

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, LONDON

Cowrie (Cypraea)

BUCKY REEVES FROM THE NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCIETY COLLECTION/PHOTO RESEARCHERS-EB INC.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

478 I coypu ► cramp

through the continental U.S. and Mexico to Central America. It weighs about 20-50 lbs (9-23 kg) and is about 3—4 ft (1—1.3 m) long, including its 12-16-in. (30—40-cm) tail. Its coarse fur is generally buff above and whitish below; its legs are reddish, and its tail is bushy and black-tipped. The coyote feeds mainly on small mammals such as rodents, rabbits, and hares but can also take down deer, sometimes doing so in packs. Vegeta¬ tion and carrion are commonly eaten as well. Though persecuted by humans because of its potential (generally overstated) to prey on domes¬ tic or game animals, it has adapted well to human-dominated environ¬ ments, including urban areas. A coyote-dog cross is called a coydog.

coypu See nutria

Coysevox \kwaz-'voks\, Antoine (b. Sept. 29, 1640, Lyon, Fr.—d. Oct. 10, 1720, Paris) French sculptor. In 1666 he became sculptor to Louis XIV and by 1678 was working at Versailles. He was known for his por¬ trait busts, which show a naturalism and animation of expression that anticipates the Rococo style. He also executed decorative sculpture for the royal gardens and did much interior decoration. Coysevox exerted con¬ siderable influence on the development of French portrait sculpture in the 18th century.

CP violation In particle physics, the violation of the combined conser¬ vation laws associated with charge conjugation, C (the operation of turn¬ ing a particle into its antiparticle), and parity, P, by the weak force. In 1957 it was discovered that parity is violated in beta decay. No fully satisfac¬ tory explanation has been devised, but CP violation does enable physi¬ cists to make an absolute distinction between matter and antimatter.

CPR See cardiopulmonary resuscitation

CPU in full central processing unit Principal component of a digi¬ tal computer, composed of a control unit, an instruction-decoding unit, and an arithmetic-logic unit. The CPU is linked to main memory, peripheral equipment (including input/output devices), and storage units. The con¬ trol unit integrates computer operations. It selects instructions from the main memory in proper sequence and sends them to the instruction¬ decoding unit, which interprets them so as to activate functions of the system at appropriate moments. Input data are transferred via the main memory to the arithmetic-logic unit for processing (i.e., addition, subtrac¬ tion, multiplication, division, and certain logic operations). Larger com¬ puters may have two or more CPUs, in which case they are simply called “processors” because each is no longer a “central” unit. See also multi¬ processing.

crab Any of 4,500 species of short-tailed decapod, found in all oceans, in freshwater, and on land. Its cara¬ pace (upper body shield) is usually broad, and its first pair of legs is modified into pincers. Most crabs live in the sea and breathe through gills, which in land crabs are modi¬ fied to serve as lungs. They walk or crawl, generally with a sideways gait; some are good swimmers.

Crabs are omnivorous scavengers, but many are predatory and some are herbivorous. Two of the largest known crustaceans are the giant crab of Japan (13 ft, or 4 m, from claw tip to claw tip), a spider crab; and the Tas¬ manian crab (up to 18 in., or 46 cm, long, and weighing more than 20 lbs, or 9 kg). Other species are less than an inch long. Well-known crabs include the hermit crab, edible crab (Britain and Europe), blue crab, Dunge- NESS CRAB, FIDDLER CRAB, and KING CRAB.

crab louse See human louse

Crab Nebula Bright nebula in the constellation Taurus, about 5,000 light-years from Earth. Roughly 12 light-years in diameter, it is the rem¬ nant of a supernova, first observed by Chinese and other astronomers in 1054, that was visible in daylight for 23 days and at night for almost two years. Identified as a nebula c. 1731, it was named (for its form) in the mid-19th century. In 1921 it was discovered to be still expanding; the present rate is about 700 mi/second (1,100 km/second). The Crab is one of the few astronomical objects from which electromagnetic radiation has

been detected over the entire measurable spectrum. In the late 1960s a pul¬ sar, thought to be the collapsed remnant star of the supernova, was found near its centre.

Crabbe VkrabV George (b. Dec. 24, 1754, Aldeburgh, Suffolk, Eng.—d. Feb. 3, 1832, Trowbridge, Wiltshire) English poet. Reared in an impoverished seacoast village, Crabbe initially became a surgeon. In 1780 he left for London, where his poem The Village (1783) brought him fame; written partly as a protest against Oliver Goldsmith’s Deserted Village (1770), it was Crabbe’s attempt to show the misery of rural poverty. The Newspaper followed in 1785, but he did not publish again until 1807. In “The Parish Register,” he used the register of births, deaths, and marriages to depict the life of a rural community. Considered the last of the Augustan poets, he wrote in heroic couplets. His story of the isolated and violent Peter Grimes in The Borough became the basis of a famous opera by Ben¬ jamin Britten.

crabgrass Any of about 300 species of grasses in the genus Digitaria, especially D. sanguinalis or the slightly shorter D. ischaemum (smooth crabgrass). D. sanguinalis has long hairs covering its leaves and five or six spikelets; D. ischaemum has no hair and only two or three spikelets. Both are natives of Europe that became widely naturalized as weeds in North America. They and a few closely related species are very troublesome in lawns and fields. One species, Arizona cottontop ( D . cali- fornica ), is a useful forage grass in the American Southwest.

Cracow See Krakow

Craig, (Edward Henry) Gor¬ don (b. Jan. 16, 1872, Stevenage,

Hertfordshire, Eng.—d. July 29,

1966, Vence, France) British actor, stage designer, and drama theorist. The son of Ellen Terry, he acted with Henry Irving’s company (1889-97), then turned to designing stage sets, decor, and costumes. He moved to Flo¬ rence (1906), where he opened the School for the Art of the Theatre (1913). His international journal The Mask (1908-29) made his theatri¬ cal ideas widely known. His books On the Art of the Theatre (1911), Towards a New Theatre (1913), and Scene (1923) outlined innovations in stage design based on the use of portable screens and changing patterns of light; his theories influenced the antinaturalist trends of the modern theatre.

Craig, Sir James (Henry) (b. 1748, Gibraltar—d. Jan. 12, 1812, London, Eng.) British army officer and governor-general of Canada (1807-11). In the American Revolution, he was wounded at the Battle of Bunker Hill in 1775 and helped repel the American army’s invasion of Canada in 1776. He later served in India. As governor-general in Canada, he cooperated with the governing clique in Quebec but conducted an unpopular repressive policy toward French Canadians. He resigned in 1811 and returned to England.

Craigavon \kra-'ga-v9n\ District (pop., 2001: 80,671), Northern Ire¬ land. Established in 1973, it lies south of Lough Neagh. In the north it is flat and composed largely of peat soils; in the south it rises to lowlands. It is an important fruit-growing district and also has textile and pharma¬ ceutical industries. Its administrative seat, Craigavon town, engages in light industry and commerce.

Craiova \kra-'yo-va\ City (pop., 2002: 302,622), southwestern Roma¬ nia. Situated near the Jiu River, the area has long been settled; the remains of a Roman fort built under Trajan have been excavated nearby. From the late 15th to the 18th century it was the residence of the region’s military governors. It prospered as a regional trading centre despite an earthquake in 1790 and a Turkish assault in 1802 during which it was burned. It has a university (1966) and other cultural amenities.

cramp Painful, involuntary, sustained contraction of muscle in limbs or some internal organs. Causes may be neurological, reflex, or psychologi¬ cal. Common muscle cramps include swimmer’s cramp from overexer¬ tion in cold water, heat cramps from loss of salt in sweat, leg cramps, and occupational (e.g., writer’s) cramp. Menstrual cramps are uterine muscle

Common swimming crab (Portunus holsatus), showing its paddle-shaped feet

DR. ECKART POTT/BRUCE COLEMAN LTD.

Crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis)

GRANT HEILMAN

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Cranach ► Cranmer I 479

contractions before or during menstruation. Cramps occur in diseases including parkinsonism and Huntington chorea. Tetany is severe cramping noticed first in limb muscles.

Cranach \'kra-,nak\, Lucas, the Elder orig. Lucas Muller (b. 1472, Cranach, bishopric of Bamberg—d. Oct. 16,1553, Weimar, Saxe-Weimar) German painter and printmaker. He took his name from the town of his birth. Little is known about his early life or training. In Vienna (c. 1501— 04) he painted some notable portraits and landscapes characteristic of the Danube school. From 1505 to 1550 he was court painter in Wittenberg, where he achieved great success and wealth painting portraits, mytho¬ logical subjects, and altarpieces for Protestant and Catholic churches. He attracted so many young artists to Wittenberg that the town became an art centre. A friend of Martin Luther, Cranach became known as the chief pic¬ torial propagandist of the Protestant cause in Germany. He produced numerous engravings and more than 100 woodcuts, notably for the first German edition of the New Testament (1522). After his death, his style was perpetuated by his son, Lucas the Younger (1515-86).

cranberry Fruit of any of several small creeping or trailing plants of the genus Vaccinium (heath family), related to the blueberry. The small- fruited, or northern, cranberry (V oxycoccus) is found in marshy land in northern North America and Asia and in northern and central Europe.

Its crimson berries, about the size of currants and often spotted, have an acid taste. The American cranberry (V macrocarpon), found wild in most of the northeastern U.S. and grown extensively in Massachusetts,

New Jersey, and Wisconsin and near the Pacific coast in Washington and Oregon, is more robust than V. oxy¬ coccus, with larger, pink to very dark red or mottled red-and-white berries.

Cranberries are used in drinks, sauces, jellies, and baked goods.

crane Any of a diverse group of machines that lift and move heavy objects. Cranes differ from hoists, eleva¬ tors, and other devices intended for vertical lifting, and from conveyors, which continuously lift or carry bulk materials such as grain or coal. Cranes have been widely used only since the introduction of steam engines, internal-combustion engines, and electric motors in the 19th century. They range in type and function from the largest derrick cranes to small, mobile truck cranes. Most derrick cranes can lift 5-250 tons (4.5-230 metric tons). Floating cranes, built on barges for constructing bridges or salvaging sunken objects, may be able to lift 3,000 tons (2,700 metric-tons). Small truck cranes are mounted on heavy, modified trucks; they make up in mobility and ease of transport what they lack in hoisting capacity.

crane Any of 15 species (family Gruidae) of tall wading birds that resemble herons but are usually larger and have a partly naked head, a heavier bill, more-compact plumage, and an elevated hind toe. In flight, the long neck stretches out in front and the stiltlike legs trail behind. Cranes are found worldwide, living in marshes and on plains, except in South America. Many populations are endangered by hunting and habitat destruction. Cranes eat small animals, grain, and grass shoots. Two well- known species are the whooping crane and the sandhill crane.

crane flower See bird-of-paradise

crane fly Harmless, slow-flying dipteran (family Tipulidae) usually found around water or abundant vegetation. It ranges in size from tiny to slightly over 1 in. (2.5 cm) long. Larvae of the range crane fly ( Tipula simplex) are called leatherjackets because of their tough brown skin. In northern latitudes a wingless crane-fly species is found on snow. The crane fly is also called daddy longlegs in English-speaking countries other than the U.S. (in the U.S., daddy longlegs refers to an arachnid).

Crane, (Harold) Hart (b. July 21, 1899, Garrettsville, Ohio, U.S.—d. April 27, 1932, at sea, Caribbean Sea) U.S. poet. Crane worked at a vari¬ ety of jobs before settling in New York City. White Buildings (1926), his first book, includes “For the Marriage of Faustus and Helen.” His desire to respond to the cultural pessimism of T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land

Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon)

WALTER CHANDOHA

resulted in the long and difficult poem The Bridge (1930), which attempts to create an epic myth of the American experience, celebrating the rich¬ ness of modern life with visionary intensity. Alcoholic and despondent over his homosexuality, he committed suicide at 32 by jumping overboard from a ship in the Caribbean.

Crane, Stephen (b. Nov. 1, 1871, Newark, N.J., U.S.—d. June 5,

1900, Badenweiler, Baden, Ger.) U.S. novelist and short-story writer. Crane briefly attended college before moving to New York City. His Mag¬ gie: A Girl of the Streets (1893), a sympathetic study of a slum girl’s descent into prostitution, was a mile¬ stone of literary naturalism. He achieved international fame with his masterwork, The Red Badge of Courage (1895), depicting the psy¬ chological turmoil of a young Civil War soldier, and with his first book of poems, The Black Riders (1895). While traveling as a war correspon¬ dent, his ship sank and he almost drowned, resulting in his great story “The Open Boat” (1898). His story collections include The Little Regi¬ ment (1896), The Monster (1899), and Whilomville Stories (1900). He died at 28 of tuberculosis.

Stephen Crane, detail of a painting by C.K. Linson, 1896.

COURTESY OF UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA LIBRARY, BARRETT LIBRARY OF AMERICAN LITERATURE

Crane, Walter (b. Aug. 15, 1845, Liverpool, Eng.—d. March 14, 1915, Horsham) English illustrator, painter, and designer. The son of a portrait painter, he studied Italian Old Masters and Japanese prints. The ideas of the Pre-Raphaelites and John Ruskin inspired his early paintings. He achieved international popularity designing Art Nouveau textiles and wallpapers but is chiefly known for his illustrations of children’s books. In 1894 he worked with William Morris on The Story of the Glittering Plain, a book printed in the style of 16th-century German and Italian woodcuts. He belonged to the Art Workers’ Guild, and in 1888 he founded the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society. See also Arts and Crafts Movement.

craniosynostosis \ 1 kra-ne-o-,sin- I as-'to-s3s\ or craniostosis

\,kra-ne-6-'sto-s3s\ Cranial deformity produced when the bones of the skull fuse too early. Pressure from the growing brain normally causes the skull bones to grow along the seams (cranial sutures) between them. If all the sutures fuse early, the head remains abnormally small, which can cause mental retardation or blindness. If only one or some fuse early, the skull grows in other directions and becomes deformed. Surgery in the first two years to keep the sutures open longer minimizes these complications.

crank In mechanics, an arm secured at right angles to a shaft with which it can rotate or oscillate. Next to the wheel, the crank is the most impor¬ tant motion-transmitting device, because, with the connecting rod, it pro¬ vides means for converting linear to rotary motion, and vice versa. The first recognizable crank is said to have appeared in China in the 1 st cen¬

tury ad. The carpenter’s brace was invented c. 1400 by a Flemish car¬ penter. The first mechanical connect¬ ing rods were reportedly used on a treadle-operated machine in 1430. About this time, flywheels were added to the rotating members to carry the members over the “dead” positions when the rod and the crank arm are lined up with each other.

Cranmer, Thomas (b. July 2, 1489, Aslacton, Nottinghamshire, Eng.—d. March 21, 1556, Oxford) First Protestant archbishop of Can¬ terbury. Educated at the University of Cambridge, he was ordained in 1523. He became involved in Henry VIII’s negotiations with the pope over divorcing Catherine of Aragon. In 1533 Henry appointed him arch-

Thomas Cranmer, detail of an oil paint¬ ing by Gerlach Flicke, 1545; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY,

LONDON

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

480 I crannog ► Craxi

bishop of Canterbury, putting him in a position to help overthrow papal supremacy in England. He annulled Henry’s marriage to Catherine, sup¬ ported his marriage to Anne Boleyn, and later helped him divorce her. After Henry’s death in 1547, Cranmer became an influential adviser to the young Edward VI, moving England firmly in a Protestant direction. He wrote the Forty-two Articles, from which the Thirty-nine Articles of Anglican belief were derived. When the strongly anti-Protestant Mary I became queen, Cranmer was tried, convicted of heresy, and burned at the stake.

crannog Vkra-.nog, kra-'nog\ In Scotland and Ireland, an artificially constructed site for a house or settlement, usually on an islet or in the shallows of a lake. Made of timber or sometimes stone, crannogs date from the Late Bronze Age into the Middle Ages. Usually fortified by stockades, they were among the latest prehistoric strongholds. See also Lake Dwellings.

crape myrtle Shrub (Lagerstroemia indica ) of the loosestrife family, native to China and other tropical and subtropical countries and widely grown in warm regions for its flowers. About 25 varieties are cultivated, known primarily by the color of their clustered flowers, which range from white to pink, red, lavender, and bluish.

crappie Either of two deep-bodied freshwater North American fish spe¬ cies (family Centrarchidae) that are popular as food and prized by sport fishermen. Native to the eastern U.S. but introduced elsewhere, crappies may reach a length of about 12 in. (30 cm) and a weight of about 4 lb (2 kg). The white crappie (Pomoxis annularis ) generally inhabits warm, silty lakes and rivers. Silvery with irregular dark markings, it is usually lighter in colour than the similar black crappie, or calico bass ( P. nigromacula- tus), which typically lives in clear lakes and streams.

craps Gambling game in which each player in turn throws two dice, attempting to roll a winning combination. The term derives from a Loui¬ siana French word, crabs , which means “losing throw.” The player with the dice (the shooter) must first put up a stake; the other players bet against the shooter up to the amount of the stake. In some games, bettors may also bet against each other or against the house. A shooter who wins may continue to roll. A 7 or 11 on the first roll wins; a 2, 3, or 12 (craps) loses. Any other number requires the shooter to continue rolling until he or she rolls the same number again for a win or rolls a 7 (craps) and loses.

Crash of T 929, Stock Market See Stock Market Crash of 1929

Crassus, Lucius Licinius (b. 140—d. 91 bc) Roman lawyer and poli¬ tician. He is regarded, with Marcus Antonius (b. 143—d. 87), as one of the greatest Latin orators before Marcus Tullius Cicero and is portrayed in Cicero’s De oratore (55 bc). Made consul in 95, he cosponsored a law (Lex Licinia Mucia) that provided for the prosecution of anyone falsely claiming Roman citizenship, which led to the revolt of Rome’s Italian allies in 90-88.

Crassus, Marcus Licinius (b. c. 115—d. 53 bc) Roman financier and politician. He sided with Lucius Cornelius Sulla against Gaius Marius in the civil war of 83-82 bc and came into conflict with Pompey the Great. In 72-71 he put down the slave rebellion led by Spartacus. He made loans to indebted senators, including Julius Caesar. In 70 Crassus and Pompey were elected co-consuls. Ten years later Crassus, Caesar, and Pompey formed the First Triumvirate (see triumvirate). As governor of Syria (54) Crassus invaded Parthia; his death at the Battle of Carrhae led to civil war between Caesar and Pompey.

crater Circular depression in the surface of a planetary body. Most cra¬ ters are the result of impacts of meteorites or of volcanic explosions. Mete¬ orite craters are more common on the Moon and Mars and on other planets and natural satellites than on Earth, because most meteorites either burn up in the Earth’s atmosphere before reaching its surface or erosion soon obscures the impact site. Craters made by exploding volcanoes (e.g.. Cra¬ ter Lake, Ore.) are more common on the Earth than on the Moon, Mars, or Jupiter’s moon Io, where they have also been identified.

Crater Lake Lake, Cascade Range, southwestern Oregon, U.S. The lake is in a huge volcanic caldera 6 mi (10 km) in diameter and 1,932 ft (589 m) deep. It is the remnant of a mountain destroyed in an eruption more than 6,000 years ago. The intensely blue lake and its surrounding region became a national park in 1902; the park covers 250 sq mi (647 sq km).

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

Region of volcanic cones and craters, south-central Idaho, U.S. Established in 1924 as a national monument, it has more than 35 craters, probably

extinct only a few millennia. Some are nearly a half-mile across and several hundred feet deep and reach a height of more than 6,000 ft (1,800 m). Tun¬ nels formed by fissure eruptions feature stalactites and stalagmites in red and blue. In 2000 the monument was expanded from 83 to 1,117 sq mi (215 to 2,893 sq km); in 2002 part of it was designated a national preserve.

Crawford, Cheryl (b. Sept. 24, 1902, Akron, Ohio, U.S.—d. Oct. 7, 1986, New York, N.Y.) U.S. actress and theatre producer. She acted with the Theatre Guild from 1923 and became its casting manager (1928-30). She helped found the Group Theatre in 1931. A cofounder of the Actors Studio in 1947, she went on to serve as its executive producer. Her notable Broadway productions included Brigadoon (1947) and Tennessee Will¬ iams’s The Rose Tattoo (1951) and Sweet Bird of Youth (1959).

Crawford, Isabella Valancy (b. Dec. 25, 1850, Dublin, Ire.—d. Feb. 12, 1887, Toronto, Ont., Can.) Irish-born Canadian poet. She immi¬ grated to Canada with her family in 1858. From 1875 until her death, she lived with her mother in Toronto, meagrely sustained by sales of stories and poems to periodicals. The only book published during her lifetime (at her own expense) was Old Spookses’ Pass, Malcom’s Katie, and Other Poems (1884). Her work, notable for its vivid descriptions of the Cana¬ dian landscape, was rediscovered in the 1970s, and many collections have since been published.

Crawford, Joan orig. Lucille Fay LeSueur (b. March 23, 1908, San Antonio, Texas, U.S.—d. May 10, 1977, New York, N.Y.) U.S. film actress. She was a dancer in a Broad¬ way chorus line when she won her first Hollywood contract in the mid 1920s. After portraying flappers in such films as Our Dancing Daugh¬ ters (1928), she played opportunistic girls in such Depression-era dramas as Grand Hotel (1932) and The Women (1939). With her dark eye¬ brows, padded shoulders, and hys¬ terical intensity, she reinvented herself as a suffering heroine in Mildred Pierce (1945, Academy Award) and in psychological melo¬ dramas including Possessed (1947) and Sudden Fear (1952). Her later films included Queen Bee (1955) and What Ever Happened to Baby Jane ?

(1962).

Crawford, William H(arris) (b. Feb. 24, 1772, Amherst county, Va.—d. Sept. 15, 1834, Elberton, Ga., U.S.) U.S. political leader and presidential aspirant. He taught school and practiced law before being elected to the Georgia legislature in 1803. He served in the U.S. Senate (1807-13), where he backed the declaration of war against Britain in 1812 (see War of 1812). He later served as minister to France (1813-15), sec¬ retary of war (1815-16), and secretary of the treasury (1816-25). Nomi¬ nated for president by the congressional caucus of the Democratic- Republican Party, he was one of four presidential candidates in the 1824 election, which was won by John Quincy Adams.

Crawford Seeger, Ruth orig. Ruth Porter Crawford (b. July 3, 1901, East Liverpool, Ohio, U.S.—d. Nov. 18, 1953, Chevy Chase, Md.) U.S. composer. She studied piano as a child and was self-taught as a com¬ poser until she entered the American Conservatory. After early works influenced by Alexander Scriabin, she wrote several astonishing serial pieces, including her String Quartet (1931). She married the musicologist Charles Seeger (1886-1979) in 1931, becoming folk singer Pete Seeger’s stepmother. She composed little after that but became an influential cura¬ tor of American folk music.

Craxi \'krak-se\, Bettino orig. Benedetto Craxi (b. Feb. 24, 1934, Milan, Italy—d. Jan. 19, 2000, Al-Hammamet, Tun.) Italian politician, Italy’s first socialist prime minister (1983-87). Involved initially with the socialist youth movement, he won election to the Chamber of Deputies in 1968 and rose to become the Socialist Party’s general secretary in 1976. He united the faction-ridden party, committed it to moderate social and economic policies, and tried to dissociate it from the much larger Italian Communist Party. As prime minister, he pursued anti-inflationary fiscal policies and steered a pro-U.S. course in foreign affairs. In 1993 multiple

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Cray ► credit union I 481

charges of political corruption forced Craxi, who denied the allegations, to resign as party leader. He moved to Tunisia, and in 1994 he was twice sentenced in absentia to prison terms.

Cray, Seymour R(oger) (b. Sept. 28, 1925, Chippewa Falls, Wis., U.S.—d. Oct. 5, 1996, Colorado Springs, Colo.) U.S. electronics engi¬ neer. He worked in the 1950s on the UNI VAC I, a landmark first- generation digital computer, and he led the design of the world’s first transistor-based computer (the CDC 1604). In 1972 he founded Cray Research, Inc., and there built the fastest and most powerful supercom¬ puters in the world, using his innovative multiprocessing design. The Cray-2 (1985) could perform 1.2 billion calculations per second, an incredible pace in its day.

crayfish or crawfish or crawdad Any of more than 500 species of decapods that are closely related to the lobster. Nearly all the species live in freshwater, and over half are found in North America. They have a joined head and thorax (midsection) and a segmented body that is yel¬ low, green, red, or dark brown. The head has a sharp snout, and the eyes are on movable stalks. The exoskeleton is thin but tough, and the front pair of legs have large pincers. Crayfish are usually about 3 in. (7.5 cm) long but range from 1 to 16 in. (2.5-40 cm) long.

Crazy Horse (b. 1842?, near present-day Rapid City, S.D., U.S.—d. Sept. 5, 1877, Fort Robinson, Neb.) Oglala Sioux Indian chief. Refusing to abide by an 1868 treaty granting the Sioux a large reservation in the Black Hills, Crazy Horse led his warriors in continued raids against enemy tribes as well as against whites. In 1876 he joined with Cheyenne forces in a surprise attack against Gen. George Crook in southern Montana, forcing Crook’s withdrawal. Crazy Horse then united with Chief Sitting Bull for the Battle of the Little Bighorn, where he helped annihilate Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer’s troops. In 1877, his tribe weakened by cold and hunger, Crazy Horse surrendered to Crook; removed to a military outpost in Nebraska, he was killed in a scuffle with soldiers.

cream Yellowish part of milk, rich in butterfat, that rises to the surface naturally if milk is allowed to stand. In the dairy industry, cream is sepa¬ rated mechanically. Cream is graded by percentage of fat content. In the U.S., half-and-half, a mixture of milk and cream, contains 10.5-18% but¬ terfat; light cream, commonly served with coffee, contains no less than 18%; and medium and heavy creams (the latter including whipping cream) contain about 30% and 36% respectively. Commercial sour cream, about 18-20% butterfat, is inoculated with lactic-acid-producing bacteria. See also ice cream.

creamware Cream-coloured English earthenware made in the late 18th century. It was designed as a substi¬ tute for Chinese porcelain. In 1762 Josiah Wedgwood achieved commer¬ cial success with this modestly priced utilitarian ware; restrained designs and elegant transfer printing (see Battersea enamelware) were com¬ patible with his cream-glazed prod¬ ucts. By 1790 many other factories (e.g., Liverpool, Bristol, Stafford¬ shire) were producing creamware with success; continental imitations were generally inferior. Creamware was continually made throughout the 19th century and later.

creation myth or cosmogony

\kaz-'ma-g9-ne\ Symbolic narrative of the creation and organization of the world as understood in a particular tradition. Not all creation myths include a creator, though a supreme creator deity, existing from before creation, is very common. Myths in which the world emerges gradually emphasize the latent power of the earth. In other creation myths, the world is the offspring of primordial parents, derives from a cosmic egg, or is brought up from primordial waters by an animal or devil. Humans may be placed on earth by a god or rise from its depths or from a cultic rock or tree. There are often three stages of creation: that of primordial beings or gods, that of human ancestors who are often semidivine, and that of humans. Creation myths explain or validate basic beliefs, patterns of life, and culture. Rituals dramatize the myth and, particularly in initiations, validate the community’s organization and rankings.

creationism The belief that matter, the various forms of life, and the world were created by God out of nothing. Biblical creationists believe that the story told in Genesis of God’s six-day creation of the universe and all living things is literally correct. Scientific creationists believe that a creator made all that exists, though they may not hold that the Genesis story is a literal history of that creation. Creationism became the object of renewed interest among conservative religious groups following the wide dissemination of the theory of biological evolution, first systemati¬ cally propounded by Charles Darwin in On the Origin of Species (1859). In the early 20th century some U.S. states banned the teaching of evo¬ lution, leading to the Scopes Trial. In the late 20th century many creation¬ ists advocated a view known as intelligent design, which was essentially a scientifically modern version of the argument from design for the existence of God as set forth in the late 18th century by the Anglican clergyman William Paley.

creativity Ability to produce something new through imaginative skill, whether a new solution to a problem, a new method or device, or a new artistic object or form. The term generally refers to a richness of ideas and originality of thinking. Psychological studies of highly creative people have shown that many have a strong interest in apparent disorder, con¬ tradiction, and imbalance, which seem to be perceived as challenges. Such individuals may possess an exceptionally deep, broad, and flexible aware¬ ness of themselves. Studies also show that intelligence has little correla¬ tion with creativity; thus, a highly intelligent person may not be very creative. See also genius; gifted child.

Crecy \kra-'se. Battle of (August 26, 1346) English victory in the first phase of the Hundred Years' War against the French. At Crecy-en- Ponthieu, Edward III of England defeated Philip VI of France, even though the English forces were greatly outnumbered. The English gained the advantage because their archers were armed with longbows and because of their strong defensive position.

credit Transaction between two parties in which one (the creditor or lender) supplies money, goods, services, or securities in return for a prom¬ ised future payment by the other (the debtor or borrower). Such transac¬ tions normally include the payment of interest to the lender. Credit may be extended by public or private institutions to finance business activities, agricultural operations, consumer expenditures, or government projects. Large sums of credit are usually extended through specialized financial institutions such as commercial banks or through government lending pro¬ grams.

credit bureau Organization that provides information to merchants or other businesses concerning the creditworthiness of their customers. Credit bureaus may be private enterprises or may be operated on a coop¬ erative basis by the merchants in one locality. Users of the service pay a fee and receive information from various sources, including businesses that have granted the customer credit in the past, public records, news¬ papers, the customer’s employment record, and direct investigation.

credit card Small card that authorizes the person named on it to charge goods or services to his or her account. It differs from a debit card, with which money is automatically deducted from the bank account of the cardholder to pay for the goods or services. Credit-card use originated in the U.S. in the 1920s; early credit cards were issued by various firms (e.g., oil companies and hotel chains) for use at their outlets only. The first uni¬ versal credit card, accepted by a variety of establishments, was issued by Diners’ Club in 1950. Charge cards such as American Express require card¬ holders to pay for all purchases at the end of the billing period (usually monthly). Bank cards such as MasterCard and Visa allow customers to pay only a portion of their bill; interest accrues on the unpaid balance. Credit-card companies get revenue from annual fees and interest paid by cardholders and from fees paid by participating merchants.

Credit Mobilier Vkred-it-mo-'bel-yorA French \kra-'de- l m6-bel- , ya\ scandal (1872 -73) Illegal manipulation of construction contracts for the Union Pacific Railroad that became a symbol of corruption after the Ameri¬ can Civil War. The railroad’s major stockholders created Credit Mobilier of America to divert its construction profits and gave or sold stock to influential politicians in return for favours. A newspaper exposed the scheme in 1872, and after a Congressional investigation two members of the House of Representatives were censured.

credit union Credit cooperative formed by a group of people with some common bond who, in effect, save their money together and make low-

Leeds creamware teapot decorated with green enameling and pierced work, Yorkshire, England, late 18th century; in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London

COURTESY OF THE VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, LONDON

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

482 I creditor ► Cressent

cost loans to each other. The loans are usually short-term consumer loans, mainly for automobiles, household needs, medical debts, and emergen¬ cies. Credit unions generally operate under government charter and super¬ vision. They are particularly important in less developed countries, where they may be the only source of credit for their members. The first coop¬ erative societies providing credit were founded in Germany and Italy in the mid-19th century; the first North American credit unions were founded by Alphonse Desjardins in Levis, Quebec (1900), and Manchester, N.H. (1909). The Credit Union National Association (CUNA), a federation of U.S. credit unions, was established in 1934 and became a worldwide association in 1958.

creditor See debtor and creditor

Cree One of the major ALGONQUiAN-speaking Indian peoples of Canada living mainly in Saskatchewan and Alberta. The name is a truncated form of the name “Kristineaux,” the French traders’ version of the self-name of the James Bay band. The Cree formerly occupied an immense area from western Quebec to eastern Alberta. They acquired firearms and engaged in the fur trade with Europeans beginning in the 17th century. There were two major divisions: the Woodland Cree, whose culture was essentially an Eastern Woodlands type, and the Plains Cree, bison hunt¬ ers of the northern Great Plains (see Plains Indian). Social organization in both groups was based on local bands. Among the Woodland Cree, ritu¬ als and taboos relating to the spirits of game animals were pervasive, as was fear of witchcraft. Among the more militant Plains Cree, rites intended to foster success in warfare and the bison hunt were common. Some 600,000 Canadians claim some portion of Cree ancestry, and about 2,500 individuals claimed sole Cree descent in the 2000 U.S. census.

creed Officially authorized, usually brief statement of the essential articles of faith of a religious community, often used in public worship or initiation rites. Creeds are most numerous in Western traditions. In Islam the shahada declares that only God is God and Muhammad is his prophet. In Judaism early creeds are preserved in Hebrew scripture, and later creeds include the Thirteen Principles of Faith. In Christianity the Nicene Creed was formulated in ad 381 to exclude Arianism, and the Apostles’ Creed was drafted in the 8th century from earlier baptismal creeds. Buddhism, Zoro¬ astrianism, and modern movements of Hinduism also possess creeds; in other religions faith is confessed chiefly through liturgical expressions.

Creek or Muscogee MusKOGEAN-speaking North American Indian people living mainly in Oklahoma,

U.S., but also in Georgia and Ala¬ bama. A loose and shifting confed¬ eration of groups that once occupied much of the Georgia and Alabama flatlands, the Creek comprised two major divisions: the Upper Creeks (living on the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers) and the Lower Creeks (living on the Chatahootchee and Flint riv¬ ers). They cultivated corn, beans, and squash. Each Creek town had a plaza or community square, often with a temple, around which were built the rectangular houses. Reli¬ gious observances included the Busk (Green Corn) ceremony, an annual first-fruits and new-fire rite. In the 18th century a Creek Confederacy— including the Natchez, Yuchi, Shaw¬ nee, and others—was organized to present a united front against both European and Indian enemies. It proved a failure, however, since at no time did all groups contribute war¬ riors to a common battle. The Creek War against the U.S. (1813-14) ended with the defeated Creeks ceding 23 million acres. Most were forcibly removed to Indian Territory (Okla¬ homa). Some 40,200 individuals claimed sole Creek ancestry in the 2000 U.S. census.

creep Slow change in the dimensions of a material from prolonged stress. Most common metals exhibit creep behaviour. In the creep test, loads below those that ordinarily cause plastic flow or fracture are applied to

the material, and the deformation over a period of time (creep strain) under constant load is measured, usually with an extensometer or strain gauge. Time to failure is also measured against stress. Once creep strain versus time is plotted, various mathematical techniques are available for extrapo¬ lating creep behaviour beyond the test times; thus, designers can use thousand-hour test data, for example, to predict ten-thousand-hour behav¬ iour. See also testing machine.

cremation Disposing of a corpse by burning. In the ancient world cre¬ mation took place on an open pyre. It was practiced by the Greeks (who considered it suitable for heroes and war dead) and the Romans (among whom it became a status symbol). The pagan Scandinavians also cremated their dead. In India the custom is very ancient. In some Asian countries only certain people may be cremated (e.g., high lamas in Tibet). Chris¬ tianity opposed cremation, and it became rare in Europe after ad 1000 except under extreme circumstances, such as that brought on by the Black Death. The practice reemerged in the late 19th century and was eventu¬ ally accepted by both Protestants and Roman Catholics.

Creole In the 16th-18th centuries, a person born in Spanish America of Spanish parents, as distinguished from one born in Spain but residing in America. Under Spanish colonial rule, Creoles suffered from discrimina¬ tion; it was consequently Creoles who led the 19th-century revolutions against Spain and became the new ruling class. Today Creole has widely varying meanings. In Louisiana it can mean either French-speaking white descendants of early French and Spanish settlers, or people of mixed descent who speak a form of French and Spanish. In Latin America the term may denote a local-born person of pure Spanish extraction or a member of the urban Europeanized classes as opposed to rural Indians. In the West Indies it refers to all people, regardless of ancestry, who are part of the Caribbean culture. See also Creole language.

creole Any pidgin language that has become established as the native language of a speech community. A creole usually arises when speakers of one language become economically or politically dominant over speak¬ ers of another. A simplified or modified form of the dominant group’s lan¬ guage (pidgin), used for communication between the two groups, may eventually become the native language of the less powerful community. Examples include Sea Island Creole (formerly Gullah, derived from English), spoken in South Carolina’s Sea Islands; Haitian Creole (derived from French); and Papiamento (derived from Spanish and Portuguese), spoken in Curasao, Aruba, and Bonaire.

creosote Vkre-9-,sot\ Either of two entirely different substances, dis¬ tilled from coal tar or wood tar. Coal-tar creosote is a complex mixture of organic compounds, largely hydrocarbons. It is a cheap water-insoluble wood preservative used for railroad ties, telephone poles, and marine pier pilings and as a disinfectant, fungicide, and biocide. Wood-tar creosote consists mainly of phenols and related compounds and was once widely used for pharmaceutical purposes.

Cresilas Vkre-si-bs\ or Kresilas (fl. 5th century bc, Athens, Greece) Greek sculptor. He was a contemporary of Phidias. His portrait of Pericles (c. 445 bc) generated a type of noble, idealized portraiture. A figure of a wounded Amazon (c. 440 bc) is ascribed to him because of its resem¬ blance to this head. Works attributed to Cresilas are known only in cop¬ ies of lost bronze originals.

cress Any of several plants of the mustard family, of interest for their spicy young basal leaves, which are used in salads and as seasonings and gar¬ nishes. Watercress is perhaps the most popular of the edible cresses. Com¬ mon garden cress, or peppergrass (. Lepidium sativum ) is widely grown, especially in its curl-leaved form, and used as a garnish. Others include weeds (e.g., Barbarea vulgaris), wild varieties (e.g., Cardamine praten- sis ), and ornamentals (e.g., Arabis species).

Cressent \kres-'a n \, Charles (b. Dec. 16, 1685, Amiens, Fr.—d. Jan. 10, 1768, Paris) French cabinetmaker. He also studied sculpture and became an accomplished metalworker. In 1710 he went to Paris, where he worked in the studio of the cabinetmaker Andre-Charles Boulle. In 1715 Cressent was appointed official cabinetmaker to Philippe II, duke d’Orleans. He was elected to the Academy of St.-Luc in 1719, and he consequently received important commissions from French aristocrats, including Madame de Pompadour. His early works were in the Louis XIV style, but later pieces (c. 1730-50) were lighter and more curvilinear. Cressent was the leading proponent of the Regence style and introduced marquetries of coloured wood and ormolu to case decoration.

4

Ben Perryman, a Creek Indian, paint¬ ing by George Catlin, 1836; in the National Museum of American Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

NATIONAL MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ART (FORMERLY NATIONAL COLLECTION OF FINE ARTS), SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, WASHINGTON, D.C., GIF OF MRS. SARAH HARRISON

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Creston ► Crimea I 483

Creston, Paul orig. Giuseppe Guttoveggio (b. Oct. 10, 1906, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Aug. 24, 1985, San Diego, Calif.) U.S. com¬ poser. Born to a poor immigrant family, he was largely self-taught in music. His numerous works, many of which achieved wide performance, are highly rhythmical and tonally accessible. They include six sympho¬ nies, a Requiem and three masses, and several concertos. He is noted for the rhythmic vitality and full harmonies of his music, which is marked by modem dissonances and polyrhythms.

Cretaceous \kri-'ta-shos\ Period Interval of geologic time from c. 144 to 65 million years ago. During the Cretaceous the climate was warmer than today. In the seas, marine invertebrates flourished, and bony fishes evolved. On land, flowering plants arose, and insects, bees in particular, began their thriving partnership with them. Mammals and birds remained inconspicuous throughout the Cretaceous, while the reptiles continued their dominance. The dinosaurs reached the peak of their evolution dur¬ ing this period but rather suddenly became extinct at its end.

Crete Greek Kriti \'kre-te\ ancient Creta Island (pop., 2001: 601,159) in the eastern Mediterranean Sea and an administrative region of Greece. It stretches for 152 mi (245 km) and varies in width from 7.5 to 35 mi (12 to 56 km), with a total area of 3,218 sq mi (8,336 sq km). Dominated by mountains, it was home to the Minoan civilization from c. 3000 bc and was known for its palaces at Knossos, Phaestus, and Mallia; it reached its peak in the 16th century bc. A major earthquake c. 1450 bc marked the end of the Minoan era. In 67 bc Rome annexed Crete; in ad 395 it passed to Byzantium. In 1204 Crusaders sold the island to Venice, from which it was wrested by the Ottoman Turks in 1669 after one of history’s longest sieges. Taken by Greece in 1898, it was autonomous until its union with Greece in 1913. Agriculture is the economic mainstay, and the island is one of Greece’s leading producers of olives, olive oil, and grapes; tour¬ ism is also important. The museum at Iraklion houses a fine collection of Minoan art.

Creutzfeldt-Jakob \ , kroits- l felt- , ya- l kob\ disease or CJD Rare fatal disease of the central nervous system. It destroys brain tissue, making it spongy and causing progressive loss of mental functioning and motor control. The disease commonly arises in adults between the ages of 40 and 70. Patients usually die within a year. There is no known cure. The disease is caused by a prion that builds up in neurons. Inherited or ran¬ dom mutation accounts for 99% of cases; the rest come from prion expo¬ sure during medical procedures and possibly from eating the meat of cattle with MAD COW DISEASE.

crevasse \kri-'vas\ Fissure or crack in a glacier resulting from stress produced by movement. Crevasses range up to 65 ft (20 m) wide, 150 ft (45 m) deep, and several hundred yards long. Crevasses may be bridged by snow and become hidden, and they may close up as the glacier moves.

CrevecoeurVkrev-'koerVMichel- Guillaume-Saint-Jean de or J. Hector St. John or Hector St. John de Crevecoeur (b. Jan.

31, 1735, Caen, France—d. Nov. 12,

1813, Sarcelles) French-U.S. writer and naturalist. He traveled to the New World in 1755 as an officer and mapmaker and became a farmer, then served as French consul for many years. He returned to Europe in 1790. His fame rests on Letters from an American Farmer (1782,

1784, 1790), essays that paint a broad picture of American life. His Travels in Upper Pennsylvania and New York appeared in 1801. Newly discovered essays were published as Sketches of Eighteenth Century America in 1925. In his time he was the most widely read commentator on America.

crib death See sudden infant death syndrome

cribbage Card game, usually for two players, in which each tries to form various counting combinations of cards, the score being kept by moving pegs on a narrow rectangular board. Each player receives six

cards. (There is also a five-card variant, as well as four-hand and three- hand variants.) Cribbage was invented by the 17th-century English poet Sir John Suckling. The rules of play, though somewhat involved, are simple enough to make cribbage a popular pastime, particularly in Britain and the northern U.S. The game usually ends at 121 (twice around the board plus one).

Crichton Vkri-tonV James (b. August 1560, Eliock House, Dumfries, Scot.—d. July 1582, Mantua, Mantua) Scottish scholar and adventurer. After graduating from the University of St. Andrews, he publicly distin¬ guished himself in Europe in learned activities. He entered the service of the duke of Mantua but was slain in a street fight at age 21. Reputedly a fine orator, linguist, debater, and man of letters, he was considered the model of the cultured gentleman, though admirers probably exaggerated his accomplishments. Years later he became known as “the Admirable Crichton.”

Crick, Francis (Harry Compton) (b. June 8, 1916, Northampton, Northamptonshire, Eng.—d. July 28, 2004, San Diego, Calif., U.S.) Brit¬ ish biophysicist. Educated at University College, London, he helped develop magnetic mines for naval use during World War II but returned to biology after the war. He worked at the University of Cambridge with James D. Watson and Maurice Wilkins to construct a molecular model of DNA consistent with its physical and chemical properties, work for which the three shared a 1962 Nobel Prize. Crick also discovered that each group of three bases (a codon) on a single DNA strand designates the position of a specific amino acid on the backbone of a protein molecule, and he helped determine which codons code for each amino acid normally found in protein, thus clarifying the way the cell uses DNA to build proteins. See also Rosalind Franklin.

cricket (from Middle French criquet, “goal stake”) Game played by two teams with a ball and bat on a large field centring on two wickets. Each wicket is two sets of three sticks. The teams have 11 players each. A bowler from the defending team throws the ball (with a straight-arm over¬ hand delivery), attempting to hit the wicket, which is one of several ways the batsman may be put out. The team batting fields two batsman at a time, and the batsman being bowled to (the striker) tries to hit the ball away from the wicket. If the batsman hits the ball away from the wicket but has no time to run to the opposite wicket, he need not run; play will resume with another bowl. After a hit, when possible, the striker and the second batsman (the nonstriker) at the other wicket change places. Each time both batsmen can reach the opposite wicket, one run is scored. The batsmen may continue to cross back and forth between the wickets, earn¬ ing an additional run for each time both reach the opposite side. Matches are divided into innings consisting of one turn at bat for each team; depending on pregame agreement, a match may consist of either one or two innings. Cricket’s origins are uncertain, but the first set of rules was written in 1744. During England’s colonial era, cricket was exported to countries around the world.

cricket Any of the approximately 2,400 species of leaping insects (fam¬ ily Gryllidae) known for the musical chirping of the male. Crickets vary in length from around 0.1 to 2 in. (3-50 mm) and have thin antennae, hind legs modified for jumping, and two abdominal sensory appendages (cerci). Their two forewings are stiff and leathery, and the two long, mem¬ branous hind wings are used in flying. Male crickets chirp by rubbing a scraper located on one forewing along a row of 50-250 teeth on the oppo¬ site forewing. The most common cricket songs are the calling song, which attracts the female; the courtship, or mating, song, which induces the female to copulate; and the fighting chirp, which repels other males.

crime the intentional commission of an act usually deemed socially harm¬ ful or dangerous and specifically defined, prohibited, and punishable under criminal law. Crimes in the common-law tradition were originally defined primarily by judicial decision. Most common-law crimes are now codified. According to a generally accepted principle, nullum crimen sine lege, there can be no crime without a law. A crime generally consists of both conduct (the actus reus) and a concurrent state of mind (the mens rea). Criminal acts include arson, assault and battery, bribery, burglary, child abuse, counterfeit¬ ing, EMBEZZLEMENT, EXTORTION, FORGERY, FRAUD, HIJACKING, HOMICIDE, KIDNAPPING, PERJURY, PIRACY, RAPE, SEDITION, SMUGGLING, TREASON, THEFT, and USURY. See also

arrest; conspiracy; criminology; felony and misdemeanour; indictment; rights of the accused; self-incrimination; sentence; statute of limitations; war crime.

Crimea \krI-'me-3\ Autonomous republic (pop., 2001: 2,033,700), southern Ukraine. It is coextensive with the Crimean Peninsula, which

Crevasse in the Mozama Glacier on Mount Baker, Washington

BOB AND IRA SPRING

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484 I Crimean War ► Croatia

extends into the Black Sea. It covers 10,077 sq mi (26,100 sq km); its capital is Simferopol. Early inhabitants were Cimmerians, though the area later was settled by Greeks in the 6th century bc and was ruled by the kingdom of the Cimmerian Bosporus from the 5th century bc. It became subject to Rome, and part of it later belonged to the Byzantine Empire. Russia annexed Crimea in 1783. It was the scene of the Crimean War (1853-56). In 1921 it became an autonomous republic of the U.S.S.R. During World War II, Nazi armies overran it in 1941; it was retaken by the Soviets in 1944. The area became an oblast of the Ukrainian S.S.R. in 1954. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Crimea obtained partial autonomy from Ukraine.

Crimean War (October 1853-February 1856) War fought mainly in the Crimea between the Russians and an alliance consisting of the Otto¬ man empire, Britain, France, and Sardinia-Piedmont. It arose from the conflict of great powers in the Middle East and was more directly caused by Russian demands to exercise protection over the Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman sultan. The war was managed and commanded poorly by both sides. Battles were fought at the Alma River, Balaklava, and Inker- man, before the besieged Sevastopol was taken by the allies. Disease accounted for many of the approximately 250,000 men lost by each side. After Austria threatened to join the allies, Russia accepted preliminary peace terms, which were formalized at the Congress of Paris. The war did not settle the relations of the powers in Eastern Europe, but it did alert Alexander II to the need to modernize Russia.

criminal law Body of law that defines criminal offenses, regulates the apprehension, charging, and trial of suspected offenders, and fixes pun¬ ishment for convicted persons. Substantive criminal law defines particu¬ lar crimes, and procedural law establishes rules for the prosecution of crime. In the U.S., substantive criminal law originated for the most part in com¬ mon law, which was later codified in federal and state statutes. Modern criminal law has been affected considerably by the social sciences, espe¬ cially in the areas of sentencing, legal research, legislation, and rehabili¬ tation. See also criminology.

criminology Scientific study of nonlegal aspects of crime, including its causes and prevention. Criminology originated in the 18th century when social reformers began to question the use of punishment for retribution rather than deterrence and reform. In the 19th century, scientific methods began to be applied to the study of crime. Today criminologists commonly use statistics, case histories, official records, and sociological field meth¬ ods to study criminals and criminal activity, including the rates and kinds of crime within geographic areas. Their findings are used by lawyers, judges, probation officers, law-enforcement and prison officials, legisla¬ tors, and scholars to better understand criminals and the effects of treat¬ ment and prevention. See also delinquency, penology.

Cripps, Sir (Richard) Stafford (b. April 24, 1889, London, Eng.—d. April 21, 1952, Zurich, Switz.) British statesman. A successful lawyer, he served in Parliament (1931-50). He was on the extreme left of the Labour Party and helped found the Socialist League in 1932. After serving as ambassador to Moscow (1940-42), he joined the British war cabinet and conducted the Cripps Mission (1942), an unsuccessful attempt to rally Indian support against the Japanese. As chancellor of the Exchequer (1947-50), he instituted a rigid austerity program to revive Britain’s economy.

Crispi \'kres-pe\, Francesco (b. Oct. 4, 1819, Ribera, Sicily—d. Aug. 12, 1901, Naples) Italian politician. Exiled from Sicily for his revolution¬ ary activities, he became an associate of Giuseppe Mazzini and encouraged Giuseppe de Garibaldi to conquer Sicily in 1860. He served as a deputy from Sicily in the newly unified Italian parliament (1861-96) and held office in several leftist governments. As premier (1887-91, 1893-96), he insti¬ tuted liberal reforms and later improved the economy but became increas¬ ingly repressive. He embarked on a disastrous foreign policy, organizing Eritrea as a colony and attempting colonial expansion in Africa. He was forced to resign after the Italian defeat at the Battle of Adwa.

Cristofano de Giudicis, Francesco di See Franciabigio

Cristofori \kre-'sto-fo- 1 re\ / Bartolomeo (b. May 4, 1655, Padua, Republic of Venice—d. Jan. 27, 1731, Florence) Italian maker of musi¬ cal instruments. As custodian of musical instruments at the court of Prince Ferdinand de’ Medici, he maintained a variety of instruments. His most famous experiment was the pianoforte, ancestor of the modern piano, which he worked on from 1698, an instrument that, unlike the harpsi¬

chord, could produce changes in volume of sound depending on the force with which the keys were struck. A diagram of its workings was pub¬ lished in 1711 and soon copied by others. Some of his original piano¬ fortes survive.

critical care unit See intensive care unit

critical mass Minimum amount of a given fissionable material neces¬ sary to achieve a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction under specified conditions. Critical mass depends on several factors, including the kind of fissionable material used, its concentration and purity, and the compo¬ sition and geometry of the surrounding reaction system.

critical point In science, the set of conditions under which a liquid and its vapour become identical. The conditions are the critical temperature, the critical pressure, and the critical density. If a closed vessel is filled with a pure substance, partly liquid and partly vapour, and the average density equals the critical density, the critical conditions can be achieved. As the temperature is raised, the vapour pressure increases, and the gas phase becomes denser while the liquid expands and becomes less dense. At the critical point, the densities of liquid and vapour become equal, eliminat¬ ing the boundary between the two.

critical theory Marxist inspired movement in social and political phi¬ losophy originally associated with the work of the Frankfurt school. Draw¬ ing particularly on the thought of Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud, critical theorists maintain that a primary goal of philosophy is to understand and to help overcome the social structures through which people are domi¬ nated and oppressed. Believing that science, like other forms of knowl¬ edge, has been used as an instrument of oppression, they caution against a blind faith in scientific progress, arguing that scientific knowledge must not be pursued as an end in itself without reference to the goal of human emancipation. Since the 1970s, critical theory has been immensely influ¬ ential in the study of history, law, literature, and the social sciences.

Critius and Nesiotes Vkri-shos, , kri-te-9s...,nes-e- , o- l tez\ or Kritios and Nesiotes (fl. late 5th century bc, Athens, Greece) Greek sculptors. They executed the first masterpieces of freestanding sculpture of the early Classical period: the bronze figures of the Tyrannicides {All bc), com¬ missioned to replace those by Antenor, which were looted in the Persian sack of Athens (480 bc). Marble copies survive in the National Archae¬ ology Museum, Naples.

Crittenden, John J(ordan) (b. Sept. 10, 1787, near Versailles, Ky., U.S.—d. July 26, 1863, Frankfort, Ky.) U.S. politician. A graduate of the College of William and Mary (1807), he became territorial attorney gen¬ eral in Illinois (1809). He also served in the U.S. Senate (1817-19, 1835- 40, 1842-48,1855-61), as U.S. attorney general (1840—41,1850-53), and as governor of Kentucky (1848-50). He is best known for the Crittenden Compromise. In 1861 he chaired the Frankfort convention of leaders of bor¬ der states, which asked the South to reconsider its position on secession.

Crittenden Compromise Series of compromises in 1860-61 intended to forestall the American Civil War. Sen. John J. Crittenden pro¬ posed constitutional amendments that would reenact provisions of the Missouri Compromise and extend them to the western territories, indemnify owners of fugitive slaves whose return was prevented by antislavery ele¬ ments in the North, allow a form of popular sovereignty in the territories, and protect slavery in the District of Columbia. The plan was rejected by president-elect Abraham Lincoln and narrowly defeated in the Senate.

Crivelli \kre-'vel-le. Carlo (b. c. 1430/35, Venice, Republic of Venice—d. c. 1493/95) Italian painter. The son of a painter, he worked mainly in the Marches, a provincial region of central Italy. All his works were of religious subjects, done in an elaborate, old-fashioned style remi¬ niscent of the linearism of Andrea Mantegna. Characterized by heavy ornamentation, sharp outlines, and exaggerated facial expressions, his paintings are closer to the religious intensity of Gothic art than to the rationalism of the Renaissance.

croaker See drum

Croatia \kr6-'a-sh3\ officially Republic of Croatia Country, west- central Balkans, southeastern Europe. Area: 21,851 sq mi (56,594 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 4,440,000. Capital: Zagreb. The people are mainly Croats, with a large Serbian minority. Language: Croatian (official). Reli¬ gions: Christianity (predominantly Roman Catholic [Croats]; also Eastern Orthodox [Serbs]); also Islam. Currency: kuna. Croatia includes the tra¬ ditional regions of Dalmatia, Istria, and Croatia-Slavonia. Istria and Dal-

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Croce ► Croix de Feu I 485

cattle breeding is important. The central mountain belt is known for fruit, and the farms of Istria and Dalmatia produce grapes and olives. The most important industries are food pro¬ cessing, wine making, textiles, chemicals, and petroleum and natural gas. Croatia is a republic with a unicameral legislature; its head of state is the president, and the head of government is the prime minister. The Croats, a southern Slavic people, arrived in the 7th century ad and came under Charlemagne’s rule in the 8th century. They converted to Christianity soon afterward and formed a kingdom in the 10th century. Croatia retained its independence under native kings until 1102, when the crown passed into the hands of the Hungarian dynasty. Nonetheless, even under dynastic union with Hungary, institutions of separate Croatian statehood were maintained. The area associated with the name Croatia shifted gradually north and west as its territory was eroded, first with the loss of Dalmatia to Venice by 1420 and then as a result of Ottoman conquests in the 16th century. During the 16th century the remainder of Croatia came under the rule of the Austrian Habsburgs. In 1867 it became part of the Austro- Hungarian Empire, with Dalmatia and Istria ruled by Vienna and Croatia- Slavonia a Hungarian crown land. In 1918, after the defeat of Austria- Hungary in World War I, Croatia joined other southern Slavic territories to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, which was renamed Yugoslavia in 1929. In World War II an independent state of Croatia was established by Germany and Italy, embracing Croatia-Slavonia, part of Dalmatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina; after the war Croatia was rejoined to Yugoslavia as a people’s republic. Croatia declared its independence in 1991, sparking insurrections by Croatian Serbs, who carved out autono¬ mous regions with Yugoslav army help; Croatia took back most of these regions by 1995. With some stability returning, Croatia’s economy began to revive in the late 1990s and early 21st century.

Croce Vkro-cha\, Benedetto (b. Feb. 25, 1866, Pescasseroli, Italy—d. Nov. 20, 1952, Naples) Italian patriot, aesthetician, critic, and cultural historian. He founded La Critica, an influential journal of cultural criti¬ cism, in 1903 and was its editor until 1937. A passionate antifascist, he helped revive liberal institutions in the years following World War II, including the Liberal Party, which he led from 1943 to 1952. In 1947 he founded the Italian Institute for Historical Studies. His philosophical work has been influential in aesthetics and in studies of Giambattista Vico, which he helped to revive. See photograph opposite.

crocidolite \kro-'si-d a l- l It\ or blue asbestos Gray-blue to green, highly fibrous (asbestiform) form of the amphibole mineral riebeckite. It

has higher tensile strength than chrysotile asbestos. The major commer¬ cial source is South Africa, where it occurs in Precambrian banded-iron formations; it is also found in Australia and Bolivia.

Crockett, Davy orig. David Crockett (b. Aug. 17, 1786, eastern Tennessee, U.S.—d. March 6, 1836, San Antonio, Texas) U.S. frontiers¬ man and politician. He made a name for himself in the Creek War (1813— 15). In 1821 he was elected to the Tennessee legislature, winning popularity through campaign speeches filled with yarns and homespun metaphors. He won election to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1827, 1829, and 1833. During his first congressional term, Crockett broke with Andrew Jackson and the new Democratic Party over Crockett’s desire for preferential treatment of squatters occupying land in western Tennessee. The Whigs early courted and publicized Crockett in the hope of creating a popular “coonskin” politician to offset Jackson. In 1834 Crockett was conducted on a triumphal speech-making tour of Whig strongholds in the East. From the many stories about him in books and newspapers, there grew the legend of an eccentric but shrewd “b’ar hunter” and Indian fighter. In 1835 he went to Texas to join the war against Mexico and was killed at the Alamo.

crocodile Any of about a dozen tropical reptile species (family Croc- odilidae) found in Asia, the Australian region, Africa, Madagascar, and the Americas. Crocodiles are long-snouted, lizardlike carnivores. Most feed on fishes, turtles, birds, and small mammals; large individuals may attack domestic livestock or humans. Crocodiles swim and feed in the water, floating at the surface to wait for prey, but bask in the sun and breed on land. They are reputed to be livelier than alligators and more likely to attack humans. They have a narrower snout than alligators and a tooth on each side of the jaw that is visible when the jaw is closed.

crocus Any of about 75 species of low-growing plants, with corms, that make up the genus Crocus (iris family), native to the Alps, southern Europe, and the Mediterranean and widely grown for their cuplike blooms in early spring or fall. The spring-flowering sorts have a floral tube so long that the ovary is belowground, sheltered from climatic changes. Saffron comes from C. sativus of western Asia. The alpine C. vernus is the chief ances¬ tor of the common garden crocus. Dutch yellow crocus (C. flavus) and C. biflorus are popular spring-flowering species.

crocus, autumn See autumn crocus

Croesus Vkre-s9s\ (d. c. 546 bc) Last king of Lydia, famous for his great wealth. He succeeded his father as king c. 560 bc, and, after completing the conquest of mainland Ionia, he faced the rising threat of the Persians under Cyrus II. He forged an alliance with Babylon, Egypt, and Sparta to combat the Persians, but, after an inconclusive effort to invade Cappado¬ cia, he returned to his capital at Sardis. The Persians pursued him, storm¬ ing Sardis in 546 bc and conquering Lydia. Croesus’s later fate is uncertain. Herodotus claims he was condemned to be burned alive but was saved by Apollo.

Croghan Vkro-onV, George (b. c. 1720, near Dublin, Ire.—d. Aug. 31, 1782, Passyunk, near Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.) American trader and Indian agent. He immigrated from Ireland in 1741, settling near Carlisle, Pa., where he learned Indian customs and languages to assist him in his

trade. He was named Indian agent (an official representative to Indian tribes) for Pennsylvania in the 1740s. Later, as deputy to William Johnson (1756-72), he negotiated with tribes complaining of encroachments on their land by colonists. In 1765 he achieved an end to Pontiac’s War. He espoused the patriot cause in the American Revolution.

Croix de Feu Ykrwa-do-'foeV (French: “Cross of Fire”) French political movement (1927-36). Originally an organization of World War I veterans, it espoused ultrana- tionalistic views with vaguely fascist overtones. Under Francois de la Rocque (1885-1946), it organized popular demonstrations in reaction to the Stavisky Affair, hoping to over-

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486 I Cro-Magnon ► crop

throw the government. It subsequently lost prestige and was dissolved by the Popular Front government in 1936.

Cro-Magnon Mcro-'mag-non, kro-'man-yon\ Population of anatomi¬ cally modern Homo sapiens dating from the Upper Paleolithic Period (c. 35,000-10,000 bc). First discovered in 1868 at the Cro-Magnon rock shelter in the Dordogne region in southern France, the human skeletons that came to be called Cro-Magnon are now considered representative of humans at that time. Cro-Magnons were relatively more robust and pow¬ erful than today’s humans, with a somewhat larger brain capacity. The Cro-Magnons are generally associated with the Aurignacian tool indus¬ try and artistic tradition (see Aurignacian culture). Cro-Magnons seem to have been a settled people, living in caves or primitive huts and lean-tos, moving only when necessary to find new hunting or because of environ¬ mental changes. It is difficult to determine how long the Cro-Magnons lasted and what happened to them; presumably they were gradually absorbed into the European populations that came later.

Cromer, Evelyn Baring, 1st earl of (b. Feb. 26, 1841, Cromer Hall, Norfolk, Eng.—d. Jan. 29, 1917, London) British administrator in Egypt. After serving as an army officer (1858-72), he became private sec¬ retary to his cousin Lord Northbrook, viceroy of India. In 1877 he went to Egypt to help resolve Egypt’s financial problems. Named British agent and consul general in 1883, he instituted a form of government known as the Veiled Protectorate, whereby he ruled the Egyptian khedives. Egypt was made financially solvent by 1887, and Cromer’s parsimony and encouragement of agricultural projects increased its prosperity. Until his resignation in 1907, he remained the country’s real ruler, profoundly influ¬ encing Egypt’s development as a modern state.

Crompton, Samuel (b. Dec. 3, 1753, Firwood, Lancashire, Eng.—d. June 26, 1827, Bolton, Lancashire) British inventor. His spinning mule (probably called a mule because it was a cross between inventions of Richard Arkwright and James Hargreaves) permitted large-scale manufac¬ ture of high-quality thread and yarn by simultaneously drawing out and giving the final twisting to the cotton fibres fed into it, reproducing mechanically the actions of hand spinning.

Cromwell, Oliver (b. April 25, 1599, Huntingdon, Huntingdonshire, Eng.—d. Sept. 3, 1658, London) English soldier and statesman, lord pro¬ tector of the republican Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ire¬ land (1653-58). He was elected to Parliament in 1628, but Charles I dissolved that Parliament in 1629 and did not call another for 11 years. In 1640 Cromwell was elected to the Short and the Long Parliament. When differences between Charles and Parliament erupted into the English Civil Wars, Cromwell became one of the leading generals on the Parliamen¬ tary side, winning many notable victories, including the Battles of Mar- ston Moor and Naseby. He was among those who brought the king to trial and signed his death warrant. After the British Isles were named the Commonwealth, he served as the first chairman of the Council of State. In the next few years he fought against the Royalists in Ireland and Scot¬ land and suppressed a mutiny inspired by the Levelers. When Charles II advanced into England, Cromwell destroyed his army at Worcester (1651), the battle that ended the civil wars. As lord protector, Cromwell raised his country’s status once more to that of a leading European power and concluded the Anglo-Dutch War. Though a devout Calvinist, he pursued policies of religious tolera¬ tion. He refused the title of king offered to him by Parliament in 1657. After his death he was suc¬ ceeded by his son Richard Cromwell.

Cromwell, Richard (b. Oct. 4,

1626—d. July 12, 1712, Cheshunt,

Hertfordshire, Eng.) Lord protector of England (September 1658-May 1659). He was the eldest surviving son of Oliver Cromwell, who groomed him for high office. He served in the Parliamentary army Richard Cromwell, miniature by an and was a member of Parliament and unknown artist; in the National Portrait the council of state. After his father’s Gallery, London death he was proclaimed lord protec- courtesy of the national portrait gallery, tor, but he soon encountered serious -

difficulties and was forced to abdicate. Having amassed large debts, he fled to Paris in 1660 to escape his creditors; in 1680 he returned and lived in seclusion.

Cromwell, Thomas, earl of Essex (b. c. 1485, Putney, near Lon¬ don, Eng.—d. July 28, 1540, probably London) English politician and principal adviser (1532-40) to Henry VIII. He was a confidential adviser to Thomas, Cardinal Wolsey, before entering Parliament (1529), where his abilities attracted the king’s notice. Entering Henry’s service in 1530, he was chiefly responsible for establishing the Reformation in England, for the dissolution of the monasteries, and for strengthening the royal admin¬ istration. He eventually came into complete control of the government, though he pretended to be acting on the king’s authority. In 1539 he made the mistake of inducing Henry to marry Anne of Cleves, which led to his fall. At his enemies’ instigation he was arrested for heresy and treason, condemned without a hearing, and executed.

Cronenberg Vkro-non-.borgV David (b. May 15, 1943, Toronto, Ont., Can.) Canadian film director, screenwriter, and actor. He began making horror films in the 1970s and acquired a cult following with films such as Scanners (1981) and Videodrome (1982). He found a wider horror-film audience with The Dead Zone (1983), The Fly (1986), and Dead Ringers (1988). Later films included Naked Lunch (1991), Crash (1996), and eXistenZ (1999).

Cronin, A(rchibald) J(oseph) (b. July 19, 1896, Cardross, Dum¬ bartonshire, Scot.—d. Jan. 6, 1981, Montreux, Switz.) Scottish novelist. Trained as a surgeon, he practiced medicine mostly in mining communi¬ ties, but he ceased because of ill health and used his leisure to write. His books combine sentimentality with social criticism. His first novel, Hat¬ ter’s Castle (1931; film, 1941), was an immediate success. His classic The Stars Look Down (1935; film, 1939) chronicles social injustice in a mining community. Other works include The Citadel (1937; film, 1938), The Keys of the Kingdom (1942; film, 1944), The Green Years (1944; film, 1946), The Judas Tree (1961), and A Thing of Beauty (1956).

Cronkite, Walter (Leland, Jr.) (b. Nov. 4, 1916, St. Joseph, Mo., U.S.) U.S. journalist and television newscaster. He began his career as a reporter with the Houston Post and later worked for United Press (1939— 48) and served as a war correspondent in Europe (1942^45). He joined CBS in 1950 as a news reporter and became managing editor and anchor of the widely watched CBS Evening News (1962-81). He hosted numer¬ ous documentaries and special reports, notably on the assassination of Pres. John F. Kennedy and the 1969 Moon landing. His reassuring, avun¬ cular manner made him one of the most trusted figures in U.S. broad¬ casting.

Cronus or Cronos or Kronos In Greek religion, a male agricultural deity. He was the youngest of the 12 Titans borne by Uranus and Gaea, and his castration of his father separated heaven from earth. With his sis¬ ter and consort Rhea, he fathered Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, and Posei¬ don, all of whom he swallowed because he had been warned that he would be overthrown by his own child. Rhea hid his son Zeus and tricked Cro¬ nus into swallowing a stone; Zeus later forced Cronus to disgorge the oth¬ ers and then vanquished him in war. He was identified with the Roman god Saturn.

Cronyn Vkro-nonV Hume and Jessica Tandy (respectively b. July 18, 1911, London, Ont., Can.—d. June 15, 2003, Fairfield, Conn., U.S.; b. June 7, 1909, London, Eng.—d. Sept. 11, 1994, Easton, Conn., U.S.) U.S. husband-and-wife actors. Cronyn made his Broadway debut in 1934. He was a successful character actor in many plays, including Polonius in Hamlet (1964, Tony Award), and directed plays such as Hilda Crane (1950) and The Egghead (1957). Tandy made her Broadway debut in 1930. She was the original Blanche DuBois in A Streetcar Named Desire (1947, Tony Award). She and Cronyn married in 1942 and acted together in such successful plays as The Fourposter (1951), A Delicate Balance (1966), The Gin Game (1977), and Foxfire (1982), the last two of which earned Tony Awards for Tandy. Cronyn’s many films include Lifeboat (1944) and Sunrise at Campobello (1960), and Tandy’s include The Birds (1963), Driving Miss Daisy (1989, Academy Award), and Fried Green Tomatoes (1991).

crop In agriculture, a plant or plant product that can be grown and har¬ vested extensively for profit or subsistence. By use, crops fall into six categories: food crops, for human consumption (e.g., wheat, potatoes); feed crops, for livestock consumption (e.g., oats, alfalfa); fibre crops, for

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crop duster ► cross-fertilization I 487

cordage and textiles (e.g., cotton, hemp); oil crops, for consumption or industrial uses (e.g., cottonseed, com); ornamental crops, for landscape gardening (e.g., dogwood, azalea); and industrial and secondary crops, for various personal and industrial uses (e.g., rubber, tobacco).

crop duster Usually, an aircraft used for dusting or spraying large acreages with pesticides, though other types of dusters are also employed. Aerial spraying and dusting permit prompt coverage of large areas at the moment when application of pesticide is most effective and avoid the need for wheeled vehicles that might damage crops. The technique was greatly improved in the 1960s with the development of ultra-low-volume appli¬ cators, in which concentrated pesticides are distributed in extremely small amounts. See also spraying and dusting.

crop rotation Successive cultivation of different crops in a specified order on the same fields. Some rotations are designed for high immedi¬ ate returns, with little regard for basic resources. Others are planned for high continuing returns while protecting resources. A typical scheme selects rotation crops from three classifications: cultivated row crops (e.g., com, potatoes), close-growing grains (e.g., oats, wheat), and sod-forming, or rest, crops (e.g., clover, clover-timothy). In general, cropping systems should include deep-rooting legumes. In addition to the many beneficial effects on soils and crops, well-planned crop rotations make the farm a more effective year-round enterprise by providing more efficient handling of labour, power, and equipment, reduction in weather and market risks, and improved ability to meet livestock requirements.

croquet \kro-'ka\ (French dialect for “crook,” “hockey stick”) Game in which players using mallets drive wooden balls through a series of wick¬ ets, or hoops, set out on a lawn. The object is to be the first to complete the course by passing through all the wickets and hitting a goal peg. Cro¬ quet evolved from the 13th-century French game pall-mall. Champion¬ ship matches are organized by governing bodies in the U.S. and Britain.

Crosby, Bing orig. Harry Lillis Crosby (b. May 3, 1903, Tacoma, Wash., U.S.—d. Oct. 14, 1977, near Madrid, Spain) U.S. singer and actor.

Crosby began to sing and play drums while studying law in Spokane,

Wash. As a singer with the Paul Whiteman orchestra in 1927, he exhibited a mellow “crooning” style and casual stage manner that proved highly popular. He appeared in the early sound film King of Jazz (1931), and he later had his own radio pro¬ gram. By the late 1930s his records had sold millions of copies. His recordings of “White Christmas” and “Silent Night” were among the most popular songs of the 20th century. In the 1940s he starred in a popular radio variety show. His film career included the seven Road comedies with Bob Hope and Dorothy Lamour, beginning with The Road to Sin¬ gapore (1940); Going My Way (1944, Academy Award); The Bells of St. Mary’s (1945); and White Christmas (1954). More than 300 million of his records have been sold, a total surpassed only by Elvis Presley among solo artists.

cross Principal symbol of Christianity, recalling the crucifixion of Jesus. There are four basic iconogaphic representations: the crux quadrata, or Greek cross, with four equal arms; the crux immissa, or Latin cross, with a base stem longer than the other arms; the crux commissa (St. Anthony’s cross), resembling the Greek letter tau (T); and the crux decussataa (St. Andrew’s cross), resembling the Roman numeral 10 (X). Tradition holds that the crux immissa was used for Christ’s crucifixion. Coptic Christians used the ancient Egyptian ankh. Displaying the cross was not common before Constantine I abolished crucifixion in the 4th century. A crucifix shows Christ’s figure on a cross and is typical of Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. Making the sign of the cross with the hand may be a profession of faith, prayer, dedication, or benediction. See illustration opposite.

Cross River River, western Africa. Rising in the highlands of Came¬ roon, it flows west and south through Nigeria. Its course, some 300 mi

(485 km) long, runs through dense tropical rainforest and mangrove swamps to the Bight of Biafra. It is navigable through its estuary, which it shares with the Calabar River.

cross section In nuclear physics, a measure of the probability that a given atomic nucleus will exhibit a specific reaction (absorption, scatter¬ ing, or nuclear fission) in relation to a particular incident particle. Cross section is expressed in terms of area, and its value is chosen so that, if the bombarding particle hits a circular target of this size perpendicular to its path and centred at the nucleus, the given reaction occurs. If it misses the area, the reaction does not occur. The unit of cross section is the barn, which equals 10 -24 sq cm. Cross-section values for a given nucleus depend on the energy of the bombarding particle and the kind of reaction and are often different from the actual cross-sectional area of the nucleus.

crossbow Leading missile weapon of the Middle Ages, consisting of a short bow fixed transversely on a stock, with a groove to guide the missile and a trigger to release it. The missile, known as a bolt, was usually an arrow or dart. First used in antiq¬ uity, it was an important advance in warfare. Its destructive power came from its metal bow, which could pro¬ pel a bolt with enough velocity to pierce chain mail and gave it a range of up to 1,000 ft (300 m). Powerful and versatile, it remained in use even after the introduction of the longbow and firearms and was not discarded until the 15 th century. It has been used in modem times to hunt big game.

cross-country running Long-distance running over open country. It developed as a competitive event in the mid-19th century. Though origi¬ nally included in the revived Olympics, it was dropped after 1924 as not suitable for summer competition (most cross-country races are held in the fall or early winter). The first international women’s competition was held in 1967. Standard distances are 12,000 m (7.5 mi) for men, and 2,000- 5,000 m (1.25-3 mi) for women. Though rules for championship compe¬ titions have been established, world records are not kept because of the varying difficulty of courses.

cross-country skiing Skiing in open country over rolling, hilly ter¬ rain. It originated in Scandinavia as a means of travel as well as recre¬ ation. The skies used are longer, narrower, and lighter than those used in Alpine skiing, and bindings allow more heel movement. The standard lengths of international races range from 10 to 50 km (6.2-31 mi) for men and 5 to 30 km (3.1-18.6 mi) for women. It has been included on the Olympics program since the first Winter Olympics in 1924.

cross-fertilization Fusion of male and female sex cells from differ¬ ent individuals of the same species. Cross-fertilization is necessary in ani¬ mal and plant species that have male and female organs on separate individuals. Methods of cross-fertilization are diverse in animals. Among most species that breed in water, the males and females shed their sex cells into the water, where fertilization takes place outside the body. Among land breeders, fertilization is internal, with the sperm being intro¬ duced into the body of the female. By recombining genetic material from

Hh

Greek

■f

Patriarchal Several traditional types of crosses.

© MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

T

Latin St. Anthony’s St. Andrew’s Celtic

Papal Maltese Russian Jerusalem

Stirrup crossbow, French, 14th century

COURTESY OF THE WEST POINT MUSEUM COLLECTIONS, UNITED STATES MILITARY ACADEMY

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488 I crossword puzzle ► crucifixion

two parents, cross-fertilization maintains a greater range of variability for natural selection to act on, thereby increasing the capacity of a species to adapt to environmental change. See also self-fertilization.

crossword puzzle Puzzle in which words are filled into a pattern of numbered squares in answer to correspondingly numbered clues and in such a way that words can be read across and down. The first crosswords, intended primarily for children, appeared in England in the 19th century. In the U.S., the puzzle developed into a popular adult pastime. By 1923, crosswords were being published in most of the leading U.S. newspapers, and the craze soon reached England. Today crosswords in various forms are found in almost every country and language.

croton \'kro-t 3 n\ Colourful-leaved plant ( Codiaeum variegatum) of the spurge family. Native to Malaysia and Pacific islands, it is popular as a houseplant. Its numerous varieties grow as shrubs or small trees with bril¬ liant, glossy, leathery leaves that can be solid in colour or occur in com¬ binations of green, yellow, white, orange, pink, red, crimson, and purple. Another plant of the same family but of a different genus is purging cro¬ ton ( Croton tiglium ), a small tree native to Southeast Asia with seeds that yield croton oil.

croup \'krup\ Acute laryngeal inflammation and spasms in young chil¬ dren, with harsh cough, hoarseness, and difficulty breathing. Causes include infection, allergy, and physical irritation of the larynx. Viral croup, the most common, usually occurs before age 3. It can usually be treated at home with a cool mist vaporizer. Bacterial croup (epiglottitis) gener¬ ally strikes between ages 3 and 7. Swelling of the epiglottis rapidly causes severe breathing and swallowing difficulty, requiring antibiotics and inser¬ tion of a breathing tube.

Crow North American Plains Indian people of southern Montana, U.S. The Crow, whose language belongs to the Siouan language stock, were histori¬ cally affiliated with the Hidatsa. Historically, they occupied the area around the Yellowstone River in northern Wyoming and southern Montana. Much of Crow life revolved around the buffalo and the horse. The Crow were prominent as middleman traders, trading horses, bows, and other items to local village Indians in return for guns and metal goods that they carried to the Shoshone in Idaho. The basic element in Crow religious life was the supernatural vision, induced by fasting and isolation. The Crow continually suffered losses from wars with the Blackfoot and Sioux and sided with the whites in the Indian wars of the 1860s and ’70s. In 1868 they accepted a reservation carved from former tribal lands in southern Montana. Some 9,100 individuals claimed sole Crow descent in the 2000 U.S. census.

crow Any of more than 20 species of black perching birds (see passe¬ rine) of the genus Corvus (family Corvidae) that are smaller than most ravens and have a thinner bill. They are named for the sound of their call.

Common crows are found in North America and Eurasia. They eat grain, berries, insects, carrion, and the eggs of other birds. Crows may damage grain crops, but they also eat many economically harmful insects. At times tens of thousands roost together, but most species do not nest in colonies. Crows are considered the most intelligent of all birds (tool use is documented), and pet crows can be taught to imitate speech.

Crowe Vkro\, Sir Eyre (Alexander Barby Wichart) (b. July 30, 1864, Leipzig, Ger.—d. April 28, 1925, Swanage, Dorset, Eng.) British diplomat. In the years before World War I he strongly urged an anti- German policy, arguing in a 1907 memorandum that Germany aimed at the domination of Europe, that concessions would only increase its appe¬ tite for power, and that the entente with France must not be abandoned. On July 25, 1914, he urged a show of force by the British navy to fore¬ stall war, and when war began a few days later he induced the govern¬ ment to seize German vessels in British ports. He served as permanent undersecretary of state for foreign affairs (1920-25).

crowfoot See buttercup

crown gall Disease of plants caused by the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Thousands of plant species are susceptible, including espe¬

cially rose, grape, pome and stone fruits (e.g., apples, peaches), shade and nut trees, many shrubs and vines, and perennial garden plants. Symptoms include roundish, rough-surfaced galls, several inches or more in diam¬ eter. At first cream-coloured or greenish, they later turn brown or black. As the disease progresses, affected plants lose vigour and may eventually die.

crown jewels Ornaments used at the coronation of a monarch and the formal ensigns of monarchy worn or carried on state occasions, as well as collections of personal jewelry consolidated by European sovereigns as valuable assets of their royal houses and the offices they filled. Most familiar are those of Britain, which include St. Edward’s Crown, the Royal Sceptre (with the Star of Africa diamond), the Sceptre of Equity and Mercy, and the Sword of Offering, as well as the coronation ring, anointing spoon, ampulla (flask), and coronation bracelets. Many collec¬ tions of royal jewelry have been assembled, confiscated, and dispersed over the centuries.

crown-of-thorns starfish Reddish and heavy-spined starfish ( Acan- thaster planci) that has 12-19 arms and is often 18 in. (45 cm) across. It feeds on the polyps of coral. Begin¬ ning c. 1963, its population on Aus¬ tralia’s Great Barrier Reef exploded.

Destruction of coral reefs and islands was feared, and intensive efforts were made to kill it off. Since then other outbreaks have been recorded throughout the southern Pacific. The cause of the outbreaks is unknown, but several factors have been pro¬ posed, such as the decimation of the starfish’s chief predator, the Pacific triton (a marine snail), by shell col¬ lectors. Other factors, including the runoff of nutrient-rich soil into reef waters as a result of shorefront devel¬ opment, have also been implicated. Population fluctuations could also be a feature of the starfish’s natural ecology, and human influence may alter these cycles.

crown vetch Vigorous trailing legume ( Coronilla varia), native to the Mediterranean but widely grown in temperate areas as a ground cover. It has femlike leaves and clusters of white to pink flowers. The sturdy roots are useful in binding the soil of steep slopes and roadside embankments. As a legume, crown vetch draws nitrogen from the air, trapping it in the roots, and thus improves soil fertility. It dies back to the crown each fall in cold areas, resuming growth in spring. Cutting the plant back in the fall or early spring encourages quick growth.

crucible Vkrii-so-balN Pot of clay or other refractory material, used from ancient times as a container for melting metals or other materials. Mod¬ em crucibles may be small laboratory utensils for conducting high- temperature chemical reactions and analyses, or large industrial vessels for melting and calcining metal, ore, or glass, and may be made of clay, graphite, porcelain, or a relatively infusible metal.

crucible process Technique for producing cast or tool steel. It was invented in Britain c. 1740 by Benjamin Huntsman, who heated small pieces of carbon steel in a closed fireclay crucible placed in a coke fire. This was the first process used in Europe in which the temperature (2,900°F, or 1,600°C) was high enough to melt the steel, producing a homogeneous metal of uniform composition. After 1870 the Siemens regenerative gas furnace replaced the coke-fired furnace. Capable of pro¬ ducing even higher temperatures, the Siemens furnace had a number of combustion holes, each holding several crucibles, and heated as many as 100 crucibles at a time. All high-quality tool steel and high-speed steel was long made by the crucible process. In the 20th century the electric furnace has replaced it in countries with inexpensive electric power. See also WOOTZ.

crucifixion Method of capital punishment among the Persians, Seleucids, Jews, Carthaginians, and Romans from about the 6th century bc to the 4th century ad. The condemned man was usually whipped and forced to drag the crossbeam to where the upright was standing. His hands were tied or nailed to the crossbeam, which was attached to the upright 9-12 ft (2.5- 3.5 m) above the ground, and his feet bound or nailed to the upright. Death was by heart failure or asphyxiation. Political or religious agitators and those without civil rights were crucified. Its overwhelming association

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crude oil ► Cruz I 489

today is with Jesus. Crucifixion was abolished by Constantine I in ad 337 after his conversion to Christianity. See also stigmata.

crude oil See petroleum

Cruikshank, George (b. Sept. 27, 1792, London, Eng.—d. Feb. 1, 1878, London) English painter, illus¬ trator, and caricaturist. His series of political caricatures for The Scourge (1811-16) established him as the leading political cartoonist of his generation, and he continued to sati¬ rize the policies of the Tories and Whigs in political cartoons until c.

In the 1820s and ’30s he pro¬ duced book illustrations, notably for Charles Dickens’s Sketches by “Boz”

(1836) and Oliver Twist (1838). In later life he embraced the cause of temperance with his series The Bottle (1847) and The Drunkard’s Children (1848).

Cruise, Tom orig. Thomas Cruise Mapother IV (b. July 3,

1962, Syracuse, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. actor. He made his screen debut in 1981 and rose to stardom as the leading man in Risky Business (1983) and Top Gun (1986). He received acclaim for his dramatic roles in The Color of Money (1986), Rain Man (1988), Born on the Fourth of July (1989), and Magnolia (1999). His other films include A Few Good Men (1992), Mission: Impossible (1996), Jerry Maguire (1996), Stanley Kubrick’s Eyes Wide Shut (1999), and Steven Spielberg’s Minority Report (2002).

cruise missile Type of low-flying strategic guided missile developed by the U.S. and the Soviet Union in the 1960s and ’70s. The V-l missile was a precursor. Powered by jet engines, cruise missiles may carry either a nuclear or a conventional warhead. They are designed to hug the ground, which makes them hard to detect by radar. They are launched from ships, submarines, airplanes, and the ground.

cruiser Warship built for high speed and great cruising radius, smaller than a battleship but larger than a destroyer. The term originally meant frig¬ ates of the sailing era, used to scout for enemy fleets and raid convoys. After 1880, it was a specific type of armoured warship. By World War II, cruisers served mainly as floating bases for amphibious assaults and as protection for aircraft-carrier task forces. Today U.S. cruisers carry surface-to-air missiles vital to a fleet’s air-defense screen. Nuclear pro¬ pulsion has given some cruisers virtually unlimited range.

Crumb, George (Henry) (b. Oct. 24, 1929, Charleston, W.Va., U.S.) U.S. composer. Born to musician parents, he studied at the University of Michigan and from 1965 taught at the University of Pennsylvania. His style is known particularly for its unusual and hauntingly evocative tim¬ bres. Echoes of Time and the River (1967, Pulitzer Prize) and Ancient Voices of Children (1970) brought him wide fame. His other works include Madrigals, Books 1-TV (1965-70), Night of the Four Moons (1969), Black Angels (1970), Makrokosmos I and 7/(1972, 1973), and Star-Child (1977).

Crumb, R(obert) (b. Aug. 20, 1943, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.) U.S. car¬ toonist. He had no formal art training but was obsessed with drawing as a child. In 1960 he moved to Cleveland, Ohio, to work for a greeting-card company. In 1967 he moved to San Francisco and became a prominent member of the hippie counterculture and a founder of the genre of under¬ ground “comix,” satirical magazines that poked fun at U.S. culture. His often obscene strips with their various obsessive themes, starring such characters as Fritz the Cat, the Furry Freak Brothers, and Mr. Natural, had great influence and are still regarded as classics of the genre.

Crusade, Children's See Children's Crusade Crusade, Stedinger See Stedinger Crusade

crusader states Former territories on the Palestine coast taken by the Christian army during the first of the Crusades. The states were established as the kingdom of Jerusalem (1099-1187), the principality of Antioch (1098-1268), the county of Edessa (1098-1144), and the county of Tripoli (1109-1289). Threats to the states led the pope to call for future crusades.

Crusades Military expeditions, beginning in the late 11th century, that were organized by Western Christians in response to centuries of Muslim wars of expansion. Their objectives were to check the spread of Islam, to retake control of the Holy Land, to conquer pagan areas, and to recap¬ ture formerly Christian territories. The Crusades were seen by many of their participants as a means of redemption and expiation for sins. Between 1095, when the First Crusade was launched by Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont, and 1291, when the Latin Christians were finally expelled from their kingdom in Syria, there were numerous expeditions to the Holy Land, to Spain, and even to the Baltic; the Crusades contin¬ ued for several centuries after 1291, usually as military campaigns intended to halt or slow the advance of Muslim power or to conquer pagan areas. The Crusaders initially enjoyed success, founding a Christian state in Palestine and Syria, but the continued growth of Islamic states ulti¬ mately reversed those gains. By the 14th century the Ottoman Turks had established themselves in the Balkans and would penetrate deeper into Europe despite repeated efforts to repulse them. Crusades were also called against heretics (the Albigensian Crusade, 1209-29) and various rivals of the popes, and the Fourth Crusade (1202-04) was diverted against the Byzantine Empire. Crusading declined rapidly during the 16th century with the advent of the Protestant Reformation and the decline of papal authority. The Crusades constitute a controversial chapter in the history of Christianity, and their excesses have been the subject of centuries of historiography. Historians have also concentrated on the role the Crusades played in the expansion of medieval Europe and its institutions, and the notion of “crusading” has been transformed from a religio-military cam¬ paign into a modern metaphor for zealous and demanding struggles to advance the good (“crusades for”) and to oppose perceived evil (“cru¬ sades against”).

crush injury Effects of compression of the body (e.g., in a building collapse). Victims with severe chest and abdominal injuries usually die before help arrives. In survivors, pulse and blood pressure are usually normal at first, then blood leakage from ruptured vessels causes shock and local swelling, and blood pressure falls. Release of proteins from crushed muscles can cause kidney failure a day or two afterwards. Later, embolisms form from fat droplets that have merged after being squeezed out of fat cells and bone marrow.

crust Outermost solid part of the Earth, essentially composed of a range of igneous and metamorphic rock types. In continental regions, the crust is made up chiefly of granitic rock, whereas the composition of the ocean floor corresponds mainly to that of basalt and gabbro. On average, the crust extends 22 mi (35 km) downward from the surface to the underlying mantle, from which it is separated by the Mohorovicic discontinuity (the Moho). The crust and top layer of the mantle together form the lithosphere.

crustacean Xkros-'ta-shonN Any member of the 45,000 arthropod spe¬ cies in the subphylum Crustacea. Distributed worldwide, crustaceans are distinguished by having two pairs of antenna-like appendages in front of the mouth and other paired appendages near the mouth that act like jaws. Most species are marine, including shrimps and barnacles. Some, includ¬ ing CRAYFiSHes, live in freshwater habitats; others (e.g., sand fleas, land crabs, and sow bugs) live in moist terrestrial environments. The typical adult body is composed of a series of segments (somites) either fused or linked to each other by flexible areas that form movable joints. The cara¬ pace (shell) varies in thickness among species and must be periodically molted to allow growth. Many species of marine crustaceans are scaven¬ gers, and many (including copepods and krill) are significant components of the diets of larger organisms. See also decapod.

Cruveilhier \knE-ve-'ya\, Jean (b. Feb. 9, 1791, Limoges, Fr.—d. March 10, 1874, Sussac) French pathologist and anatomist. He published a series of multivolume works on the anatomy of disease. The greatest, the beautifully illustrated Pathological Anatomy of the Human Body (2 vol., 1829-42), contains the first description of multiple sclerosis, depictions of gastric ulcer, and an early account of progressive muscular atrophy.

Cruz \krus\, Celia (b. Oct. 21, c. 1929, Havana, Cuba—d. July 16,2003, Fort Lee, N.J., U.S.) Cuban-born U.S. singer. She was studying to become a teacher in her native Havana when she won a talent show, after which she began to pursue a singing career. In the early 1950s she became lead singer with the popular orchestra La Sonora Matancera, often headlining at the famous Tropicana nightclub. After Cuba’s revolution of 1959, the orchestra moved to Mexico and later to the U.S. In 1962 Cruz married its first trumpet player, Pedro Knight, who became her manager after she

George Cruikshank's Mr. Bumble and Mrs. Corney, illustration for Oliver Twist by Charles Dickens, 1838.

MARY EVANS PICTURE LIBRARY

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

490 i Cruz ► ctenophore

left the group. In the 1960s she released more than 20 albums in the U.S., including seven with Tito Puente. She became identified with salsa, a dance music that evolved from the musical experimentation of various Hispanic musicians with Caribbean sounds during the late 1960s. Cruz was the subject of a 1988 BBC documentary and appeared in films such as The Mambo Kings (1992).

Cruz, Sor Juana Ines de la (b. Nov. 12, 1651, San Miguel Nepantla, Viceroyalty of New Spain—d. April 17, 1695, Mexico City) Mexican poet, dramatist, scholar, nun, and an early feminist. Bom out of wedlock to a family of modest means, she was sent to relatives in Mexico City, where her great intelligence became known to the viceroy. She soon became a nun, remaining cloistered for the rest of her life. Sor Juana had one of the largest private libraries in the New World. Her most important works are the poem “Primero sueno” (1692; “Sor Juana’s Dream”), which recounts the soul’s quest for knowledge, and the “Respuesta” (1691; “The Answer”), her defense of women’s right to knowledge.

cryogenics \ l kri-o- , je-niks\ Study and use of low-temperature phenom¬ ena. The cryogenic temperature range is from -238°F (-150°C) to abso¬ lute zero. At low temperatures, matter has unusual properties. Substances that are naturally gases can be liquefied at low temperatures, and metals lose electrical resistance as they get colder (see superconductivity). Cryo¬ genics dates from 1877, when oxygen was first cooled to the point at which it became a liquid (-297°F, or -183°C); superconductivity was discovered in 1911. Applications of cryogenics include the storage and transport of liquefied gases, food preservation, cryosurgery, rocket fuels, and superconducting electromagnets.

crypt Subterranean chamber, usually under a church floor. The catacombs of the early Christians were known as cryptae, and when churches came to be built over the tombs of saints and martyrs, subterranean chapels were built around the actual tomb.

As early as the reign of Constantine I (ad 306-37), the crypt was consid¬ ered a normal part of a church. Later its size was increased to include the entire space beneath the choir or chancel; the crypt of Canterbury Cathedral is an elaborate under¬ ground church with its own apse.

Many secular medieval European buildings also had richly decorated crypts.

cryptographic key See cryptographic key

cryptography \krip-'ta-gra-fe\ Practice of the enciphering and deci¬ phering of messages in secret code in order to render them unintelligible to all but the intended receiver. Cryptography may also refer to the art of cryptanalysis, by which cryptographic codes are broken. Collectively, the science of secure and secret communications, involving both cryptogra¬ phy and cryptanalysis, is known as cryptology. The principles of cryp¬ tography are today applied to the encryption of fax, television, and computer network communications. In particular, the secure exchange of computer data is of great importance to banking, government, and com¬ mercial communications. See also data encryption.

cryptomonad V.krip-to-'mo-.nadN Any small organism with two fla¬ gella that is considered both a protozoan and an alga (see algae). Occur¬ ring in both fresh and salt water, cryptomonads contain pigments found only in red algae and blue-green algae (cyanobacteria). They sometimes live harmlessly within other organisms. Some species conduct photosyn¬ thesis. Others lack pigment-containing structures and eat organic matter, under certain conditions surviving on minerals alone.

crystal Any solid material whose atoms are arranged in a definite pattern and whose surface regularity reflects its internal symmetry. Each of a crys¬ tal’s millions of individual structural units (unit cells) contains all the sub¬ stance’s atoms, molecules, or ions in the same proportions as in its chemical formula (see formula weight). The cells are repeated in all direc¬ tions to form a geometric pattern, manifested by the number and orienta¬ tion of external planes (crystal faces). Crystals are classified into seven crystallographic systems based on their symmetry: isometric, trigonal, hexagonal, tetragonal, orthorhombic, monoclinic, and triclinic. Crystals

are generally formed when a liquid solidifies, a vapour becomes super¬ saturated (see saturation), or a liquid solution can no longer retain dis¬ solved material, which is then precipitated. Metals, alloys, minerals, and semiconductors are all crystalline, at least microscopically. (A noncrystal¬ line solid is called amorphous.) Under special conditions, a single crystal can grow to a substantial size; examples include gemstones and some arti¬ ficial crystals. Few crystals are perfect; defects affect the material’s elec¬ trical behaviour and may weaken or strengthen it. See also liquid crystal.

crystal lattice Three-dimensional configuration of points connected by lines used to describe the orderly arrangement of atoms in a crystal. Each point represents one or more atoms in the actual crystal. The lattice is divided into a number of identical blocks or cells that are repeated in all directions to form a geometric pattern. Lattices are classified according to their dominant symmetries: isometric, trigonal, hexagonal, tetragonal, orthorhombic, monoclinic, and triclinic. Compounds that exhibit a crystal- lattice structure include sodium chloride (table salt), cesium chloride, and boron nitride. See also solid-state physics.

Crystal Night See Kristallnacht

Crystal Palace Giant glass-and-iron exhibition hall in Hyde Park, Lon¬ don, that housed the Great Exhibition of 1851. It was taken down and rebuilt (1852-54) at Sydenham Hill, where it survived until its destruc¬ tion by fire in 1936. Designed by the greenhouse builder Sir Joseph Pax¬ ton (1801-1865), it was a remarkable assembly of prefabricated parts. Its intricate network of slender iron rods sustaining walls of clear glass estab¬ lished an architectural standard for later international exhibitions, like¬ wise housed in glass conservatories.

The Crystal Palace at Sydenham Hill, London. It was designed by Sir Joseph Paxton for the Great Exhibition of 1851 and rebuilt in 1852-54 at Sydenham Hill but was destroyed in 1936.

BBC HULTON PICTURE LIBRARY

crystalline rock Any rock composed entirely of crystallized minerals without glassy matter (matter without visible crystals). Intrusive igneous rocks (see intrusive rock) are nearly always crystalline; extrusive igneous rocks (see extrusive rock) may be partly to entirely glassy. Metamorphic rocks are also always completely crystalline and are termed crystalline schists or gneisses. Sedimentary rocks can also be crystalline, such as crys¬ talline limestones that precipitate directly from solution; the term is not generally applied to clastic sediments (made of fragments of preexisting rock), even though they are formed largely from the accumulation of crystalline materials.

crystallography \,kris-t3-'lag-r3-fe\ Branch of science that deals with discerning the arrangement and bonding of atoms in crystalline solids and with the geometric structure of crystal lattices. Classically, the optical prop¬ erties of crystals were of value in mineralogy and chemistry for the iden¬ tification of substances. Modern crystallography is largely based on the analysis of the diffraction of X-rays by crystals acting as optical gratings. Using X-ray crystallography, chemists are able to determine the internal structures and bonding arrangements of minerals and molecules, including the structures of large complex molecules such as proteins and DNA.

ctenophore \'te-n3-,for\ or comb jelly Any of nearly 90 species (phylum Ctenophora) of usually colourless marine invertebrates that have

Crypt, Canterbury Cathedral (12th century), England.

A.F. KERSTING

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Ctesibius ► Cubism I 491

a series of vertical ciliary combs over their bodies. Ctenophores are some¬ times mistaken for jellyfish. The body is round or spherical, with tentacles to capture food, and the combs beat to provide locomotion. Most species are small (not much greater than 0.1 in. [3 mm] in diameter), but at least one species grows larger than 3 ft (1 m). Ctenophores live in almost all ocean regions, floating freely in the water. All comb jellies except one parasitic species are carnivores, consuming young mollusks, crustacean and fish larvae, copepods, and other zooplankton.

Ctesibius \te-'sib-e-,os\ of Alexandria or Ktesibios \te-'sib-e-os\ of Alexandria (fl. c. 270 bc) Greek physicist and inventor. He was the first great figure of the ancient engineering tradition of Alexandria, Egypt, which culminated with Heron of Alexandria and Philo of Byzantium. He discovered the elasticity of air and invented several devices using com¬ pressed air, including force pumps and an air-powered catapult; an improve¬ ment of the water clock, in which water dripping at a constant rate raised a float with a pointer; and a hydraulus (water organ), in which the weight of water forced air through the organ pipes. His writings have not sur¬ vived, and his inventions are known only from references to them.

Ctesiphon Vte-so-.fanX Ancient city, central Mesopotamia. Located on the Tigris River, southeast of modern Baghdad, Iraq, it was first a Greek army camp opposite the Hellenistic city of Seleucia. It was the capital of Parthia in the 2nd century bc. Destroyed by the Romans in the 1st cen¬ tury ad, it was resettled by the Persian Sasanian dynasty in the 3rd cen¬ tury. The Arabs conquered the city in 637 but abandoned it by 763 in favour of a new city, Baghdad. The site is famous for the remains of a gigantic vaulted hall, the Taq Kisra, which has one of the largest single¬ span brick arches in the world.

Cu Chulainn or Cuchulain Xkii-'kol-onN In ancient Irish Gaelic lit¬ erature, a powerful warrior and the central character in the Ulster cycle. The son of the god Lugus and Dechtire, sister of Conchobar mac Nessa, he was the greatest of the warriors loyal to Conchobar. He had seven fin¬ gers on each hand, seven toes on each foot, and seven pupils in each eye. He defended Ulster single-handed at 17 against the forces of Medb, queen of Connaught. In times of rage he could become uncontrollable.

Cuauhtemoc \kwau-'te-,mok\ or Guatimozin V.gwat-o-'mot-sonN (b. c. 1495—d. Feb. 26, 1522) Last Aztec emperor, nephew and son-in-law of Montezuma II. He became emperor on the death of Montezuma’s suc¬ cessor in 1520, while Hernan Cortes was marching for the second time on TenochtitlAn, the Aztec capital. He defended the city during a four- month siege that left most buildings destroyed and few Indians surviving. Tortured by the Spaniards in an effort to make him reveal the location of hidden Aztec wealth, his stoicism became legendary. Later Cortes, hear¬ ing of a plot against the Spaniards, had Cuauhtemoc hanged.

Cuba officially Republic of Cuba Island country. West Indies. Located 90 mi (145 km) south of Florida, it comprises the island of Cuba and surrounding small islands. Area: 42,804 sq mi (110,861 sq km). Popula¬ tion (2005 est.): 11,269,000. Capital: Havana. The population is largely of African-European or African descent; most of the rest are of European ancestry. Language: Spanish (official). Religions: Christianity (predomi¬ nantly Roman Catholic; also Protestant), Santerfa (both formerly discour¬ aged). Currency: Cuban peso. The main island of Cuba is 777 mi (1,250 km) long and 19-119 mi (31-191 km) wide. About one-quarter is moun¬ tainous, with Turquino Peak at an elevation of 6,476 ft (1,974 m) the highest peak; the remainder is extensive plains and basins. The climate is semi tropical. Cuba was the first communist republic in the Western Hemisphere. It has a centrally planned economy that depends on the export of sugar and, to a much lesser extent, tobacco and nickel. Its cigars are considered the world’s best. It is a republic with one legislative house; its head of state and government is the president. Several Indian groups, including the Ciboney and the Arawak, inhabited Cuba at the time of the first Spanish contact. Christopher Columbus claimed the island for Spain in 1492, and the Spanish conquest began in 1511, when the settlement of Baracoa was founded. The native Indians were eradicated over the suc¬ ceeding centuries, and African slaves, from the 18th century until slavery was abolished in 1886, were imported to work the sugar plantations. Cuba revolted unsuccessfully against Spain in the Ten Years’ War (1868-78); a second war of independence began in 1895. In 1898 the U.S. entered the war (see Spanish-American War); Spain relinquished its claim to Cuba, which was occupied by the U.S. for three years before gaining its inde¬ pendence in 1902. The U.S. invested heavily in the Cuban sugar industry in the first half of the 20th century, and this, combined with tourism and

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